Gism DTH INSTITUTE TABLE OF CONTEN 1 CLINKER FORMATION AND CLINKER GRANULOMETRY ... 1 Il IMPORTANCE OF COOLER EFFICIENCY FOR HEAT CONSUMPTION. 3 iM COOLER TYPES. soo 4 A. Planetary Cooler. — oA BE hee Coe ee 9 ©. First Generation Grate Cooler sonal D. Second Generation Grate Cooler. u |. Pundamental Design Features of Second Generation (Air-Beam) Grate Coolers... 12 (@ Bridging (Dead) Graves and Evolved Grate-Line Configurations 13 ©) Alternative Grate-Line Suspensions 14 (External Spillage Conveyosr & Valves 6 @ — Reduced Fall Through Grates ” (Hydraulic Drives 18 @ Clinker Crushers 19 (@ —_Three-Componem Control System: 20 @) Air Beam Technology 2 @ Elevated Resistance Grate Plates 2 @ Stationary Inlet Section 7 2, Process Considerations 28 3. Efficiency, Recuperation and Cooler Heat Loss 30 4, Impact of Second Generation Grate Coolers (Air-Beam & Elevated Resistance Grate Plate Designs) 35 5. Second Generation Grate Cooler Suminary and Commentary. - 39 E, Third Generation Grate Coolers 41 1, Fundamental Design Features of Third Generation Grate Coolers nnn (@ Modular Design a2 () Fixed GratesLing For Air Distribution 43 (©) Separate Clinker Conveying System “4 @ Air Distribution Plates With Mechanical Flow Regulators. 45 2. Further Improvements/Developments of Third Generation Grate Coolers 48 3, Third Generation Grate Cooler Performance SI IV. COMPARISON OF FIRST, SECOND and THIRD GENERATION COOLER PERFORMANCE. 52 Asocem Bugust 2006 307TH INSTITUTE Asocem August 2006 308L fism DTH INSTITUTE CLINKER FORMATION AND CLINKER GRANULOMETRY It is a well-known fact that the granularity of clinker products can vary considerably from ‘one cement plant to another. Even kilns within the same plant are often found to produce quite different clinker, although fed with the same raw mix. FIGURE I shows some sieve test results obtained from a wide range of clinker samples. It appears that the dust content, for example grains finer than half'a mm, can vary between | and 70%. Also the presence of even a small proportion of oversize clinker, say bigger than 40mm (1-1/2"), contributes very much to the overall appearance of a clinker product, Furthermore, clinker made up of compactly fused and well shaped nodules appears to be completely different from clinker with a similat sieve curve, but consisting of cokelike and sharp edged agglomerations of dust particles. Such observations have naturally led to investigations of the factors affecting clinker formation. In preheater kilns, the formation of nodule shaped clinker must take place in or just above the bur: 1g zone, since the raw mix somewhere further up in the kiln is in the form of meal In a wet-process kiln strong nodules often come out from the chains as determined during the drying of slurry. The extent to which these nodules affect the final clinker granulometty, if atall, is unknown, However, wet kilns tend to produce a coarser clinker size distribution than do precalciner kilns Clinker formation is related to raw mix composition and operating conditions. The clinker formation may start already in the calcining zone, where a certain agglomeration of the fine, solid particles may take place aided perhaps by the presence of low melting alkali salts. Asocem August 2006 309Gism TH INSTITUTE However, the final result depends on what happens in the burning zone. Here the formation of liquid phase begins at a temperature slightly below 1300°C, and the quantity of liquid increases with the temperature up to a certain final value as shown in FIGURE 2. The amount of liquid does not increase gradually with the temperature, but in steps on reaching certain temperatures. Only by applying extreme temperatures can this final amount of liquid be further increased which, however, usually has disastrous effects on coating and lining, The quantity of liquid phase at normal burning temperature amounts to 20-25% of the clinker, depending on the content of alumina, iron, magnesia, and alkalies. If the quantity of liquid phase is too small, good clinker formation will not take place. Conditions may then be improved by changing the raw mix composition, which in practice is usually done by adding iron ore, thus reducing the silica ratio. In some cases it will be possible to improve the clinker formation by burning harder, even harder than required for bringing down free lime. The reason, of course, being an increase in liquid phase. But itis often seen that if the burning temperature is raised even further, the result will be dusty clinker, probably due to a too low viscosity of the liquid. At several plants we have also found a rather sharp limit to the lime saturation factor, if good clinker grading is to be obtained; if this limit is exceeded the clinker becomes dusty. The clinker granulometry is important for the satisfactory operation of any cooler: There must not be too much dust. Less than 15% minus 0.5 mm (0.02") is good, Too much clinker plus 25 mm (1") increases the clinker temperature after the cooler because of the slow cooling of thi fraction. Less than 10% plus 25 mm (1") is good. The clinker dust in the cooler tends to blow back into the kiln, thus establishing a dust circulation between kiln and cooler. The dust can disturb the radiation from the flame in the Asocem August 2006 310MmIDTH INSTITUTE kiln, and often it spoils the clinker formation so that the dust circulation tends toaccelerate. Dust circulation means that the amount of heat contained in the clinker entering the cooler increases. This result is always to lower the efficiency of the cooler. UW. IMPORTANCE OF THE COOLER EFFICIENCY FOR THE HEAT CONSUMPTION ‘A characteristic heat balance for a kiln with a 4-stage preheater and a conventional grate cooler can look like this: (Ref. Temperature 18°C - 64°F) keal/kg MBtu/t Heat in Exit Gas + Dust 177 637 Surface Loss Kiln 56 202 Surface Loss Preheater 24 086 Cooler Loss 142 SIL Heat of Reaction 4i7 1,501 816 2.937 Total Heat Consumption 79) 2.843 If we look at the possibilities of bringing down the heat consumption, then about 25 keal/kg, (0.09 MBTU/ST) can be saved in the exit gas by adding a Sth cyclone stage to the preheater, but in some plants the full amount of heat in the exit gas is used for drying the coal and raw materials, so this heat is not wasted. The surface loss from the kiln shell can be brought down by using a type of insulating bricks in part of the kiln, but these bricks have generally a poor lifetime. A better insulation in the preheater will partly result in a higher exit gas temperature instead of saved heat input to the system. Asocen August 2006 311TL. miDTH INSTITUTE Regarding the cooler, it is so that if we could establish a perfect counterflow in the heat exchange between clinker and air, then nearly all the heat in the clinker could be transferred to the combustion air, Therefore, the largest potential for bringing down the heat consumption rests with the cooler COOLER TYPES In the following the four (4) types of coolers, considered by the industry for modern cement kilns, are discussed. ‘These are: planetary coolers, rotary coolers, grate coolers (both conventional and air-beam types), and cross-bar coolers. Planetary Coolers The planetary cooler served the cement industry for many years and was originally designed for wet process kilns with a high amount of secondary air available for the cooler. In modem dry process kilns with a low heat consumption, the amount of secondary air available for cooling (when this is done with secondary air only) is only about | kg air per kg clinker (1 Ib, air per Ib. clinker) or even less. ‘This requires a very efficient heat transfer between air and clinker obtained by cascading the clinker through the air flow. It also requires that the internal parts in the hot end can stand high temperatures, which is obtained with wear resisting ceramic materials. Ina planetary cooler, such as the Unax, the principle of having a number of cooler tubes rotating with the kiln and connected directly to the kiln is used. Asocem August 2006 312Asocen August 2006 ism TH INSTITUTE A breakthrough for the new planetary cooling principles came when a kiln support below the cooler was introduced. This permitted heavy cooler tubes with the necessary internal fittings to be supported without excessive stresses in the kiln shell and opened the way for designing Unax coolers for kilns with a high capacity. The one shown in FIGURE 3 is producing 4000 t/d clinker (4,400 STPD), and the cooler consists of 10 tubes, each 2.4 x 29 m (7'10"x 94'9"). It is only for kilns having capacity less than 1000 Vd (1100 STPD) for which itis economical to leave out the support below. Each cooler tube is attached to the kiln with a fixed and a movable support, welded to heavy kiln sections as shown in FIGURE 4. The inlet to the cooler has a special design which prevents clinker from falling back into the kiln when a tube is in top position. The cooling is based upon cascading the clinker through the air flow. This is not as simple as it seems, as fine clinker falling down from the lifters through the air is carried the wrong way by the air, and an excessive number of lifters has proved to lead to overfilling the coolers, back spilling into the kiln and high exit clinker temperatures. The shape and number of the lifters in the various temperature zones have to be carefully determined by means of a mathematical model, the input being an anticipated grading of the clinker as shown in FIGURE 5. At the cooler outlet the fine clinker falls through a grizzly to the clinker transport, while coarse clinker and Jumps are discharged at the side to a hammer mill clinker crusher as shown in FIGURE 6. 313Asocem August 2006 314 ism TH INSTITUTE In principle, coarse clinker requires more cascading and fine clinker less in the hot end of the cooler in order to avoid excessive circulation between cooler and kiln, which conveys more heat to the coolers. The inlet part with a special shape is lined with castables, In recent years special, dense castables have been developed for such a purpose, fulfilling all requirements regarding abrasion resistance, shock resistance, chemical resistance against alkali attack etc., and the practical experience with these modem castables has been very good. In the cylindrical part of the coolers there is first a section of corrugated brick lining, followed by cast heat resistant steel lifters of special design, either lined with steel plates, as shown, or for the hot part with a ceramic lining, either bricks or castables. In the cold end of the coolers, mild steel lifters with a high lifting capacity, increasing towards the outlet, are used, and no lining is used here. The outlet of the kiln to the coolers was previously made with steel casings, which caused problems when exposed to high temperatures, ‘The problems have been solved by using a ceramic outlet made of the high quality, dense castables now available, The cooling effect depends, of course, on the size of the cooler. It can be expressed as the clinker production in relation to surface and volume for the cooler tube by the following formula: 7 = Specific Load =Asocen August 2006 ism DTH INSTITUTE Where: P = _ linker production in 1/24 h (shT/24 h) n= number of cooler tubes L = __ length of cooler tubes in m cooler tube diameter in m A normal specific load would be 3.65 vm? * d or (0.208 shT/m?>). A normal clinker exit temperature would be 160°C (320°F) above ambient at this loading and at a specific heat consumption of 780 keal/kg for the kiln system. For calculating expected clinker temperatur other clinker capacities, the following relation may be used: Where X is the specific fuel consumption (keal/kg) at the new conditions and y is the cooler loading in t/m?* * d at the new conditions. ‘The air velocity in the cooler tubes should not be too high to avoid excessive dust circulation. Therefore the expression should not exceed 70 tm? or (77 shT/m’). ‘The temperature of the clinker from a Unax cooler of an economical dry process kiln will usually average 160°C (320°F) above ambient temperature. It can vary with the clinker grading, and, of course, it increases by forced output. The temperature can be reduced, if required, by addition of water to the coolers near the outlet, The equipment required is very simple: Just a gutter around the coolers, from which the water runs into the individual cooler tubes. The amount of water is controlled by the 315fism TH INSTITUTE clinker temperature, and it has been established that 1% water on clinker basis reduces the clinker temperature by about 15-20°C (68°F), which is close to the theoretical maximum. The effect on the heat consumption is therefore small, as long as the amount of water is kept below 3% of the clinker weight The heat losses from a planetary cooler consist of (1) radiation loss and (2) sensible heat in the clinker leaving the cooler. A normal cooler loss would be: (20°C ref. temp./68°F) TYPICAL COOLER LOSS-PLANETARY TYPE, 0.349 MBTU/shT Radiation 90 keal/kg Clinker (150°C/300"F, 25 keal/ky 0,090 MBTU/shT 122 keal/kg | 0.439 MBTU/shT. This compares favorably with a conventional grate cooler especially when the lower power consumption is also taken into consideration. Depending on the cost relation between fuel and power, | kWhit will often correspond to the cost of 7 keal/kg clinker (0.025 MBTU/shT). It would, of course, be possible to insulate the cooler much better, but that would lead to an excessive clinker temperature -a certain amount of heat has to be wasted through radiation. The length of the different types of lining has to be chosen so that the cooler shell temperature does not become excessive at any point. Asocem August 2006 316Asocem August 2006 MIiDTH INSTITUTE Another favorable feature is the low power consumption, only about 1.0-1.5 kWhit (0.9-1.5 kWh/shT) clinker added to the kiln drive and exhaust fan. The Planetary cooler is unique in its simplicity, no excess air to handle, no motors or fans, no instruments. In operation there is nothing to control, itis self-adjusting. One disadvantage is that the clinker temperature is higher than for grate coolers. The primary disadvantage is that the planetary cooler does not permit take-out for hot tertiary air as required for moder calciner kilns. The higher noise level can also be a problem in some areas B. _ Rotary Cooler As mentioned above, the main drawback of the planetary cooler is that it was not suited for modern precalciner kilns with external tertiary duct. This had (prior to the dominance of grate coolers) given the separate rotary cooler a come-back. The rotary cooler is also operated without excess air, but it permits take out of tertiary air for a precalciner through a specially designed “rabbit-ear” kiln hood. ‘The cooler shown in FIGURE 7 is designed for a 2000 vd (2200 shT/D) kiln with precalciner and has the dimensions 4.75 x 55 m (15'6" x 180’), which means that it is, bigger than the kiln. Just as for the planetary cooler, the cooling is based upon cascading the clinker but with specially designed lifters, which prevent clinker from hammering on the lining when dropping into the large diameter cooler. The mild steel section is divided into six compartments so that efficient cascading is permitted 317Asocen, August 2006 318 ism OTH INSTITUTE The rotary cooler necessitates two efficient seals. The cooler has a 4.5% inclination and a maximum rotating speed of 4.0 RPM. The power consumption for the cooler drive is 3.5 kWh/t (3.2 kWhishT). Because the specific surface is lower than for a planetary cooler, the surface heat losses are also lower, and that gives a favorable thermal efficiency, but it also results ina higher clinker temperature, 200-250°C (390-480°F). Again, however, this can be reduced somewhat by spraying water into the outlet. The investments for a rotary cooler are higher than for a planetary cooler, but may in some cases be lower than for a grate cooler when efficient cleaning of excess air is required. First Generation Grate Coolers The grate cooler, however, is overwhelmingly accepted as the preferred method of clinker cooling for today's modern cement plants. As shown in FIGURE 8, for the traditional grate cooler, the clinker drops from the kiln onto reciprocating, air-quenching grates with compartmentized high-pressure cooling fans. Below the grates, the cooler is divided into a number of compartments, each provided with fans having adjustable inlet vanes for automatic air flow control and minimum power consumption. Clinker spillage through the grates is collected in hoppers and removed through air-tight flap valves to the clinker conveyor. FIGURE 9 presents the advantages of the grate cooler over other types of coolers.Asocem August 2006 ism DTH INSTITUTE ‘As shown, the reasons for grate cooler’s preference are because the grate cooler is capable of handling large outputs (10,000 MTPD or more) and because it is capable of cooling clinker to very low temperatures (65°C above ambient or less). The grate cooler as shown in FIGURE 10 also permits recuperation of hot tertiary air for today's precaleiner kiln systems. Second Generation Grate Coolers The second generation (air-beam type) grate cooler has a standard cooler heat loss of 90 to 110 keal/kg, which is a significant improvement over other cooler types such as the rotary and planetary coolers. This, in itself, is remarkable since these other cooler types operate without excess air; excess air being far and away the most significant area of heat loss from the grate cooler. Nevertheless, 90 to 110 kcal/kg (air-beam grate cooler heat loss) is still a substantial portion of the overall loss of the kiln system. Therefore, the clinker cooler offers the largest potential for further decreasing the heat consumption of modern pyroprocessing systems as shown in FIGURE 11. Undoubtedly, further developments will be made in the area of clinker cooling. One point is obvious: the second generation (air-beam type) grate cooler represents a compromise between reliability and efficiency. For this reason, third generation designs such as FL Smidth’s Cross-Bar Cooler or Polysius’s Poly-Track Cooler or Claudius Peters Eta Cooler or KHD’s Pyrofloor Cooler have emerged in recent years, During the period of time since Fuller Company/F.L.Smidth first developed the air- quenching grate cooler during the late 1930s, the grate cooler emerged as the logical choice for any new clinker cooler installation. Second generation grate cooler designs employ a number of fundamental design features that evolved over 60 years. By the early 1990's, all of the major cement equipment suppliers were offering 319Asocem August 2006 320 Giism TH INSTITUTE cooler designs that incorporated the latest developments in grate plate and air distribution technologies. These “air-beam” technologies were integrated with the fundamental design attributes which made the Grate Cooler an industry standard for many decades. The following section will highlight the mechanical design features present in all second generation (air-beam) grate coolers and describe the maintenance and process benefits of each, i Fundamental Design Features of Second Generation (Air-Beam) Grate Coolers Over the first 60 years since the introduction of the grate cooler, a number of developments helped to make the grate cooler a reliable and efficient piece of machinery; namely, (a) Bridging (Dead) Grates and Evolved Grate-Line Configurations (b) Grate-Line Suspension Systems (e.g. Internal Wheels) (©) External Spillage Conveyors & Spillage Valves (d) Reduced Fall Through Grates (e) Hydraulic Grate Drives (£) Clinker Crushers (g) Three-Component Control System (h) Air Beam Technology (i) Elevated Resistance Grate Plates (j) Stationary Inlet Section Until the late 1990's thé design features listed above had been the universally accepted staples of the modern grate cooler. Though variations in designAsocem August 2006 ism TH INSTITUTE existed, all major equipment suppliers generally were offering the above components. Moreover, the variations offered usually had very similar results in actual practice. A description of maintenance and process benefits of each component follows. (@) Bridging (Dead) Grates and Evolved Grate-Line Configurations Bridging plates (dead grates) are the conversion of a moving plate to a fixed plate by bridging from fixed row to fixed row over a moveable row. Fuller Company/F.LS th first installed bridging plates (dead grates) during the mid-1960s in order to rectify problems associated with hot fines coming into contact with side castings. Bridging plates (dead grates) as shown in FIGURE 12A were installed adjacent to the side castings, then covered with castable refractory to protect the cooler's structural frame from the hot clinker fines. Bridging plates (dead grates) were found to improve cooler performance and increase capacity. Observation showed reduction in cooler Width gave a deeper bed depth and greater uniformity across the width of the cooler. With a deeper and more uniform clinker bed, it was found that the material cooled quicker, the air to the kiln was warmer, and the operation of the kiln- cooler was more stable. At the time of their development, dead grates allowed for an increase in the cooler’s specific loading from 38 to 42 MTPD/m?. Today dead grates also are used on modern air-beam coolers, which have a loading of 50 MTPD/m? or more. For these coolers, dead grates and tapered refractory are installed on the static inlet rows as a means to distribute clinker evenly across the cooler's width. 1) Maintenance Benefit ~ Bridging plates (dead grates) act as a barrier 321Asocem August 2006 322 MiDTH INSTITUTE to prevent damage to the structural frame. 2) Process Benefit - The bridging plates allow deep bed operation, improving cooling efficiency Over the years, many different grate line configurations have been employed. The carliest grate designs were known as inclined coolers and were sloped at 10 degrees using horizontal grate plates. In order to re-gain control over the clinker transport efficiency, grate tines of 5 degrees, 3 degrees, and eventually 0 degrees (horizontal) were employed, The reciprocating action of the grates takes place on a 10 degree inclination resulting in an overall horizontal grate line as determined by the height of the grate’s pusher face as. shown in FIGURE 12B and FIGURE 12C. For modern air-beam coolers, the transport capacity of the coole generally increased due to a more complete aeration of the grate line. It is important to control the clinker transport to avoid the possibility for “running” clinker, but it is also important to minimize grate speeds so as to minimize wear, For this purpose, a four (4) degree inclination of the grate lite employing a configuration of “one movable row followed by two stationary rows” has been found by some suppliers as a proper compromise between grate wear and transport efficiency. () Alternative Grate-Line Suspension Systems Since carly cooler designs employed external wheels for carrying the movable frame, a common maintenance problem was found in the area of the sliding seals where whee! shafts penetrated the cooler housing, Over the years, it was found that the most simple and elegant solution to this problem was the use of internal wheels as shown in FIGURE 13A and FIGURE 13B.Asocem August 2006 ism DTH INSTITUTE This climinated potential loss of cooling air and prevented clinker dust from escaping through this area, Internal wheel design has developed to a point where such components are essentially maintenance free. The preferred design is a wide, flat wheel constructed of cast steel combined with anti- friction bearings. This design is essentially wear-free and so robust that a sunken movable frame ora worn underside geate plate is unheard of, Center guide rollers are used at standard locations along the movable frame to ensure proper tracking. Finally, an automatic lubrication system, protected by a large pipe diameter, keeps the bearings purged of contaminants. 1) Maintenance Benefit - Rugged, wide, flat wheels ensure mini wear and sturdy support of the movable frame. 2) Proc potential source of lost cooling air. Benefit - This arrangement eliminates the wheel seals as a An interesting alternative to use of internals wheels to support the moveable frame was patented by E.N.C.1. during the early 1970s, This concept known as the “Pendulum Suspension” was subsequently adopted by IKN as shown in FIGURE 13C and Claudius Peters as shown in FIGURE 13D during the 1990s. ‘The idea was to suspend the moveable frame on long spring steel! straps (or a series of smaller straps) so that they are self-centering. This had the advantage of being able to eliminate moving parts such as rollers and bearings. The spring-steel strips were dimensioned so that, in the vertical direction, the pendulum lift was 0.5 mm. This enabled the moveable gaps to be set to | mm. The prerequisites are that the spring-steel strips do not lengthen, the pendulums are correctly aligned, and that no settlement of the foundation occurs. 1) Maintenance Benefit ~ Swing-type support systems eliminate rollers, 323Asocem August 2006 324 MiDTH INSTITUTE bearings, and lubrication points. 2) Process Benefit — Swing-type support systems better retain the widths of unwanted moveable gaps. In general, these types of sophisticated "gap management” systems had great benefit for air-beam coolers in which the cooler's performance is largely determined by the size of the gaps between stationary and moveable grate line components. This is because the cooling air will always take the path of least resistance. OF course, it is more beneficial to eliminate the gaps altogether by making the entire grate line stationary. This is precisely the reason for the subsequent popularity of third generation cooler introduced during the late 1990's. Such “cross-bar type” of coolers make sophisticated “gap management” techniques obsolete, Moreover, the possibility for a completely stationary grate line makes obsolete the following components: (a) Dead grates, (6) Gap management systems, and (c) Spillage conveyors. This is because clinker fall-through is completely eliminated. (c) External Spillage Conveyor & Spillage Valves Early on in the development of first generation grate coolers, it was found that proper distribution of cooling air into the respective undergrate chambers ‘was a predominant factor in determining the thermal efficiency of the cooler. For this reason, Fuller Company/F.L.Smidth led the industry in its recommendations for small, controllable undergrate chambers. However, it be ineffective if the air were allowed to escape with the removal of undergrate was recognized that proper distribution of this cooling air would clinker spillage. Thus, modemn coolers are equipped with an airtight floor andAsocem August 2006 ism TH INSTITUTE pneumatically operated, double tipping valves for removal of spillage without the loss of cooling air as seen in FIGURE 14. Coolers equipped with an internal, open drag chain have sleeve seals between compartments, but it was Fuller's experience that these seals were not effective at the higher undergrate static pressures demanded by the industry for improved efficiency and deeper clinker bed depths. For this reason, the use of external spillage conveyors and double tipping valves became a staple of moder cooler design. 1) Maintenance Benefit - This method provides low maintenance, pneumatically operated tipping valves. 2) Process Benefit - High pressure, deep bed operation results from eliminating the spillage/product conveyor as a potential source of lost cooling air. (Reduced Fall Through Grates Reduced fall through grate plates were first employed by Fuller Company/F.L Smidth in 1990 as an altemative to the conventional grate plate with holes. The grates were designed to reduce spillage into the undergrate area by means of labyrinth-type slots as seen in FIGURE 15. In this regard, their design is similar to modem air beam grate plates, which feature labyrinth-type slots to prevent the possibility of clinker falling into the air beam. These slots promote the uniform distribution of cooling air into the clinker bed. In fact, many operators report that higher levels of aeration can be accommodated without fluidization of the clinker layer as compared with conventional grate plates with holes, Reduced fall through grates are designed to be mounted on conventional grate plate supports with open bottoms. Thus, the air enters RFT-type grate plates conventionally, that is, 325Asocen August 2006 326 miptTH INSTITUTE by means of a pressurized undergrate chamber. 1) Maintenance Benefit - Less clinker fall-through minimizes damage to undergrate components and spillage conveying system. 2) Process Benefit - Less spillage allows more clinker to remain available for cooling/recuperation. (2) Hydraulic Grate Drives Since the mid-1980s, equipment suppliers have provided hydraulic grate drives for grate coolers. Suppliers such as F.L.Smidth have since installed them on nearly all new coolers. The development of the hydraulic drive system advanced over time to offer more flexibility, reliability and greater ease of maintenance than mech cal types. Force and motion are imparted to cach grate section by hydraulic eylinder(s) attached to the cross-head shaft. Sized to overcome expected loads at normal - and maximum - system pressures, the system is designed to provide a full stroke length, regardless of speed as seen in FIGURE 16 1) Maintenance Benefit - Require less maintenance than mechanical types. 2) Process Benefit - Offer greater ease to move cooler out from under a load condition, thereby offering the potential for increased availability Froma technical standpoint, hydraulic drives offer the following advantages over electromechanical designs: 1) Possible to vary the speed as conditions require. 2) Possible to vary the operating pressure as conditions require.Asocem August 2006 fism DTH INSTITUTE 3) Hydraulics are much better in jam conditions because they provide less shock on the mechanical components. 4) Opportunity to run at ignificantly different speeds and pressures, because of the flexibility one gets with using hydraulics. 5) It is much less likely to stall or overload the electric motor with hydraulics, because hydraulics have a relief valve for overload protection. @ — Clinker Crushers Clinker Crushers are employed to reduce clinker lumps to typically less than 25 mm, This is done either by means of a conventional clinker breaker as seen in FIGURE 17 at the discharge of the cooler or by means of a modern roll crusher as seen in FIGURE 18 at cither a mid-cooler or end-cooler position, Though roller breakers are sometimes used to replace conventional clinker breakers, they were primarily designed to create more uniform size reduction for better cooling obtained by mounting between the drives of the cooler. The roll breaker provides distinct advantages over the conventional hammer mill type: It runs slower, creates less dust, and receives less wear. 1) Maintenance Benefit - Causes less wear than conventional hammer breaker due to lower speeds. 2) Process Benefit - Improved cooling results from increased surface area, The rollers consist of transport and crushing rolls. The number of rolls is determined by the capacity of the unit. The transport rolls turn at 327Asocem August 2006 328 fism Tod INSTITUTE approximately 2 rpm; crushing rolls at about 4 rpm. By comparison, the operating speed of a conventional hammer mill is about 350 rpm. Normally roll breakers are hydraulically driven and the rolls automatically reverse if material jams in the rolls. A unique feature of F.L.Smidth’s HRB (heavy- duty roll breaker) is the ability to reposition the first crushing roll to compensate for wear and thereby maintain clinker product size. This so- called “exclusive cavity feature” also enables the efficient size reduction of very large (e.g 1m diameter) clinker balls () — Three-Component Control System The grate cooler is based on cross surrent cooling air. It therefore needs more air for cooling than can be used in the precalciner kiln, anid the excess air must be removed and dedusted. ‘The amount of air needed depends very much on the type of grate cooler (air- beam or conventional) but varies also according to the clinker grading and to the clinker temperature required. [tis costly to cool to low temperatures, but often this is a requirement for cement grinding operations. Efficient sealing between the compartments permits operation with relative high and different pressures in the various compartments. With a normal clinker bed of 750 mm (30") the pressure drop at a constant air flow per m? of grate area will decrease from about 750 mm WG (30") in the hot end to about 250 mm WG (10") in the cold end. The fans are sized accordingly, so s from 810 to 300 mm WG (32" to 12"). For trouble-free operation it is an advantage to use a larger air flow in the hot end, up to 150 kg/min/m? (400 SCFM//ft"), and le minimum 60 kg/min./m’ (165 SCFM/f¢), that the maximum pressure decreas in the cold part,Asocem August 2006 fism DTH INSTITUTE The width of the grate is typically reduced at the inlet in order to spread the clinker more evenly. Having a high air flow and a thick layer of clinker, itis, possible to get an imperfect, but acceptable, uniform clinker bed and a usable air flow over the width of the grate. This is essential not only to avoid local overheating of the grate in the fine side of the clinker but also to avoid “snow-men”, as the clinker is kept moving throughout the whole grate until the surface solidifies. ‘The speed of the grate can normally be varied between 4 and 25 strokes/min. ‘Normal operation is typically 10-12 strokes/min. Efficient cooler operation requires automatic control. A simple and reliable system involves three main functions as described below and depicted on FIGURE 194, FIGURE 19B and FIGURE 19C. 1. Constant air flow to each under-grate compartment (using piezometer ‘or some other air-flow device). 2. Constant under-pressure in kiln hood (using pressure indicators spaced around the circumference of the kiln). 3. Regulation of grate speed for constant bed thickness (using the pressure under the first or second under-grate compartment as a measure of bed depth). Note: The second and third grate sections are usually “slaved” in proportion to the first one. If the clinker happens to become very coarse, the undergrate pressure may not correspond to the bed depth, and in such cases the pressure control may be overruled by the power consumption of the grate. 329Asocem August 2006 330 Gismiotn INSTITUTE Such a simple system functions without problems, and in automated plants it can be supplemented with automatic control of the clinker temperature or constant air flow to the grate for a given capacity. () Air Beam Technology In a conventional grate cooler, air distribution and, therefore, cooling efficiency, is largely determined by the mechanical condition of the cooler. A significant improvement in grate cooler eff iency was gained in the late 1980s with IKN’s introduction of air beams atthe inlet to the cooler, During the early 1990’s, all major equipment suppliers developed air-beam systems and such systems largely replaced conventionally aerated grate coolers. In essence, air beam systems prevented the possibility that cooling air could bypass the clinker layer. In this way, air beam technology worked by improving the air distribution below the grate by connecting individual rows of the cooler directly to the air supply, rather than by blowing air into the undergrate chamber in the conventional manner as seen in FIGURE 20. In such systems, the grate plate supports were used to duct the cooling air directly to the grate plates and into the clinker bed. Depending upon the equipment supplier, the air beam was further subdivided across the width of the cooler such that only a few individual grate plates received air from a separate, controllable source. Preference was given to the extension of air beams throughout the entire recuperation zone of the cooler. For this reason, most equipment suppliers developed air beam systems for use on both the stationary and movable rows of the cooler. However, in many markets, simplicity (rather than efficiency) was the key and, therefore, Hybrid Designs (which incorporate air beams only on the stationary rows) were developed as. shown in FIGURE 21Asocem August 2006 fs DTH INSTITUTE 1) Maintenance Benefit - Air beam technology improves cooling of grate plates and supports. 2) Process Benefit - This method improves cooling air distribution below grate, minimizing the effect of the cooler’s mechanical undergrate condition on thermal efficiency. Favorable results were demonstrated in a number of coolers that were converted from conventionally aerated grates to air-beam systems. Results were shown to be dependent upon how many of the existing rows were converted to air beam technology as depicted in FIGURE 22 (Table of Results). Savings in fuel consumption resulted in a reduction of kiln and preheater exit gas, both in terms of mass flow and temperature, In most instances, this reduction was used to inerease clinker capacity. (i) Blevated Resistance Grate Plates ‘A well known phenomena in the traditional grate cooler is the “red river”, which is a narrow stream of the clinker, which continues far down in the cooler at a temperature, which far exceeds that of the neighboring clinker. It is often red hot (hence the name) long after the other clinker has turned dark, and it has been seen, that such “red rivers” can reach the clinker crusher. This is due to the difference in resistance to the air flow across a transverse section of the cooler. The fine clinker offers a much lower resistance to the air flow, than does the coarse clinker and the air, of course, takes the easiest path. The clinker segregates out of the kiln, with the fine clinker on the kiln load side and the coarse clinker on the other. Furthermore the air is not confined to the holes in the grate plates, but can also pass between the gaps between the grate plates. Investigations have shown that as much of 60% of, the cooling air may pass in the gaps between grate plates, thus decreasing the 331Asocem August 2006 332 MITA INSTITUTE quality of the air distribution, Since itis easier to blow air through the coarse clinker layer, an excess of air must be applied to the component as a whole to ensure that enough air is applied at the fine side. FIGURE 234, FIGURE 23B, FIGURE 23C, FIGURE 23D and FIGURE 23E show how this phenomenon effects the air distribution in traditional coolers and how it can be avoided in a modem grate cooler. ‘The distribution of air in the clinker bed is best described by watching the pressure drop through a cold layer of clinker. This can be described by Ergun's equation as follows: FteMe 43.758 12s [a a 2D, Lm Where: AP = Pressure Drop Through Clinker Bed H_ = Thickness of Clinker Bed y= Clinker Bed Void 0, = Air Viscosity Vo = Air Velocity Dyn = Average Particle Diameter In FIGURE 24 the pressure drops of various clinker sizes are shown as a function of the free air velocity. The dramatic influence of particle size on air distribution is clearly seenAsocem August 2006 ism DTH INSTITUTE Let us look at an example where the "fine" side mainly consists of 2 mm clinker and the "coarse" side of 5 mm clinker. Here the relationship between air isblown velocities will be 1/5, meaning that only approx. 17% ofthe cooling, up through the “fine” side and the rest in the "coarse" side. In cases where the kiln is producing very dusty clinker, red river will usually be an almost inevitable consequence. Air beam systems ensured that virtually all of the cooling air was directed into all areas of the clinker bed (where some air may have otherwise bypassed the clinker layer altogether). However, the air distribution above the grate line was largely influenced by differences in granulometry within the clinker layer, itself, To ensure a more uniform air distribution above the grate line, suppliers developed increased flow resistance grate plates for use with their air beam systems. These grate plates must have anti-sifting features so that clinker dust cannot fall through the plates and into the air beams (even if the air supply is interrupted). The increased flow resistance gives high-pressure losses shown in FIGURE 25. The higher-pressure losses "normalize" the effects of unequal airflow velocities through the clinker caused by different regions of resistance within the clinker bed. This results in an even-velocity profile in all areas of the clinker bed and a low-mean velocity value. This lower-mean velocity through the clinker layer tends to reduce the quantity of dust recirculation between the kiln and cooler, thereby improving the cooler’s recuperation efficiency as depicted in comparative Figure 23A, Figure 23B, Figure 23C, Figure 23D and Figure 23E. 333,Asocem August 2006 334, Gsm INSTITUTE Over the years many different systems were developed, but common forall the systems and the “secret” behind any type any of the second generation grate coolers was the “built in” resistance in the grate plate which is approximately 25 mbar at an air quantity of approximately 110 kg air/m?/min, By having this initial resistance, the air supply will “even out” to the individual plates within an aeration field. 1) Maintenance Benefit possible. 2) Process Benefit - improved cooling air distribution above the grate minimizes the eff Lower thermal loading of grate plates is cof. inker granulometry on thermal efficiency. Each of the second generation equipment suppliers had proprietary grate plate designs. Typically, second generation grate plates had narrow air stream apertures designed to create flat air jets and high-pressure losses as shown in FIGURE 26. However, the physical differences between these grate plates was less important tha the fact that it was the grate's air-flow resistance that gave the desired heat exchange. As long as flow was uniform, over the entire grate surface, then the distribution of cooling air through the clinker layer was also uniform, provided the bed is not too deep. A satisfactory level of grate resistance is on the same order of magnitude as the bed resistance and a satisfactory air distribution is one that allows high aeration rates withow! fluidization of the clinker bed. The basic philosophy behind all of the second generation grate systems was to provide a more uniform distribution of air through the clinker bed in a way such that the heat transfer was maximized. It is a scientific fact that the cooling air always seeks the path of least resistance. With this in mind, all ofAsocem August 2006 Gismiotn INSTITUTE the major equipment suppliers devised schemes to gain more control over the air distribution. While Air Beam Technology works by improving the cooling, air distribution below the grate line, Elevated Resistance Grate Piates work by improving the air distribution above the grate. @ Stationary Inlet Section By the end of the 1990's, stationary inlet sections had become a universal feature of all new grate coolers. Fixed inlet designs deliver a higher degree of utilization and minimize overall maintenance costs. For this reason, second generation cooler designs (and also third generation designs) employ some type of stationary inlet section offering a rigid support against the impact of chunks. This largely eliminates wear due to the absence of any movable parts. Equipment suppliers have all adopted the use of a stationary inlet, sloped section of 3 to 8 rows of air beams inclined at about 15 degrees as shown in FIGURE 27. Individual designs vary from one supplier to another, but these design features are less important than the reasons for the derived benefits: (1) maintenance savings result from the absence of any moving parts and (2) fuel savings result from the use of air beam technology. 1) Maintenance Benefit - Having no moving parts ensures extended grate plate life for many years; rugged stationary designs protect grate plates from falling clinker/coating, 2) Process Benefit - May provide lower efficiency than alternating movable and stationary air beams for operational reasons; however, little is gained in relation to maintenance savings gained through the absence of any moving parts. 335,Asocem August 2006 336 Gism DTH INSTITUTE Preferred Inlet Systems allowed the operator to control the amount of air to cach side of the cooler and to each row of the static section, Preference was given for a 5 to 9 row stationary inlet module. In the subsequent stationary and movable grate section, a grate slope of 2-4 degrees was preferred to minimize grate speed and grate wear. Again, preference was given to the extension of air beams throughout the entire recuperation zone of the cooler. Process Considerations ‘The above section has identified the mechanical design features present in first and second generation grate coolers and has described the maintenance and process benefits of each, In the sections that follow, the impact of these mechanical components on process design will be considered. Handling and dedusting of the excess air is the main disadvantage of the grate cooler and is also de ve for a comparison between the investment costs of different cooler types. The excess air varies with regard to quantity, temperature and dust content, and the system for its handling, of course, has to be designed for the worst condition. F.L.Smidth typically uses design figures corresponding to 2.8 kg excess ait/kg clinker (2.8 Ib/b clinker) and 400°C (700°F) for conventional coolers and about 1.9 kg/kg clinker for air-beam grate coolers. The preferred method of handling the excess air is by means of an air-to-air heat exchanger and bagfilter. Air cleaning with multi-cyclones is not acceptable in a modern plant.Asocem August 2006 ism DTH INSTITUTE Another option is to use electrostatic precipitators for excess air. They have proven reliable and efficient with low operating costs. To reduce the size of the precipitator, a small quantity of atomized water can be injected through nozzles in the cooler ceiling/exhaust gas duct during upset conditions. However, a study of investment costs between precipitators and bag filters demonstrates the cost effectiveness of bag filters over precipitators for ‘emission requirements of less than 50 mg/Nm’ (dry basis). This is because the size of the precipitator increases exponentially with decreasing emissions levels whereas the size of the fabrie filter remains constant. For this reason, bag filters combined with air-to-air heat exchangers are preferred in many parts of the world, where demands for very low emission rates are required. The decisive factors for the choice between these solutions are operating costs and reliability, especially the ability to cope with upset conditions. The advantage of the grate cooler is that itis independent of the kiln and very flexible with regard to production. Also a low clinker temperature can be obtained, 65°C (150°F). An important consideration is the high power consumption of the grate cooler, for conventional type cooler 5-7 kWhit (4.5-6.3 kWh/shT), exclusive of power for dedusting. Depending on the cost relation between fuel and power, I kWhvt will often correspond to the cost of 7 keal/kg clinker (0.025 MBTU/shT). 337ism OTH INSTITUTE 3. Efficiency, Recuperation and Cooler Heat Losses When you wish to specify a new cooler or evaluate how well your existing cooler is performing with respect to heat recuperation and cooling of the clinker, itis convenient to be able to do that by means of some characteristic key figures. Often, terms like cooler efficiency, heat recuperation or cooler loss are used. It is necessary to define exactly what we understand by those terms and how we calculate them, The grate cooler heat losses consist of (1) radiation loss, (2) heat contained in the hot excess air and (3) sensible heat in the clinker leaving the cooler as shown in FIGURE 28. A typical heat loss for a conventional grate cooler would be: TYPICAL COOLER LOSS-CONVENTIONAL GRATE COOLER 20°C ref. temp. (68°F) Keallkg MBuwishT Radiation 5 0.018 Excess Air, 2 kg/kg cl. @ 246°C (475°F) 19 0.428 ‘Clinker, 85°C (i 85°F) a 0.043 Sum 136 KCALIKG | _ 0.489 MBtwishT In cases where low-temperature heat can be utilized for drying of raw materials or coal, up to 50 keal/kg clinker (0.180 MBTU/shT) of the waste heat can be recuperated and then, of course, the thermal efficiency becomes very favorable. Asocem August 2006 338Asocen August 2006 fism TH INSTITUTE ‘The heat recuperation is also at times called cooler efficiency. It is necessary to know the temperature of the clinker coming from the kiln to calculate the % heat recuperation; this temperature is nearly impossible to measure. Arayo-tube gives incorrect values, because the clinker at the kiln outlet is often covered with a layer of dust coming from the cooler, and also the temperature at the surface can be different from that in the center of the clinker particles. It is also difficult to take out a representative sample of clinker into a bucket and to measure the temperature outside the kiln. What is important for the heat consumption in the kiln is the heat recuperation from the moment the clinker leaves the burning zone, The buming zone temperature is also difficult to measure, but often 1450°C is taken as a standard value For the same cooler working with the same type of clinker, the heat recuperation will depend on the amount of combustion air that goes from the cooler to the kiln, This amount again depends on the heat consumption, excess air for the combustion, the amount of primary air and the amount of false air through the kiln seals. FIGURE 29 shows the cooler loss and heat recuperation in relation to the amount of combustion air. ‘The different lines represent coolers with different recuperation abilities. As the grate cooler is not a cooler with a perfect counter-flow, there is an absolute maximum for the heat recuperation ability. The lines K = 1.00 represent such an ideal cooler with maximum recuperation ability. The curve K = 0.23 corresponds to a traditional cooler working well. 339Asocem August 2006 340 Giismiotn INSTITUTE ‘The following comments can be made on the amount of combustion air: A dry process kiln using 750 kcal/kg clinker will only need half as much combustion air as a wet process kiln using 1500 kcal/kg clinker. It is therefore obvious that the cooler loss will be much less for the wet process Kiln than for the dry process kiln, even when the amount and temperature of the clinker from the kiln, and of the cooling air blown into the cooler, is exacily the same in both cases The only difference is: (1) the amount and, (2) temperature of the excess air will be very much different; clinker temperature and surface loss of the cooler will be the same in the two cases. Figures for cooler losses are therefore without meaning if the amount of combustion air from the cooler to the kiln system is not known. The same, of course, applies to cooler efficiency or recuperation percent which is basically 100 minus the cooler Joss expressed as percent of the heat in the clinker leaving the kiln, Although it is possible to measure the amount of tertiary air on precalciner kilns by a Pitot tube or similar, there is no way to measure the amount of secondary air from cooler to kiln tube, It is therefore better to determine the amount of recuperated air by calculation, Lambda = 1.00. Usually the figure works out at about 1.41 - 1.42 kg air per 1000 kcal lower (net) heat value fired when the fuel is bituminous coal or fuel oil; for fuels with a high content of water the figure will typically be higher,Giismiota INSTITUTE ‘The combustion air actually used will (in addition to the stoichiometric air) also include the air excess, which can be calculated from the O2 - and CO> - content in the gas after the combustion process. .The formula is: “20.9 * 100-CO, -0, Lambda = 1.20 for instance means that there was 20% air excess where the gas analysis was made From the total combustion air Lcom = Lambda x Lmin it is necessary to subtract the various sources of false air, including primary air, which do not come from the clinker cooler. ‘The most complicated case is when there are two combustion processes in series, such as ILC precalciner kilns. Estimation of the secondary air requires a measurement of the Oz -and CO3 - percent in the kiln tube exit. From this the lambda value can be calculated and hence Leom. Not all of this air has come from the cooler. ‘The primary air, including transport air for coal meal (if any), must be measured and subtracted, Further, false air entering at the kiln outlet seal between kiln tube and kiln hood and through gaps in the kiln hood, must be subtracted. Agocem August 2006 341Asocem August 2006 342 MIDTH INSTITUTE If the probe sampling the gas after the kiln tube is not located inside the kiln tube, but rather in the riser duct, false air entering through the kiln back end seal must also be subtracted, The tertiary air can be determined in a similar way. Lmin for the total amount of fuel burned in kiln and caleiner is calculated. Oy and COz after the calciner are measured, and the lambda is calculated. The total amount of combustion air is calculated From this must now be subtracted secondary air from cooler to kiln, primary air to kiln burner, false air at kiln hood/outlet seal, false air through back end seal, primary air/transport air calciner, false air in calciner and false air in tertiary air dust trap. If O2 and CO2 analysis are not made immediately after the calciner but after the top cyclone, false air in the cyclone preheater including air from pneumatic kiln feed transport (if any) must also be deducted. Cooler losses are usually measured and calculated according to rules laid down by the German Cement Makers Association VDZ, which use ambient temperature as the reference. When calculating the recuperation efficiency, VDZ assumes a clinker temperature of 1450 °C and nil dust circulation between kiln and cooler. The latter can have a huge influence on the actual cooler loss. VDZ further does not take into consideration that practically all mechanical energy put into the cooling fans has been converted into heat when the air leaves the surface of the clinker bed with 2éro pressure and velocity. The latter can be eliminated if the temperature of the cooling air is measured on the pressure side of the fans.Asocem August 2006 Eism TH INSTITUTE FIGURE 30A and FIGURE 30B give the definitions for Cooler Loss including Total Cooler Loss (reference temperature 0°C), VDZ Cooler Loss (reference temperature = cooling air temperature), and Standard Cooler Loss (normalized combustion air requirement). F.L.Smidth has introduced the concept standard cooler loss, which means the VDZ, cooler loss at 2 total recuperated amount of cooling air of 1.155 kg/kg clinker. Similarly, the standard efficiency must refer also to 1.155 kg/kg clinker of recuperated air. FIGURE 31 shows how the cooler loss and process heat recuperation vary as a function of the amount of recuperated air; The more recuperated air, the lower the cooler loss and the higher the recuperation efficiency. Impact of Second Generation Grate Coolers (Air-Beam & Elevated Resistance Grate Plate Designs) A significant development in the efficiency of grate coolers was made in the early 1990's with the introduction of (1) Air-Beam technology and (2) Elevated Resistance Grate Plates. The amount of air for air-beam coolers generally lies between 2.3 and 2.6 kg g clinker (2.3-2.6 Ib air/Ib) but in order to cope with forced conditions and fluctuations, we normally install a fan capacity corresponding to approx. 2.8 kg air/kg clinker (2.8 Ib air/lb). In comparison, the conventional type grate coolers were designed for 3.5 to 3.8 kg ait/kg clinker (3.5 to 3.8 Ib air/Ib). 343,Asocem August 2006 344, fism TH INSTITUTE The specific load of new type grate coolers expressed in vd per m? is normally 45-50 MTPD/m* compared to 38-42 MTPD/m? for conventional grate coolers. This higher grate load is mainly possibly due to a much better heat recuperation in the air-beam type grate coolers which allow for a lower retention time and partly the result of the tendency to work with a thicker clinker bed. Air-beam coolers and modem grate plate designs were developed in response to traditional deficiencies of the conventional grate cooler (such as the air taking the path of least resistance) whose correction would contribute to better grate lifetime and better heat recuperation. It is clear that the area on which attention should be focused is in the first section of the cooler (heat recuperation zone). If more heat can be recovered from the clinker and utilized in the process, we can save energy and obtain a more stable kiln and cooler operation. Many different second generation grate systems were developed, but common among all was a “built-in” resistance across the grate plate which is. approximately 250 mmWG (10 inWG) at an air quantity of approximately 110 kg air/m?/min (300 SCFM/f”). To have full control over the flow/speed of the clinker layer, to avoid “ted rivers” as shown in FIGURE 324, and to guard against “snowmen” formations as depicted in FIGURE 328, a preferred grate arrangement uses a horizontal grate lay out and a moveable first row. However due to maintenance reasons and the general lifetime of the impact zone, the use of five to eight stationary rows at a slope of approximately 15° became widely accepted. For this reason, most equipment suppliers such as F.L.SmidthAsocem August 2006 Gsm INSTITUTE today use an inclined impact section. To avoid material build up and “snowman” formation it is necessary to install air blasters for the stationary inlet section, depending on the clinker materials tendency to form “snowmen” and the cooler size as shown in FIGURE 32C. After the Stationary Inlet Section, second generation cooler designs typically employed a series of air-beam grates that covered the rest of the recuperation zone as shown in FIGURE 33. As shown, preference was often given to the use of grate sections inclined at 2° - 4° where every second and third grate row was stationary. Operational complexity is clearly minimized by maximizing the number of stationary rows compared to moveable rows After the air-beam section, Reduced Fall Through grates typically covered the rest of the drive sections as shown in FIGURE 34. If required, the air beam system can cover the entire cooler grate area, but due to increased operational complexity and cost, such an arrangement is uncommon. When air-beams are extended throughout the recuperation zone, the result is a more efficient grate cooler where the heat recuperation is greatly improved compared to coolers of conventional design. ‘The overall result of an air-beam cooler compared to a conventional cooler is: - 30 - 40 kcal/kg inker reduction in standard cooler loss. = Reduced size of Cooler, approx. 30% - 30-40% reduction in size of Cooler ventilation system. : Improved Kiln and Cooler operation. : Possibly lower maintenance cost, - Reduced tendency to “red river” formation. 345,Asocem August 2006 346 mMIDTH INSTITUTE Not only new coolers can be supplied with the air-beam systems. An existing, conventionally aerated grate cooler can be modified to include air- beam features. With the air-beam systems, the grate load may be increased (and together with an improved heat recuperation) the clinker production can be increased, Fora retrofit, normally only the first cooler grate is modified. The remainder of the grate(s) and cooling systems are left untouched. By retrofitting the complete first grate, maximum benefits will be delivered since this grate (in most cases) will cover the complete heat recuperation zone. However, the system can also be offered for less than the complete first grate, ie. installing a static inlet section only. In addition to the operating advantages, there are compelling economic considerations like heat savings of 30-85 keal/kg clinker, a yearly capacity increase typically in the neighborhood of 5% and a payback time of less than 1 year. Conversion of an existing cooler to a modem ai evident operational benefits, including: - heat savings of 30 - 85 kcal/kg clinker - reduced dust circulation - reduced air consumption During the Work Session on Clinker Coolers, you will have the opportunity to make an estimate of the heat savings resulting from a retrofit to the cooler’s first grate. You will find that the savings is proportional to theAsocem August 2006 (smiorn INSTITUTE amount of “air-beam’” air. In other words, the savings is proportional to the number of installed air-beam grates rows, but also to the mechanical condition of the cooler. As will be shown, when carrying out a retrofit, itis preferable to change the complete recuperation zone. With careful planning retrofits can be undertaken very efficiently (typically, the erection can be done in less than 3 weeks during a planned kiln stop). Second Generation Grate Cooler Summary & Commentary From the late 1980's until the late 1990's, the cement industry's cooler market had been dominated by air-beam technology and resistance grate plates. All major equipment suppliers offered some type of air-beam technology and high-pressure resistance grate plate designs. Unquestionably, these technologies made improvements over the conventional grate cooler, in particular, improvements were made to the air distribution below the grate, through the grate, and above the grate, As a result, the heat transfer between the air and clinker improved and substantial reductions in specific cooling air requirements were realized. Taken as a whole, continually improved design features made it possible to substantially improve the thermal efficiency of the grate cooler from 1990 to 2000. FIGURE 35 and FIGURE 36 present comparative heat balances of typical grate cooler performance resulting from design improvements during the 1990’s. As shown, it was made possible to reduce the cooler’s heat losses from 160-130 kcal/kg to 125-100 kcal/kg or even less. These heat loss savings were the result of a reduction in the specific cooling air requirement from 3.1 kg aithkg clinker to 2.5 kg air/kg clinker during this time, This reduction in cooling air input resulted in a corresponding reduction in the cooler's excess air requirements from 2.0 kg air/kg clinker to 1.4 kg air/kg 347,Asocem August 2006 348 minor INSTITUTE clinker, thereby decreasing the capital costs of cooler vent systems However, the grate cooler of the mid 1990’s still represented a compromise between efficiency and reliability. In many respects, potential process benefits had taken a back seat to maintenance benefits, or more aptly, availability. This was because mechanical simplicity is favored over process complexity. That is, despite dramatic improvements, the air-beam grate coolers of the mid 1990’s were still plagued by relatively high maintenance costs and operational complexities associated with these equipment innovations. Disadvantages included: = The valves, pipes, dampers and connectors for the ait-beams required operator adjustment. Furthermore, these components precluded access to the under-grate chamber. * Since the cooling and conveying mechanisms were integrated, air-beam coolers suffered from deteriorating cooling performance as, the grate plates (located in the moving sections) began to wear. * The requirement to supplement “air-beam” air with "sealing" air (ie. air introduced in the conventional manner) was one of the primary disadvantages of the high-pressure resistance grate plate designs. * The continued possibility for clinker fall-through with any moveable grate system and the resultant need for an under-grate spillage conveying system constituted a further disadvantage. For these reasons, in 1996, engineers at F.L.Smidth set out to develop a cooler that was superior to the second generation grate coolers (i.e. the most efficient of beam coolers). The goal was to develop a cooler having maximum availability by focusing on a design which was simpler to operate and simpler to maintain than either the conventional grate cooler or theAsocem, August 2006 SUsmiore INSTITUTE air-beam technologies. Many ideas were proposed and discussed. The requirement was to separate the cooling mechanism from the conveying ‘mechanism so that there would be absolutely no deterioration of cooling efficiency over time, inefficient sealing air would not be required, clinker fall-through would be eliminated, and the need for under-grate sealing and transport systems could be avoided, Third Generation Coolers The clinker cooler critical component in the cement manufacturing process and has been an area of great innovation over the years because it represents the greatest potential for further improving the heat consumption of today’s modem kiln systems. In 1997, arguably the most revolutionary development witnessed by the cement industry in the last fifteen years took place when the first 3" generation clinker coolers were put into operation. These 3° generation coolers were characterized by the following innovative features: stationary grate line, separation of the conveying and cooling mechanisms, modular design, and active airflow control to every grate. ‘These breakthrough technologies have subsequently led to the current clinker cooler innovations that are sweeping the industry. The 3° generation designs provide high reliability, low maintenance costs, and excellent process efficiency. In some cases, the 3” generation technologies have become more affordable because they can be retrofitted into any cooler, resulting in significantly lower installation costs. F.L-Smidth was the first supplier to implement a 3" generation cooler technology (in g 1997) which was characterized by the following innovations: . Stationary Grate Line for the Entire Cooler (FIGURE 37) * Separation of Conveying and Cooling Functions (FIGURE 38) * Flow Regulation to Every Grate Plate (FIGURE 39) 349Asocem August 2006 350 sm DTH INSTITUTE . Modular Design (FIGURE 40) The key benefits of these technologies can be summarized as follows: . Significantly Improved Reliability + Reduced Maintenance Costs * Predictable Maintenance © Commonality of Spare Parts © High and Constant Thermal Efficiency Over Time © Quick and Easy Installations * Workshop Quality Due to the separation of cooling and conveying functions, the technology became a win-win solution for both the plant process engincer and maintenance manager. Modular design reduced installation times and the ‘split-drive’ configuration (e.g. by h availability, With the 3° generation designs, down-time caused by the clinker cooler modules or “tracks” or “lanes”) enabled both flexible operation and extremely gencrally became a thing of the past. With F.L.Smidth’s successful implementation of these new technologies, competitors began to develop new designs over recent years. These new designs largely draw upon the success of the original, innovative features first developed in 1997, generically known as the “cross-bar cooler” FIGURE 41 as presented below. 1. Fundamental Design Features of Third Generation Grate Coolers (a) — Modular DesignAsocem August 2006 smo INSTITUTE The entire cooler is constructed in modular form. A typical module is four (4) plates wide and fourteen (14) plates long (1.3 m wide and 4.2 m long) as depicted in FIGURE 40. A single module could be a whole cooler or several modules could be assembled to form a larger cooler. The modules are set side-by-side and end- to-end The modules consist of an under-grate chamber with a grate-line at the top. The air distribution plates are supported on a stationary tray system. The grate line is completely sta jonary so there is no deterioration of cooling efficiency over time The "modular design" is demonstrated in that each module can be pre- assembled prior to installation, including its refractory. The modules are simply set side-by-side and end-to-end. As a result, existing grate coolers can be completely replaced with a new “cross-bar” cooler in as little as 3 t0 4 weeks. Also, because all modules are duplicates of one another, itis possible to significantly shorten delivery times. (0) Fixed Grate-Line for Air Distribution Just as for a conventional grate cooler, the grate-line sits atop a under grate compartment as shown in FIGURE 42. However, because the sealed grate- line is completely stationary, the grate plates can be locked together for ‘maximum process efficiency. The sealing system of the grate-line is so effective that no devices are provided for removal of spillage from the under-grate chamber. The bottom, 351Asocen August 2006 352 fism DTH NSTITUTE of the under-grate chamber has a steel floor without any openings. No spillage removal valves are provided and no spillage conveyor is installed under any of the cross-bar coolers. This means less items for maintenance. It also means lower head room requirements. For new kiln line installations, the lower head room requirements may yield a savings of 2 ~ 4 meters in height for the entire preheater tower and kiln which significantly contributes to lower civil costs. For existing installations, it enables the cross-bar cooler to replace exis ing coolers with low headroom (i.e. coolers with internal drag conveyors or disc gate spillage removal systems). Unlike second generation air-beam coole s, No sealing air is required because both the grate-line and the under-grate chamber are effectively locked. By climinating the need for inefficient cooling air and by climinating the possibility for under-grate spillage, significant gains in thermal efficiency are obtained, () Separate Clinker Conveying System As originally introduced, there were two types of cross bars: stationary and movable. The stationary and movable cross bars alternated the same as stationary and movable grate rows altemate in conventional coolers as shown in FIGURE 43. The movable cross bars are driven by a drive plate. The drive plate is attached to a movable frame.Asocen August 2006 ismorn INSTITUTE Unlike the movable frame used in a conventional grate cooler, the frame does not support any grate plates or their support beams. Quite simply, there are no movable grate plate supports. As a result, a much more simple design of movable frame is employed. This allows a simple system of linear bearings to be used. ‘The cross bars are attached to the drive plate by a retainer bracket that attaches to ears extending from the drive plate. The retainer bracket and cross bars are locked by wedges driven in by hammer. Replacement of the cross bar is simply made by knocking the wedges out with a hammer and removing the retainer bracket. Spillage is prevented from entering the plenum chamber by a series of sealing profiles. The sealing profiles combine to form a labyrinth type seal that prevents undergrate spillage. Since the grate plates do not move, it is possible to make a very effective seal between the stationary air distribution system and the moving drive plate. Each module has a hydraulic cylinder located in the under-grate chamber that imparts a reciprocating motion to the movable frame that is parallel to the grate-line. When modules are installed end-to-end, the movable frames of each module are connected in such a way that they move in unison. Modules installed side-by-side do not have their movable frames connected. In other words, a module positioned alongside of another module may be stroking rearward while the other module is stroking forward. In addition, their speeds could be different. 353Asocem August 2006 354 Gismorn INSTITUTE (4) Air Distribution Plates with Mechanical Flow Regulators ‘The heart of the “cross-bar” cooler is its unique and patented air distribution system, Each air distribution plate consists of a stainless steel top section that looks similar to a pocket-style Controlled Flow Grate (CFG) plate On the bottom of each individual plate is a rectangular tower containing a weighted Mechanical Flow Regulator (MFR). Depending upon the pressure fe the tower, the regulator opens or closes. Because the pressure inside the tower is an exact measure of the resistance of the material layer above it, the regulator opens to compensate for an increase in the "measured" resistance or closes to compensate for a decrease in the "measured" resistance. The MFR, thus, controls the amount of cooling air that flows from the under-grate chamber into each individual air distribution plate as seen in FIGURE 444. The regulators are specially designed to maintain a constant air flow through the air plate and the clinker layer, irrespective of the clinker bed height, particle size distribution, temperature, etc. In his way, every air plate in the cooler is provided with the quantity of cooling air that it needs, The MER consists of'a special orifice plate which hangs from the tower. The hanging plate acts as a variable orifice that moves relative to the difference in pressure on cither side of the plate. The regulator, therefore, only introduces a pressure drop through it self in the event that the resistance of the clinker layer is below normal,Asocem August 2006 Gismiorn INSTITUTE in contrast to second generation “air beam” grate plates which introduce a constant pressure loss for a given air volume. Normally, a pressure loss of at least 200 mm WG is required to normalize differences in the clinker layer in order to ensure uniform distribution of cooling air. With the self regulating mechanical flow device, it is possible to obtain constant air-flow through the clinker layer without paying for the required pressure loss of 200 mm WG. This, coupled with higher thermal efficiency, results in a power savings compared to modem air-beam coolers. Cooling air is supplied to the under-grate chamber of each module by fans equipped with piezometers. The mechanical flow regulators are so effective that the required number of fans is typically only determined by the number of modules set end-to-end. That is, modules set side-by-side have their undergrate chambers joined so that only one fan supplies air to both the right and left. For example, the a 3x5 “cross-bar” Cooler for 3600 tpd is equipped with a total of only 6 cooling fans even though it is a triple-wide modular cooler. It has one fan for the "Controlled Impact Module" plus one fan for cach of the five cross bar modules in length. The regulator used in each grate plate is designed for a specific air-flow rate as shown in FIGURE 4B. The regulator design is varied (along the cooler's length) to.compensate for changes in the resistance of the clinker layer as the clinker temperature decreases. For example, itis possible to employ a higher specific air-flow to the air plates at the inlet to the cooler simply by using one regulator design cover another. It is also possible to vary the regulator design across the width of the cooler. For example, "Zero Flow" regulators may be used along both sides of the cooler within the "Stationary Impact Module” as a means to compensate for non-uniform distribution of clinker across the cooler's width, 355,Asocem August 2006 356 Zz i Ismiot INSTITUTE Further Improvements/Developments of Third Generation Grate Coolers Today, the following 3 Generation Coolers are available: + “Smidth-Fuller Cross-Bar Cooler” by FLSmidth (FIGURE 454) * “Eta Cooler” by Claudius Peters (FIGURE 45B) + “Polytrack Cooler” by Polysius (FIGURE 450) * “Pyro Floor Cooler” by KHD (FIGURE 45D) In addition, a multi-moveable version of the original “cross-bar” cooler is now available called the “Multi-Movable” Design which provides all of the benefits previously afforded by “the cross-bar” cooler in addition to the following features: © Increased Transport Efficiency to Allow Horizontal Installation © Flexibility for Retrofit Situations © Fewer Wear Parts . Even Higher Reliability The increased transport efficiency is accomplished by “removing” the stationary bars from the original “cross-bar” design and revamping the moveable bars. The moveable bar transportation mechanism was modified as follows: . Alll drives move in unison in the forward flow direction (FIGURE 46A) . ‘The “first” drive retracts while the “second” drive acts as a “stationary” bar (FIGURE 46B)Asocen August 2006 fism TH INSTITUTE * The second drive retracts while the first drive acts as a “stationary” bar (FIGURE 460) * The mechanism is repeated (FIGURE 46D) ‘This subtle change in the drive mechanism has significantly increased the transport efficiency such that a horizontal grate line is possible for coolers equipped with the multi-moveable design. Additionally, the multi-movable technology was specifically designed with an eye for retrofits. As such, the known dimensions of traditional and air- beam style coolers have been targeted to design the various cassettes for the multi-moveable cooler. A multi-moveable cooler cassette is designated with the width based on grates and supporting beam and the length based on grates, The cassette configurations cover the following ranges: . Width: 6, 7,9 and 11 Grates * Length: 12 or 16 Grates To support partial retrofits of existing coolers, such as the recoup zone, a special outlet transition has been designed such that the multi-moveable technology mates to the existing grateline. In this way, the cement producer can stage the replacement of the entire cooler over a couple of years or they can simply limit the retrofit to the area that provides “the most bang for the buck” ( ~ recoup zone). With the enormous flexibility in width, length, and transition; a large number of existing coolers can be retrofitted inside the existing box with the multi- moveable technology. In addition to retrofitting existing coolers, complete 357Asocem August 2006 358 ism DTH INSTITUTE new cooler constructions can be installed with the multi-moveable technology. As with the original “cross-bar” cooler’s modular approach, the cassettes of the multi-moveable can be set side by side and end to end to make up the entire new or retrofit cooler. Through the utilization of 3D drawing programs and parametric design, the optimal configuration of cassettes can be utilized to tailor the multi-moveable cooler to any plant. It is anticipated the multi-moveable technology will be highly reliable, maintain a high level of thermal efficiency, and further reduce the maintenance costs of clinker coolers since the number of wear components has been reduced. With the increase in transport efficiency and the reduction, of wear parts, it is estimated that the wear components will now last up to three years before they will require changing. As such, it is estimated that the average annual parts price fora 10 year period will be further reduced 25 — 50% from the expected figures on the original “cross-bar™ cooler. The increased transport efficiency makes it practical to install the “Multi- Movable” design horizontally instead of on, for example, a 3 to 5 degree slope. By means of comparison, FIGURE 47 presents an elevation view for both an original “cross-bar” cooler and the new multi-movable design. Importantly, ‘bull nose’ velocities through the cooler throat are critical to the success of the cooler operation (¢.g, to minimize dust circulation), especially for this specific retrofit solution presented by FIGURE 47 in which the existing clinker cooler was of the reverse flow variety (i.e. ~ it went back underneath the kiln). As shown in FIGURE 47A, in the case of a sloped cooler, the space constraints to maintain proper velocities would have normally required digging a pit at the cooler discharge area which was not an attractive option for the cement producer as it would require extra time and a significant amount of additional money for the modernization. In contrast,Asocem August 2006 ism TH INSTITUTE the horizontal installation of the new multi-moveable cooler allowed the proper velocities within the system to be maintained while building the new cooler on the existing foundation. In this case, it was originally foreseen to reuse the existing cooler sideframes; however, due to the very poor condition of the sideframes and roof, it was decided to go for a completely new cooler. The multi-moveable cooler was built in a manufacturing shop, shop tested, and shipped to site in modular cassette form to maintain the workshop quality. Arriving early onsite, there was ample opportunity to conduct a certain level of preassembly prior to the major outage. During the outage, the old cooler was completely removed and the new multi-moveable cooler was lifted and slid into place on the existing cooler foundation. “The installation of the cooler was part ofan overall plant wide upgrade, Refer to FIGURE 48 for pictures from the preassembly, installation, and final assembly at the plant. Third Generation Grate Cooler Performance Third generation coolers have shown a Standard Cooler Loss corresponding to 80 to 95 kcal/kg, In comparison, air-beam grate coolers typically have a Standard Cooler Loss of 90 to 120 keal/kg. This means that the heat recovery is extremely high for the cross-bar type of clinker cooler. Improved thermal efficiency of the cross-bar cooler is made possible by the following design features: © Inefficient scaling air is not required. * Clinker fall-through is completely avoided. Ble)ism DTH INSTITUTE * The grate-line is completely stationary, so no gaps exist for possible short-circuiting of cooling air. The clinker conveying system and clinker cooling systems are completely independent therefore cooling efficiency docs not deteriorate over time. * The MFR system (a separate air flow regulator for each grate plate) is used throughout the entire cooler (not just the inlet section and not just the recuperation zone of the cooler). © The regulation’valves ensure that each plate in the cooler is provided with the quantity of cooling air that it needs regardless of process conditions. FIGURE 49 presents a typical cooler balance for a cross-bar type cooler. AS shown, significant improvements can be gained compared to “modem” air- beam coolers IV. COMPARISON OF FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD GENERATION COOLER PERFORMANCE FIGURE 50 presents comparative process efficiencies for each type of cooler: Asocem August 2006 360 * Conventional Grate Cooler (First Generation) * Hybrid (Air-Beam/Conventional Grate) Cooler © Ait-Beam Cooler (Second Generation) + Modern Grate Cooler (Third Generation)SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF CLINKER 99,5 -—T | 98 35 30 80 W% Passing Sctéen 70 60 50 “ao 30 20 mb oP LC 10 009° 0,5 1,0 5 10 50 Screen (mm) FIGURE 1 361362 Liquid Phase (%) IMPACT OF BURNING CONDITIONS ON CLINKER FORMATION Feo eo seo” eoo a9 zoe vad aos aes Nao Material Temperature (°C)Liquid Phase at 1450°C (%) FIGURE 2 A Silica Ratio, Ms 363PLANETARY COOLER WITH 4-STAGE PREHEATER FIGURE 3PLANETARY COOLER TUBE DESIGN FIGURE 4 365PLANETARY COOLER DESIGN OF INTERNALS ut [WT preset = fone Js r= i uf i FIGURE 5UNAX CLINKER COOLER FIGURE 6 367ROTARY KILN —1@ .., N f= = 2 5 — Fs Cam Lining Brick Lining Stee! Lining No Lining / a Th ] LOT x Iulia rcrmestentcr AU ell HPCE FELD Max: 6 APM sd al z aA co 0-0 E- OF? » ‘\ FIGURE 7 368First Generation AIR-QUENCHING RECIPROCATIN GRATE COOLER FIGURE 8 G 369GRATE COOLER ADVANTAGES e ABILITY TO HANDLE LARGE CAPACITIES ¢ CAPABLE OF ACHIEVING LOW CLINKER TEMPERATURES ¢ FAVORABLE HEAT RECUPERATION e PERMITS TAKE-OUT OF HOT TERTIARY AIR GREATEST POTENTIAL FOR DEVELOPMENT FIGURE 9 370Second Generation GRATE COOLER FIGURE 10 371POTENTIAL FOR DECREASING FUEL CONSUMPTION TYPICAL HEAT LOSSES (S-STAGE PREHEATER) Loss SAVINGS kcal/kg ci POTENTIAL Exit Gases, incl. Dust - 165 Moderate Radiation Losses: - Preheater j 26 Low - Kiln 35 Low Cooler Losses 130 High Heat of Reaction 400 None Water Vaporization 4 None Free Heat : -20 None NET Heat Consumption 740 FIGURE 11 372BRIDGING PLATES (DEAD GRATES) Dead Grate "Bridges Over" DsadGrate Blank Plate (No Holes: Moveable Row a on Stationary Rows Moving Row Stationary Row FIGURE 12AGRATE LINE CONFIGURATION Horizontal Cooler 1.00 kgika 100 “Cc 19 kcallkg TOTAL COOLER LOSS: 160 kcal/kg STANDARD COOLER LOSS: 130 kcal/kgTYPICAL Second Generation GRATE COOLER BALANCE AIR BEAM DESIGN Tertiary Air exces oe) 0.65 kg/kg soa, arene] 270°C 815°C el 5 135 kcallkg 3 : ht) ‘Secondary Air 2 : 0.45 kg/kg e ' 1220 °C . . 145 keallkg : : Kin Ext 5 1450 — Radiation 383 keallkg [™s 11 keallkg Cooling Air A Clinker 2.55 kg/kg = 1.00 kgikg 35°C a 100 °c 2tkcalkg eeecesas 19 kcallkg TOTAL COOLER LOSS: 125 kcal/kg STANDARD COOLER LOSS: 100 kcal/kg FIGURE 36 41412 FIGURE 37FIGURE 38 413rm Clinker A Non-unifo! A ita Lower f / Valve AP Valve /\P FIGURE 39 414FIGURE 40 415Third Generation (SF CROSS-BAR _)GRATE COOLER FIGURE 41 417Third Generation (SF CROSS-BAR™) GRATE COOLER FIGURE 42 419Third Generation (SF CROSS-BAR™) GRATE COOLER FIXED GRATE LINE FIGURE 43 421Third Generation (SF CROSS-BAR™') GRATE COOLER HIGHBED LOW BED RESISTANCE RESISTANCE LOWER HIGHER VALVE AP VALVE AP fy be’): CONSTANT AIR FLOW FIGURE 444 423AIR FLOW [kg/minim2] MECHANICAL FLOW REGULATOR CHARACTERISTICS 100 ~ 0 30 100 150 200 250. ~~~«300 "350 PRESSURE DROP ACROSS REGULATOR [mmWG] (Variation in Clinker Bed Resistance) FIGURE 44B 425FIGURE 45 C: FIGURE 45 D: Polysius - Polytrack-Cooler KHD’s - 3" Generation “Pyro Floor” Cooler 427FIGURE 46A FIGURE 46 B: Drives Move in Unison First Drive Retracts FIGURE 46 C: FIGURE 46 D: Second Drive Retracts Drives Move in Unison 429FIGURE 474 FIGURE 47B 431Final Assembly of Multi-Moveable Cooler FIGURE 48 433Generation GRATE COOLER BALANCE SF CROSS-BAR™ COOLER Tertiary Air Excess Air , 1.05 kaik 0.65 kgikg peel See 5 4 75 kcalkg 145 kcal/kg 8 3 Secondary Air 5 4 0.45 kg/kg 2 2 1260 °C a 7 10 kealikg : 3 5 Kiln Exit : 14500 | Radiation 383 kcal/kg [ “sw 41 kcallkg —— Cooling Air Clinker 2.15 kg/kg 1.00 kgikg 35°C 100 °C BikKcaWVkO, ee 19 kcalkg TOTAL COOLER LOSS: 105 kcalikg STANDARD COOLER LOSS: 85 kcal/kg FIGURE 49 435,OMPARISON OF First, Second, Third Generation GRATE DIFFERENT COOLER TYPES FIRST FIRST/SECOND | SECOND THIRD _ GENERATION | GENERATION | GENERATION | GENERATION eeCuuter | Hobrid Cooter | ACH" | Coe | Fuel (keal/kg clk) 745 722 710 692 Stage | Temp. °C) +20°C +12C PC =C Stage 1 Press. (mmWG) +8.0% 47% 42.7% a Operating Kiln 1.D. Fan (kW/mt) 6.03 3.97 3.78 349 [ Air for 80°C + Ambient (kg air/kg clk) 2.90 2.50 2.35 2.10 Standard Cooler Loss (kcal/kg clk) 130 110 ioe 85 Operating Vent Fan Volume (ar /hr) 7 245,000 201,000 182,000 151,000 Operating Cooler Vent Temp 286°C 305°C 298°C 321°C ‘Operating Cooler Vent Fan Power 1.22 kWimt 0.97 kW/mt oss kWwimt | 0.72 kWimt Clinker Cooling Fans Operating Power 4.80 kW/mt 4.77 kWimt 4.70 kWimt .28 KWint FIGURE 50 437