UNIT 6 THEORY OF PRODUCTION

Structure

Objectives
Introduction
6.1.1 What is an Input
Production Function: The Concept
6.2.1 Product Cilrves
6.2.2 Law of Diminishing Marginal Product
6.2.3 Fixed and Variable Proportion in Production
6.2.4 Three Stages of Production
6.2.5 Why Law of Diminishing Retur~isOperates?
6.2.6 Iso-Product Curve
6.2.7 Econornic Region of Production
6.2.8 Specific Forms of Productio~iFu~ictions
Input Prices and Iso-Cost Line
6.3.1 Iso-Cost Line
6.3.2 Returns to Scale: A Diagralnrnatic Presentatiocl
Let Us Sum Up
Key Words
Some Usefill Book
Answers or 1-lintsto Check Your Progress Exercises

6.0 OBJECTIVES
1

After going through 111isunit you should be able to:

understand the concept of production function as the relation between output

and inputs;

deduce the Scale Line when production is subject to different returns to scale;

identify the basis of the choice oftechnique; and

analyse the operation of the law of variable proportion under variable rehums to
scale.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Traditionally production is defined as "the creation ofutility." llzis means we produce
goods and services collsuming which our wants are satisfied. Seen in such a context,
therefore,production includes a wide variety of activities such as making of fabricated
material goods, writing of a book for B.A. (Economics) students,inaking of amovie,
or providing services as a beautician.

While "production" is referred to creation of any good or service, its concept is

understood better when we speak only of goods. For example, you can say that

Theory of P r ~ d l l c t i o nand Costs

you have produced 100 bicycles in the month of January 1997. To produce this
number of bicycles, you have spent some money to buy machinery, steel and labour.
All these activities can now be grouped in two categories to define clearly what is
involved in production. One category is put under output (bicycle in the above
example). Production of output requires putting together the necessary materials.
These constitute the other category and are called 'inputs'. Thus, you put together
the inputs in a certain way to produce a specified quantity of output. A theory of
production analyses how aproducer combines various inputs to produce a specified
quantity of output when the technology of producing the commodity is given. The
relationship between quantitiesof inputs and output produced is termed production
function.

6.1.1 What is an Input?

Input is any good or service that contributes to the production of an output. A
producer normally, employs different inputs to produce a unit of output. Some of
these inputs could be the outputs of other firms. For example, a producer of car
uses steel as input. But steel itself is an output for the steel producer. There are
inputs such as labour, which are not produced.
Inputs used in production may also be classified as fixed or variable. A fixed input is
one that is used for production but its quantity does not change with the quantity of
output produced. For instance, take the case of manager of a firm. There is one
manager when one unit of output is produced. Even when 100 units of output are
produced, the services of the single manager (not 100) only are required.
In contrast to the fixed input, variable input is dependent on the quantity of output
produced. For example, the quantity of steel required to produce one car will be
differeitt fiom that of the production of more than one car.
It must be remembered that the distinction between fixed and variable inputs is
related to a span of time. Inputs, which are fixed for one period of time. are variable
for a longer period. Remember that a machine employed for production may be
considered as a fixed input in the short-period (i.e., when the scale of output
production cannot be changed). But given a sufficiently long period, the number of
machines will vary in accordance with the requirement of the scale of production.

6.2 PRODUCTION FUNCTION: THE CONCEPT

You might have seen machines of different kinds used for the production of
commodities. Ifyou look at the functioning of a machine closely, you will notice that
number of workers operating the machine is fixed. Take for example, a simple saw
machine. Two people are engaged to operate it. When the machine employed for
cutting a tree happens to be an axe, only one person is required to handle it. These
examples indicate that once the machine is chosen, the number of people ~equired
for its operation is automatically known. Extending this simple obseivation to inore
complex technologies,you would like to infer certain general feahues. Perhaps, you
would like to say, given a technology, the requirements of inputs (like, labouu-,capital
and raw materials) are known. The quantity of output forthcoming from the application
of the technology is also known.
What is being attempted to tell you is the relation between inputs and output, when
technology is gaven Thus, take the case of a production process. which uses two

i1

variable inputs (x, and x,) and one or more fixed inp~tsfor the production of a single
output (Q). The
function would state the quantity of output (Q) as a
function of quantities of variable inputs (x, and x,). This relation gives the idea of
maximum output that can be produced from different combination of inputs (x, and
x,). Thus production function depicts the technical relation between inputs
and output once the technology is given. This concept is used by economists to
analyse laws of productioil relating inputs and-output.

6.2.1 Product Curves

We have said above that a production function depicts the relationship between
inputs and output. When other inputs are kept fixed and only one is allowed to vary,
the total output produced exhibits some interesting features. To see these, take the
help ofa hypothetical example.
Suppose that you are experimenting with production of paddy ahd have land as a
fixed and labour as a variable input. Take 8 blocks of land each measuring oneacre. Assume that all these blocks are equally fertile. Select a group of equally
efficient workers and employ one worker in the first,two in the second and keep on
increasing this input upto the last block of land to-have 8 workers. Record the
output produced in each block of land. These pieces of information put together
will give you Table 6.1

:
k
i

You can see fi-omthe table that u~pto6th tract of land, output increases as a result of
greater number of employinent of labour. With one labourer working in the first
block, output yield is 10 units (say, bags ofpaddy), while it increases to 6f5units in
the 6th block as the labour employment was increased to 6. The 7th block of land,
with 7 labourers, has produced 66 units of output, which is equal to the yield of 6th
block. Thus, despite an attempt to employ one more worker production has remained
at the level of 66 units. In the last block, with the highest labour to work at has
yielded only 64 units of output. The production level is lower than 6th and 7th tracts
of land.
Table 6.1: Employment of Labour and Production of Paddy

Tract of land

Labour employed

Output (Paddy)

10

24

39

52

61

66

66

64

The data in Table 6.1 can be represented in the form of a graph. This is done in
Figure 6.1. In order to draw the graph, it may be useful to remember that output
produced depends on inputs used. It is customary to
the independent variable
(labour in our example) on x-axis. The dependent variable (production of paddy) is

r h e o r y of Producti0n

cOsis

plotted on y-axis. Joining successivepoints of labour-output combinations from

Table 6.1, total product curve is obtained. It is necessary to take note of an important
feature of this curve. It first rises slowly. Then it increases dn increasing rate and
slows down again reaching a maximum. After wards there appears a decreasing
phase.
Fig. 6.1

Fig.6.1:

Depicts the relation between variable input, labour, and output. Output tends to
rise as the use of labour increases. After a while, however, it starts declining.

Average and marginal products of labour can be defined on the basis of above
formulation. The average product (AP) of labour is the total product divided by the
number of workers employed (X). That is,

Similarly,the marginal product (MP),of X is the rate of change of the total goduct
with respect to variations in quantity of X. To see the calculation of AP and MP
from total output see Table 6.2 in the following. Features of AP and MP can be
seen from their curves. These are presented in Figure 6.2. See that AP for apoint
on a total product curve equals the slope of a line segment connectingthat point with
the origin. It increases for movements along the total product curve from the origin
upto a point and decreases thereafter. Similarly, MP increases initially and declines
after a point. MP and AP are equal at the maximum AP.

Fig. 6.2

AP
0

Fig. 6.2 shows the shapes of AP and d c u r v e s . Notes that MP rises faster than A P ~
initially, attains the peak earlier and starts declining faster as well. MP c ts
AP at p, which is the maximum height attained by AP. As it falls below AP, go
to the negative level of output. In contrast, AP remains at a positive output level.-

6.2.2 Law of Diminishing Marginal Product

This law states that the MP of input (say, x,) will eventually decline as its use is
increased keeping other inputs unchanged. It does not rule out the initial phase of an
increasing MP. See, for example, a production process in which labour and land are
combined for the production of a commodity (say, paddy). Keep the quantity of
land constant and increase the labour input to produce paddy. You will notice that
initially an increase in the employment of labour will result in increasing MP of labour.
This process, however, will not last long. Increased application of labour will result
in smaller increases in the output ofpaddy. This characteristicis called the law of
diminishingmarginal product. It operates when one input relative to other increases
and will not be observed ifboth the inputs are increased. The output elasticity with
respect to x l can be obtained on the basis of above information. It is defined as the
proportionate rate of change of q with respect to x, :
0,

-A9
-AX +
x Aq = - A9
7I
- . 9
q
x,
clh,
Ax,
XI

where

-MP

AP

E ~=
, Output elasticity with respect to input x,

Aq = Change in output and

Ax, * Cl~angein input, x ,

6.2.3 Fixed and Variable Proportions in Production

As stated above, different quantities of output can be produced by using a fixed
amount of one input and a variable amount of another. As the amount of one is
changed, other remaining constant,the ratio of inputs varies. This process is called
production under variable proportions. In order to understand the underlying
idea behind variable proportion, just recall that a factory building and capital
equipinents (machineries) in it may remain fixed for quite a while. The labour services,
on the other hand, are variable in day-to-day production. That means capital-labour
ratio varies.
above type of situatioil can be contrasted with fixed proportion production.
Under it, only one ratio of inputs is available to produce a good. Output expansion
or contraction requires vaiiation ofall inputs to ensure the condition of fixed ratio.

6.2.4 Three Stages of Production

When the variable input is combined witha fixed one in the production process,
three distinct stages appear. Look at Figure 6.3 to identify these stages. 111 the
figure, variable input is ineasured on the X-axis and total. average and marginal
products are plotted on Y-axis.

Stage 1
The first stage coi~espondsto the use of variable inputs upto point 5 (see Figure
6.3). In this stage the total product increases at an increasing rate initially. MP rises
in this range. However, the slope of TP declines after a point (after point 1 in Figure
6.3). As a result, TP increases at a diminishing rate. Coilsequently the marginal
product falls but remains posit've. At point 5, average product reaches its maximum.
Stage 1 ends there. In stage 1 P rises first and falls after some level. It reniains

b
\

Theory of Production

Theory of Production and Costs

above average product. On the other hand, AP continues to rise throughout the
stage. This part of production, therefore, is known as stage of increasing returns.
Fig. 6.3

Stage 2

'

'

>

'

I
1
I

'
'
1
I

I
1

I
I

AP& MP

: Units of variable input

'

'

I
I

I
I

'
#

I
I

I
I

t
'

I
I
I

'
1
'

1
I
I
I
I
I

I
I

AP
Uuib of variable input

MP

Fig. 6.3

shows the shapes of total, average and marginal product curves. To appreciate
the underlying relation between these, thinkof the figure as consisting of two
parts. I n theupper part see the total product curve (TP). Its relation with average
and marginal product curves (AP and MP) can be seen by coming down to lower
part. The three stages of production are evaluated with the help of TP, AP and

MP

Stage 2

The secorld stage corresponds to use of the variable input between points 5 and 6.
In this part, TP continues to rise at a diminishiilg rate. -The gecond stage ends at
point 3 when TP reaches the maximum. In this stage both AP and MP are diminishing
but are positive. Point 6 givesthe condition where MP is equal to zero and indicates
the end of stage 2. This is known as the stage of diminishing returns as both AP
and MP are diminishing.

Stage 3
Stage 3 is indicated by the use of variable input to the right of point 6. TP declines
and MP becomes negative at this stage. See that MP curve goes down the X - axis.
This stage is called the stage of negative returns. An evaluation of three stages of
prod~ictiondiscussed above will indicate that a rational producer will never produce
at the last sitage. S i n e MP is negative there, the producer will increase the output
by reducing the quantity of variable input.

Theory of Production

6.2.5 Why Law of Diminishing Returns Operates?

The preceding discussion on stages of production indicated a phase when average
and marginal product curves start declining. To understand such a feature see the
following discussion on the law of diminishing returns. This principle statesthat as
one variable input is increased, with all others remaining fixed, a point will be reached
beyond which the marginal physical product of the variable factor will begin to
decrease. To be more specific, take the help of an example. Suppose that paddy is
produced by making use of land, labour and a tractor. The law of diminishingreturns
tells that when the amount of labour is increased holding the use of land and tractor
constant, there will eventually be a stage when rate of increase in production of
paddy will decrease.
Initially, one worker is employed on the farm of the size 10 acres and is given one
tractor to work with. Suppose one more worker is engaged. What type of change
has taken place in the relationship between factors of production? Now each
worker is getting 5 acres of land and '/z of the tractor to work with. Labour's, output
is bound to change. This phenomenon is depicted in the table. When land and capital
are kept fixed and labour input is increased and total, average and marginal products
can be recorded. With one worker 10 units of output are obtained. When the
employment of labour is increased to 8,64 units of output are produced.
Look at the average product and record the changes taking place. With one worker
the average product was 10. When labour was increased to 4, average production
went upto 13. This implied an increase in labour employment resulted in higher
productivity. But when the number of labourers was increased to 5, the average
production came down to 12.2.Further increase in labour inputs pushed down the
average production. A similar picture of increasing at the beginning and decreasing
afterwards was evident from the column giving marginal product. When 3 units of
labour were in employment,the marginal product was the maximum at 15. However,
a decline set in after that. When number of workers employed reached 8, the
marginal product became negative (-2).
'

Table 6.2: Diminishing Average and Marginal Products

Units of Labour

Total Output

AP

MP

10

10

24

12

14

39

13

15

52

13

13

61

12.2

66

11.0

7 ,

66

9.4

64

(-12

Theory o f Production and Costs

6.2.6 Iso-Product Curve and Marginal Rate of Technical

Substitution
Take output, Y, to be constant. A functional relation tells us how such a constant
level of output can be produced with different combinations of capital and labour.
ABCD curve has been drawn from Table 6.3 Each of the A, B, C, D combinations
of capital and labour can produce 100unitsof output. Between A and B combinations,
for producing 100 units of output, 10 units of labour can be substituted for 30 units
of capital. Again, the shift from B to C can keep the level of output constant if 10
units of labour replace 20 units of capital. This way 10 units of labour replace 20
units ofcapital for producing the same level of output for a shift from C to D.

Table 6.3: MRTS of Labour for Capital

Combinations Output

AK

AL MRTS

fi
AL

Here it is shown that the replacement of capital with labour can keep the level of
output constant only if each additionalunit of labour replaces lesser and lesser amount
of capital. This is due to the operation of the law of diminishing retums in both the
inputs. As capital is reduced and labour is increased two forces operate. First, a
reduction of capital increases its returns. Second, since capital is replaced by labour,
the increased amount of labour has to work with less capital. Hence, labour'smarginal
productivity decreases. This is because no two inputs would be perfect substitutes
of each other, unless they were absolutely identical. In that case, by definition, they
would be the same inputs. Since the marginal productivity of labour decreases and
that of capital increases, with the decrease in capital and correspoildingincrease in
labour, the substitution of labour for capital to produce a constant level of mtput is
possible only if every extra unit of labour displaces less and less of capital per unit.
The rate, at which labour cah replace capital keeping the level of output constant, is
the marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS) of labour for capital. MRTS
declines as capital decreases and labour increases or labour-capital ratio increases.
The diagrammatic presentation of the iso-product line takes the shape oka falling
curve, convex to the origin as shown in Figure 6.4. Its properties are the same as
that ofthe usual Indifference curves. This is also called Iso-quant. It is a continuous
curve, which assumes that two inputs are continuously divisible and substitutable.
The slope of the curve
=

g ,which is negative.

Since output is constant throughout the curve, the marginal reduction in output with
respect to decrease in capital is just equal to the marginal increase in output as a
result of increase in labour. The marginal reduction in output due to decrease in
capital is MP, x AK where MP, islhe marginal productivity of capital.

'

The marginal increase in output due to increase in labour = MP,

AL

where MP, is the marginal productivity of labour. Hence, the change in total output
due to substitutionof labour for capital is zero. That is,

This means the marginal rate oftechnical substitution of labour for capital
Fig. 6.4

YI

40

30
Capital

Labour
-

Fig. 6.4 shows that at points A, B, C and Dsame levels of output are being produced.
However, to such a level ofoutput, defferent combinationsofcapital and labour
as given in Table 6.3 are employed
AK
MRTS LK = (-) AL

equals the inverse of the ratio oftheir marginal productivities.

The relation between MRTS and the ratio of labour to capital is also dzducible
LK
from Table 6.3. From this relatlon the elasticity of substitutioncan be defined as
Percentage change in MRTS

ESLK=

LK

Percentage change in L/K

--A(L/K)

- AMRTS,

L/K
MRTS

This elasticity is greater than, equal to, or less than one according as a givenpercentage change of L K ratio induces greater, equal, or less percentage change in MRTS
in the opposite direction.

Theory of Production

l'lieo~+yof P~.ocluctio~~
and Costs

6.2.7 Economic Region of Production

In production analysis, generally, isoquants are shown as convex to origin. Their
slopes are monotonically negative. This shape of isoquants gives them a special
feature: these curves represent the input combinations, which are economically
efficient. However, a production function need not give us this shape all the times. It
may have an upward slopingsegmentas well. But that segmentwill not be economically
efficient. We can draw t,wo curves, OC ahd OL, which separate efficient and
inefficient segments of the isoquants. These curves enclose what may be called
'economic production region'. Note that OC passes through all the points on the
isoquants are horizontal, or their slopes are equal to zero. (Fig. 6.5)
Fig. 6.5

I
Capital

',

Labour
Fig. 6.5 shows that the economic production region is enclosed by RidgeLines OC and
OL. The IineOC is the locus of points where Iso-quants arevertical. Similarly,
OL is the locus of points on which Iso-quants are horizontal.

6.2.8 Some Specific Forms of Production Function

Some specific forms of production function allowing different degrees of
substitutabilitybetween inputs are given below.
a) Fixed Technique of Production and Iso-Product Curve
I
I

Fig. 6.6

Fig. 6.6 is drawn by assuming that capital and labour are not subititutableand have to
be used in fixed proportions. Thus, when the technique of production is fixed,
the shape of the Iso-product curvais like PQR.The Iso-product curve is flat
running parallel along the capital and labour.

When the technique of production is fixed, the shape of labour and capital axes
would show non-substitutability between these two inputs. If capital or labour is
used in excess of OM or ON amount respectively, their marginal productivity will
be zero.

!!

b) Homogeneous Production Function: Degree One

When continuous substitutabilityis allowed between these inputs, the production
function can be homogeneous or non-homogeneous. In case of the homogeneous
production function, the level of production can be increased by using the same
technique of production, i.e., by increasing both the inputs in the same proportions.
This way of expanding production gives the returns to scale. The scale here refers
to change in inputs in the same proportion.
Thus, production hlction, hoillogenous of degree one is described by tenns such
as linear homogenousor constant returns to scale. All these drive home the essential
concept: if all inputs are expanded in the same proportion,output is expanded in that
proportion. To understand the ~mderlyingidea take an example.
Consider a production functian:
a I-a

q = f(x,y) = A x y

where x,y

two inputs (say, labour and capital)

and o < a < l

Now let x and y be increasd by proportion h. Then we write f(x,y) as

=hf (x, y)

=h

Therefore, the expansion of inputs by h has resulted in output expansion by h. This

is what is meant by a constant returns to scale. Such an idea is also presented with
the help of adiagramme in the following.

Fig. 6.7

Labour

Fig. 6.7: In figure 6.7, parallel Iso-product curves are drawn. A higher Iso-product
curve using more o f two inputs represents a higher level ofoutput (say, 200
units). A ray th ough theorigin (OA), crossing the Iso-product curves at B,B1
and B" is known as the scale line or expansion path of output.

Theory of Production

Theory of Production and Costs

The parallel Iso-product curves in the figure indicate that a higher level of output is
produced when greater amounts of the inputs. capital and labour are employed. It
also shows that a higher point on the scale line corresponds to a higher Iso-product
curve and indicates a hlgher level of output. If Iso-product curves are parallel, and
the same marginal rates of substitutionbetween inputs prevails on all the points of
intersection of the Iso-productcurves and the rays through the origin, the production
function related to these Iso-Product curves are homogenous. In the figure slopes at
B, B' and B", i.e., points of intersection between OA line and Iso-product curves,
are the same. These Iso-product curves are a set of parallel convex curves, like the
Indiffe~enceCurves. Then, production can be increased by increasingthe inputs by
the same proportion and the scale line is a straight line having a constant slope.
When the production function is linear and homogeneous, as in Figure 6.7,
proportionate increase in output isjust equal to the proportionate increase in inputs
i.e., OB = BB' = B'B". While the scale line is a straight line the proportional increase
in output can be higher than that in inputs and can also be less than that in the inputs.
I11that case, production h c t i o n is not linear, though homogeneous.
c) Non-Homogeneous Production Function and Scale Line
When production function is non-homogeneous,the increase in production is not
proportional to the increase in the inputs, at the given technique of production. In
Figure 6.8, OA is an upward sloping curve through the origin showing that its slope
increases as output increases. This implies that capital intensity of the technique of
production, i.e., the ratio of capital to labour rises as production increases. It is
possible to have a reverse situation where the slope of the expansion curve will
decrease and capital intensity will fall with increase in.output.
Fig. 6.8

Capital

N N'N"
Labour

Fig. 6.8 shows that the slopes of the Iso-product curves are the same on the expansion
,
curve OA.
,

Check Your Progress 1

1) Indicate the following statements as true(T) or false(F)

The law of diminishingmarginal production states that increased application of one input keeping others fixed will yield smaller output.
( 1

ii) In production under variable proportions the ratio of all variable inputs
( 1
varies.
i

Marginal rate of technical substitution of labour for capital increases as

( 1
capital decreases and labour increases.

!!

iv) One unit increase in output due to an extra unit of increment in input is
known as marginal product.
( 1

v) In case of harnogenous production function production can be increased

by increasing the inputs in the same proportion.
( 1

2) Discussthe three stages of production. Explain why the law of diminishing

returns operates?
I

3) Write a short note on economic region of production.

6.3 INPUT PRICES AND ISO-COST LINE

The technologyof production discussed so f a r ~ l e rthe
s possibilitiesof combining
different techniques of production. But the choice of a technique out of the
technological optionsis based on input prices. A firm chooses>theteclmique, which
produces maximum output with minimum cost of production. Here, the average
cost of production, i.e., total cost divided by total product is minimum. The choice
of technique will depend on the highest possible Iso-product curve, which can be
reached by a given Iso-cost curve deduced on the basis of input prices and total
outlays.

6.3.1 Iso-cost Line

Let the price of capital be r and of labour be w.
Then Total Outlay= rK + wL,
is the exchange ratio between labour and capital. Exactly as in the
Obviously,
consumer budget line, the intercept on the capital axis (Y) represents the number of
units of capital that the total outlay can purchase if it were spent on capital only.
Similarlythe intexept on the 1aboflAms)represents the number of units of labour
that the total outlay can purchase if it were spent entirely on labour. Thus,
W
r

i.e., the ratio ofprices ofthe two inputs is the slope ofthe line, which is negative and
constant. The slope will remain the same as long as the relative price ratio of thk
inputs is constant. Intercepts change as total outlay is changed. In Figure 6.9, 'WT'
line is drawn on basis of the above qquation to show that the total outlay remains
constant over different combinations of two inputs. This is the Iso-cost line, very
similar to thebudget line ofthe consumer buying two goods. This, in fact, is the
producer's budget, i.e., outlay line for the inputs.

Theory or P r o d u c t i o ~ ~

Tllcory of I ' r o d ~ ~ c t i o lal n d costs

NOW,the choice of technique is determined where the Iso-cost line is tangent to the
Iso-product curve at point R. This is the maximum output the outlay can produce. If
the technique represented by the ray OA is used, capital-labour ratio is OMION.
At point R, the slope of the Iso-cost curve (w/r) is equal to the slope of the Isoproduct curve. Hence, at this point the input-price ratio, the marginal rate of technical
substitution and the ratio of marginal productivities of labour and capital inputs are
equal. This is similar to consumer equilibrium.
Fig. 6.9

Capital

Labour

Fig. 6.9 shows that OW amount of capital is hired tospend the entire outlay. Similarly,
by spending that outlay, O T units of labour can be hired. The straight line WT
indicates various combinations of capital and labour, which a producer can
employ for the given outlay. It is the Iso-cost line. The Iso-quant (200 units of
output) is tangent to WT at R

6.3.2 Returns to Scale : A Diagrammatic Presentation

We have already establisl~edthat returns to the scale need not be constant. It will
be interesting to examinehow to present increasing, constant and diminishing returns
to scale oh a single diagram. For that purpose you may look at Fig. 6.10.
If we draw a straight line OA through the origin it will cut all the isoquants. This line
OA is called the 'expansionpath'. Let the first isoquant shows 100units of output,
second 200, third 300 and so on. The gap between two successive curves as
shown along the line OA can give us very important clues about the returns to scale.
If the curves are at a constant distance from none another, they show constant
returns to scale. If on the other hand, this gap is increasing, diminishing returns
would prevail and narrowing down of the gap would point to increasing returns.
Consider Fig. 6.10. It has 6 isoquants. The first one represents 100 units of output
and the last denotes 600. Gap between I, and I, is equal to that between 1,andI,.
This equal gap points towards equal change in the utilisation of labour and capital.
Use of labour has changed from OB to OC to OD. But note that BC is equal to
CD. A similar trait is observed along the vertical axis, which shows changes in use
of capital. Thus, equal increase in both the inputs leads to equal rise in the output

Fig. 6.10

Labour

Fig.6.10 shows that change in {nputs, capital and labour, does not lead to proportionate
change in output.

However, I, and I, have drifted farther and farther. That means, larger and larger
amounts ofboth &e factors h e being used but the rise in output remains 'fixed' at the
old level of 100 units. Here the returns to scale are diminishing - the output rises at
a rate, which is slower than the rate ofrise of the use of inputs. Finally, we find that
I, has come closer to I5yet increase in the output remains 100 units - in' other
words, smaller increase in the inputs is able to increasethe output by 100units now.
This is the case of increasing return to scale.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Define an Iso-product curve in one sentence. What are shown along the axes
of the figure to draw an Iso-product curve?

2) If, for a particular combination of labour and capital, themarginal productivity

of capital is 6 units of output and the marginal rate of technical substitution is 2
units of capital per unit of labour, calculate the marginal productivity of labour.

3) Let the price of capital be Rs. 60 and that of labour Rs.50. Write the Iso-cost
equation for the outlay of Rs.2000 and calculate the slope of the Iso-cost curve.

T h e o r y o f Prodaction and C'osts

6.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, the concept ofproduction h c t i o n has been explained. It tells that inputs
and outputs are related technically. The idea of Iso-product curve has been
introduced to explain how a constant levelof output can be produced by using two
vaiable inputs like capital and labour in different proportions. The Iso-product curve
is downward sloping. It is also convex to the origin just because the two inputs,
though substitutable, are not perfect substitutes of each other. This cwve is deduced
on the assumption that the marginal rate of technical substitution of labur for capital
declines with the increase in the proportion of labour to capital. This curve is used to
analyse homogeneous, linear homogeneous and non-homogeneous production
fimctions. An analysis of production function helps us to deduce the expansion path,
and to explain the scale line under various returns to scale. In the homogeneous
production hction, the technique of production remains the same with the expansion
ofthe scale of operation.

6.5 KEYWORDS
Constant Returns to Scale

If all factorsof production are increased in a given proportion,

the output increases in exactly the
same proportion under constant
returns to scale.

Homogeneous Production Function

If a set of Iso-product curves

generated by aproduction h c tion has the same slope along a
ray through the origin, then the
production function is called homogeneous.

Decreasing Returns to Scale

Under this law of production,

output increases proportionately
less than inputs.

Expansion Path

This is a locus of cost minimising

proportions of two inputs to produce maximum output resulting
fiom changes in the scale of outlays, keeping the input prices
constant.
.

Increasing Returns to Scale

Under this law of return, output

increases proportionately more
than inputs.

Iso-Cost Line

This shows all the different combinations oftwo inputs that a firm
can purchase or hire with given
input prices and outlay.

: This shows all the different combinationsoftwo inputs that a k n

Iso-Product Curve

can use to produce a specified

quantity of output.

Non-Homogenesus Production Function

: When a production functiongen-

erates a set of Iso-product

curves having different slopes
along a ray through the origin, it
is termed as non-homogeneous
production function.
ProductionFunction

: This is a technical relation showing the maximum quantityof output that can be produced from a
set of input combinations on the
basis of existing technology.

Short Run

: The time period when at least one

of the inputs (plant size or building) is fixed.

6.6 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

Koutsoyiannis,A. 1979. A4odern Microeconomics,Macinillan; New York Chapters 3 , 4 & 5. pp. 67 to 163.
Salvatore, D. 1983.Microeconomics Theory, Schaurn's Outline Series, Chapters
7 , 8 and 10, pp. 124 to 174 and 196 to 220.
Samuelson, Paul A. and W. D. Nordhaus, 1985. Economies, McGraw- Hill Book
Company, Chapters 2 1 and 22, pp. 461 to 50 1.
Lipsey, Richard G. 1979. An introduction to Positive Economics, English
Language Book Society/Weidenfold and Nicoloon, Chapters 16,17 18 and 19,
pp. 201 to 259.

6.7 ANSWERS OR HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS EXERCISES
Check Your Progress 1
1) i)

0;ii)

(F); iii)

0;iv)

(F); v) (T)

2) Inchde in your answer the Sub-section6.2.4

3) See Sub-section.6.2.7

Check Your Progress 2

1) The curve shows a constant level ofoutput produced by different combinations

of two inputs such as capital cgnd labour. Capital(K) is measured on the Y-axis
and Labour (L) on the X-axis.

Theory of Production

- Marginal Product of Labour = --M

Marginal Product of Capital

P ~

MPK

Or, - 2 = -MPL , orMP =12

6
L

3) Iso-cost equations:
Total outlay = Price of capital x quantity capital +Price of labour x quantity of
labour

@, Rs.2000 = Rs. 120 x quantity of capital + Rs. 50 x quantity of labour

SlQpe of the Iso - cost curve = - Price of labour
Price of capital