An Earthquake (quake or tremor or temblor) is an induced ground motion due to gigantic tectonic plate actions causing sudden slip on

opposite sides of the fault along with large release of elastic strain energy stored in interface rocks. It causes breaking and shifting of rocks
beneath the earth surface. The stresses that are built up beneath the earth surface are released causing rigorous or disastrous shaking of the
ground.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event classified as natural or caused by humans that
generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity,
landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests.
Natural earthquakes are majorly caused by tectonic or by volcanic activities. Tectonic earthquakes occur in the earths crust which is made up
of different segments that are continuously in motion and causes deformation in the rocks. Volcanic earthquakes (Mount St. Helens eruption
of 1980) are caused by one of the following reasons : volcanic explosions or shallow earthquakes arising from magma movement or symthetic
tectonic earthquakes which are rare.
Induced or Artificial earthquakes are caused by human intervention viz. ground shaking produced by the underground detonation of
chemicals or nuclear devices releasing enormous nuclear energy. Another reason for this category of earthquake to be generated is impound
of water in large reservoirs (filling of Lake Mead behind Hover Dam). Rocks in the vicinity of reservoir are already in strain condition due to
tectonic forces so that existing faults are almost ready to slip. The reservoir either adds a stress perturbation which triggers a slip or the
increased water pressure lowers the strength of fault, or both.
The most recent large earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or larger was a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in Japan in 2011 (as of October 2012), and it
was the largest Japanese earthquake since records began. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an
earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes, all else being equal.
Magnitude of an earthquake is measured on Richter scale and is the measure of amount of energy released by the fault rupture. It is single
value for an earthquake event. Intensity is the another means of measuring an earthquake. It is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking
generated at a given location and is assigned a roman capital numeral from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction). The severity of shaking is
much higher near the epicenter than farther away. Thus, during the same earthquake of a certain magnitude, different locations experience
different levels of intensity.
What we feel is very complex, hard or gentle, long of short, jerky or rolling, and not describable with one number. Aspects of the motion are
described by the peak velocity how fast the ground is moving, peak acceleration how quickly the speed of ground is changing, the
frequency energy is released in waves and these waves vibrate at different frequencies just like sound waves and the duration how long
the strong shaking lasts. Thus the three factors that primarily determine what we feel in earthquake are (a) magnitude, (b) distance from fault
and (c) local site conditions.
Active Fault
A fault that is likely to have another earthquake sometime in the future. Faults are commonly considered to be active if they have moved one
or more times in the past.
Aftershocks
Earthquakes that follow the largest shock of an earthquake sequence. They are smaller than main shock and continue over a period of weeks,
months or years. In general, the larger the main shock, the larger and more numerous the after shocks and the longer thy will continue.
Design Basis Earthquake (DBE)
As per IS 1893 it is the earthquake that can reasonably be expected to occur at least once during the design life of the structure. It is the
earthquake which the structure is required to safely withstand with repairable damage. Those systems and components important to safety
must remain functional and/or operable. For design purposes, the intended use of this earthquake loading is for economic design of
structures or components whose damage or failure could not lead to catastrophic loss.
As per IBC DBE corresponds to 10% probability of being exceeded in 50 years i.e. 475 year return period.
DBE = 0.5 * Max. considered earthquake (MCE)
Design Horizontal Acceleration Coefficient (Ah)
This is the factor, which on multiplying by seismic weight of structure gives design horizontal seismic force on the structure. For any structure
with time period less than or equal to 0.1 sec, the value of Ah will not be taken less than Z/2 whatever be the value of I/R.
Epicenter
The point on surface of the earth vertically above the point in the crust where seismic rupture begins.
Fault
A fracture along which the blocks of crust on either side have moved relative to one another parallel to the fracture. Strike slip faults are
vertical fractures where the blocks have mostly moved horizontally. If the block opposite to an observer looking across the fault moves to the
right, the slip style is termed right lateral; if the block moves to left, the motion is termed left lateral. Dip slip faults are inclined fractures
where the blocks have mostly shifted vertically. If the rock mass above an inclined fault moves up, the fault is termed normal, whereas if the
rock above the fault moves down, the fault is termed reverse. Oblique slip faults have significant components of both slip styles.
Foreshocks
Fore-shocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that precede the largest earthquake in a series, which is termed the main shock. Not all main
shocks have fore-shocks.
Hypocentre
The point within the earth where an earthquake rupture starts. Also commonly termed the focus.
Intensity
A number (written as Roman numeral) describing the severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects on the earths surface and on humans
and their structures. There are many intensity values for an earthquake, depending on where you are, unlike the magnitude, which is one
number for each earthquake.
Intraplate
It pertains to process within the earths crustal plates.
Interplate
It pertains to process between the plates.
Isoseismal
A contour or line on a map bounding points of equal intensity for a particular earthquake.
Magnitude
A number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. It is based on measurement of the maximum motion recorded by a
seismograph. Several scales have been defined, but the most commonly used are (1) local magnitude commonly referred to as Ritcher
magnitude, (2) surface wave magnitude, (3) body wave magnitude and (4) moment magnitude.
Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE)
It is the earthquake corresponding to the ultimate safety requirements is often called as maximum considered earthquake. It is the largest
hypothetical value of earthquake that the structure is expected to experience along a recognized fault or within a tectonic province. It is
generally an upper bound of the expected magnitude on a fault or in a tectonic province, irrespective of the return period of earthquake which
may range from say 100 years to 10000 years. It is usually evaluated on the basis of geological evidence. Other synonyms terms are maximum
credible earthquake, maximum expected earthquake, maximum possible earthquake and maximum probable earthquake.
As per IBC it is defined as an earthquake corresponding to 2% probability of being exceeded in 50 years i.e 2500 year return period.
Meizoseismal Area
The region of damage is called meizoseismal area.
Plate Tectonics
A theory supported by wide range of evidence that considers the earths crust and upper mantle to be composed of several large, thin ,
relatively rigid plates that move relative to one another. Slip on faults that define the plate boundaries commonly results in earthquakes.
Several styles of faults bound the plates, including thrust faults along which plate material is subducted or consumed in the mantle, oceanic
spreading ridges along which new crustal material is produced, and transform faults that accommodate horizontal slip (strike slip) between
adjoining plates.
Ring of Fire
The zone of earthquakes surrounding the Pacific Ocean which is called the Circum-Pacific belt about 90% of the worlds earthquakes occur
there. The next most seismic region (5-6% of earthquakes) is the Alpide belt (extends from Mediterranean region, eastward through Turkey,
Iran and northern India).
Sand Boil
Sand and water that comes out onto the ground surface during an earthquake as a result of liquefaction at shallow depth.
Seismicity
The geographic and historical distribution of earthquakes.
Seismic Moment
A measure of the size of an earthquake based on area of fault rupture, the average amount of slip, and the force that was required to overcome
the friction sticking the rocks together that were offset by faulting. Seismic moment can also be calculated from the amplitude spectra of
seismic waves.
Seismogram
A record written by a seismograph in response to ground motions produced by an earthquake, explosion or other ground motion sources.
Seismograph
The instrument that measures earthquake shaking is called seismograph. It has three components : the sensor pendulum mass, string,
magnet and support, the recorder drum, pen and chart paper and the timer motor that rotates drum at constant speed.
Seismic Mass
It is the seismic weight divided by the acceleration due to gravity. It is the amount of matter of a structural system. Mass is the quantity of
inertia possessed by a structure.
Seismic Weight
Seismic weight of whole building is the sum of the seismic weights of all the floors / system. The seismic weight of each floor in its full dead
load plus the appropriate amount of imposed load. It includes the weight of permanent and movable partitions, permanent equipment, a part
of live load, etc. While calculating seismic weight of each floor, the weight of columns and walls in any story should be equally distributed to
the floors above and below the story. Any weight supported in between stories should be distributed to the floors above and below in inverse
proportion to its distance from the floors. As per IS 1893 2002, percentage of live load to be added to dead load is given by the amount of live
load applied on floor i.e. 25% live load to be added to dead load for live load upto 3kN/sqm otherwise 50% live load is to be added to dead
load.
Teleseism
A tremor caused by an earthquake that is very far away (approx. 1000kms) from measured site.
Time Period
The fundamental time period is the first (longest) modal time period of vibration. The modal natural period of mode k is the time period of
vibration in mode k.
The vibration of building consists of fundamental mode of vibration and the additional contribution of vibration and the additional
contribution of various modes, which vibrate at higher frequencies. On the basis of time period, building can be classified as Rigid (Tn < 0.3
sec), Semi-rigid (0.3 sec <Tn<1.0 sec) and flexible structure (Tn > 1.0 sec). Buildings with higher natural frequencies and a shot natural
period tend to suffer higher accelerations but smaller displacement. In case of buildings with lower frequency and a long period will
experience lower accelerations but larger displacements.
Zone Factor (Z)
It expresses the zone seismicity, generally in terms of effective peak ground acceleration. It is a factor to obtain the design spectrum
depending on the perceived maximum seismic risk characterized by MCE in the zone in which the structure is located.
The severity of ground shaking at a given location during an earthquake may be minor, moderate or major. The probability of a strong
earthquake occurring within the expected life of a structure is very low. The most logical approach to the seismic design problem is to accept
the uncertainty of the seismic phenomenon. Consequently, the main elements of structure are designed to have sufficient ductility, allowing
the structure to sway back and forth during a major earthquake, so that it withstands the earthquakes with strong damage but without
collapse.
By allowing yielding a some fraction of the elastic seismic demand, the design forces are reduced and the desired economy is achieved.
However, for the design to be viable, the system must be detailed to accommodate the inelastic deformations that will occur after yielding.
While controlling the safety limit state one ensures that the inelastic deformation demands do not exceed deformation capacity. Although,
design forces are developed in the members, the true limit state in deform-ability. It does not matter how strong the structure is as long as it
can be demonstrated that the strength can be sustained over several cycles of inelastic deformation.
Hence, it is accepted that seismic design should encourage structural forms that are more likely to possess ductility than those that do not.
Generally, it relates to the aspects of structural regularity and careful choice of locations, often termed plastic hinges, where inelastic
deformations may occur.
The reality that all inelastic modes of deformations are not equally viable has become accepted. Hence, some lead to failure while some
provide ductility, which may be considered the essential attribute of maintaining strength while the structure is subjected to reversals of
inelastic deformations under seismic response.
Hence, seismic design theory must embody the following percepts:
1) to deal with the combination of extreme loading and low probability, the design earthquake is taken as a moderate one; as a test for
structural safety, the more severe earthquake which a structure may be expected to face in its lifetime is applied.
2) during a minor earthquake, the load carrying members of the structure should not be damaged. However, the non-structural parts may
sustain repairable damage. During moderate earthquakes, the load carrying members may sustain repairable damage, while the non-
structural parts may even have to be replaced after the earthquake. During strong earthquake, the load carrying members may sustain severe
damage, but the structure should not collapse. At such times, plastic behavior of the building is accepted on the premise that the peak forces
produced are of short duration and therefore, can be more readily absorbed by the movement of the structure than a sustained static load
can.
3) the ductile behavior of the building should be ensured.
In IS1893 2002, the design approach adopted is to ensure that structures possess at least a minimum strength to withstand minor earthquake
(<DBE) which occur frequently without damage, resist moderate earthquakes without significant damage though some non-structural
damage may occur and aims that structures withstand a major earthquake (MCE) without collapse.
Ductility arising from inelastic material behavior and detailing with over-strength arising from the additional reserve strength in structures
over and above the design strength, are relied upon to account for the difference in actual and design lateral loads.