2.

ESSAY WRITING
2.7. About esscgs in general
Essays are mostJy \witten in academic settings (universities.
colleges, etc.).
There are two types ofessay-writing students are expected to produce: content-
based essays and general essays. content-based essays primarily aim at explor-
ing the students' knowledge in t]le given subject or content area (e.g.
a hiitory
paPer" literature paper). The discussion of such content-papers is the lbcus of thl
next chapter. The purpose of general essays, on the other hand, is to gain infor-
mation about the student's language skills, i.e., how the student can express
his/her thoughts on an everyday topic in a foreign language. As opposed to mul-
tiple choice tests and sentence transformations. essays give information about
the students' grammaucal, lexical as well as text-producuon (discourse)
skills.
This is why essay-writing (or composition wriun$ is prefered in numerous inter-
national language tests.
In t}'e Anglo-saxon culture, essays are supposed to be organised in pre-
dictable ways. An essay is not a
?ig
in a poke', and writers should not follow the
idea of saving the best for last, The reader must lsrow right from the beginning
what the essay will be about, and how it is structured. since the writer has to
provide all the necessary clues for the reader to "unfold' the messrge, Anglo-
Saxon writing is considered writer-responsible. It is difllcult for a Hungarian stu-
dent to get accustomed to this kind of writing because Hungarian wriung is
.read-
er-responsible', that is, it is the reader's responsibility and duty to unfold and
comprehend the text.
Furthermore. since essays are written in an academic environment for aca-
demic purposes and to academic readers, they must be written in format
English. This means that the language must strictly follow the rules of formal
academic wridng as regards grammar. vocabulaqr and spelling (see l.l.).
Essays also have rigid rules concerning their form. This includes the fol-
Iowing:
fl Indentation: Sections are marked otf into paragraphs signalled by
indentaUon, i.e., leaving I inch (cca 2.5-3 cms) on the lett sid..
V Margtns: One inch is left on all four sides of the paper. Home essays
are word-processed, and the computer automatically takes care of
margins. Bxam essays, however, are hand-written, and the writer
must make sure that he/she has margins and does not write from
edge to edge"
d Faging; Fages are numbered either on the top or thc bottom, either in
the rniddle or on the right.
12
I Title: The title of the essay is always placed in the middle of the page.
I Sentences: In academic wriilng only full sentences are used.
2.2. Tln.e usriting process
Although each writer writes differently, there is a typical process most writ-
ers go through. This process comprises three stages: pre-rrriting, drafttng, and
revislng (Smalley & Ruetten. 1995). In the pre-writing stage writers choose the
topic, gather ideas about it, organise them, and prepare an outline. hr the draft-
ing stage they prepare the flrst draft. In the revising stage they edit, rewrite, or
delete certain parts of the essay to make it a more successful piece of rwiting"
-'
'-"
-
'----
/rTopic
choice)
\\--r'
In school or exam settings there are two typical ways essays are generat-
ed. There is either a list of title-like specific questions students have to choose
from, or a general topic is given, and students are required to select one aspect
of the topic and elaborate on it. In the former case students should choose the
one(s) they are familiar wlth and have ideas about. In the latter case it is neces-
sary to narrow down the topic so that a 30o-400-word-long essay can t'ully dis-
cuss the topic. If the general topic is, for instance, SCHOOL, the writer can take
the following steps to narrow down the topic: SCHOOL > SCHOOL EOUIPMENT
> SCHOOL EgUIPMENT IN HUNGARY > THE COMPLTTER T,AB IN TOLDI GRAM-
MAR SCHOOL. It is always very important to have a narrow en oth-
erwise the essay will not be able to fully elaborate-6frIfdfffiil ence
only the very last bit can be the topic of an essay, the others would be suitable
topics for a book, for instance. Below is a set of examples showing a given topic
(exam question) and possible Ufles.
Given (exam) topic
Environment
Work
Describe a relative
of yours.
Possible tittre
The effects of air pollution
in Budatbk on the
neighbourhood
A day in the life of a
chimney sweep
My aunt
*
Bad title
*Environmental
problems
*Secretaries
*Describe
a relative
of mine
Step 3: Drafttng (deflning what each para$raph will be
Write a story that lVliracles do not happen
ends with
"She
decided not to
belteve in miracles
agiain".
Generating ideas and writlng an outline
Writers sometimes feel that they do not have anythlng to write. To
quickly overcome this state, they can apply one of the invention techniques,
of which listing is the most comrnonly used. Listing means
Putting
down a
list of ideas (whatever comes to rnind wtthout organlsing tt). Once the list is
complete, the writer looks at the list and tries to identiff related items, and
then, as a final step in the pre-writing stage. chooses the sub-topics he/she
actually intends to include in the essay. The following example lllustrates
these steps:
Title: My aunt
Step I: Brainstorming (listing):
lst paragraph: introduction (she is my best lriend)
2nd paragraph: appearance
3rd paragraph: good sense of humour
4th paragraph: generous
sth paragraph: Llnderstanding
6th paragraph: solves problems
7 th paragraph: conclusion
2.3, Tl's.e strzrcture of a po;ro.graph
In academic wriUng a paragraph is defined as a group of sentences
about one idea, which is called the topic of the paragraph. A paragraph begins
with an indentation. A paragraph develops a topic and usually starts with a gen-
eral sentence that introduces this topic. This sentence is called the topic sen-
tence. The topic sentence e4presses the main idea of the paragraph. It tells the
readers what the paragraph will be about. The topic sentence is the most impor-
tant and the most general sentence in the paragraph. Depending on the type of
paragraph, the topic sentence can be placed in the middle or at the end of the
paragraph as well.
A good topic sentence not only introduces the topic of ttre paragraph but it
also serves to state an idea or attitude to ttre topic, which is called the control-
ling idea. The controlling idea controls ttre information elaborated by ttre sen-
tences of the paragraph. In academic writng the controlling idea
of the paragraph should be an idea that needs to be explained. described, and
supported by the rest of the paragraph. Thus, a good topic sentence is not a sim-
ple statement of facts, as facts do not usually need ocplanation or support. The
reader should be able to ask quesfions about the controlling idea expressed in an
appropriate topic sentence.
A good topic sentence is usually
1. a statement of intent
2. a statement of opinion
3. a combination of a statement of intent and a statement of opinion
(Reid, 1994).
A statement of intent is objective and informs the reader about what the
paragraph will explain. Paragraphs which contain a statement of intent provide
the reader with intbrmation about the topic and answer their questions. For
example:
I The new drug against cancer has four adverse effects.
I Four things are necessary for successful communication.
I Stereo-types play a positive and a negative role in human
understanding at the same time.
A statement of opinion expresses the rwiter's subjecfive opinion and
nrakes a judgement. Words such as uselul, harmtul, effective, interesting, etc.,
I tall !
I beautiful I
t attractive I
E elegant clothes !
E likes fruits E
generous
good sense of humour
rich
brown hair in bun
has t'rvo sisters
about):
rA
story
I understanding
I solves problems
t good cook
t has a nice house
I once had a very
strange illness
Other / irreleuant
! likes fruits
I good cook
! has a nice house
. I once had a very
strange illnes
I rich
I has two sisters
;.f a:
rtt'.:.
':'it:-'
;.i
:r
.. );: .
Step 2: Organising ideas:
Appearance
E tall
g
beautifullattrac-
tive; brown hair
in bun
I elegant clothes
PersonaLitg
I good sense of
humour
t generous
I Llnderstanding
I solves problems
15
are onen used in this type of topic sentence. The paragraph following the state-
ment of oplnion provides support lbr the writer's opiniJn.
-For
exampii:
r rhe censorship of materiars on the Internet wourd be strongry
required.
I The most interesting part of the novel is the third chapter.
l women working fuil time cannot bring up their chirdren proerry.
The topic sentence can contaln a comblnation of a statement of opinion
and a statement of lntent. In this case the writer supports his/her
opinion by giving information on the topic. For exarrrple:
l unmarried coupres can be as good parents as married coupres.
r
pubric
security in the streets of Budapest reflects the state of
society.
I I do not like watching television for two reasons.
Each sentence in the paragraph needs to relate to and develop t}le con_
trolling tdea. These sentences explain. clarifi, back up or illustrate ttre control-
ling idea. In other words tl.ey support the idea or opinion expressed in the topic
sentence. There are four basic techniques ofsupport:
1. lacts
2. examples
3. physical description
4" personal experience.
The concluding sentence of the paragraph can serve the tbllowing pur_
poses:
1" summarise the content of the paragraph
2. oft'er a solution to the problem describ;d in the paragraph
3" tnake predictions on the basis of the information in the paragraph
4' make a recommendation
concerning the issue elaborated in the
paragraph
draw a conclusion on the basis of the information given in the
paragraph
Paragraph vrriting checkllst
L Is your paragraph indented?
2. Does your paragraph contain a topic sentence? Does the topic sentence
express the main idea of the paragraph?
3. Does your controlling ldea express an opinion or an atUtude to the topic?
4. Does the paragEph contain sulflcient support for the controlling idea?
5. Is the paragraph unifled? Are tfrere any sentences which do not relate to
the controlling idea?
6. Are the sentences in the paragraph logically arranged? Did you use the
appropriate connecUves?
Scmple paragraplw
Our generation has become inattentive to superstitions because they do not suit
the life-style most of us lead. Superstitions involve avoiding every-day events that bring
bad luck (e.9. a black cat crossing our way) and performing activities that will make one
fortunate (e.9. looking for four-leafed clovers). In our modernised world, however, most
people are in a rush and are pre-occupied with the problem of making ends meet.
Thereforg they simply have no aftention to spare for avoiding and watching out for little
incidents that would make them unlucky. Being constantly pressed for time, people gen-
enlly do not perform activities that do not have a purpose other than securing one's good
luck. If this trend continues, our children will never grab their buttons when they see a
chimney sweep, and will not be afraid of walking under a ladder either.
Using literature in the language classroom can develop students' inter-cultural com-
petence. With the help of literary works, they can be taught to understand and appreci-
ate cultures and ideologies, and to develop a critical attitude to the culture which is being
studied. Since reading a work of art always induces personal involvement, students can
either associate themselves with or dissociate themselves from different aspects of cul-
tures and ideologies presented in the text. Thus reading and discussing literature in a for-
eign language classroom can contribute to successful inter-cultural communication to a
great extent.
2.4. TIne stntcture oJ an essag
As we have discussed topic choice and the drafting process earlier, here we
will concentrate on how an academic essay needs to be structured. The aca-
ddmic essay can be defiued as a series of paragraphs about one subject. The
essay should always have a title. the purpose of which is to attract the readers'
attenlion, provide the readers rvith informailon conceming the content of the
essav, and to establish a focus tbr the essav.
16
17
Tbe ttresls statement
The essay also needs to contaln a thesls statement. The thesis statement
ls usually one sentence that expresses the central ldea of the essay. The thesis
statement and the topic sentence of a paragraph are similar as.tJrey both contain
an
qxpression
of an atutude or opinlon about a given topic. The thesis statement,
however, is broader and states the controlling idea for ttre whole essay. The the-
sis statement is a very lmportant component of the essay as tl.e ldea expressed
ln it determines the content of the essay. Therefore, it needs to meet a number
of criteria whlch are llsted below.
l, The thesis statement needs to beJormulated in a complete sentence.
For examplei
The use of computers in education - not a thesis statement.
Computers are very effective in language education - thesis statement
2. The thesls statement should cone at the beginning oJthe essag in ttle intro-
ductory paragraplu It is usually the last sentence of the introductory para-
graph.
3. The thesis statement must not state a
fact
that does not need. to be elabo-
rated becanse a simple statement of
foct
canrot be deueloped tnto a good.
ess@y.
For example:
More and more people suffer from lung cancer
=
not a flresis statemenr
Authorities that allow air pollution to rise above the acceptable level are responsi-
ble for the increasing number of lung diseases - thesis statement
4. The thesis canrtot beJorrnulated as a question: the ttrcsis statement should.
be the answer to the qtrcstlon.
For example:
why does the Pepsi Island provide entertainment for young people? - not a thesis
statement
Pepsi Island provides entertainment for young people by creating an opportunity to
spend some days together with their friends and by oftering a wide choice of pro-
grammes- ttresis statement
5. The thesis statement should. containcontrolling i.deas thst uillbe d.eueloped.
inthe bodg parographs ofthe essag.
For example:
A good teacher has four qualities.
6. The thesis may be a statement oJ oprnion that tte turiter will expLain ancl
proue in tlrc essay.
1B
For example:
Legalising soft drugs is the only solution for controlling drug consumption.
Checlrlist for the thesis statement
t. Is your thesis stated in one complete sentence?
2. Is your thesis statement includecl in the introductory paragraph?
3. Does your thesis statement contain controlling ideas that can be
developed in the essay?
4, Does your tJresis express an opinion or does it contain a statement of
intent?
5. Is the thesis clear and sufliciently narTowed down?
The introductorY
ParaEraPh
The purpose ofthe introductory paragraph is to introduce the topic ofthe
essay to the audience and to state the purpose of the essay in the thesis state-
ment. The introduction often begins with a general statement concerning tJ:e
topic. The introductory paragraph provides the reader with the background infor-
mation that is necessary for understanding the topic. From this general informa-
tion. the introduction narrows down to the ttresis statement. It is important ttrat
the introduction should be inviting, that is, it should be interesting enough to
make the reader want to read the essay,
Checklist for the introductory paragraph
1. Does your introduction contain the thesis statement?
2" Does your introduction provide enough background information for the
reader to understand the essay?
3. Is your introduction interesting enoLlgh? Do you think the readers will
want to read the essay on the basis of your introducUon?
Somple introduction
Western life-style and working standards have made their way to Hungary as well.
In order to make a living, people need to spend more time at their place of work, and they
often take on second or third jobs. Stressful weekdays are followed by shott holidays, and
for many, career opportunities are of utmost importance. This tendency puts family life,
human relationships and one's mental health in jeopardy.
19
The body paragraphs
Each body paragraph needs to discuss one aspect of the thests statement
expressecl in the introductlon ofthe essay. The body paragraphs should all con-
tain a toplc sentence rvhich is related to the thesis, and they should support this
,
topic sentence. The body paragraphs should each make one point and should not
develop more than one idea, ln other words, the body paragraph needs to be self-
contained and fully dweloped. Consequently, a body paragraph should contain
at least three sentences. The relationship of the body paragraphs should be
expressed with the help of cohesive devices such as repeUHon of key words or
phrases, s1monyms and conjuncUons (for an example see the underlined part of
the sample body paragraph).
Checktist for the body paragraphs
1" Is each body paragraph related to the thesis statement?
2^ Do all body paragraphs have a topic sentence?
3. Do the body paragraphs support tJle toptc sentence sufficiently?
4" Are the body paragraphs self-contained?
5" Have you used links to connect the body paragraphs?
It is not only family relationships that suffer when people spend more time at their
place of work. Friendships are also built on delicate strings that need constant strength-
ening, which is impossible if one works 16 hours a day. Thus, flowering relationships can
easily fall victim to the 'workaholic'way of living. One tends to think that they can rec-
oncile their friends by bestowing expensive gifu. Nevertheless they forget that nothing
can compensate for the time spent together. We can therefore conclude that if one's work
becomes an obsession, it is unlikely that existing friendships can be maintained.
Conclusion
The last paragraph of tJre essay concludes the discussion in a logical man-
ner. In the conclusion the uriter is given the last chance to prove that his,/her
thesis statement is valid. The concluding paragraph should summarise tlle main
points put forward in the essay without using the same words as in the body
paragraphs. It can also restate the thesis but without recopying it. The conclu-
sion may contain a prediction based on the informatjon given in the essay, may
ollbr a solution to the problem discussed or may mdke a recommendation. It
must not, however, bring up a new topic.
Checklist for the conclusion
1. Does your conclusion logically follow from the discussion of ideas in the
essay?
2. Did you summarise your main points?
3. Did you restate your thesis?
Sample conclrrsion
Workaholism is hazardous in peopleb daily lives because it distncts parents from
the importance of spending time with their children. It also destroys relationships because
couples and friends never have enough time for each other. More importantly, worka-
holism can endanger one's mental health as one misses out on all the enjoyments life out-
side the office can offer. Although work constitutes an indispensable part of our lives, we
are the ones who decide on ib impodance. It can only be hoped that we notice that its
role is becoming excessive before it is too late.
2.5, Unitg, coherence o;nd cohesion
Sentences in a paragraph. and paragraphs in an essay are not merely con-
nected because they are pLaced after one another. There are also mental (cogni-
tive) and llnguistic relationships that bind elements of a text, and these devices
make it a text.
Unity
If there ls unity in a paragraph, it means that each sentence in the para-
graph relates to the same topic and dwelops the same controlling idea.Similar{y,
each paragraph within an essay has to be directly related to the thesis. If any sen-
tence/paragraph does not relate to or develop that area, it is irrelevant and
should be omitted from the paragraph/essay. Here is an example to illustrate the
point (the irrelevant tnlbrmation is underlined):
Unity Lack of unitv
From a psychological perspective, being a From a psychological perspective, being a
teacher is a very demanding job. Most teacher is a very demanding job.Most
teachers teach 5-6 hours a day, and they teachers teach 5-6 hours a day, and they
have to concentrate on their work from have to concentrate on their work from
the very first lesson to the very last one. the very first lesson to the very last one.
There is no time to relax, the classroom is There is no time to relax, the classroom is
a place where everything can happen, so a place where everything can happen, so
the teacher always has to be on the alert the teacher always has to be on the alert
for any unexpected event. That is why for any unexpected event. In the summer,
most teachers become exhausted by the however. they canjake a long rest. since
end of the day. teachers have a very long summer holi-
day, durinL which they do not have to
work.
t-l
20
Coherence
Another element that a paragraph or an essay needs is coherence. A coher-
ent paragraph,/essay contalns sentences that are lo$cally aranged and flow
smoothly. Thus the text vrtll be easy to follow and will "make sense' to the read-
er.
Dlscourse markers and connectlves
Writers may help
that express semanUc
(mostly adverbs) may be
between prragraphs.
readers comprehend their texts by using orltctt words
relauonships (relauonshlps
in rneanin$. such words
used to signal relattonstrtps both within paragraphs and
Coherent paragraph
On the way home we had a terrible time.
First it began to rain rlnexpectedly, and
since we did not bring any umbrelfas or
ra i n coa ts, we g of soa king wet.
Neverthelessn we arrived at the bus
stop, and waited for the bus. Although
we had checked the time of the bus pre-
viously, it did not come" Therefore we
decided to hitchhike, but due to the very
heavy rain no cars drove by. Thus we
had to walk about 5 miles to the railway
station, and eventually we came horne
by train"
Cohesiue
Comprehensible rel'erence
or conjunctlon
I saw both Mary and Kate,
but Kate did not see me.
Although she tried hard,
she did not succeed.
Incoherent paragraph
On the way home we had a terrible time"
First it began to rain, and we got soaking
wet. We went to the bus stop, and waited
for the bus. I thought it would not hap-
p0, so I did not bring any umbrellas or
raincoats. We had checked the time of the
bus previously, but it did not come. So we
were waiting and waiting in the rain, as I
said, and then decided to hitchhike. I for-
got to say that it was raining so heavily
that no cars drove by. So we had to walk
to the railway station, and we came horne
by train. The station was about 5 rniles
frorn the bus stop.
Cohesion
By cohesion we meen the linguistic devices with the help of which the
writer makes the text coherent. The strongest cohesive devices include pronoml-
nal references (e.g.. helshe, them, lt) and conJunctions (e:g., and, but see
"Discourse markers and connectives"). Some writers zrssume that if tJrqg under-
stand what tlley write perfecfly, the reader will also understand everything. This
is not always the case, so writers have to make textual connectlons as o<plicit as
possible for their readers. An tnappropriate use of cohesive markers may lead to
the breakdown of coherence.
Non-cohesiue
or con- Incomprehensible reference or conjunction
*
I saw both Mary and Kate,
but she did not see me.
*
Nevertheless she.tried hard,
she did not succeed.
meanin$ sentence
connectors
Clause connectors
coordi- subordi-
nators nators
complex
e4presslons
ADDITION also
besides
furthermore
moreover
in addition
besides
above all
and sanother + noun
an additional + noun
a further + noun
ENUMERATION llrst (second,
third, etc.)
next, last, linally
first and foremost
afterwarsd
on the one hand
- on the other
hand
until
as soon as
before
after
while
the first + noun
the next + noun
the final + noun
CONTRAST however
in contrast
nevertheless
still
but although
though
even though
while
whereas
despite + noun
ln spite of + notrn
ALTERNATNTE otherwise or
rather
alternatively
rather than an alternative + noun
RBSULT as a result
as a consequence
therelbre
thus
consequently
hence
SO the reason for + noun
due to + noun
for this reason
COMPARISON similarly
likewise
also
correspondingly
AS like + noun
23