Pedestrian Level of Service Based on Trip Quality

FRANK JASKIEWICZ
Glatting Jackson Kercher Anglin Lopez Rinehart, Inc.
123 South Broad Street, Suite 1270
Philadelphia, PA 19109
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
The pedestrian experience is dependent upon numerous qualitative factors that are not
addressed in customary level-of-service analyses. This paper outlines a process by which
such factors can be used to analyze pedestrian systems. Nine specic evaluation measures
are described, followed by an account of their application in Winter Park, Florida.
INTRODUCTION
The pedestrian environment is a critical element of the urban experience. Allan B. Jacobs,
in his book Great Streets, explains the importance of pedestrian facilities (Jacobs 1993).
Its on foot that you see peoples faces and that you meet and experience
them. That is how public socializing and community enjoyment in daily
life can most easily occur. And its on foot that one can be most intimately
involved with the urban environment: with stores, houses, the natural
environment, and with people.
The pedestrian experience entails much more than traveling from point A to point B.
As a result, it is important that analyses of pedestrian levels-of-service (LOS) take into
account qualitative factors as well as traditional volume and capacity considerations. Amos
Rapoport, in his book History and Precedent in Environmental Design (1990), along with
Allan Jacobs, describes design principles that help constitute pleasant pedestrian spaces.
This paper combines these urban design architectural principles with practical safety and
capacity considerations to generate nine specic evaluation measures for analyzing
pedestrian systems for their pleasantness, safety, and functionality.
The proposed nine measures are as follows: enclosure/denition, complexity of
path network, building articulation, complexity of spaces, transparency, buffer, shade
trees, overhangs/awnings/varied roof lines, and physical components/condition. Each of
these nine measures is derived from a combination of safety issues, volume and capacity
considerations, and qualitative design factors as adapted from Rapoport and Jacobs.
The proposed measures vary in their degree of specicity. Where certain design
parameters can be applied universallyi.e., regardless of geographical locationthen
very specic guidelines are proposed. Where the proper implementation of principles is
heavily dependent upon the specic physical characteristics of a particular location, then
only general recommendations are possible. In these cases, it is important that the
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application of the recommended principles conform to prevailing location-specic design
attributes to ensure that the overall existing character of the area is not degraded.
RATINGS AND AGGREGATE LOS VALUES
A simple ratings scale can be applied to assess the degree to which certain target areas
conform to the nine proposed evaluation measures. A scale of 1 to 5 is sufficient to
accurately cover the range of conformance: 5 = excellent; 4 = good; 3 = average;
2 = poor; 1 = very poor.
If desired, the scores can subsequently be aggregated and averaged to obtain an
overall LOS, with the following ranges and general characteristics (maintaining an LOS
A through F scale as typically utilized to describe travel environments):
LOS A= 4.0 to 5.0 = very pleasant
LOS B= 3.4 to 3.9 = comfortable
LOS C= 2.8 to 3.3 = acceptable
LOS D= 2.2 to 2.7 = uncomfortable
LOS E = 1.6 to 2.1 = unpleasant
LOS F = 1.0 to 1.5 = very unpleasant
The nal interpretation of these LOS values is not directly parallel to that for their vehicular
counterparts. In terms of vehicular LOS assessments, LOSs C through E generally serve
as appropriate standards for planning purposes, depending upon the particular context
(i.e., peripheral highway vs. town center). In terms of pedestrian facilities, on the other
hand, appropriate planning-level guidelines are represented by LOSs A through C, with
LOS A serving as the standard for town centers and LOS C for fringe roadways. Pedestrian
LOS D may be permissible in specic cases (for instance, for seldom-traveled outlying
highways), so long as basic safety parameters are observed.
Because of greatly varying pedestrian contexts, aggregate LOS values should
only be applied to attain a general level of prioritization. For other purposes, it is more
useful to keep the nine scores separate so that specific deficiencies can be catalogued.
For example, a pedestrian LOS E would indicate that a particular roadway segment
requires considerable improvement, but would say nothing about how to best address
the deficiency. On the other hand, if it is documented that the roadway scored a 1 on
shade trees, then it becomes apparent that the planting of trees is likely to be a
promising course of action.
In Winter Park, Florida, as will be chronicled later in this paper, aggregate LOS
measures were never assigned. Instead, the scores for each of the nine measures were
published separately and specic actions recommended based upon a combination of
these nine individual scores and public input. The result was a very specic pedestrian
improvement plan for the citys thoroughfares and neighborhoods.
NINE PEDESTRIAN EVALUATION MEASURES
The nine proposed evaluation measures are based upon aesthetics, safety, and ease of
movement and are critical to the provision of high pedestrian levels of service dened
in this paper. These measures attempt to extend the scope of most contemporary
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methodologies for determining pedestrian level of service to account for aesthetics and
safety in addition to volume and capacity.
Because the pedestrian experience entails much more than simply a commuting
function, it is important that planners and engineers be able to identify the elements that
distinguish a good pedestrian environment from a poor one. The following pages describe
and illustrate nine specic evaluation measures that highlight certain important aspects of
pedestrian planning.
Enclosure/ Denition
The principle of enclosure measures the degree to which the edges of the street are
dened. Good enclosure dictates that the pedestrians eyes are focused along the street
rather than among the blank spaces between, behind, or in front of buildings.
Commercial streets best demonstrate enclosure when buildings are constructed
side-by-side along the sidewalk, minimizing the volume of empty space between and in
front of buildings. Figure 1 shows, in plan view, the difference between a well-enclosed
commercial street and a poorly enclosed one. A pedestrian on the well-enclosed street is
greeted by a continuous row of pedestrian-scale storefronts, while a pedestrian on the
poorly enclosed street is met by an overabundance of empty spacemostly parking
lotsand is dwarfed by the vast distances between interesting elements.
Residential streets, especially those comprised mainly of single-family dwellings,
derive enclosure primarily from street trees rather than from structures. Street trees enable
the roadway to retain denition even given the larger setbacks and greater building spacing
typical of purely residential areas as compared with commercial or mixed-use town centers,
so long as these elements are consistent along the corridor.
According to Jacobs, a cross-sectional design ratio of approximately one (height)
to two (width), or less, creates good denition along the street. Where such a ratio is not
attained with structures, Jacobs contends that: it is the intervening trees as much as or
more than buildings that strengthen or provide denition. That is one of their purposes
and speaks to the necessity of their closeness and fullness (Jacobs 1993).
Good enclosure has positive impacts on safety as well as on aesthetics. Streets that
exhibit a high degree of enclosure convey a feeling of narrowness to motorists, which
induces them to drive slowly and carefully for fear of collision with solid objects framing
the roadway. Conversely, wide-open, unconstrained spaces invite high speeds, creating
hazardous conditions for children at play as well as for pedestrians and bicyclists.
FIGURE 1 Enclosure/denition.
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An additional pedestrian safety benet of good enclosure is that buildings located
continuously along the sidewalk provide eyes on the street which discourage criminal
activity. A side-by-side arrangement of buildings also limits the number of dark, scary
hiding places between structures that are difcult to monitor, and reduces the overall
number of escape routes available to aspiring criminals.
Complexity of Path Network
A complete/complex path network furnishes pedestrians with numerous route choices
between origins and destinations. In other words, a complex path network ensures a high
degree of connectivity between activity centers and residential units. Without a complex
path network, pedestrians are often held hostage to the same route day after day, making
even the most pleasant of paths very tiresome. Figure 2 illustrates a poor, incomplete path
network in comparison to a complete, complex network, the former of which is all too
commonly found in contemporary suburban areas.
A poorly connected path network, in addition to its failure to provide adequate
alternate routes, in many cases funnels pedestrians onto a single circuitous path that does
not typically represent the shortest distance between two points. Unfortunately, when
public infrastructure is not designed to preserve a reasonable density of pathways through
an area, the shortest distance, and all tolerable approximations thereof, are often cut off
by private property. Such a condition is very frustrating to pedestrians and, for obvious
reasons, does not encourage walking as a viable alternate form of transportation.
Building Articulation
Storefronts and houses add interest to the pedestrian experience through the varied
application of materials, design, color, and dcor. The best examples are found in historic
town centers and close-in neighborhoods where structures were originally designed to
appeal to slow-moving pedestrians rather than to high-speed automobile trafc, since
walking was for a very long time the dominant form of transportation between homes
and businesses.
Conversely, in most contemporary strip mall corridors, structures and billboards
are designed to appeal to high-speed vehicular trafc rather than to low-speed foot trafc.
FIGURE 2 Complexity of path network.
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Pedestrians along such routes are forced to view corridor elements at a slow pedestrian
pace rather than at their intended read speed of 35 to 50 mph, which makes for a very
monotonous and unchanging walk. Additionally, strip mall businesses typically rely on
aggressive signage and ample parkingas opposed to architectural detailto attract the
attention of passersby. Figure 3 diagrammatically compares well-articulated and poorly
articulated groups of buildings.
Complexity of Spaces
Frequent variation in the orientation and character of public spaces adds to the general
level of interest of commercial districts and residential neighborhoods. Such spaces
include courtyards, plazas, parks, and playgrounds. Natural elements, such as water
features and indigenous trees, can be celebrated within these public spaces to help
draw attention to the unique physical qualities of a particular area. The geometrics of
public spaces should be such that interesting and rapidly changing views are
facilitated.
The presence and variation of public spaces along pedestrian routes ensure that long
walks are broken up with occasional sectors of heightened interest. Figure 4 illustrates in
FIGURE 3 Building articulation.
FIGURE 4 Complex spaces.
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plan view the manner in which public spaces might be distributed throughout a town center
district.
Overhangs/Awnings/ Varied Roof Lines
The degree to which items above street level contribute to the experience at street level, in
terms of both aesthetics and functionality, is a very important aspect of pedestrian planning.
In terms of appearance, the presence of overhangs, awnings, and varied roof lines
enhances the pedestrian experience in the same manner as does the articulation of buildings
through diverse materials and dcor, contributing variation and aesthetic quality. From a
functional perspective, overhangs and awnings contribute to pedestrian comfort by
providing shade from sunlight and shelter from rainfall.
In residential neighborhoods, this category of evaluation is not typically applicable,
due to larger standard setbacks and wider spaces between buildings as compared with
town center commercial districts. In the former, street trees often perform many of the
functions of overhangs and awnings.
Buffer
The presence of a buffer zone between pedestrians and moving vehicles greatly
enhances pedestrian safety and comfort. Buffer improves actual safety through the
placement of solid objects between moving vehicles and people, reducing the likelihood
that a collision involving a pedestrian will occur. Perceived safety, which is roughly
synonymous with pedestrian comfort, is likewise increased as the buffer zone is enlarged
and solidied because pedestrians along the improved corridor would feel as if their
chances of becoming involved in a collision have been lowered.
Minimal buffers entail narrow landscaped strips intended merely to provide
spacing between the sidewalk and the roadway. The addition of large street trees to
landscaped strips exponentially increases their value as buffers. In busy commercial
districts, buffer is often facilitated by parallel or diagonal on-street parking which, given
sufciently high occupancy rates, serves as a continuous solid barrier between
pedestrians and fast-moving vehicles.
Figure 5 contains a pair of diagrams depicting a well-buffered street in comparison
to a poorly buffered street. The former contains a buffer lane between the sidewalk and
travel lanes consisting of extensive landscaping or parallel parking, or some intermittent
combination of both. The latter illustration does not contain such a zone, and instead
places sidewalks ush up against moving trafc lanes. The vertical elements outside the
sidewalks, in both pictures, represent the sidewalk-fronting structures of a well-enclosed
street.
Shade Trees
The presence of shade trees improves the comfort level of pedestrians on hot summer
days. Shade trees are effective at keeping pedestrians cool as well as blocking the sun
from their eyes. Additionally, shade trees add a nice aesthetic element to the street and
contribute to denition and buffer. In some cases, street trees also provide shelter from
rain (but not during lightning storms, of course).
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Transparency
Transparency addresses the transition between the public space and private space. In
business areas, transparency is created through the use of windows, outdoor displays, and
sidewalk cafes. In residential areas, front porches facilitate a smooth interface between
the public street and private house.
Such transitional elements bring the public and private realms within clear view
of one another, allowing passing pedestrians to get a feel for the private space without
having to enter each individual building. Structures that greet the public realm with
blank, windowless walls or twelve-foot-high fences typically garner low scores for
transparency.
Physical Components/Condition
This category of evaluation addresses the specic physical qualities of the sidewalk and its
surroundings that are not explicitly covered by any of the other eight evaluation measures.
As described below, physical components/condition addresses both the structural integrity
and functionality of the sidewalk and the overall contribution (positive or negative) of
other physical elements in the corridor, such as the street itself.
Sidewalk Conguration and Condition
For obvious reasons, the overall physical condition of sidewalks and streets profoundly
impacts the quality of the pedestrian environment. Areas containing no sidewalks at all
typically receive the lowest possible ratings in this category, except in the rare cases
where streets themselves are designed to serve as safe, shared travelways. Low ratings
are also assigned to areas with broken or cracked sidewalks, disproportionately narrow
sidewalks, sidewalks having trees or poles obstructing the walking path, or sidewalks that
collect and retain unreasonably high volumes of standing water during rainstorms.
Vehicular Speed
As previously mentioned, vehicular speed greatly affects the actual and perceived safety
of pedestrians along a roadway. Speed is inuenced by many factors, the least of which is
probably the posted speed limit. Although enclosure, as facilitated by buildings and street
FIGURE 5 Buffer.
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trees, has a great deal of inuence over driver speed, so does the physical design of the
roadway itself.
Roadway design speed, not posted speed, is the most inuential factor in
determining roadway operating speed. In general, the following factors encourage slow
speeds and hence serve as positive inuences on the overall pedestrian environment:
1. Narrow lane widths, i.e., 10- to 11-foot lanes as opposed to 12- to 14-foot lanes.
2. Narrow overall paved widths. In general, two-lane roadways are more pedestrian-
friendly than six-lane roadways, though careful attention to design can largely offset this
inherent disadvantage of high-volume thoroughfares. The effect of a bicycle lane is
largely negligible, since it adds to overall paved width but at the same time provides
additional separation (buffer) between pedestrians and automobiles.
3. Broken sight lines. The longer the unimpeded view down the roadway, the faster
the motorist will feel comfortable driving. Such a view can be broken up through the
placement of in-street trafc calming devices such as roundabouts and splitter islands, or
by designing the roadway to meander slightly back and forth along its length.
4. Sharp turns. Smoothly curving roadways and large corner radii allow vehicles to
navigate comfortably at high-speeds, while jagged, kinked roadways and small corner
radii require motorists to drive slowly to perform turning maneuvers, giving them more
time to see and react to pedestrians and bicyclists.
5. On-street parking. In addition to contributing to an overall sense of enclosure and
narrowness, on-street parallel or diagonal parking increases motorists overall levels of
alertness, requiring them to be constantly aware of the surrounding parked vehicles. This
increased wariness improves the chances that motorists will notice pedestrians who
attempt to cross the street.
6. Treatment at pedestrian crossings. Special treatment at pedestrian crossings, such
as bulb-outs and textured paving, can encourage motorists to drive with caution by
increasing their awareness that pedestrians might be present. Raised crosswalks and
speed bumps are often not desirable because they frustrate and anger motorists and hence
increase the likelihood that they will drive unintelligently.
Figure 6 illustrates the value of bulb-outs with respect to the preceding principles.
Specic elements of the following diagrams include narrowed lanes, textured paving at
FIGURE 6 Bulb-out treatments.
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crosswalks, and tight turn radii, all of which encourage motorists to slow down while
increasing their awareness that pedestrians might be nearby.
Lighting
The level of lighting along the street also has considerable implications for pedestrian
safetyin terms of both criminal activity and protection from vehicles.
The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IES) species lighting
standards for sidewalks along various types of roadways to protect pedestrians from
motorists who otherwise might not see them. The IES standards are intended to ensure
that a certain minimum of illumination is maintained along pedestrian corridors beneath
and between light poles (IES 1993).
These minimum illumination levels can be obtained with bright, widely spaced,
high-mounted lamps or dimmer, closely spaced, low-mounted lamps, the latter of which are
usually preferable because of their more consistent contribution to the pedestrian corridor.
Lighting standards for residential areas are often lower than those for commercial areas due
to their having less background clutter against which pedestrians are difcult to see.
Street lights should be placed such that they discourage crime in addition to
guarding against pedestrian/vehicular conicts. In addition to maintaining minimum IES
standards along the corridor, lights should be located so that the number of potential
hiding places along the corridorunlit plazas, parks, alleys, and other dark spaces
are minimized.
APPLICATION IN WINTER PARK, FLORIDA
In the Winter Park Comprehensive Mobility Study, each of the citys circulation
elementsroadways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrianswere analyzed, along with
general policy issues, for their overall performance and sustainability. In the studys
pedestrian circulation evaluation, neighborhoods and commercial thoroughfares were
examined for compliance with the nine evaluation measures described above. Along with
public input, these measures helped identify not only the areas requiring improvement,
but also the exact enhancements needed at specic locations.
Winter Park is a rst-rung suburb of Orlando that developed as an independent
community at the turn of the century. Its town center is very traditional in nature and
economically very vibrant, while several of its staple residential neighborhoods were
developed before the era of widespread automobile use and hence represent fantastic
examples of pedestrian-oriented design. Nonetheless, the trafc demands of a rapidly
suburbanizing region have taken their toll on several parts of Winter Park, sacricing
many of the qualities that once established the city as one of the premiere communities in
Central Florida. Winter Park, hence, provides excellent examples of both very good and
very bad pedestrian conditions.
Figure 7 is a map of the city, with the traditional town center appearing as the
dark gray area near the middle (directly north of Rollins College). This map was utilized
as the geographical key to the mobility studys pedestrian evaluation.
The citys residential neighborhoods are shown in the diagram as light gray, with
names such as Osceola, Genius, and Mead Gardens. In the pedestrian evaluation, these
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neighborhoods were analyzed as single whole districts, due to the fact that each of their
component streets retains a generally consistent neighborhood character.
The Winter Park Hospital and Rollins College commercial areas, likewise, were
evaluated as entire districts because of the general consistency of their roadways.
Conversely, the remaining two of the citys commercial areasthe town center district
plus a strip mall area roughly centered along US 17/92 to the westcontain several very
diverse thoroughfares within their borders and hence were not analyzed as single entities.
In these caseslabeled commercial areas described by major thoroughfareseach of
the major component roadways of the two districts was evaluated on an individual basis.
A few excerpts from the pedestrian evaluation of Winter Park are included and
described below to illustrate the progression of the overall process. The nal specic
recommendations were based upon the evaluation matrices explained below, which were
lled out through site investigation, and upon the various ideas for improvement
generated at numerous public workshops.
Site Evaluation Matrices
Figure 8 is one of three evaluation matrices compiled in the early stages of the mobility
study. Figure 8 analyzes the citys commercial corridors and districts, while the remaining
FIGURE 7 Map of Winter Park, Florida.
Jaskiewicz G-1 / 11
two matrices (not shown) examine the citys residential neighborhoods (split into
two groups, eastern and western). Figure 8 lists each of the twelve distinct commercial
areas/corridors within Winter Park and catalogues their scores for each of the nine
pedestrian evaluation measures. These scores were assigned entirely on the basis of
site inspection.
As can be inferred from the scores, Park Avenue and Morse East of Park make
up the citys core central business district, which was originally designed for pedestrians
before the era of widespread automobile use. Rollins College, also a recipient of high
scores, has also evidently paid very careful attention to its pedestrian environment over
the years, for the probable primary reason that pedestrians constitute a very high
proportion of on-campus travelers. The maintenance of a pleasant campus travel
environment is critical to the attraction of quality students.
Had the study assigned aggregate pedestrian LOS levels for each of the
commercial districts, the scores for Park Avenue, Morse East of Park, and Rollins
College would have been 4.2, 4.4, and 4.1, respectivelyall within the very pleasant
category of pedestrian environments as dened earlier.
Conversely, Lee Road (SR 423) and Orlando Avenue (US 17/92) receive
extremely poor scores virtually across the board. These two corridors are quintessential
fringe suburban highways designed overwhelmingly for automobile travel with a
general lack of attention to pedestrian conditions. Nonetheless, under conventional
pedestrian LOS analyses, Lee Road and Orlando Avenue would have scored very
highly, for the reasons that neither of the two roads exhibits a large number of
pedestrians and that both contain sidewalks, a combination resulting in uncongested
pedestrian flows. However, when qualitative factors, stringent safety considerations,
and supporting design characteristics are taken into account in addition to volume and
capacity concerns, Lee Road and Orlando Avenue receive very low pedestrian LOSs
1.2 for both roadways according to the methodology proposed in this report, a
resounding very unpleasant.
After the site evaluation matrices were published and discussed at public forums,
conclusions were made as to the site-specic pedestrian needs of each of the citys
FIGURE 8 Sample pedestrian LOS evaluation matrix.
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neighborhoods and commercial areas. In the end, most of the deciencies highlighted by
the evaluation tables were carried over to the recommended pedestrian improvement
tables to be described next.
Recommended Pedestrian Improvements
The recommended pedestrian improvement tables document and address specic
decienciesa large proportion of which were identied in the evaluation matricesfor
each of Winter Parks commercial corridors and residential neighborhoods, along with
many very site-specic deciencies noted with particular interest at public workshops.
These additional deciencies were comprised mainly of high-priority safety concerns of
area residents, especially in regards to dangerous intersections and crosswalks. In all, the
recommendation tables were based upon a comprehensive evaluation that identied
deciencies ranging from the very site-specic to those that were broader-based and
long-term.
Thus, the tables were designed to address both short-term, high-priority physical
needs and long-term policies aimed at preserving and enhancing the citys reputation as a
desirable and safe place to live. These deciencies are listed in the rst column of the
sample recommendation tables in Figures 9 and 10.
The second column identies short-term physical improvements corresponding
directly to the deciencies in the rst column. Proposed improvements shown in bold
italics represent actions identied as high priority or as relatively easy to implement.
The third and nal column identies long-term design/policy initiatives that
support the overall principles of improved pedestrianization. These items consist of
design regulations, long-term development and transportation strategies, and ideas for
complementary public investment.
The supporting sketches included with the tables were generated in response to
the public workshops held to obtain citizen comment. The pair of illustrations
included with Figure 9 shows Orange Avenue, a roadway that radiates from Winter
Existing Orange Avenue Proposed Orange Avenue
FIGURE 9 Sample recommendation table with supporting illustrations.
Jaskiewicz G-1 / 13
Parks historic town center and which suffers from a general lack of enclosure and
shade. The existing parallel parking lane on Orange Avenue, as can be seen in the
photo, does not often achieve the critical occupancy rates required to serve as an
effective buffer. The accompanying sketch illustrates the merits of planting shade
trees across the parallel parking lane between every three or four parking stalls
narrowing the perception of the street to motorists and adding a permanent element to
the buffer zone. The sketch also indicates the manner in which additional street trees
and two- to three-story structures can further enhance shade, buffer, and enclosure
along the corridor.
Figure 10 is an excerpt from the recommendation table for Winter Parks
residential neighborhoods, with supporting illustrations for the Mead Gardens district.
The conceptual sketch indicates how the addition of sidewalks and street trees can
modify the overall character of Mead Gardens Orchid Avenue, contributing narrowness,
buffer, and shade.
Existing Orchid Avenue Proposed Orchid Avenue
FIGURE 10 Sample recommendation table with supporting illustrations.
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CONCLUSION
As expressed in the Winter Park Comprehensive Mobility Study, pedestrian level-of-
service entails much more than volumes and capacities. In order to encourage walking as
a viable alternate form of transportation, it is essential that careful attention be paid to
pedestrian comfort and safety in addition to traditional volume and capacity factors. The
nine evaluation measures proposed in this paper identify and classify the qualities that
contribute to positive pedestrian experiences. The use of these nine measures in
pedestrian analyses can help generate a list of specic needed improvements at precise
locations throughout a study area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many thanks to the numerous personnel from Glatting Jackson, Dover Kohl & Partners,
and the City of Winter Park who were involved in the renement and graphical
presentation of this concept through their participation in the Winter Park Comprehensive
Mobility Study.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IES). Lighting Handbook,
8th Edition, 1993.
Jacobs, Allan B. Great Streets. Boston: MIT, 1993.
Rapoport, Amos. History and Precedent in Environmental Design. New York: Plenum,
1990.
Special Report 209: Highway Capacity Manual (1994 update). Chapter 13. TRB,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1994.
Winter Park Comprehensive Mobility Study. 1998.