Advances in Carbonate Exploration and Reservoir Analysis

Advances in Carbonate
Exploration and Reservoir
Analysis
3-5 November 2010
The Petroleum Group would like to thank BP,
Carbonate Reservoirs, Chevron and the GDL
Foundation for their support of this event:

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Advances in Carbonate Exploration and Reservoir Analysis

CONTENTS PAGE
Conference Programme

Pages 3-12

Oral Presentation Abstracts

Pages 7-71

Poster Abstracts

Pages 72-78

Fire Information

Pages 79-80

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Advances in Carbonate Exploration and Reservoir Analysis

PROGRAMME
Thursday 4 November
8.00
8.45
9.00

9.25
9.50
10.10
10.30
10.50
11.10
11.30
11.55
12.15
12.35
12.55
13.15

Registration and Coffee

Welcome
Keynote Speaker: Trevor Burchette
Industry Perspectives on Carbonates
Session One: Carbonates of the Middle East
Keynote Speaker: Andrew Horbury
Geometries of Carbonate Depositional Systems their Relevance to Petroleum Systems
Distribution in Iraq
Alun Williams
Statoils Entry Into Iraq: Modelling the Mishrif Formation of West Qurna Phase 2
Gaynor Paton
The Use of 3D Seismic Analysis Techniques for Investigating Carbonate Features in Two
Offshore UAE Fields
Giulio Casini
Sub-Seismic Fractures in Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts: Insight from the Lurestan Province,
Zagros Mountains, Iran
Fadhil Sadooni
Impact of Growing Structures on Carbonate Facies Differentiation: An Example from the
Yamama Formation in West Qurna Field, Southern Iraq
Coffee and Poster Session
Session Two: Emerging Plays and Concepts
Keynote Speaker: Paul Wright
Microbial Carbonates in Non-Marine Basins: What Models Could We Use for South Atlantic
Microbialite Reservoirs?
Pete Burgess
Bump to Prospect: An Empirical Approach to the Recognition and Characterization of Isolated
Carbonate Buildups in Frontier Settings
Miroslaw Slowakiewicz
Microbial Deposits as Source Rocks for Hydrocarbons in the Polish Zechstein (Upper
Permian) Main Dolomite Carbonates, Western Poland
Peter Winefield
Dead & Shed A Reappraisal of Resedimented Carbonates as a Viable Carbonate
Exploration Play
Steve Jenkins
Modeling Pore Pressure Profiles in Carbonates
Lunch and Poster Session

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Advances in Carbonate Exploration and Reservoir Analysis

14.00
14.25
14.45

15.05
15.25
15.45
16.05

16.30
16.50

17.10
17.30
17.50
18.50
19.15
19.35
19.55

Session Three: Advances in Outcrop Studies

Keynote Speaker: Paul Harris
Integrating Outcrop Analogs, Modern Analogs, and Stratigraphic Models to Enhance
Subsurface Reservoir Models for Carbonate Ramps
Denis Palermo
Carbonate Shoal Bodies; Part 1: Outcrop Analog Study and 3-D Model (Triassic, Germany)
Giulio Casini
Integrated Fracture and Matrix Heterogeneity Reservoir Characterisation of the Mid
Cretaceous Aged Upper Sarvak Formation, Chenareh River Gorge, Iran: A Virtual Outcrop
Display
Raffaele Di Cuia
Geometric Characterisation of the Fracture and Karst Networks in a Cretaceous Platform
Carbonate Sequence of the Tethys Using the Ground Penetrating Radar
Leehee Laronne Ben-Itzhak
Upper Bound on Stylolite Roughness as Indicator for the Duration and Amount of Dissolution
Coffee and Poster Session
Session Four: Faults/Fractures, Karst and Interaction with Sequence Stratigraphy
Keynote Speaker: Charlie Kerans
Reservoir Compartmentalization and Distribution of Matrix and Super-Permeability Zones in
Paleokarst Reservoirs: What can be Predicted from Sequence Framework and Unconformity
Rank
Hans Machel
The Grosmont: A Complex Dolomitized and Karstified Heavy Oil Reservoir in Devonian
Carbonates, Alberta, Canada
Mickael Barbier
Sedimentary Control on the Diagenetic Imprint: Its Impact on the Fracturation Pattern and
Reservoir Properties: The Example of the Madison Formation (Sheep Mountain, Wyoming,
USA)
Zsofia Poros
Powderization of Triassic Dolostones in the Buda Hills, Hungary - An Unusual Type of
Karstification?
Carl Jacquemyn
(Paleo-)Karstreservoir Analogue Study (Murge Area, Southern Italy)
Wine Reception and Buffet
Session Five: Carbonate Reservoirs in Rift Settings
Keynote Speaker: Al Fraser
Exploration for Carbonate Reservoirs in Rift Settings
Ian Sharp
Mixed Carbonate-Clastic-Evaporite Depositional Systems in Extensional Basins. Insights from
the Suez Rift-Red Sea-Gulf of Aqaba
Cathy Hollis
Diagenetic Trends Associated with Syn- and Post-Rift Basin Evolution, Pennine Basin, UK
End of Day One

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Friday 5 November
8.00

Registration and Coffee

8.45

Welcome
Session Six: Impact on Reservoir Quality of Fracture Diagenesis and Burial Karst
Keynote Speaker: Susan Agar
Deformation Characteristics of Carbonate Reservoirs and Their Significance for Production:
Recent Advances & Applications
John Hooker
The Relationship Between Fracture Cement Patterns and Fracture-Set Size Distributions in
Carbonate Rocks
Dave Healy
Relative Influence of Depositional and Tectonic Fabrics on the Petrophysical Properties of
Carbonate Hosted Faults
Veerle Vandeginste
Fault-Related Dolomitization in Jebel Akhdar (Oman) and its Impact on Reservoir Quality
Alanna Juerges
Fracture Controlled Diagenesis in the Lower Carboniferous (Dinantian) of North Wales: A Case
Study for the Evaluation of Fracture-Controlled Diagenesis in Carbonate Reservoirs
Coffee and Poster Session

9.00
9.25
9.45
10.05
10.25
10.45

Session Seven: Hydrothermal Dolomitisation

11.05
11.25
11.45
12.05
12.25
12.45

Hairuo Quing
Formation of Hydrothermal vs Non-Hydrothermal Saddle Dolomites in Different Tectonic
Settings: Petrographic and Geochemical Constrains
Julie Dewit
Porosity and Permeability of Hydrothermal Dolomite (HTD) Bodies: Distribution and Controlling
Parameters (Ranero, Northern Spain)
Mikel Lopez-Horgue
Structurally Controlled Hydrothermal Dolomitisation in the Albian of the Ramales Carbonate
Platform (Biscay and Cantabria Provinces, Spain)
Paola Ronchi
Hydrothermal Dolomitization in Platform and Basin Carbonate Successions in Thrust Fold Belt:
A Hydrocarbon Reservoir Analogue (Mesozoic of Venetian Southern Alps, Italy)
Raffaele Di Cuia
Genesis and Evolution of Fault Related Dolomitisation in a Jurassic Carbonate Sequence:
Impact on 3D Geometries and Reservoir Properties.
Lunch and Poster Session

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Session Eight: Porosity Classification & Evolution

13.30
13.50
14.10
14.30
14.50

Patrick Corbett
The Third Porosity: Understanding the Role of Hidden Porosity in Well Test Interpretation in
Carbonates
Rachel Wood
Dynamics of Cementation in Response to Oil Charge: Evidence from a Cretaceous Carbonate
Field, U.A.E
Benoit Vincent
Acoustic Properties of Ancient Shallow-Marine Carbonates: Effects of Depositional
Environments and Diagenetic Processes (Middle Jurassic, Paris Basin, France)
Peter Gatt
Climatic Controls on Porosity in Subtropical Carbonate Platform Reservoirs
Coffee and Poster Session
Session Nine: Geomodelling Challenges in Carbonates

15.10
15.35
15.55
16.15
16.35

16.55
17.10

Keynote Speaker: Wolfgang Blendinger

Three-Dimensional Modelling of Carbonates: Two Examples from the Permian and the Triassic
Xavier Jansen
Geomodeling of Carbonate Mounds Using Two-Point and Multi-Point Statistics
Florent Lallier
Relevance of the Stochastic Sequence Stratigraphic Approach for the Study of Complex
Carbonate Settings: Application to the Malampaya
Andre Jung
Carbonate Shoal Bodies, Part 2: Re-Building the 3D Outcrop Analog Model Using Multipoint
Statistics
Chris Wilson
Use of Outcrop Observations, Geostatistical Analysis, and Flow Simulation to Investigate
Structural Controls on Secondary Hydrocarbon Migration in the Anacacho Limestone, Uvalde,
TX
Closing Comments
Conference Ends

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Day One
Moutaz Al-Dabbas
Sedimentological and Depositional Environment Studies of the Mauddud Formation, Central
and Southern Iraq
Basim Al-Qayim
Reservoir Characterizatuion of an Intra -Orogenic Platform Carbonates of the Pila SPI
Formation, Taq Taq Oil Field, Kurdistan, NE Iraq
Ian Sharp
Facies, Sequence Stratigraphic and Reservoir Framework for Albian-Turonian Carbonate
Depositional Systems of the Middle East, Iran
Alberto Riva
Active Intraplatform Depressions in Mesozoic Carbonate Platforms: Evidences and Impact on
Exploration and Production
Adam Styles
Exploring Shaikan: Early Evaluation of a Billion Barrel Supergiant Field in Kurdistan
Pete Burgess
Investigating Carbonate Platform Types: Multiple Controls and a Continuum of Geometries
Cedric John
Timing and Mechanism of Sea-Level Changes on the Marion Plateau (NE Australia):
Implications for Miocene Eustasy
Alex Sharples
A Paleogene Barrier Reef Offshore Southern Australia?
Paul Montgomery
An Integrated Approach to Developing a High Resolution Chronostratigraphy in Carbonate
Platforms
Ken Ratcliffe
Application of Whole Rock Inorganic Geochemistry to Stratigraphic Understanding of Mixed
Carbonate Evaporite Reservoirs, An Example from the First Eocene of the Wafra Field, PNZ
Claire Sena
Facies Control on Early Diagenesis: An Outcrop-Based Study of the Lower Cretaceous Jurf
and Qishn Formations, Haushi-Huqf Area, Oman
Sebastien Dirner
Heterogeneity of Holocene Coastal Facies: A Modern Production-Scale Analogue for an Arid
Monsoon Dominated Carbonate Ramp (Bar Al Hikman, Oman)
Xavier Jansen
An Ultra-Deep Paleokarst System in Ordovician, North-Central Tarim Basin, China: HighResolution 3D Seismic Interpretation
Moiss Calazans Muniz
Tectono-Stratigraphic Evolution of Pre-Salt Carbonates, Aptian-Barremian of the Campos
Basin, Brazil

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Day Two
Janine Lahr
Fracture-Related Diagenesis in the Carbonate Carapace of a Salt Dome, Jebel Madar, Oman
Juan Carlos Laya
Bedding, Facies and Fractures in Zechstein (Permian) Carbonates, NE England: Reservoir
Implications
Zvi Kul Karcz
The Formation and Propagation of Stylo-Fractures
Anne-Lise Jourdan
The Carbonate Clumped Isotope Paleothermometer: A New Tool for the Characterization of
Diagenesis in Carbonate Reservoirs
Aisha Al Hajri
The Distribution and Origin of Porosity Enhancement at the Aptian-Albian Unconformity, Oman
Norman Oxtoby
Diagenetic Reactions Occurring in Carbonate Reservoirs During Petroleum Emplacement
Ibrahim Elkanouni
Role of Facies and Dolomitisation in Porosity Generation in the Dahra Formation, Middle - Late
Paleocene, Western Sirt Basin, Libya
Moyra Wilson
Depositional and Diagenetic Evolution of a Papua New Guinean Onshore Carbonate Reservoir:
A Combined FMI and Petrographic Evaluation
Paola Ronchi
Diagenetic Processes and their Impact on the Petrophysical Properties in Kashagan Carbonate
Platform Reservoir (Carboniferous, Kazakhstan).
Peter Fitch
Quantifying Numerical Heterogeneity in Carbonate Petrophysical Properties: Application to
Geological and Fluid Flow Unit Characterisation
Ali Omidi
New Approach to Solving the Problems of Petrophysical Evaluation in Carbonate Gas
Reservoirs with Isolated Vuggy Porosities
Hassan Mohseni
Modeling of Carbonate Reservoirs Using Geostatistics: A Case Study For Estimating of
Porosity in A Oil Field in Zagros Basin (Iran)
Arnaud Fournillion
Characterisation of Karstic Networks by Automatic Extraction of Geometrical and Topological
Parameters: Comparison between Stochastically Simulated Networks and Observed Ones
Pauline Collon-Drouaillet
Constrained Stochastic Simulation of 3D Branchwork Karsts

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Oral Presentation
Abstracts
(in presentation order)

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Thursday 4 November
Session One: Carbonates of the Middle East

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Keynote Speaker: Carbonate Rocks and Reservoirs: An Industry Geologists

Perspective
Trevor Burchette, Dept. Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University, Egham, Surrey

Carbonate reservoirs are often regarded with apprehension since it can be difficult to
predict the reservoir quality in and ensure high recovery factors from these rocks. It is no
coincidence then that the petroleum industry has been fundamental in promoting
research into and developing our understanding of carbonate rocks and depositional
systems, often with impacts that extend well beyond oil and gas exploitation.
Research in this area in the mid-Twentieth Century was strongly biased towards
understanding carbonate depositional environments and facies, but it could be argued
that we now have sufficient stock models and analogues for most carbonate facies
interpretation purposes; now attention is focused more on how carbonate reservoir
facies are organised within stratigraphic architectures using insight gained over the last
15-20 years through access to 3D seismic data and numerous outcrop studies. In
contrast to our familiarity with these aspects of carbonates, certain physical
characteristics of carbonate rocks, not least their permeability behaviour, have remained
thoroughly enigmatic.
Some of the most intractable reservoir issues only become evident after decades of
production and the increasing maturity of many of the carbonate fields discovered and
developed since the 1950s and 60s, with their emerging problems of poor sweep
efficiency and water or gas breakthrough, is now stimulating the requirement for much
more sophisticated methods of modelling the architecture of carbonate reservoirs at both
the pore and stratigraphic scales. Particular issues that arise time and again are the
prediction of carbonate reservoir quality in uncored wells and at the inter-well scale;
recognising and predicting potential high-permeability layers; determining the
permeability component to allocate to fractures and vugs; and methods for rock-typing
carbonate reservoirs when, for a given porosity, carbonate rocks may exhibit up to four
orders of magnitude in permeability.
In the end-game of the petroleum economy, enhancing oil and gas recovery from
carbonate reservoirs is likely to become disproportionately important since many of the
worlds super-giant reservoirs, notably in the Middle East and Caspian region, are
carbonate and have production profiles that extend for a century or more.
More generically, it is worth observing that the industry has accommodated to one of the
greatest revolutions to impact the geosciences, namely the introduction of, and growth
towards near total dependence on, computing. Geoscience in the petroleum industry
has become synonymous with interdisciplinary collaboration and digital modelling,
whether in structural geology, petrophysics, geochemistry, stratigraphy or (carbonate)
sedimentology. The efficacy of this approach cannot be disputed since it has permitted
huge progress in the way in which data are interpreted and the physical aspects of
petroleum reservoirs are represented and modelled. However, there has been a
noticeable parallel reduction in geoscientists familiarity with rocks, whether in the field or
at the core store, and an increasing reliance by companies on common sets of
analogues and processed data. The scientists of all disciplines who are best able to
provide knowledgeable input to the characterisation of and exploration for carbonate

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reservoirs, are those who actually understand the rocks and this can be achieved in only
one way by taking every opportunity to look at them.
NOTES

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Keynote Speaker: Geometries of Carbonate Depositional Systems Their

Relevance to Petroleum Systems Distribution in Iraq
Andrew D. Horbury, Cambridge Carbonates

Iraq may be considered a natural laboratory to study both the nature of petroleum
systems and the influence of carbonate depositional systems on those systems, in both
a temporal and spatial sense. It has a record of almost continuous carbonate evaporite
deposition from the Late Permian until the Middle Miocene, with only occasional
interruption by siliciclastic input.
Four basic types of carbonate system are noted; firstly, carbonate-evaporite platform
systems such as are noted mainly in the Triassic, Lower and Uppermost Jurassic, and
uppermost Lower to Middle Miocene; secondly, grainy epeiric carbonate systems,
usually ramps, such as are noted mainly in the Upper Permian, parts of the Triassic and
Lower Jurassic, Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous (Tithonian to Valanginian) and
parts of the Middle Cretaceous; thirdly, aggradational and thick, laterally differentiated
rimmed carbonate shelves that pass into basins which have condensed stratigraphies,
notably in the Middle Jurassic, Cretaceous (Barremian to Lower Turonian), Paleogene
and lowermost Miocene; and lastly, carbonate platforms that pass laterally into often
considerably thick basinal equivalents, notable in most of the Upper Cretaceous (Upper
Turonian to Maastrichtian). It is possible for more than one of these systems to be
developed in different parts of the country at the same time.
It is clear from the distribution of reserves in the basin system that the most prospective
play types are in the Kirkuk Group (Lower to middle Oligocene), Mishrif (CenomanianLower Turonian) and Yamama (Berriasian-Lower Valanginian) depositional systems.
The first two of these are characterised by thick platform carbonates that pass laterally
into relatively thin basinal equivalents. Reservoir quality is likely to be good to excellent
because of a generally aggradational morphology that develops significant topography,
that is then positively affected by diagenetic processes such as karstification and late
dolomitisation. Success relies upon the effectiveness of regional top-seals to cover the
often pronounced upper topography; internal seals are not a factor in their prospectivity.
Failures of this system (such as the Middle Jurassic, and the Mishrif Formation in
Central Iraq) are because of reliable regional top-seals are absent, where topography
was high and onlap was complex.
Grainy epeiric carbonates are generally disappointing and the only volumetrically
significant reservoir is the Yamama Formation of earliest Cretaceous age. This works
only locally because it comprises a critical combination of enhanced shoaling above
palaeostructural elements, and also because of thick top-seals provided in large part by
clastic systems that prograde into the prospective area from the west. Where clastic
entry is too strong, no topseals are developed, which is why other formations that fall
into this category such as the Shuaiba are generally not prospective.
Evaporite dominated systems are locally productive where restriction has resulted in
development of intrashelf basins and thin high-energy reservoir intervals (usually
representing third-order MFS and condensed HST) are sealed by basin-plugging
lowstand evaporites; prospectivity is best on the flanks of the intrashelf basins where
there is a balance between development of highstand carbonate reservoir facies, and
lowstand to TST evaporite seals.
These reservoirs are typically strongly
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layered/compartmentalised, with the possibilities of multiple but separate pays, and may
suffer significantly from problems of aquifer support.
Thin platform/thick basinal stratigraphies are only moderately prospective; these would
appear to work best in their basinal stratigraphies where microporous fractured
reservoirs are particularly a distinctive play type in fields such as East Baghdad and Ain
Zalah. Shelf carbonates have proven to be remarkably unprospective to date, although
there are abundant examples of production in neighbouring countries, and breached
fields are evident in Zagros outcrops.
It is thus evident that the nature of carbonate platform and basin environments may have
some bearing on the overall development of petroleum systems in Iraq, although the
relationship of regional seal development above these reservoirs is clearly also of major
importance.

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NOTES

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Statoils Entry into Iraq: Modelling the Mishrif Formation of West Qurna Phase 2
Alun Williams et al, Statoil ASA, 0246 Oslo, Norway

In December 2009 Statoil, in cooperation with Lukoil, won the development rights to
West Qurna Phase 2, a super-giant oilfield located near the city of Basra in Iraq. This
field was the largest prize in Iraqs highly-awaited second bid round, with in-place
volumes estimated at tens of billions of barrels. Statoils bid was based on a thorough
evaluation of the available subsurface data, combined with the application of in-house
data acquired through our carbonate research programme.
With bids to be placed on a 20-year production contract, the most important questions to
answer were:
1) How much oil is present within the licence area?
2) How much of this oil can be produced within the 20 year licence period?
3) What is the optimal development strategy to produce this oil?
4) How fast can plateau production be achieved, and how long can it be maintained for?
To this end a geological model was constructed, to be used for dynamic simulation.
Production forecasts generated from the simulation model then formed the basis for
economic evaluations, followed by negotiations with potential partners, and eventually
for Statoils bid in the auction. This talk summarises the geological work carried out
during modelling of the Mishrif Formation, the main reservoir interval in West Qurna.
The Mishrif Formation is a limestone succession of Cenomanian (-Turonian) age, which
forms one of the major reservoir intervals of the Middle East. Our depositional model
was constructed using all available well-log and seismic data, and incorporated the
results of extensive research carried out on age-equivalent outcrops of the Sarvak
Formation in Lurestan, Iran.
With over 300 wells having been drilled on West Qurna field to date, a vast amount of
data was available for the construction of the model. However, certain key data were
lacking, such as descriptions of the actual rocks themselves, meaning that analogue
data was required to constrain the petrophysical modelling. Fortunately Statoil possess
an extensive database of worldwide carbonate reservoir properties and this, combined
with a novel technique of petrophysical rock typing, was used to constrain the matrix
properties in the model. Core and log data indicates that the Mishrif in West Qurna is
generally a high-porosity moderate-permeabilty reservoir, but both porosity and
permeability vary widely throughout the interval.
Although no production has taken place from West Qurna Phase 2, nearly 10 years of
production history was available from West Qurna Phase 1, the neighbouring licence to
the south. Production history, well tests & PLT data indicate that permeabilities
significantly higher than those recorded from core samples occur within the Mishrif of
West Qurna. We believe that this excess permeability exists largely as fracture
permeability, indicating that the Mishrif is a type-3 reservoir of Nelson (2001), where
fractures assist permeability in an already producible reservoir. This is in line with
observations from the Lurestan outcrops, the results of which were used to incorporate
fracture permeability within our reservoir model.

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NOTES

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The Use of 3D Seismic Analysis Techniques for Investigating Carbonate Features

in Two Offshore UAE Fields.
1

Gaynor S. Paton , Helen Basford , Anthony Avu , Frank van Kleef

ffA
Dubai Petroleum Establishment

Introduction
Carbonate reservoirs in the Persian Gulf are complex integrated systems which are
often hard to interpret. The identification of subtle fracturing as well as karst features and
build-ups is further complicated by poor data quality. We present the results of applying
3D seismic analysis techniques to create attribute and object volumes which provide
insight into the structure and faulting of the reservoir sections of two offshore UAE fields.
The two fields form part of the four main offshore producing fields of Dubai. This
investigation focuses on the massive aggrading Thamama complex of the Lower
Cretaceous and the Middle Cretaceous Mishrif reef build-up. Carbonate build-ups of the
Mishrif were controlled by localised salt diapirism and associated bathymetric variations.
These carbonate formations are among the most important reservoirs in the Middle East
and contain a large proportion of the worlds oil reserves. A good understanding of the
geomorphological evolution as well as the structural and stratigraphic properties of these
formations is crucial in defining reservoir properties.
The workflow applied to the data was split into 3 sections: Data Conditioning, Fault
Analysis, and Stratigraphic Analysis.
Data Conditioning
The post stack time migrated data was dominated by steeply dipping coherent noise.
This made interpretation difficult and post stack noise attenuation was essential to
prevent artefacts being introduced into any attributes that were created on the data. The
noise was attenuated using a sequence of FMH filters that are both structurally oriented
and edge preserving. This workflow attenuated the noise but maintained the reflector
terminations and the characteristic of the data.
Fault Analysis
In one of the fields at the Thamama horizon there are two potential fault scenarios: either
a single NW-SE trend of faulting, or the NW-SE trend accompanied by a perpendicular
NE-SW trend which is hard to identify in the data. The objective of the fault workflow was
to identify the subtle faulting around a key well location to clarify which of the faulting
scenarios was present. A combination of structurally oriented attributes identifying both
discontinuities and curvature were used to highlight the faults. Two perpendicular trends
were seen in the attribute data with different expressions along each trend suggesting
the second scenario was more probable.
Stratigraphic Analysis
Extensive studies of the seismic response of carbonate systems have led to the
development of a suite of workflows capable of highlighting subtle carbonate features.
These techniques were applied to both data sets, including frequency analysis, bedform
analysis, and eigen analysis. In the field, frequency decomposition and RGB blending
highlighted frequency variations within the vicinity of the key wells along a fault line that
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had been identified in the earlier fault analysis. It also highlighted circular features
consistent with the expected response from karstified layers. Eigen analysis was used to
investigate these features further, and again the results indicate the presence of karst.
Bedform analysis was used within the second field to identify and extract pinch-outs and
clinoforms directly below the Mishrif horizon. The Bedform workflow identifies individual
layers by isolating constant phase events. These are combined with the instantaneous
frequency to create an attribute in which pinchouts, onlaps and downlaps are easily
identified. Extraction of these clinoforms as geobodies enabled their lateral extent and
shape to be easily visualised.
Summary
Attribute analysis and object extraction has proved to be a valuable tool for detailed
investigation into the carbonate features within the two fields. It has provided a level of
detail that is hard to achieve with manual interpretation and has given new insights into
the geology and reservoir properties. By analysing the individual component parts of the
seismic data (amplitude, frequency, phase, and lateral variability) it has been possible to
extract a high level of information out of the data which is directly relevant to the
interpretation.

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NOTES

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Sub-Seismic Fractures in Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts: Insight from the
Lurestan Province, Zagros Mountains, Iran
1

G. Casini , J. Vergs , I. Romaire , N. Fernndez , E. Casciello , E. Saura , S. Homke , J.-C.

1
3
2
4
4
4
4
1
Embry , P. Gillespie , C. Mehl , L. Aghajari , H. Noroozi , M. Sedigh , J. Bagheri , D D.W. Hunt ,
1
I.R. Sharp
1

StatoilHydro - TNE RD Research Center Bergen, Norway

Group of Dynamics of the Lithosphere, Institute of Earth Sciences Jaume Almera, CSIC,
Barcelona, Spain
3
StatoilHydro - TNE GET, Stavanger, Norway
4
NIOC, Tehran, Iran
2

The Simply Folded Belt of the Zagros Mountains, Iran, represents one of the best
examples of foreland fold and thrust belt. A regional analysis of the Cenomanian
Coniacian Sarvak and Ilam formations, exposed in the southern Lurestan Province, is
presented as a case study for sub-seismic fracture development in these compressive
settings. The area is characterised by gentle to tight anticlines and synclines parallel to
the NW-SE trend of the belt. Fold style is intimately related to both vertical and lateral
facies distribution. In the Lurestan Province, the Cenomanian-Coniacian interval is
exposed in the core of most outcropping anticlines.
Sub-seismic fracture spatial distribution, kinematics and timing have been characterised
through extensive fieldwork, interpretation of orthorectified QuickBird imagery and
interpretation of LiDAR derived 3D photorealistic models. Data have been collected from
10 anticlines covering an area of approximately 150 x 150 km. Key outcrops for fracture
geometry, kinematics and timing interpretation are presented.
Field observations and interpretation of QuickBird and 3-D photorealistic models suggest
complex fracture geometry and timing. Fractures record pre-folding to uplift-related
deformations. Pre-folding structures are typically represented by small-scale, flat-rampflat geometry thrusts, systematic veins and stylolites, which are superimposed on
inherited syn-sedimentary normal faults. Folding-related structures generally reactivated
pre-existing fracture planes. Strike-slip faults typically postdate pre-folding structures and
are probably related to the late stages of fold tightening. All structures are geometrically
and kinematically consistent with the trend of the Arabian passive margin and its
subsequent tectonic inversion.
Many carbonate reservoirs in forelands and in foreland fold and thrust belts are
fractured. The studied Cenomanian-Coniacian outcrops are direct analogues to one of
the most prolific intervals for oil and gas in the Middle East. Outcrop analogues are key
for the understanding of sub-seismic fractures. The latter often form a dense and well
connected network which might greatly affect carbonate reservoir properties. Integration
of stratigraphic, diagenetic and structural heterogeneities is fundamental for the
characterization and modelling of fractured carbonate reservoirs in the Middle East as
well as other forelands and foreland fold and thust belts.

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NOTES

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Impact of Growing Structures on Carbonate Facies Differentiation: An Example

from the Yamama Formation in West Qurna Field, Southern Iraq
Fadhil N. Sadooni, Environmental Studies Center, Qatar University, P. O. Box 2713, Doha,
Qatar

The Yamama Formation is the second most important Cretaceous carbonate

reservoir in southern Iraq. The Lower Cretaceous formation generated large
amount of oil in tests that had been conducted in many of the giant fields of
southern Iraq. Among these fields is the West Qurna Field which is one of the
largest fields in Iraq and the region with reserves exceeding 20 billion barrels of
recoverable reserves.
The West Qurna Field is considered as a northern extension of the Rumaila
North Field and extends into the historical marshes of Mesopotamia. The first
impression of the field was concluded by a geologist from Basra Petroleum
Company (BPC) during a routine flight by a helicopter. He noticed that most of
the marsh Arabs huts were aligned to a single trend which he interpreted as the
hinge line of a new structure. Later gravity and magnetic surveys confirmed the
structure but its shape was fialized only after the extensive seismic survey
conducted by Iraq National Oil Company (INOC) during the eighties of the last
century.
Several authors (e.g. Al-Naqib, 1970; Buday, 1980 and Al-Sakini, 1992)
suggested that the most of the giant fields of southern Iraq are underlined by
the Infracambrian Hormuz salt and these fields were growing, at least, since the
Triassic. The growth phases seem to be of different magnitudes and lengths
depending on the strength of the tectonic activity during that specific geologic
period.
The Yamama Formation is around 350m in thickness and composed of a
complex combination of porous and compact limestone units punctuated by a
series of fine clastic units derived from outside the basin (Fig. 1). These
argillaceous units grade, in some cases, into shale horizons that contain high
amount of organic materials. These are believed to be resulted from vegetation
cover on small emergent bodies of such sediments in the shallower parts of the
basin during semi-desiccation periods.
Figure 1: Detailed lithologic column of the Yamama Formation in a typical well from
West Qurrna Field.

Although, these changes are a characteristic feature of the formation all over southern
Iraq but it was noticed also that there are significant lithologic changes between the wells
in a single field such as West Qurna. These differences are either lithologic (e.g. there
are more and thicker argillaceous units in the flank wells compared to the crestal ones)
or diagenetic (e.g. there are more cemented horizons in the crestal wells). These
changes are also reflected in the test results of the field. Both the flank and the very
crestal wells did not generate significant oil.

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Figure 2: Examples of cored interval from Yamama Formation in West Qurrna Field (inset coallike organic piece recovered from the core.

The facies complexity of the Yamama Formation is the result of large number of factors
some of them are regional such as the clastic invasion front resulted from climatic
changes in the source area, wind direction and basin configuration. Local factors are
related mainly to the intensity of the structure growth which eventually controlled the
water depth and hydrodynamic of the basin over that structure. The impact of these
growth stages are imprinted in the facies and the diagenetic features of the formation
(Fig. 2).

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NOTES

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Thursday 4 November
Session Two: Emerging Plays and Concepts

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Keynote Speaker: Microbial Carbonates in Non-Marine Basins: What Models could

we use for South Atlantic Microbialite Reservoirs?
Paul Wright, BG Group, 100 Thames Valley Park, Reading RG6 1PT, & School of Earth &
Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University

The major discoveries in the Cretaceous carbonates of the Pre-Salt succession in the
Santos Basin provide a remarkable new reservoir type for non-marine basins. The
carbonates have been widely reported as being of microbial origin and a surprisingly
wide range of possible analogues are available. At one end of the spectrum are
travertines which have distinctive textural and mineralogical signatures, but tend to be
small in size, localised to thermal vents. In many cases the origins of the main textural
types are still disputed, with microbial and abiogenic explanations. Such carbonates are
however a prominent feature in rift settings. In lakes, microbial carbonates can be
associated with hard water, alkaline and saline systems. For evaluating potential
lacustrine analogues a critical distinction must be made between microbial build-ups
developed near localised sources such as springs and faults, or widespread build-ups
controlled by factors such as substrate stability and water body stratification. Primary
carbonate mineralogy varies in each system and hence different porosity and diagenetic
pathways can occur. A set of microbialite facies and diagenetic models will be
presented, reflecting amongst other factors, the role of catchment area geology in
controlling the mineralogy and diagenesis of the resulting carbonate succession, as a
guide to the types of potential reservoirs in non-marine basins.

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NOTES

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Bump to Prospect: An Empirical Approach to the Recognition and

Characterization of Isolated Carbonate Buildups in Frontier Settings
Peter Burgess

1,2

Peter Winefield

Shell International Exploration & Production, Kessler Park 1, 2288 GS Rijswijk, The Netherlands
Dept Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK
3
Present address: Shell Petroleum & Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, 21-22 Marina, Lagos,
Nigeria
2

Isolated carbonate platforms are well-known and attractive targets for hydrocarbon
exploration in both frontier and mature basins. They are attractive because they can
form potentially large-volume stratigraphic-trap features with generally reduced charge,
reservoir, seal and trap risk relative to other types of carbonate plays. Unfortunately,
undrilled features imaged on 2D and 3D seismic that could be isolated carbonate
platforms are often difficult to identify unequivocally because other geological features
such as volcanoes, tilted fault blocks and erosional remnants have somewhat similar
geometries and modes of occurrence. Consequently explorers require a method of
systematically identifying potential leads and reliably de-risking play elements and
prospects suspected to be isolated carbonate buildup features.
Using a database of more than 200 seismic images of proven isolated carbonate
buildups and other similar features, a set of reliable empirical criteria has been
developed to identify isolated carbonate platforms, especially in frontier regions and or
areas with sparse seismic data. The dataset includes proven examples from the Upper
Paleozoic to Neogene in age, occurring in several different tectonic settings. Using these
data it is possible to investigate some of the variability in platform architecture likely to
have arisen due to variations in tectonic settings and in carbonate producing factories
through time.

Figure 1 - Example of key elements of an isolated carbonate platform

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The identification criteria can be divided into four main categories: (i) regional and
stratigraphic constraints; (ii) general morphology and basic geometries (Figure 1. yellow
boxes); (iii) geophysical characteristics; and (iv) smaller-scale geometries and
associated internal features (Figure 1, green boxes). These criteria represent a
progression in detail of interpretation, from an initial regional overview, through basic
large-scale seismo-stratigraphic interpretation, to simple analysis of some geophysical
properties, and finally to consideration of more detailed aspects of the seismostratigraphy. Working through these criteria and compiling results on a simple scoresheet provides a practical framework for isolated buildup identification, initial de-risking,
and thoughtful interpretation.

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NOTES

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Microbial Deposits as Source Rocks for Hydrocarbons in the Polish Zechstein

(Upper Permian) Main Dolomite Carbonates, Western Poland
1

Miroslaw Sowakiewicz , Zbigniew Mikoajewski , Irena Matyjasik , Izabella Grotek

Polish Geological Institute, ul. Rakowiecka 4, 00-975 Warsaw, Poland

Polish Oil and Gas Company, Zielona Gra Branch, Pl. Staszica 4, 64-920 Pia, Poland
3
Oil and Gas Institute, ul. Lubicz 25A, 31-503 Cracow, Poland
2

In the western part of Poland, Upper Permian (Zechstein) Main Dolomite carbonate
rocks of the Gorzw and Wielkopolska carbonate platforms are a perfect example of a
closed petroleum system incorporating both source and reservoir rocks for hydrocarbons
(Kotarba & Wagner 2007). These carbonates are isolated by evaporates. In the platform
interior (lagoon, inner oolite shoal and mudflat facies), shallow-water microbial
thrombolite and stromatolite buildups (boundstones), microbial laminites (bindstones,
originally microbial mats) were predominant and less abundant were benthic algae. In
the basinal part, laminated partly organic (phytoplankton) and hemipelagic
dolomudstones (laminites) were deposited from suspension (Wagner 2004) and as
carbonate turbidites (Jaworowski & Mikoajewski 2007). Hence, hydrocarbons could be
sourced from the platform top and basinal parts of the Main Dolomite basin (Kotarba &
Wagner 2007). The preservation of fine lamination in basinal facies, together with the
occurrence of organic matter, indicates an anaerobic environment.
The carbonates contain both free hydrocarbons and kerogen carbon. The TOC content
comprises pyrolytic and dominant residual carbon. Initial TOC content after
reconstruction was estimated at 1.2-1.8%. The samples studied were affected by low-tohigh stage of thermal maturity of organic matter at Tmax = 445 to 482oC which
corresponds to oil window and gas window (see Kotarba & Wagner 2007). A
characteristic feature is the presence of low-concentration isoprenoids (pristane and
phytane). Hence, the Pr/nC17 and Ph/nC18 ratios have low values suggesting marine
(microbial) anaerobic deposition and high maturity level of extracted organic matter.
Values of Pr/Ph <1 confirm reducing environment of carbonate deposition.
Genetic characterization of bitumen based on Pr/nC17 and Ph/nC18 ratios indicates that
oil-prone type II (microbial marine) kerogen is predominant in the Main Dolomite
carbonates. This confirms microbial input in main source rock type for generation of
hydrocarbons.
Terpene-group biomarkers are represented by tricyclic terpenes suggesting a marine
environment with high salinity levels (carbonate-evaporate conditions).
Carbonate rocks are generally characterized by poor content of primary humic-type
organic matter. The main organic component is solid bitumen. No primary liptinite
macerals have been found. Thermal maturity is diverse, ranging from main and late
phase of oil generation (0.85-1.26% Ro) through the main phase (1.3-1.45% Ro) and
late phase (2.4-3.2% Ro) of gas generation. Hence, maximal paleotemperatures which
affected organic matter during diagenesis of the carbonates varied from 100-1500C and
locally even reached >2000C.

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Dead & Shed A Reappraisal of Resedimented Carbonates as a Viable Carbonate

Exploration Play
1

3,4

Peter Winefield , Peter Burgess , Marcello Minzoni , Bernard Pierson ,Ted Playton , Xavier
3
Jansen , Shell International Exploration & Production, Kesslerpark 1, 2288 GS Rijswijk, The
Netherlands
1

Present address: Shell Petroleum & Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, 21-22 Marina, Lagos,
Nigeria
2
Present address: Sarawak Shell, Petronas Twin Towers, 50088, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
3
Present address: Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin, Texas, U.S.A
4
Present address: Chevron Energy Technology Company, San Ramon, California, U.S.A

It is a well-accepted concept that volumetrically significant resedimentation of shallowwater carbonate material into adjacent deep water occurs from modern carbonate
platforms. Such resedimented deposits have also been recognized in ancient carbonate
sequences, many with good reservoir potential, for example the well-known producing
examples adjacent to the giant Cretaceous platforms in Mexico (~40 MMBoe) and in the
U.S. Permian basin (several Tcf gas).
Re-appraisal of legacy published and unpublished work on resedimented carbonates,
combined with new work compiling a global database of surface and sub-surface
examples of resedimented carbonates, has highlighted their potential as an underexplored carbonate play concept. Two generic play types are recognized: (i) attached
carbonate slope play developed immediately adjacent to the carbonate platform and
dominated by rock fall and platform collapse deposits; and (ii) detached carbonate slope
play deposited further from the platform margin via turbidity currents and other massflow processes.

Figure 2 Resedimented carbonate play types

The main risk associated with these slope plays are connection with the porous updip
patform margin sediments. Therefore detachment or isolation of the downdip porous
reservoir from the upper slope and platform margin is required for a successful trap
development. Combined stratigraphic and structural traps have the highest success rate,
particularly further from the platform margin where hemipelagic shales encasing these
deposits are often proven seal rocks. Working examples of these plays are commonly
charged either by coeval or directly underlying strata, with migration assisted by faulting
and/or resedimented carbonate carrier beds. Best potential reservoirs are aragonitic
grainstones transported from the platform into the adjacent basin and then subjected to
submarine dissolution and early formation of secondary porosity to further enhance
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reservoir properties. Calcitic grainstones with good primary porosity are also potential
reservoirs but are often adversely affected by later compaction and burial.
Any exploration model for identifying potential resedimented plays should be based on
carbonate platform configurations and factory types favourable for resedimentation, with
mineralogy favourable for generation of enhanced porosity. Using these proposed
exemplars in combination with global paleogeographic maps, the explorer may be able
to develop predictions for the likely age and location of resedimented carbonate plays
with the greatest potential for further evaluation.

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NOTES

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Modeling Pore Pressure Profiles in Carbonates

Stephen OConnor, Richard Swarbrick, Steve Jenkins, Sam Green, J. Phil Clegg, GeoPressure
Technology Limited, Stockton Road, Durham, DH1 3UZ, England.

Carbonate reservoirs are the targets of many drilling programs around the world. In
other cases, carbonate rocks need to be drilled through to reach deeper reservoirs.
Understanding the pressure regimes in these carbonates is vital both for safe drilling and
for reducing uncertainty in actual reservoir pressures. As there is no relationship
between effective stress and porosity/velocity in carbonates, approaches based on
changes in porosity using seismic velocity and/or log data such as sonic and resistivity
measurements will give false magnitudes of overpressure in these carbonate units.
Therefore another approach is required, one based on understanding the mechanisms
of pressure generation and build-up in a basin (a geological approach), calibrated
using available (although often rare) direct pressure measurements in permeable
horizons within these units, coupled with shale-based prediction techniques in any
clastic intervals above and below the carbonates.
A geological approach based on lithology can be used to predict pressure in carbonates.
Data needed includes porosity and permeability characteristics of the carbonates, where
low permeability marls and wackestones produce different pressure profiles in
comparison with high-energy, more permeable, reefal carbonates such as grainstones
and packstones. The latter group of carbonates may be sufficiently well plumbed to
allow hydrodynamic flow, leading to hydrocarbon/water contacts, a feature of some of
the larger Middle East oil and gas fields. A significant control on the internal pressure
regime of carbonates are the pressures of any associated clastics, both above and
below the carbonates, i.e. carbonates themselves do normally generate overpressure
but have pressure transition zones that reflect the pressures above and below. The
shape of the transition zone relates to the carbonate permeability whereby high
permeability pressures are hydrostat parallel and low permeability carbonates have
pressure transition zones coupling top and base pressures. Using case study material
from the North Sea Chalks and SE Asia Limestones, as well as from Middle East
analogues, we will illustrate how a combination of these techniques can be used to
model the pore pressure profiles better through and within carbonates.

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NOTES

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Thursday 4 November
Session Three: Advances in Outcrop Studies

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Keynote Speaker: Integrating Outcrop Analogs, Modern Analogs, and

Stratigraphic Models to Enhance Subsurface Reservoir Models for Carbonate
Ramps
Paul (Mitch) Harris, Jeroen Kenter, Ted Playton, Miriam Andres, Gareth Jones Marge Levy
Chevron Energy Technology Company, San Ramon, CA

The Multiple Point Statistics (MPS) approach to reservoir modeling that we employ in
Chevron uses combinations of hard data constraints (well and seismic data) and
geologic concepts (e.g., depositional models) to populate 3D grid space. With an
example geared toward a better understanding of ramp reservoirs like those found in the
Middle East, this study illustrates how the integration of depositional facies information
from outcrop analogs, modern analogs, and stratigraphic models can provide insight for
better simulating the heterogeneity of carbonate ramps in the subsurface.
Outcrop exposures offer continuity, correlation, and resolution of geological data well
beyond that of the subsurface, and serve as idealized analogs for reservoirs. Measured
sections, photomosaic mapping, DGPS, and LIDAR data collected along a 38 km
oblique dip exposure of Lower Jurassic carbonate ramp strata in the High Atlas of
Morocco show: (1) the ramp to be comprised of four environments of deposition (EODs)
inner, middle, and outer ramp and basin - that prograde and backstep relative to each
other; (2) a lower frequency sequence architecture showing at least two cycles of
aggradation to progradation; (3) high frequency sequences displaying partitioning
wherein HSTs are progradational, oolitic grainstone complexes thinning into the basin
and TSTs are retrogradational to aggradational, peloidal mud-dominated wedges
thickening into basin; and (4) sub- to multi-km scale variations along strike, including
promontory-reentrant configurations, azimuthal shifts in paleogeography over time, and
shoal crest-intershoal facies changes.
Modern carbonate sands associated with tidal channels and the numerous islands of the
Exumas chain on Great Bahama Bank provide additional details on the widths of facies
belts expected in a middle ramp EOD, configuration of facies patterns in the belts, and
variation along strike. Sands occur primarily as flood tidal deltas within this >450 km 2
linear belt with delta lobes extending up to 8 km, averaging 6 km, onto the platform.
Processed satellite images, derived bathymetry (DEMs), and sand body interpretation
maps organized into a GIS indicate morphometric relations for the delta lobes and
common sandbar patterns such as: a) flood tidal delta lobes represent 85% of the sand
belt; b) 52% of the shallowest areas are greater than ~2500 m2 and 8% are larger than
100,000 m2; c) these largest deposits are highly sinuous, more irregular in shape than
smaller ones, and maintain connectivity; and d) tidal channels average ~3 km in length
and have regular, but regionally variable, spacing.

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As robust as outcrops and modern settings are as analogs, they represent a singular
geologic outcome (in some ways a unique stratigraphic/facies framework) and they most
often lack information on the three-dimensionality of facies and architecture (outcrops
generally ~2D, dip dominated, and map limited; modern environments map dominated
and depth limited). Therefore, we also use Forward Stratigraphic Models (FSM) for
further investigation of EOD and facies belt dimensions and connectivity, and in this
case a Dionisos model simulates the outcrop with system tracts comprising a muddominated early transgression and a middle-to-late transgression characterized by the
onset of ooid production peaking in the early highstand. The model provides a
quantitative template for interrogating the extent and distribution of potential reservoir
and non-reservoir facies providing insight into dip length, thickness, and connectivity of
the middle ramp EOD, HST and TST components, reservoir-prone (grainstonepackstone) and best reservoir (grainstone) facies giving results such as grainstone
geobodies are on average 2.5 m thick and 1.6 km long (length ranges from 500 m 6
km).
The figure below illustrates our MPS reservoir modeling workflow in which the geology is
simulated around hard data constraints and conformed to rules, probabilities, and
proportions dictated by the remaining steps. The goal here is to generate new modeling
strategies for application in the subsurface through simulation of heterogeneity observed
on the ramp outcrop for grainier, ooid dominated settings in the HST and muddier,
peloid-dominated settings in the TST for all mapped sequences.

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LIDAR and GPS data are integral for the MPS outcrop model stratigraphic framework
and representation of complex stratal patterns. Additional model inputs are Training
Images, the Vertical Proportions Curve (VPC), and a Facies Probability Cube (FPC),
which together capture juxtaposition relationships and 3D likelihoods of occurrence of
ramp environments. Concepts from the outcrop are used in virtually every step of the
workflow, concepts from the modern provide geobody attributes within facies belts (i.e.,
sand shoal dimensions and shapes) for Training Images, and FSM provided conceptual
ranges of facies belt widths for Training Images and constraints on the VPC in terms of
global proportions. Using this integrated approach, the ramp outcrop is successfully
simulated wherein the sequence stratigraphic architecture, including stratigraphic
partitioning of facies belts, ramp progradation and retrogradation, and changes in facies
belt width are captured. The reservoir modeling effort utilized here which combines
information from outcrop and modern analogs with FSM provides strategies that can be
incorporated into subsurface modeling workflows and inputs and shows the collective
value that the different types of analogs can add to subsurface efforts where data is less
precise.

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NOTES

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Carbonate Shoal Bodies; Part 1: Outcrop Analog Study and 3-D Model (Triassic,
Germany)
Denis Palermo, Thomas Aigner, Sergio Nardon
Eni Exploration & Production, Milan, Italy
University of Tbingen, Institute for Geoscience, Germany

This study, developed in cooperation Eni / University of Tbingen, aims to characterize

the anatomy geometries and poroperm patterns of carbonate shoal reservoir bodies in
epicontinental settings. It is based on outcrop analog data from Triassic layer-cake
carbonates in the South German Basin which were deposited along an epicontinental,
very gently inclined carbonate ramp.
The database consists of 56 measured sections supplemented by six shallow cores and
wire-line logs, covering an area of 25 by 36 km. The potential reservoir bodies consist
generally of midramp shoal- and shoal fringe facies types which are composed of
skeletal and oolitic carbonate pack- and grainstones with significant amounts of porosity
(Phi max: 23%, K max 700 mD).
The Upper Muschelkalk is composed of a lower transgressive and an upper regressive
interval; within these, shoal bodies show similarities but also major differences in
character, geometry and distribution. Based on outcrops, cores, GR logs and thin
sections a high resolution 3D facies model was generated, which covers the area of a
Middle East giant gas field (25x36 km).
In order to constrain different conditioning factors and algorithms in the petrophysical
modelling process, the spatial distribution of reservoir properties within one reservoir
body was systematically investigated on different scales. The lateral distribution of
reservoir properties remains in the same order of magnitude for hundreds of meters,
within in the same stratigraphic position. However, on a kilometre scale, facies bodies,
reservoir properties and diagenetic trends show gradual lateral changes. Vertically, in
contrast, properties vary commonly on a decimetre scale and are largely controlled by
stratigraphic cycles.
The petrophysical modelling process enhanced the understanding of key factors and
processes controlling both reservoir quality and quantity. The following points are held
as the key factors in predicting the spatial distribution of reservoir properties within the
epeiric Muschelkalk carbonates.
a) Facies: reservoir properties show a close relationship to the lithofacies. Porous facies
types are restricted to the high-energy shoal facies, whereas both inner - and outer ramp
facies are tight in most cases.
b) Statigraphic cycles: All orders of genetic cycles have a major impact on the spatial
distribution of the reservoir bodies. Even the internal poroperm anatomy within the
individual reservoir bodies appear to be mainly controlled by smaller-scale cyclicity.
c) Paleo-relief: Volume and dimensions of the reservoir bodies seem to be mainly
controlled by the combination of both stratigraphic cycles and a subtle paleorelief,

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induced by slight differential subsidence of inherited structural grains. Especially paleohighs are important for the prediction of the reservoir quality.

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NOTES

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Integrated Fracture and Matrix Heterogeneity Reservoir Characterisation of the

Mid Cretaceous Aged Upper Sarvak Formation, Chenareh River Gorge, Iran: A
Virtual Outcrop Display
1

T. L. Scarrott , G. Casini , J.C. Embry , S. Homke , D. Hunt , I. Sharp , P. Gillespie , F. Livbjerg ,

1
2
2
3
3
3
4
N. Pickard , A. Janapanhah , M. Jamaledini , I. Romaire , N. Fernndez , J. Vergs , M. Jalali ,
4
L. Aghajari .
1

StatoilHydro - TNE RD Research Centre Bergen Geology,

StatoilHydro - Iran Business Unit, Tehran
3
CSIC Barcelona, Spain.
4
NIOC, Tehran.
2

The Chenareh Anticline, within the Simply Folded Belt of the Zagros Mountains, Iran,
represents a particularly well-exposed type section through naturally fractured
Cenomanian-Turonian neritic carbonates of the Sarvak Formation. The Sarvak
Formation forms a prolific reservoir in Iran and elsewhere in the Middle East (e.g. Mishrif
and Natih equivalent in Iraq/UAE and Oman respectively).. Through the integration of
various structural and sedimentological data, including detailed regional-scale
stratigraphic forward modelling (Dionisos), extensive fieldwork observations, systematic
sampling along a measured section in the Chenareh Gorge, interpretation of QuickBird
satellite imagery (0.7m resolution) and high resolution 3D photorealistic models based
on LiDAR technology, a 3D dual porosity and dual permeability model has been created
for the Sarvak Fm. This dataset represents a new type section for Mid Cretaceous
reservoirs of the Middle East.
Fractures (Joints + faults) reveal complex geometric and timing relationships. They
predominantly include stratabound and non-stratabound joints, through-going fracture
swarms parallel to the fold axis, small flat-ramp-flat thrust structures constrained within
the Sarvak Formation, and thrusts and back-thrusts mainly developed within the steep
forelimb. Fractures were characterized using quantitative and semi-quantitative field
measurements (Sarvak and Ilam formations), 2D and 3D fracture mapping along the
Chenareh Gorge photorealistic model (Sarvak Formation), and semi-automated 2D
fracture mapping of Quickbird images within different locations of the anticline (Ilam
Formation stratigraphic surfaces). The main recognised mechanical stratigraphy
boundaries were also mapped in 3D along the entire gorge using the high-resolution
photorealistic model.
Texturally, the Sarvak Formation is relatively heterogeneous, both vertically and laterally.
Matrix heterogeneity can be divided into primary depositional and secondary diagenetic.
Depositional heterogeneity includes large to medium-scale depositional architecture
including macro- and micro-facies distribution. Secondary heterogeneity is due to the
combined effects of early diagenetic alteration (e.g. karstification, early
cemention/dissolution), and late stage fracture-controlled dolomitisation of primary
interparticle porosity. Matrix porosity and permeability typically range from 1.0 - 18.3%
and 0.001-25mD respectively, with the best reservoir potential in the cherty slope facies
and high-energy rudist shoals along the platform margin. Consistently high porosities
exist in dolomitised intervals and units associated with secondary solution vug porosity.

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NOTES

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Geometric Characterisation of the Fracture and Karst Networks in a Cretaceous

Platform Carbonate Sequence of the Tethys Using the Ground Penetrating Radar
1

Raffaele Di Cuia , Davide Casabianca , Alberto Riva , Emanuele Forte

G.E.Plan Consulting, Italy

Marathon International, UK
3
University of Trieste, Italy
2

The Apulian is one of the most important carbonate systems of the Tethys, made of one
thick and extended carbonate platform (Pliensbachian-Senonian) surrounded by a
complex pattern of segmented platform and ramp systems (Paleocene-Pliocene).
The present day thickness of the Apulian carbonates exceeds at places the 2000m. The
Cretaceous is represented by a ca.1000m thick sequence made of an apparently
monotonous succession of peritidal cycles deposited in temperate conditions. During the
Tertiary the Apulian platform started to become affected by formation of the Apenninic
thrust belts related to the opening of the Balearic and the Tyrrhenian seas. The
paleogeography became less uniform and long periods of emersion of the platform
became more frequent.
The Apulian Upper Cretaceous carbonates outcropping in southern Italy represent an
excellent analogue for the largest onshore oil fields in Europe discovered in the Southern
Apennines thrust belt subsurface, a few tens of kilometres away from such outcrops.
The reservoir qualities of the Apulian carbonates sequence is mainly related to
secondary porosity and permeability related to fractures (e.g. Monte Alpi oil fields
complex and Tempa Rossa oil
field) or to karsts development
(e.g. Rospo Mare oil field).
Fig. 1 Time map of the top Apulian
platform carbonates (from Nicolai e
R. Gambini, "Structural architcture of
the
Adria
platform-and-basin
system", Bollettino della Societ
Geologica Italiana, Special Issue
(7), 2007, pp. 21-37; location of the
exploration and production wells that
drilled through the carbonates and
location of the studied area (yellow
square).

In order to better understand the

geometric characteristics and
relationship of the fracture and
karst networks we acquired,
processed and interpreted a 2-D and 3-D multi frequency Ground Penetrating Radar
(GPR) dataset close to a large quarry providing beautiful 3D exposures of the
carbonates in the Murge area (Southern Italy). The aim was to validate the geophysical
measurements with a detailed geological survey of the outcrop. The main objectives of
this integrated approach were to image the fracture, fault and karst networks, to reveal
the main lithological variations and to characterize the rock mass using the GPR signal
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characteristics. On the GPR dataset we applied semi-automatic horizon mapping

techniques using manually picked seeds (control points) on selected attributes
calculated on processed data and automatic surfaces extrapolation both on inline and
crossline, starting from seed positions. The results were integrated and validated with
direct outcrop measurements. Frequency related attributes are very sensitive to
attenuation and allow the identification of zones where high frequency and amplitude loss
is produced by local rock conditions, such as high conductivity or scattering. Work is
ongoing to correlate such zones to properties such as porosity, saturation, organic
content and fracture density. Coherency is another useful attribute in the analysis of both
2-D vertical sections and time- or depth-slices but, in the present case, the strong
scattering can degrade the results, particularly in the high-frequency range (in the present
case, starting from 500 MHz).

Fig.2 Panorama view of the quarry where the GPR surveys were acquired.

Fig. 3 - Smoothed RMS amplitude section belonging to the 3D GPR survey.

The GPR data attributes allowed to image, in 3D and to a depth of about 10 meters below
ground, the geometric distribution of a well developed karst system, to image the main
faults and delieneate a less clearly imaged fracture network. Based on both geophysical
data and direct geological measurements it is clear that the karst network is not related to
a recent dissolution event but it is similar, in terms of geometries, to karst systems
observed in the subsurface of the southern Adriatic Sea (e.g. the Rospo Mare field). The
development of the karst system appears to be controlled by faults or fractures but further
work is ongoing on the GPR data to better define the more elusive fracture networks and
understand the relationship between the karsts, faults and fracture systems
GPR offers a unique high-resolution tool to extend our knowledge of limestone rock
masses obtained from exposed rock faces, outcrops and boreholes to large 3-D volumes
with a considerable level of accuracy. Such opportunity is of primary interest in the study
of reservoir analogues and, in general, in the field of reservoir modelling.

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texture

H05
1m

KARSTS

Profile from 2.5D survey orthogonal to the picture

breccia

Fig. 4 Examples of a line of the GPR survey with a tie to the outcrop. High-amplitude horizons
correspond to the karst levels.

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NOTES

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Upper Bound on Stylolite Roughness as Indicator for the Duration and Amount of
Dissolution
1

2,

L. Laronne Ben-Itzhak , A. Sagy E. Aharonov

1

Department of Environmental Sciences and Energy Research, Weizmann Institute of

Science, Rehovot, 76100
2
Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel, Jerusalem, 95501
3
Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 91904

Stylolites are rough surfaces formed by localized dissolution, mostly in carbonates and
sandstones. They often account for a large degree of dissolution, and play a crucial role
in controlling the quality and producibility of aquifer and reservoir rocks. Understanding
how, where and when they form will improve our ability to predict their occurrence and
effect on flow, and thus has appreciable geological and economical implications. In spite
of their importance and decades of research, fundamental issues concerning their
structure and evolution are still debated.
The roughness of evolving surfaces and structures is often characterized in terms of
fractal (i.e., scale-invariant) geometry, and used to infer and constrain formation models
(Voss, 1988). In the case of stylolites, previous studies (Karcz and Scholz, 2003; Renard
et al., 2004; Schmittbuhl et al., 2004; Ebner et al., 2009) showed that their roughness is
fractal over several orders of magnitude. The fractal parameters measured at scales
smaller than 3*10-1m were reproduced in surface growth models that included both strain
and surface energy effects (Ebner et al., 2009). Here we report measurements of
stylolite surface roughness at a scale larger than ever measured before (10-2-101m),
which allowed us to observe the previously unobserved upper limit for fractal behavior.
Referring to the stylolite-growth model proposed by Koehn et al. (2009), we suggest that
this upper limit may be used as a measure of the duration of dissolution along the
stylolite.
Our field study was conducted on the Blanche cliff of the Ein El-Assad Formation
(Lower Cretaceous) exposed in Northern Israel. The Blanche here is a ~50m-thick
biomicritic limestone, with very low porosity. It consists of well-developed beddingparallel stylolites that can be traced through the entire outcrop (>1km). The roughness of
stylolite surfaces was measured in-situ using Ground-based LIDAR at 3-mm resolution.
A single scan provides millions of points that may be interpolated to generate a
topographic map or hundreds of profiles. Thus, the technique allows a statistical
approach when calculating roughness. Our measured surfaces range in size from
0.9X0.4 m2 to 9.3X2.8 m2.
Preliminary results show that the examined stylolite surfaces are fractal (i.e., scale
invariant) below ~0.5m. The root-mean-square (RMS) of surface height H(r) in this range
follows a power-law:

H(r) 2

1/ 2

KL

where L is the profile length. The value of

for our measured surfaces is 0.80.1,
independent of profile orientation along the surface. For L>0.5 m the roughness
saturates, with RMS only slightly increasing with increasing profile length. The fact that
results are similar for all surfaces measured suggests that similar conditions controlled
their development. We discuss the implications of these measurements for constraining
stylolite growth models.
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NOTES

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Thursday 4 November
Session Four: Faults/Fractures, Karst and
Interaction with Sequence Stratigraphy

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Keynote Speaker: Reservoir Compartmentalization and Distribution of Matrix and

Super-Permeability Zones in Paleokarst Reservoirs: What Can Be Predicted from
Sequence Framework and Unconformity Rank
Charles Kerans, Department of Geological Sciences, Jackson School of Geosciences, The
University of Texas at Austin

Paleokarst reservoirs are characterized by extreme lateral heterogeneities and high

levels of uncertainty in estimating reserves, recovery factors, and the drainage area and
relative success of infill wells. Classifying paleokarst reservoirs in terms of (1)
unconformity rank (2nd, 3rd-4th, or 5th order), (2) icehouse-greenhouse setting, and (3)
tectonic setting provide the basis of a genetic classification of karst systems that will aid
in prediction of reservoir compartmentalization and distribution of matrix and superpermeability systems.
Paleokarst associated with the top Sauk unconformity provides a well-documented
example of 2nd order supersequence paleokarst. Low matrix porosity, complex,
commonly multi-tiered collapse breccia deposits, and a poor correlation between
porosity profile and the bounding unconformity characterize supersequence paleokarst
systems. In addition, preserved erosional paleotopography such as observed in the
Chinese Buried Hill complex may add to compartmentalization. Paleokarst distribution at
2nd-order boundaries typically shows little relationship to paleogeography of the host
carbonate but instead can be modeled using regional subsidence gradients.
Paleokarst reservoirs associated with 3rd-4th order or composite sequence/highfrequency-sequence-scale surfaces such as the classic top mid-Permian San Andres
reservoirs may be viewed as combined diffuse-flow and confined-flow systems. These
reservoirs are in general more prolific than the supersequence paleokarst systems as a
result of higher matrix properties. These HFS-CS karst systems are characterized by
dual porosity systems that complicate secondary and tertiary recovery processes.
Additional examples include the upper Carboniferous Horseshoe Atoll and Cretaceous
Shuaiba and Mishrif reservoirs of the Bab Basin.
Karst development tied to short term Milankovitch-band (20-100ky) eustacy are known
only from a limited suite of icehouse carbonate settings where the amplitude of eustatic
shifts are sufficient to allow generation of a paleocave system over a short time duration
(figures 1 and 2A). Cavern formation is limited, but characteristic vuggy porosity at
cycles tops, with limited cavern development, is associated with latest PennsylvanianEarly Permian reservoirs. The mixed aragonitic/calcitic starting mineralogy of icehouse
carbonates leads to extensive vuggy porosity development, but may also enhance
secondary cementation.

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The Grosmont: A Complex Dolomitized and Karstified Heavy Oil Reservoir in

Devonian Carbonates, Alberta, Canada
1

Hans G. Machel , Mary Borrero , Eugene Dembicki , Harald Huebscher , Luo Ping , Yi Zhao

University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

Athabasca Oil Sands Corp, Calgary, Canada
3
Shell Canada, Calgary, Canada
4
PetroChina, Beijing, China
5
Husky Energy, Calgary, Canada
2

The Upper Devonian Grosmont shelf in Alberta, Canada (Figure 1), hosts the worlds
largest heavy oil reserves in carbonates, with an estimated 318 400 billion barrels of
bitumen in place at an average depth of about 250 500 m. Past pilot activity between
1975 and 1987 had variable results. Today the Grosmont reservoir is not under
production but under consideration for several in-situ thermal recovery schemes.
Reservoir evaluation includes constraining carbonate and evaporite facies and
stratigraphy; diagenesis; porosity and permeability; bitumen saturation; bitumen
viscosity; and biodegradation. Methods involve well log analysis, examination of cores
and cuttings, isotope analysis (C, O, S, Sr), various petrophysical techniques, and gas
chromatography mass spectrometry.
The Grosmont shelf was deposited in four major shallowing-upward cycles: Lower
Grosmont (LGM), Upper Grosmont1 (UGM1), Upper Grosmont2 (UGM2), and Upper
Grosmont3 (UGM3). These units are separated by shale breaks named SB1, SB2, and
SB3. The Hondo Formation is an evaporitic sub-unit that replaces parts of the four
Grosmont cycles in some areas of the complex, especially near the top of the UGM3. In
addition, the Grosmont is overlain by another two reservoir units, the Upper Ireton and
the Nisku, which add considerably to the overall reserves.
The diagenesis of the carbonate host rocks is dominated by pervasive dolomitization
and dolomite recrystallization, followed by one or more phases of karstification (Figure
2). The end result is a complex reservoir geometry with variable bitumen saturation
(Figure 3) and commonly unpredictable pay and thief zones, although there are
correlatable units in some parts of the reservoir. The shale breaks form effective seals in
some parts of the reservoir but are breached in other parts. The evaporites (mainly
anhydrite) probably formed effective seals where originally deposited, but they are
dissolved over much of the region and are now preserved only in relatively small
patches. The bitumen is heavily to extremely biodegraded and has in-situ viscosities of >
1 million cP and API gravities of 5 to 9, in places seemingly stratigraphically controlled
(Figure 4). Much of the reservoir, especially the deeper parts to the southwest, is waterbearing or water-saturated. Taken together, these conditions pose considerable
challenges for any type of recovery scheme. Nevertheless, our reservoir analysis has
identified some sweet spots (one example is shown in Figure 5) that are considered
prime targets for thermal recovery.

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Sedimentary Control on the Diagenetic Imprint: Its Impact on the Fracturation

Pattern and Reservoir Properties: The Example of the Madison Formation (Sheep
Mountain, Wyoming, USA)
1, 2

Mickael Barbier
1
Daniel

, Youri Hamon , Jean-Paul Callot , Benoit Vincent , Marc Floquet , Jean Marc

IFP, Dpartement Gologie, Gochimie, Gophysique, 1-4 avenue Bois Prau 92852 Rueil
Malmaison, France
2
Laboratoire de Gologie des Systmes et Rservoirs Carbonats, EA 4234, Universit de
Provence, 13331 Marseille, France
3
Cambridge Carbonates, Ltd Northampton House, Poplar Road, Solihull West Midlands, B91
3AP, United Kingdom

In order to properly identify and understand the influence of sedimento-diagenetic

evolution on the spatial arrangement of rock properties (petrophysical and mechanical)
and its further impact on the fracturing facies within a carbonate reservoir analogue, we
choose the case study of the Madison Limestone (Wyoming). This latter developed
during the Mississippian into six third-order sequences, which outcrop in the core of the
Laramide fold of Sheep Mountain.
Petrographical and diagenetic analyses were carried out from field and laboratory data,
along the two lower 3rd sequences (Figure 1). These two sequences are organized in
multiple small-scale facies-sequences typical of 1. supratidal environment, 2. intertidal
environment and 3. storm influenced subtidal environment. Diagenetic analysis
demonstrated that early diagenetic processes are differently expressed into sedimentary
facies: mudstones present an intense early dolomitisation (proposed seepage-reflux
processes); oolitic grainstones display early isopachous calcite cements; and finally
mud-supported facies (wacke- to packstones) are partially dolomitized.
Then, the fracture and mechanical stratigraphy studies show (1) a clear impact of
dolomitisation on the fracture pattern at small scale (Figure 1). Fracturation is more
diffuse, less persistent in the dolostone, while it appears more localized and well
connected in limestones and especially in oolitic grainstones; (2) at large scale, density,
shape and vertical persistence of fractures are influenced by the initial sedimentary
facies and its diagenetic imprint. First order mechanical units, composed of throughgoing persistent joints, are partly controlled by the main stratigraphic surfaces and major
faciologic and textures changes (Figure 2). Smaller mechanical units at bed-scale
directly relate to the coupled effect of sedimentary facies and diagenetic property
modifications.
Finally, the study of the sedimentary facies, diagenetic imprint and fracture network of
the Madison limestone outcropping at Sheep Mountain allows determining how the
various sets of veins controlled the fluid pathways during fold evolution (Figure 3). The
Madison paragenetic sequence, from the matrix and the vein cements, allows
characterizing the various fluid sources active during burial and folding. Bed confined
veins mobilized local fluid which isotopic signature related to the progressive increase of
temperature of formation and to slowly moving basinal fluids during burial, whereas
through-going veins allow quick connection within all stratigraphic sequences. These
observations point to a specific four-step characterization of fractured and diagenetically
modified reservoirs.

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Figure 1. Sedimentary log relates to dolomite percentage and fractures densities.

Figure 2. Panorama of the upper part of the sequence I, showing the mechanical unit B (MU1 B)
between 16 and 36 m.

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Figure 3. Fracturing related to burial and folding.

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NOTES

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Powderization of Triassic Dolostones in the Buda Hills, Hungary An Unusual

Type of Karstification?
1

Zsfia Poros , Andrea Mindszenty , Hans G. Machel , Ferenc Molnr , Paola Ronchi

Etvs Lornd University, Budapest, Hungary

University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
3
Eni
2

Powderization of dolostones is a general phenomenon in the Transdanubian Range (TR)

and particularly in the Buda Hills (Fig. 1), where its areal extent is exceptionally large
compared to similar occurrences
elsewhere in the world. Powdered
dolostones
have
porositypermeability characteristics that
differ significantly from those of the
parent dolostones: while porosity
may
be
enhanced,
matrix
permeability is relatively low. Thus,
powderization of dolostones is of
interest to petroleum geology and
engineering.
The bulk of the Buda Hills is
comprised of Triassic (Ladinian to Norian) platform carbonates that are dolomitized to
variable degrees. The Ladinian and Carnian sediments appear to have been dolomitized
from the surface at shallow burial by evaporitic fluids. The Norian is not dolomitized in
the Buda Hills region. The Mesozoic carbonate suite was affected by repeated periods of
intense tectonic activity resulting in uplift and subaerial exposure. The eroded surface is
unconformably overlain by Late Eocene limestones and marls. Bauxites mark the
unconformity, which suggests an extended period of subaerial exposure in a humid
climate.
The association of dolostone powderization with the regional pre-Middle Eocene
unconformity is obvious all over the TR (Fig. 2/D), implying that powderization was
genetically related to the unconformity. Powderization was most intense where bauxites
or bauxitic clays cover the subaerial exposure surface, and powdered zones were also
found along fractures or bedding-planes. Alternations of disintegrated dolostone beds
and intact dolostone beds suggest that dolostone powderization may have had also a
lithological control, that is, there may be a dependence on the texture of the precursor
dolostone or even the precursor limestone.
Detailed petrographic investigations show that powderization proceeded in four stages
that correspond to a gradual decrease in grain size, i.e., from parent dolostone to crackle
breccia (Fig. 2/A); (2) mosaic breccia (grain size: few mm up to about 2 cm) (Fig. 2/B);
(3) mosaic breccia blocks floating in powdered dolomite (Fig. 2/C); (4) powdered
dolomite (grain size: 100 to 300 m) (Fig. 2/D). The stable isotope composition
remained essentially unchanged throughout these stages. Dolostone breccia clasts and
powder grains are predominantly angular independent of grain size. Some clasts appear
sub-rounded by dissolution.

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In parts of the study area the dolomite powder is cemented by calcite, especially along
fractures. Calcite cementation is rare below bauxites. Two types of cementation can be
distinguished: (1) red calcite, which is interpreted to be Middle Eocene in age based on
the presence of bauxite mineral inclusions; and (2) white calcite, which is interpreted to
be post-Miocene in age because of the presence of Miocene barite inclusions. Based on
stable isotope geochemistry, i.e. 13CV-PDB= -7.4 to -0.6 and 18OV-PDB= -10.7 to -6.3 ,
we suggest that both calcites are of meteoric origin. Their CL pattern (non-luminescent
zones interrupted by a few thin, bright-luminescent zones) is also pointing to meteoric
fluid sources. Red calcite cementation is restricted to fracture zones formed in the semiconsolidated disintegrated dolomite, while white calcite appears in variable associations.
The most conspicuous occurrence is vertical pillars up to about 20 m in height and
several m in diameter, consisting of dolomite powder cemented by white calcite. These
pillars are erosional forms that protrude above the recent topography due to the removal
of the surrounding uncemented dolomite powder. At one locality white calcite pillars or
domains resemble travertine or flowstone, suggesting that white calcite formed
subaerially or in the vadose zone, whereas a phreatic origin is more likely deeper in the
stratigraphic section.
Our data suggest that powderization of the Triassic dolostones in the Buda Hills was
most probably initiated by mechanical stresses related to a period/periods of tectonic
activity, which formed crackle and mosaic breccias. These breccias further disintegrated
into dolomite powder during and/or after subaerial exposure. Powderization may thus be
interpreted as a peculiar type of karstification of brecciated dolostones in a humid
climate. Partial calcite cementation of the disintegrated dolomite probably is the result of
subsequent influx of calcium-enriched meteoric fluids during the Middle Eocene, or
during sub-recent uplift.
Our data further show that powderization of dolostone can significantly enhance porosity

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that may persist for several tens of millions of years. However, permeability of the
resulting pore networks is probably very low, therefore it is unclear to what an extent it
may improve the hydrocarbon reservoir potential of dolomite below regional
unconformities.

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NOTES

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(Paleo-)Karstreservoir Analogue Study (Murge Area, Southern Italy)

1

C. Jacquemyn , R. Swennen , P. Ronchi

1
2

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, K.U.Leuven, Belgium

Eni S.p.A., Exploration &Production Division, Italy

A multidisciplinary approach in the study of karstified carbonate reservoirs is applied by

Eni E&P on different reservoir analogue outcrops. The study of the relationships
between the sedimentary framework, tectonic evolution and subaerial exposure
characteristics in three-dimensional outcrops in Apulia is a key to interpret and forecast
the porosity-permeability properties distribution in Southern Italys carbonate reservoirs.
Since the Upper Cretaceous the Apulia carbonate platform underwent several phases of
exhumation and karstification with the creation of vugs and caverns in different shapes
and sizes. Apart from the duration of exposure and intensity of sea-level fall, the
distribution as well as the organisation of the karst cavities are influenced by several
factors. The aim of this study is to define the dominant factors for the observed karst
types.
Sedimentological (depositional environment, bedding texture) and diagenetic (small
scale dissolution, stylolites, cementation, fracturing) aspects have been studied in the
field, hand samples and thin sections. Mechanical stratigraphic analyses has been
performed on different structural datasets (fracture orientation, length, opening) obtained
by field measurements, high resolution photography and LIDAR acquisition.
Karstification phenomena have been described based on field characteristics and
controlling parameters were explored. Cement phases and (paleo-)speleothems were
sampled and their stable isotope composition was determined. To refine the relative
stratigraphic setting of the outcrops studied, chemostratigraphic and biostratigraphic
analyses have been carried out.
For this study, 4 quarry outcrops are studied and sampled in the Murge area. In these
quarries, the limestones of the Apulia platform cover a range from Aptian to Senonian in
age. Two of the quarries are located close to the coast near the towns of Trani and
Bisceglie and consist of Aptian inter- and subtidal mud- to wackestones. The
Cavallerizza and Barile quarries are located 20 km inland and consist of Cenomanian
rudist dominated subtidal mudstone. Towards the top of these mudstones a welldeveloped paleosol occurs overlain by Senonian peritidal deposits.
Stable C- and O-isotope measurements combined with biostratigraphical data allowed to
position the different outcrops in a stratigraphical framework. Hardgrounds preserved
their original signature better due to early marine cementation and are a tool for outcrop
correlation. A paleosol separates the Cenomanian from the Senonian deposits. A distinct
negative 13C-excursion occurs at this level and relates to soil-forming diagenesis. The
overlying Senonian deposits are 2 13C more depleted than the Cenomanian rudist
banks. Due to the impermeable nature of the paleosol, the Cenomanian deposits were
protected from meteoric fluids that could only penetrate where the paleosol was
breached by fractures. Around karst pockets an influence zone is present that extends 1
m in the host rock. Within this zone 13C-depletion of 1,4 is observed, which fades out
exponentially with distance from the karst cavity. Due to lower water-rock interaction,
calcite precipitation within large vugs and karst cavities has more depleted 13C
signatures than in smaller pores (e.g.: molds).
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Porosity measurements revealed porosity is present on a wide spectrum. Porosity of the

host rock is high (up to 25%) but is mainly limited to microporosity and molds.
Karstification and solution enlarged fractures add ca. 5%. The latter pores make up a
well connected pore network. Total porosity can thus attain 30%.
Based on fracture orientation data extracted from LIDAR scans different orientation
clusters were observed between fractures that were karstified and fractures that were
not karstified, which thus postdate karstification. The clusters of karstified fractures are
related to the compression of the southern Apennines and were dissolution enlarged
during the uplift caused by bulging of the Apulia platform (Pleistocene). This main
karstification phase occurred prior to Late-Pleistocene deposition and before orthogonal
fracture sets formed, which are not karstified.
Mechanical stratigraphy was used to calculate the fracturing within different sedimentary
layers. Several mechanical units were defined and a characteristic relation was found
between unit thicknesses and fracture intensity. Fracture intensity increases if layer
thickness decreases. In some of the quarries sedimentary cycles were clearly present.
These could then also be observed in fracture intensity logs. The degree of karstification
within a mechanical unit is inversely proportional to the respective fracture intensity.
Several karstification types are recognized in the Murge area. Paleokarstification
comprises small scale bioclasts dissolution and karstification of the loose sediments
below hardgrounds. When the karst cavity exceeded the maximum span for the
hardgrounds they collapsed and filled the void.
For the Subrecent karst that formed during the Pleistocene three concepts are
proposed.
1) Karst cavities are formed below an impermeable paleosol along fractures that
crosscut this paleosol. These fractures are the main infiltration paths for meteoric fluids
to reach the rock below.
2) In layered rocks karstification is controlled by fracture intensity of the layers
(mechanical stratigraphy). Karstification mainly occurs in layers where fracture intensity
is low and fluid flow is focussed through only few fractures.
3) The normal faults in the area are preferential pathways for meteoric fluids. The
footwall of normal faults is readily affected by karstification. Fluids that pass through
normal faults can be injected into mechanical stratigraphic controlled karst features.
In this study, the combination of several techniques led to the conclusion that
karstification in the Murge area is mostly controlled by fracturing. The fractures are the
result of the tectonic regime implied by the southern Apennines orogeny, by forming
compressional conjugate fracture sets, normal faults and dextral transpressional
fractures. Mechanical stratigraphy is a tool to examine the fracture intensity within layers
and mechanical units. The thickness of mechanical units is inverse proportionally related
to the fracture intensity which then controls the amount of karstification within that unit.

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Thursday 4 November
Session Five: Carbonate Reservoirs in Rift
Settings

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Keynote Speaker: Exploration for Carbonate Reservoirs in Rift Settings

Al Fraser, Andrei Belopolsky, BP Exploration, Sunbury-on-Thames, Middlesex, UK

Carbonates reservoirs are common around the world and account for roughly half of the
worlds proven reserves. The majority are broad carbonate platforms developed as
stable shelves during the progressive post-rift flooding. Their distribution is therefore
limited to the interior of the cratons and the shelfal areas of the passive margins. The
significant water depth during the post-rift phase in the present-day deepwater basins
naturally precludes the formation of shallow-water carbonate platforms and banks.
The syn-rift sequences of the deepwater basins, however, may contain valid carbonate
exploration targets. Under favourable conditions, isolated carbonate banks develop on
the elevated structural highs. It is clear that commercial production of hydrocarbons in
deep water from such targets strongly depends on the reservoir quality. Recent pre-salt
discoveries in the Santos Basin of Brazil demonstrated that commercial rates are
possible. Other examples include production from drowned isolated banks in deep water
developed on rifted faulted blocks.
In this paper we review examples from Vietnam, Philippines, Northern England, Brazil
and Libya and present models for reservoir development in rifted margin settings.

Fig.1 Nam Con Son Basin, offshore Vietnam. W-E regional seismic line. Syn and post-rift
Miocene carbonates are located on isolated fault block highs.

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Mixed Carbonate-Clastic-Evaporite Depositional Systems in Extensional Basins.

Insights from the Suez Rift-Red Sea-Gulf of Aqaba.
1

I. R. Sharp , R. L. Gawthorpe , J. Lukasik

Statoil - TNE RD Research Centre Bergen, Norway

University of Bergen, Norway.
3
Statoil TNE GET, Stavanger, Norway
2

Integrated facies, tectono-stratigraphic and diagenetic/reservoir models for mixed

carbonate-clastic-evaporite systems in extensional settings have been the subject of
renewed interest in recent years (e.g. Cross and Bosence 2008; Dorobek 2008). This
interest is likely to increase in coming years following significant hydrocarbon discoveries
within the syn and immediate post rift interval of the South Atlantic. In this contribution
we review existing facies and tectono-stratigraphic models for mixed carbonate-clasticevaporitic systems using data from the Quaternary and Modern of the Gulf of Suez - Red
Sea - Gulf of Aqaba region. Comparisons are then made to Oligo-Miocene depositional
systems in the same area. Emphasis is on primary facies development in relation to
structural elements, although secondary reservoir development (karstification, evaporite
dissolution/precipitation, dolomitisation) is also addressed. We predominantly describe
static facies models, although the impact of dynamic fault propagation on stratal
architecture is also addressed.
The Gulf of Suez Red Sea Gulf of Aqaba is a prime area to address models of rift
basin mixed carbonate-clastic-evaporite systems as both modern and ancient (Miocene)
systems are well exposed, relatively well dated, and young enough to disentangle the
sea level/tectonic signature. Furthermore, despite a Mediterranean to Indo-Pacific faunal
change, facies associations in Miocene and modern systems are directly comparable.
Quaternary-Modern systems are dominated by fringing reefs, coastal sabkhas, and
point-sourced ephemeral clastics. Clastic supply to the basin is typically related to
infrequent flash-flood events and wind. Winds and tidal currents are axial, parallel to the
elongation of the rift, and have a major impact on facies asymmetry; windward margins
are reef dominated, leeward margins are sediment tail dominated. Facies asymmetry is
north-south. Axial winds also result in significant deflation of alluvial fans and particular
abrasion of uplifted pre- and syn-rift lithologies. Barrier and isolated carbonate platforms
are subordinate, the latter occurring on fault block crests or salt diapirs. Fault block
bathymetry and degree of tilt controls platform extent and morphologhy. Carbonate
systems build over clastic spits, both of which enclose coastal lagoons to create sabkhas
related to high evaporation rates (365cm per yr). Bathymetry, related to rift topography,
impacts salinity/faunal diversity.
Outcrop study of Miocene systems implies similar controls on facies development to the
modern-Quaternary system. Stratigraphic development is easier addressed in the rock
record however, with HST being reef dominated, and LST-TST being evaporite-rhodolith
dominated. However, It should be stressed that evaporite-rhodolith-reef facies transitions
are as (more ?) typical of lateral variability within individual half graben due to structural
confinement, as opposed to sea-level control.
Fracture-controlled diagenesis is important in both the Quaternary-Modern and Miocene
systems, typically focused along crustal scale normal faults. This has resulted in
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secondary dolomitisation and silicification of the Miocene succession, and in the

development of hot springs and associated bacterial mats in the modern. Evaporite
dissolution and karstification of the Miocene succession significantly impacts reservoir
quality.

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Diagenetic Trends Associated with Syn- and Post-Rift Basin Evolution, Pennine
Basin, UK
Cathy Hollis, Alanna Juerges, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Science, Oxford
Road, Manchester, M13 9PL

It is widely understood that diagenetic processes, including fracturing, play a key role in
controlling porosity and permeability within carbonate reservoirs. Nevertheless, there is
often less attention paid to predicting the style and impact of post-depositional events on
reservoir performance during exploration, appraisal, and even reservoir development,
than to mapping depositional facies geometry. It may not be until field performance
becomes less predictable, or recovery rates appear suboptimal, that the nature, timing
and impact of diagenesis is assessed and conceptualised in detail. In part, this reflects
the absence of a predictive framework; a rules-set by which particular diagenetic
processes can be anticipated. For example, few studies attempt to fingerprint the
relationship between diagenesis and the structural evolution of the basin. In order to
achieve this, well-studied and accessible outcrop analogues are invaluable. The Lower
Carboniferous (Dinantian) carbonate platforms of the Pennine Basin of England and
Wales, which have a long history of academic and industrial investigation into their
depositional, tectonic and diagenetic evolution, are one such example. They host
economic volumes of galena, barite and fluorite, are locally important aquifers and have
periodically been assessed as potential oil and gas exploration targets (eg. Fraser and
Gawthorpe, 2003). The Pennine Basin therefore has the potential to provide valuable
data on the mechanisms and timing of porosity modification associated with extensional
tectonism, post-rift basinal subsidence and inversion.
Carbonate sedimentation within the Pennine Basin took place in the Lower
Carboniferous upon land-attached and isolated carbonate platforms.
Carbonate
accumulation was focused on footwall-highs bounded by deep-seated, reactivated
Caledonian basement faults. With progressive, fault-controlled differential subsidence of
the hanging wall basins, platform geometries evolved from ramps in the early Dinantian
to rimmed shelves in the Late Dinantian. This study concentrates upon the diagenetic
evolution of the late Dinantian of the Derbyshire and North Wales Platforms, and briefly
considers the Askrigg Platform of North Yorkshire. It builds on a number of integrated
field, petrographical and geochemical studies that have described the timing of key
diagenetic events on individual platforms. Through comparison of these datasets, a
pattern of consistent, predictable, diagenetic modification, which could be used in an
exploration context, becomes apparent. Nevertheless, key differences that can be
related to subtle variations in the tectono-stratigraphic framework are also evident.
The Late Dinantian carbonates of the Derbyshire, North Wales and Askrigg Platforms all
record pervasive marine and meteoric cementation. In particular, facies stacking
patterns, palaeokarst and a well preserved cement stratigraphy, define high-frequency,
tectonically and glacio-eustatically influenced fluctuations in relative sea level. The
platforms were progressively buried beneath a progradational clastic succession during
post-rift thermal sag subsidence, during which time a variably complex diagenetic
overprint was developed. This was dominated by fault-fracture controlled fluid migration
and circulation that resulted in pervasive calcite cementation and localised leaching.
The calcite cements are largely coeval with hydrocarbon emplacement and Mississippi
Valley-type (fluorite, barite, galena) mineralisation. Mineralisation is volumetrically most
significant on the Derbyshire Platform and the north-eastern margin of the North Wales
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Platform, with locally significant mineral deposits on the southern Askrigg Platform. On
the northern margin of the North Wales platform and the south-western Derbyshire
platform, mineralisation is preceded by metre- to kilometre- scale fault/fracture related
dolomitisation, which has variably improved porosity. Until now, there have been few
studies into the timing and mechanism for this dolomitisation. A conceptual diagenetic
model has been presented for the Derbyshire Platform that visualises calcite
cementation, hydrocarbon migration and mineralisation as a result of dewatering of the
clastic-dominated Carboniferous basins during Variscan inversion of the Pennine Basin
(Hollis and Walkden, 2002). This model can now be assessed within the framework of
the new datasets from the North Wales and Askrigg Platform.
On all the platforms, fault and fracture distribution is controlled principally by inheritance
of pre-existing Caledonian trends, which strongly influenced patterns of fluid circulation
and mineral emplacement during burial. Vertical fracture connectivity is significantly
influenced by palaeokarst development. In particular, the impedance contrasts imposed
by palaeosols result in fracture termination or offset, stressing the importance of
intraformational unconformities on both the matrix and fracture permeability architecture.
There are, however, subtle differences between the platforms. For example, the North
Wales and Askrigg Platforms have a simpler carbonate cement paragenesis than the
Derbyshire Platform. The North Wales Platform also comprises only minor barite and
fluorite (which is mined economically in Derbyshire) but abundant diagenetically late
copper mineralisation (which is not encountered on the Derbyshire or Askrigg Platforms).
There is strong evidence for coeval (non-economic) hydrocarbon emplacement on the
Derbyshire and North Wales Platforms, but rarely on the Askrigg Platform. Several
factors can explain these differences, including differences in the burial history of the
platforms, variability in the composition of the basinal sediments that sourced the metalenriched brines, and contrasting patterns of carbonate sedimentation on the platforms.
In summary, by comparing and contrasting the diagenetic history of the southernmost
Dinantian carbonate platforms within the Pennine Basin the relative importance of fluid
source and composition, history of structuration and primary permeability architecture on
palaeo-fluid flow within the Pennine Basin can be evaluated. This provides a
springboard from which the likelihood that key burial diagenetic events associated with
active rifting and post-rift basinal subsidence and inversion, such as fault/fracture related
dolomitisation, calcite cementation and dissolution, might be predicted. The key is a
holistic geological approach to fracture and diagenetic modelling, integrating
sedimentological, diagenetic, geochemical and structural concepts. It is at the interface
between these subject areas that the critical information required to reconstruct fluid flow
is held. Only once the mechanisms and processes that lead to major diagenetic events
are understood can the rules-base for predicting and modelling the effects of carbonate
diagenesis be defined. It is this rules-set that is a critical component in the assessment
of reservoir quality required for the successful exploration and production of carbonate
reservoirs.

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Friday 5 November
Session Six: Impact on Reservoir Quality of
Fracture Diagenesis and Burial Karst

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Keynote Speaker: Deformation Characteristics of Carbonate Reservoirs and Their

Significance for Production Recent Advances & Applications
1

Susan M. Agar , Ravi Shekhar Sebastian Geiger , Stephan Matthai

1

ExxonMobil Upstream Research Compan

Heriot-Watt University
3
Montan University of Leoben
2

Production data from large carbonate reservoirs acquired over many decades reinforce
the importance for early characterization and prediction of reservoir-scale structures.
Uneven and anisotropic sweep, high water cuts, and rapid water breakthroughs have
shown repeatedly that fracture denial (Nelson, 1999) is not an option. Models,
attempting to capture structural impacts on flow, have typically emphasized openfracture arrays as a primary influence. However, improved seismic- and wellbore
imaging reinforce numerous outcrop and core studies that document various fine-scale
structures with the potential to both enhance or impede flow. These include a variety of
open and cemented fracture networks, stylolites, deformation bands, fracture corridors
and low-offset faults. Broader recognition of potential links between these features and
signatures in dynamic production data has raised new challenges. These include the
development of techniques to model and predict reservoir-scale structures as well as
appropriate methods to address their effects and interactions with the rock matrix in flow
simulations. Further concerns include ways to factor diverse structural impacts into early
risking and assessment.
Advances in the structural analysis of carbonate reservoirs have been accelerated by
accompanying developments in several research areas, including stochastic-,
mechanical-, reactive-transport- and flow-modeling techniques. These developments
together with an expansion of multidisciplinary approaches, have highlighted the ways
by which the physical and chemical attributes of carbonate reservoirs drive close
coupling between deformation, sedimentology and diagenesis. As a result, approaches
to structural characterization of carbonate reservoirs have broadened to capture
structural associations with other geologic features, providing insights to fundamental
processes that underpin predictive capabilities. This integration also helps to define
domains of rock fabric at the reservoir scale, formed by intersecting structures, sediment
bodies and diagenetic features. Such fabric domains provide important context to
evaluate the role of structures in the overall flow system.
Recognition that coupling between stratigraphic architecture and deformation can
provide useful proxies for structural predictions in carbonate reservoir, studies of
mechanical stratigraphy have proliferated over the last decade. These have moved us
beyond mechanical contrasts controlling fracture terminations at bed boundaries to a
deeper knowledge of hierachical fracture systems and the ways that facies stacking
patterns and geometries influence fracture networks. This information can develop
significantly more sophisticated fracture predictions when combined with predictions
based on macroscopic structural controls. In addition, developments in mechanical
modeling techniques now offer potential advances to predict spatial variations in
fractures that go beyond empirical approaches based on macroscropic geometries.
Nevertheless, fracture prediction in carbonate rocks is still limited by weak constraints on
the evolution of their mechanical properties, pore-pressures and fracture timing.

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Long-recognized associations between structures and diagenesis in carbonate

reservoirs have received renewed interest. Published examples of structurally controlled
dolomitization support common links to wrench or extensional fault zones that have
localized dolomitizing fluids. These fluids not only modify the porosity and permeability
distribution of the host rock but also change the rock rheology. As a result, such
transformations may also promote further fracturing that can deliver economic flow rates.
Links between deformation and diagenesis have also highlighted fracture aperture
variations controlled by cementation histories and dissolution as well as associations
between karst and strain localization. Recent advances in coupled reactive transportand mechanical modeling now offer improved capabilities to simulate the timing and
distribution of structurally-linked diagenesis. In the future, such developments may
enable more reliable predictions of fracture-aperture evolution as well as the distribution
of cemented fractures. This information can help to explore effects of partly cemented
and sealed fractures on flow predictions.
Improvements in seismic- and well-bore imaging have revealed remarkable detail in the
geometry and intersections of reservoir-scale structures in carbonates, although the nonuniqueness of signatures from seismic anisotropy still place significant limitations on the
prediction of fracture populations from seismic data. Nevertheless combined seismic-,
well- and core data have drawn attention to the significance of commonly encountered
fracture corridors and low-offset fault zones on anomalous flow behavior during
production from carbonate reservoirs. A limited understanding of the processes that
control the spatial distributions of these features and their properties still impedes
accurate predictions. While recent expansions of multidisciplinary studies of fault zones
in carbonates have started to fill this gap, unifying concepts to support subsurface
predictions are still lacking. Recognition of laterally extensive stylolites and deformation
bands in carbonate reservoirs has also reinvigorated fundamental studies to evaluate
impacts of grainscale deformation on producibility.
The advances outlined above are just some of a rich suite of published contributions
over the last decade that have strengthened awareness of structural characteristics in
carbonate reservoirs and their significance for production. Consequently, it is now
possible to develop more sophisticated predictions that go beyond fracture-dominated
or matrix-dominated flow behaviors. It is also possible to define common patterns and
associations of geologic elements in carbonate reservoirs for a given setting that result,
in part, from coupled processes. In this way, the structures can be viewed as a
component of the rock fabric that influences flow behaviors for a given set of fluid and
pressure conditions (Agar et al., 2006). Even though this fabric is commonly
heterogeneous, the important question from a business perspective is how do different
components of the fabric impact hydrocarbon production?. Simple flow experiments will
be used in this talk to illustrate factors affecting the different roles of reservoir structures
in the overall flow system and the potential impacts on oil recovery (Agar et al., 2008).

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Fig. 1. Left: Conceptual model that places structures in the context of a rock fabric
that influences the overall flow system, from Agar et al., 2006. Above: Simple
flow simulations to illustrate the potential impacts of low-offset faults in
carbonate reservoirs on flow and recovery, from Agar et al., 2008.

In summary, expanded research on the deformation of carbonate rocks coupled with

technological advances over the last two decades have significantly strengthened
capabilities to anticipate the characteristics of structures in carbonates reservoirs.
However, much of the information generated has yet to be couched in the context of
appropriate frameworks or unifying structural concepts that improve predictions. The
heterogeneous nature of carbonate rocks has tended to drive an industry focus on casestudies of deformation for individual fields at the cost of identifying first-order trends and
processes that underpin predictions. Closer integration between geoscience and
engineering, has demonstrated that the numerous products generated by rock strain in
carbonates can be significant for flow predictions. However, there remain many
opportunities to explore how this knowledge could improve early risking and production
strategies.

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The Relationship between Fracture Cement Patterns and Fracture-Set Size

Distributions in Carbonate Rocks
1

1, 2

J. N. Hooker , J. F. W. Gale , L. A. Gomez

, S. E. Laubach , R. M. Reed

The University of Texas at Austin Bureau of Economic Geology, Jackson School of

Geosciences, Austin, Texas 78713 USA
2
Current address:ExxonMobil Upstream Research Company, 3120 Buffalo Speedway, Houston,
Texas 77098 USA

Patterns of fracture-filling cement, revealed using light and scanning-electron

microscopy, indicate that fractures in carbonate rocks sometimes grow incrementally, by
repeated cracking and sealing. The degree of cement filling of fractures by these crackseal deposits varies with fracture aperture size, opening rate, thermal history, and
specific carbonate rock mineralogy. The process can leave some fractures open even
where local cement deposits are present that record opening history. In the preservation
of fracture pore space these crack-seal structures differ markedly from crack-seal
textures in cement filled veins. In sedimentary rock systems aperture size and opening
rate effects lead to fracture arrays that include microfractures that are mostly sealed and
large fractures that are mostly open. At intermediate sizes fractures may contain isolated
cement deposits that span between fracture walls, separated by otherwise open fracture
pore space.
Cement patterns vary systematically with overall fracture size distribution patterns.
Microscopic imaging allows the number and sizes of crack-seal increments to be
identified. For sets of fractures that follow power-law size distributions, the variation in
aperture size generally depends on the number of crack-seal increments within the
fractures. In contrast, fracture sets that do not follow power-law size distributions feature
relatively little variation in fracture size, and usually do not show crack-seal cement
deposit patterns. These two types of size distributions imply meaningfully different
fracture permeability characteristics. Fracture permeability in power-law size distributions
is dominated by the largest few fractures whereas in non power-law distributions the
permeability is likely more distributed. When low numbers of fractures are directly
sampled, as is usually the case with vertical core, inspection of fracture-filling cement
patterns provides evidence for the overall type of fracture size distribution present, and
can aid in selecting an appropriate scaling equation to extrapolate abundance of larger
fractures.
In fractured carbonate reservoirs, evidence from cement deposits, the internal structure
of fractures, and the entire fracture size distribution range leads to more accurate
interpretations of the effects of fractures on producibility, the likely patterns and effects of
fractures in unsampled areas away from existing wellbores, and the time dependence of
fracture porosity, permeability, and the degree of fracture system heterogeneity.

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Two fracture sets with contrasting cement-fill texture and overall aperture size
distribution. (A) Macroscopic fractures measured along 1D scanlines in the Cupido
Formation (Cup) and Balbuena Formation (Bal) dolostones. (B) Fracture-filling cements
from the fractures pictured above, revealed using SEM-based cathodoluminescence. In
the Cupido Formation sample, crystals bridge across a fracture; these bridges are
composed of myriad crack-seal increments. Fracture cement in the Balbuena Formation
sample is relatively textureless. (C) Aperture size distributions for each fracture set. The
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Cupido Formation fracture are well-fit by a power-law equation; the Balbuena Formation
fractures are better fit by an exponential equation. The power law distribution predicts a
greater number of larger fractures, which are more likely to preserve porosity. The
relatively high variation in fracture size present within the power-law population is a
result of fractures comprising varying numbers of crack-seal increments.

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Relative Influence of Depositional, Diagenetic and Tectonic Fabrics on the

Petrophysical Properties of Carbonate Hosted Faults
1

Nick Timms , Dave Healy , Moyra E.J. Wilson , Joyce Neilson

The Institute of Geoscience Research, Curtin University, Perth WA 6845 Australia

School of Geosciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3UE United Kingdom

Carbonate reservoirs are highly heterogeneous in their internal fabric and structure,
mainly due to the variety of depositional and diagenetic processes that affect these
rocks. This intrinsic heterogeneity presents major challenges when characterising the
physical properties of a reservoir, either from seismic or well data. Fractured carbonate
reservoirs have additional heterogeneity due to damage within, and fracture
development around, faults. Fault damage zones are often the main conduits for fluidflow, whereas fault cores tend to be sealing and act as barriers to across-fault flow. High
strains in fault cores commonly result in obliteration of depositional and diagenetic
textures, and pre-fault fabrics consequently have little influence on fluid flow. In contrast,
lower strains in fault damage zones mean that the effects of depositional and diagenetic
textures are more apparent. Porosity and permeability will be controlled by the
combination of original textures and fracture patterns in the fault damage zone. We
report on the results of fieldwork from the Maltese Islands to evaluate the combined
influences of depositional fabrics, diagenesis and fracturing on porosity and permeability
in Cenozoic carbonates. These carbonates have been selected for initial field and
laboratory (petrographic, SEM) study since a wide variety of carbonate facies are
variably affected by faulting and fracturing associated with a number of major fault
zones. A key output will be a quantitative understanding of how extrinsic brittle damage
around faults combines with intrinsic lithological variation of different carbonate facies to
affect petrophysical properties. Additional phases of this project will further quantify the
key petrophysical properties of faulted carbonate systems, e.g. seismic velocities,
porosity and permeability, to ultimately aid prediction of reservoir quality in fractured
carbonates.

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Fault-Related Dolomitization in Jebel Akhdar (Oman) and its Impact on Reservoir

Quality
Veerle Vandeginste Cedric M. John, John Cosgrove, Anne-Lise Jourdan, Janine Lahr, Claire N.
H. Sena, Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, Prince Consort
Road, London SW7 2BP, United Kingdom

Dolomitization is one of the most important diagenetic processes in carbonate rocks. It

has a tremendous commercial impact as dolomitization affects both reservoir quality and
heterogeneity. Consequently research efforts have been focused on dolostone
characterization and on understanding dolomitization processes. However, to date
relatively few examples of fault-related dolomitization have been studied (e.g. Wilson et
al., 2007). This type of dolomitization is thus not well understood, especially in terms of
its origin, process, structural framework and spatial heterogeneity.
In the current study, we focus on fault-related dolomite outcropping in Jebel Akhdar
(northern Oman). This study is part of the broader Qatar Carbonate and Carbon Storage
Research Centre (QCCSRC) project 1, investigating the interaction between the
environment of deposition, diagenesis, fracturation and fluid flow in carbonate platforms.
The goal of the present study is two-fold. First, we intend to study the process of
dolomitization and the timing, origin and composition of the dolomitizing fluids that led to
fault-related dolomitization in the Jebel Akhdar. Second, we intend to determine whether
or not the fault-related dolomite in Jebel Akhdar represents a faithful analogue for similar
dolomite bodies in the subsurface of Qatar. This will largely depend on whether or not
the fluids responsible for the dolomitization in Oman are related to the emplacement of
the Semail Ophiolite, which was suggested by Coy (1997).
Late-diagenetic dolostone bodies were identified along faults in Wadi Mistal (Fig. 1A)
and Wadi Sahtan (Fig. 1B). These dolostones are reddish brown in colour and form
distinct bodies. At Wadi Mistal, the dolostone is present as a meter-scale, relatively
irregular dolostone body within a greyish Jurassic limestone host rock. It is delineated by
faults as well as stratigraphic horizons. In Wadi Sahtan, this reddish brown dolostone
typically occurs at the transition zone between the greyish lowest Khuff limestone and
the overlying brownish Khuff dolostone of early-diagenetic origin. This succession occurs
only a few tens of meters above an important unconformity that separates the underlying
Precambrian shaley and carbonate lithologies from the overlying lower Khuff (Permian)
limestone.

Figure 3: Reddish brown fault-associated dolomite bodies at (A) Wadi Mistal and (B) Wadi
Sahtan.
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Samples from both dolostone bodies as well as the surrounding host rock have been
studied by mineralogical, petrographic and geochemical methods. Results reveal some
differences between the two dolostones. For example, X-ray diffraction analysis
identified the presence of goethite in the samples from Wadi Mistal, whereas this mineral
was not detected in Wadi Sahtan. Based on petrographic observations, we suggest that
the carbonate rocks have undergone several phases of dolomitization (with the
formation of fine planar-p to planar-e, brownish medium planar-e, and coarse planar-c
and non-planar-c dolomite) and a subsequent phase of dedolomitization (or
calcitization). Furthermore, some dolomite-related fluids must also have caused the
precipitation of quartz crystals (often euhedral), which can make up to 5% of the bulk
rock of both the dolomitic limestones and dolostones. The host rock testifies to a high
degree of deformation as the limestones are highly recrystallized and calcite cement and
veins are characterized by calcite crystals that display thick tabular and curved twins.
Geochemical results identify low-Mn, low-Fe host rocks and high-Mn, high-Fe latediagenetic dolomite. Hence, despite the high degree of deformation, the geochemical
variability between host rock and dolomite bodies could be used to study the likely
composition of the diagenetic fluids responsible for the dolomitization.
Ongoing research is attempting to further characterize the dolomitizing fluids and
establish their origin. This is combined with an evaluation of the structural framework
from the regional to outcrop scale aimed at determining the likely fluid pathways (faults,
joints and stratigraphic layers) and the mechanisms of dolostone formation. Our initial
analysis of geometry and structural relationships of the dolostone bodies indicate
preferential flow of the dolomitizing fluids along fault planes and selected stratigraphic
horizons. This preliminary conclusion, however, needs to be further evaluated by
additional fieldwork.

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Fracture Controlled Diagenesis in the Lower Carboniferous (Dinantian) of North

Wales: A Case Study for the Evaluation of Fracture-Controlled Diagenesis in
Carbonate Reservoirs
Alanna Juerges, Cathy Hollis, Dave Hodgetts, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental
Sciences, Manchester University, Manchester, M13 9PL

Understanding the development of palaeo-hydrological systems is a major objective of

all burial diagenetic studies. In carbonate rocks, where matrix porosity is often low, open
fractures are often important flow conduits for diagenetic fluids, and can greatly improve
permeability. The accurate prediction of fracture distribution and connectivity, and the
nature of resultant, fracture-controlled post depositional processes through time, can be
critical to the exploration and production of carbonate reservoirs. However, scaling and
sampling constraints mean that seismic surveys and well data frequently provide limited
information regarding fracture network geometries and diagenesis, particularly within
interwell areas. Therefore, detailed, multi-scale description and interpretation of relevant
outcrop analogues can offer invaluable templates for forward-modelling fracture
distribution and resultant fracture-controlled diagenesis.
Focusing on the close relationship between dolomitisation, structuration and
mineralisation on the Great Orme, Llandudno, UK, this study is concerned with
constraining the relationship between the diagenetic evolution of matrix and fracture
pore networks in the context of the regional and basinal structural evolution of Lower
Carboniferous carbonates of the North Wales Platform, UK. Through a combination of
qualitative and quantitative outcrop description, petrographical and isotopic
investigations, a paragenetic framework has been developed within which the
relationship between matrix and fracture diagenesis has been evaluated.
The North Wales Platform developed on the footwall high of a series of tilted fault blocks
that formed during a period of back-arc extensional tectonics in the Lower Carboniferous
(Fraser and Gawthorpe, 2003). To the north, the platform was bound by the East Irish
Sea Basin and to the South by St Georges Land. The platform carbonate succession
hosts the NE Wales orefield comprising lead-zinc (Mississippi Valley Type), ore deposits
and copper mineralisation. Many of the tectonic structures are controlled by deep
seated Caledonian faults, orientated NE-SW, which were reactivated during the Variscan
Orogeny (op cit.). A second E-W trend has also been observed, related to Alpine
tectonism and minor basin inversion during the Tertiary. As a result, burial cementation
and mineralisation predominantly occur in fractures orientated N-S, NE-SW and NW-SE.
The cements described in this study are mainly sampled from micro fractures that exhibit
a Caledonian/ Variscan orientation.
Early diagenesis on the North Wales Platform is recorded within the matrix pore network
by marine and meteoric cements. Subsequent burial events include fracturing and
localised replacive dolomitisation on the northern margin of the platform. Burial cements
include vein and interparticle calcite and dolomite, both of which are contemporaneous
with Pb-Zn mineralisation, and are interpreted to be coincident with the Variscan
Orogeny. In contrast, the southern margin of the platform hosts Pb-Zn mineralisation and
associated quartz veining with a comparative lack of dolomitisation (see Figure 1A).
There is strong paragenetic evidence for telogenesis (e.g. dissolution cavities) and
meteoric cements, which cross-cut, and therefore must post-date, burial (Variscan)
fracture-filling cements. Cross-cutting open fractures that provide minor isolated
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improvements in porosity were produced during a minor secondary, post-Permian, uplift

event. Finally, diagenetically late copper mineralisation, which exploits secondary
porosity and fractures in the dolomitised limestone, has been observed along the
northern margin of the platform (see Figure 1B).
Field data clearly demonstrates a strong relationship between cement paragenesis and
structural grain, from which the spatial distribution of fracture types and properties can
be predicted. In addition, vertical fracture connectivity is highly influenced by
sedimentary facies and the distribution of dolomite. In particular, high frequency
exposure surfaces that occur in conjunction with calcretes and palaeosols typically
create sufficient impedance contrast for fracture termination. Furthermore, exposure
surfaces and interbedded fine grained sediments provide baffles and barriers to upward
migrating fluids. Evidence of channelisation of fluids beneath these surfaces, and
localised ponding is provided by more pervasive dolomitisation and/ or mineralisation
below these horizons.
To conclude, several generations of carbonate cements have been observed within
primary and secondary porosity and document the progressive burial and exhumation of
the Early Carboniferous sediment. Fracture controlled dolomitisation and lead-zinc
mineralisation precipitated from fluids that were driven along fracture networks
generated during post-rift subsidence and basin inversion in the Late Carboniferous.
There is strong petrographical and field evidence of telogenesis and a second, postPermian, burial event, which further modified fracture and matrix flow properties. These
results will now be taken forward, using detailed geochemical analysis, to reconstruct
palaeo-fluid flow and constrain a source, timing and mechanism for the burial diagenetic
events. Ultimately, these data will have important implications for the understanding of
fluid flow in fractured and/or dolomitised hydrocarbon reservoirs and the exploration of
MVT ore deposits.

Figure.1. Images demonstrate the contrasting burial diagenetic events across the North Wales
Platform. (A) Galena mineralisation within a quartz vein, Minera, southern platform margin (XPL,
x4). (B) Pervasive and vein dolomite cross-cut by diagenetically late copper mineralisation, Great
Orme, Llandudno, northern platform margin.

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Friday 5 November
Session Seven: Hydrothermal Dolomitisation

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Formation of Hydrothermal vs Non-Hydrothermal Saddle Dolomites in Different

Tectonic Settings: Petrographic and Geochemical Constrains
Hairuo Qing, Department of Geology, University of Regina, Regina Saskatchewan, Canada S4S
0A2

Saddle dolomite can be associated with hydrothermal fluids as illustrated in the Middle
Devonian Presquile barrier reef complex in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. In
this case, saddle dolomite and associated dolomitization are interpreted to be formed by
hydrothermal fluids expelled by the tectonic compression and sedimentary loading along
the western margin of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin. This interpretation is
supported by the regional occurrence of saddle dolomite along the barrier and the
corresponding trends of Sr isotopes (0.7081 to 0.7106), O isotopes (-7 to -16 PDB),
and fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures of fluid inclusions (92 to 178 oC) that
exceed the ambient regional burial temperatures (60 to 160 oC).
Saddle dolomite cement in the Ordovician Red River carbonate in the interior craton of
the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin in southeastern Saskatchewan Canada,
13
C values (-0.2 to
0.9 PDB) overlapping with those of their host dolomite, all of which fall within the
range of the expected value of Ordovician seawater; (3) produces Sr isotopic ratios
(0.7082 to 0.7090) similar to those of its host replacement dolomites; and (4) displays
relatively low homogenization temperatures (about 100 oC) that can be related to the
normal burial temperatures in the region. In this case, saddle dolomite cement is best
interpreted to be related to cannibalization of earlier replacement dolomite through
chemical compaction in a relatively closed system during burial.
The occurrence of saddle dolomite, therefore, is not necessarily indicative for
hydrothermal activity and/or fluid flow.

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Porosity and Permeability of Hydrothermal Dolomite (HTD) Bodies: Distribution

and Controlling Parameters (Ranero, Northern Spain)
1

J. Dewit , M. Huysmans , Ph. Muchez , D.W. Hunt , R. Swennen

1

Geofluids & Geodynamics, Geology, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,

K.U.Leuven, Belgium
2
Statoil, Bergen, Norway

Hydrothermal or high temperature dolomites (HTD) have received renewed attention due
to their potential as hydrocarbon reservoirs in recent years. Focus has been on the
genesis of HTD (e.g. Mallone et al., 1996; Nielsen et al., 1998; Machel, 2004;
Vandeginste et al., 2005; Gasparrini et al. 2006; Lpez-Horgue et al., 2009; Sharp et al.,
2010; etc.). More recently, the reservoir qualities of HTD have been addressed (e.g.
Cantrell et al., 2004; Davies & Smith, 2006; Wilson et al., 2007). Dissolution and
cementation phases, which create or destroy porosity and enhance or decrease
permeability, are related to the different steps in the genesis of HTD. However, the
relationship between genesis and reservoir characteristics have only received limited
attention.
This study focuses on HTD cropping out in the Ramales Platform (northern Spain). This
platform formed in the Basque-Cantabrian Basin during the Aptian and Albian
(Cretaceous) and is built up by Urgonian limestones. Fault-related HTD occurring near
Ranero are hosted by platform slope and back-reef limestones. A massive HTD body (
3km long and maximum 1km wide) is controlled by the sinistral strike-slip Ranero
Fault. The Pozalagua Quarry (platform slope) offers an excellent view on the different
diagenetic phases related to the Ranero Fault. In the back-reef area the HTD body is
much wider than in the platform slope and covers an area of 1km. Plug samples of
HTD and host-limestone have been collected for standard porosity and permeability
analyses. In total 277 plugs were sampled in sections parallel and perpendicular to the
Ranero Fault as well as randomly.
The HTD occurring in the Ramales platform can be related to two major dolomitisation
phases. The first dolomitisation phase resulted in iron-rich dolomites and the second in
iron-poor dolomites. The samples were classified as matrix, zebra or massive cement
dolomite based on their macroscopic texture. Plugs were analysed for helium porosity
and Klinkenberg permeability. The data were analysed by means of (geo)statistical
methods to compare porosity and permeability distributions in different HTD types and to
investigate the spatial distribution of these types.
The porosity of the HTD samples ranges between 0.1 and 12%. Plotting the data in a
Digital Outcrop Model (DOM) of the study area shows that the porosity is distributed in
clusters. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) proved that the porosities measured in the HTD
types are significantly different. To be able to interpret the porosity distribution, one
needs to understand the spatial occurrence of the HTD types. Detailed mapping of the
HTD types in the field (n = 1018) reveals that massive cement dolomites preferentially
occur parallel and perpendicular to the Ranero Fault (Figure 1A). Moreover, the clusters
of massive cement dolomite correspond to areas where iron-poor dolomites dominate
(second dolomitisation phase) (Figure 1 B). The presence and direction of anisotropy in
the dataset is calculated by omnidirectional semivariograms. Two anisotropy directions
are clearly present in the dataset, i.e. N35W and N60E. N35W corresponds to the
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orientation of the Ranero Fault. The N60E orientation can be attributed to two features:
dolomite vein orientation and orientation of the platform edge. The latter possibility is
preferred since only a limited population of small dolomite veins with a N60E orientation
were observed in the field.
The permeability of the HTD plugs ranges between 0.1 and 17mD. This reservoir
property is not dependent on the HTD types, but on the dolomite phase. There is a
significant difference in permeability of the iron-rich and iron-poor dolomites (calculated
by ANOVA). The dolomites generated by the second dolomitisation phase are
characterised by lower permeabilities, which is attributed to overdolomitisation (Lucia,
2004). The distribution of iron-rich and iron-poor dolomites is also controlled by the
Ranero Fault and platform architecture.
It needs to be emphasized that the results of the standard poroperm measurements are
valid for samples of plug size (2.5cm diameter). This implies that large pores are
underestimated by this sampling technique. Further attention will be paid to this
underestimation by combining plug data with image analysis of large samples with a
representative surface compared to the pores size.
This study shows that to be able to interpret the porosity and permeability distribution of
HTD it is important to understand the genesis of the HTD, know the orientation of the
feeder system and the architecture of the host platform. The feeder system and platform
architecture, in this case the Ranero Fault and orientation of the platform edge, control
the distribution of the HTD types and thus the porosity. The HTD types are related to
different dolomitisation phases, as massive cement dolomites are associated to the
second dolomitisation phase, while matrix and zebra dolomite are related to the first
dolomitisation phase. The distribution of the permeability is related to the feeder fault
and platform architecture. The permeability is, moreover, strongly related to the genesis
of the HTD as the lowest permeability occurs in HTD influenced by the second
dolomitisation phase.

Figure 1: A. Spatial distribution of HTD types mapped in the field (n = 1018). B. Spatial
distribution of iron-rich and iron-poor dolomites (n = 277).

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Structurally Controlled Hydrothermal Dolomitization in the Albian of the Ramales

Carbonate Platform (Biscay and Cantabria Provinces, Spain)
1

Mikel Lpez-Horgue , Eneko Iriarte , Bruno Caline , Stefan Schroeder , Ccile Pabian2
Goyheneche
1

Dpt. of Stratigraphy and Palaeontology, Faculty of Science and Technology, UPV/EHU, Basque
Country, North Spain
2
TOTAL E & P, Avenue Larribau, 64018 Pau Cedex, France.

Shallow marine carbonate sedimentation dominated during the Albian in the western
part of the Basque Cantabrian Basin in Northern Spain, forming the large Ramales
Carbonate Platform. This platform originated on a less subsiding tectonic block facing
deeper subsiding areas to the south and east whose origin is related to intense tectonic
activity due to the opening of the Bay of Biscay. Fracture-related hydrothermal dolomites
are hosted mainly in these Albian carbonates. The general shape is vertical along faultstrike from which strata-bound bodies expand laterally. Dolomitization is usually
pervasive and independent of the limestone facies. Main dolomite facies are fine
replacive, sucrosic and saddle. Petrography, C, O and Sr isotope-study and fluid
inclusion analysis support a polyphase hydrothermal dolomitization. Burial analysis of
the host limestone supports maximum burial temperatures of 80C and an intense
tectonic activity from Albian to Turonian with the highest subsidence interval in the latest
Albian. The structural analysis indicates a strong extensional to transtensional tectonic
activity in the studied area during Albian to Turonian. Fluids moved from subsiding
deeper areas to fractured uplifted parts of the Ramales platform enhanced by diapiric
activity.

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Well-exposed outcrops of fracture-related hydrothermal dolomites cutting across the margin of

the Ramales Carbonate Platform in the Karrantza area (Biscay province, Basque Country, North
Spain).

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NOTES

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Hydrothermal Dolomitization in Platform and Basin Carbonate Successions in

Thrust Fold Belt: A Hydrocarbon Reservoir Analogue (Mesozoic of Venetian
Southern Alps, Italy)
1

Paola Ronchi , Daniale Masetti , Stefano Tassan , D. Camocino

1

Eni E&P Division, Via Emilia 1, San Donato Milanese, Italy

University of Ferrara, Depth Earth Sciences, Via Saragat, 1, Ferrara, Italy
3
University of Trieste, Via Weiss 1, Trieste, Italy
4
Via Emilia 1, San Donato Milanese, Italy
2

The
Mesozoic
dolomitized carbonates
are
a
hydrocarbon
exploration
target
in
Northern Italy. Along the
Monte Grappa thrust
(Venetian Southern Alps),
large dolomitized bodies
are outcropping. The
Monte Zugna Formation
(Calcari Grigi Group,
Lower Jurassic Trento
Platform)
shows
pervasive dolomitization
that locally obliterated the
original bedding. In this
area the dolomitization affects also pelagic cherty limestone of the Lower Cretaceous
Biancone Formation: towers and tens of meters large bodies of dolomitic breccia stand

out. These breccias bodies have been interpreted as the infilling of neptunian dykes
often cutting the Biancone Formation in this area.
Field mapping, petrographic and geochemical studies were carried out and integrated
with the thermal history, basin and structural evolution of the area, in order to define a
dolomitization model and to shed light on dolomite distribution in the subsurface.
Petrophysical analyses on plug samples indicate that the dolomitization improved
porosity and permeability of the both formations, which reached values analogue to the
Northern Italy Mesozoic dolomite reservoir. The porosity is represented by
intercrystalline pores in both Biancone and Monte Zugna formations, while in the latter,
the original limestone fenestral, vuggy and interparticle porosities were enlarged by
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dolomitization.
In
the
both
formations the
petrographic
analyses
DS
showed a first
pervasive,
replacement
dolomitization
200 m
phase
(D1),
usually blotchy
orange under cathodoluminescence (CL) followed by volumetrically less important
dolomite cement precipitation phases (CL dull D2 and bright CL orange overgrowth D3).
The last dolomite cement is represented by saddle dolomite (Ds) found locally in large
vugs and fractures. Two phases of calcite cement are found: the first of burial origin (as
the fluid inclusion indicate), the second related to recent meteoric precipitation.
The Biancone Formation samples
from have the 18O values falling
I- 0
between -7.1 and -4.8 PDB. In
(m)
the Monte Zugna Formation samples
Seawater
- 500
the oxygen range is similar to the
one of the Biancone Formation. The
n
io
t
ma
For
ne
saddle dolomite (Ds) records the
o
c
n
- 1000
Bia
on
ati
30C
m
r
lowest 18O of -8.8 PDB. All the
o
aF
n
g
dolomite samples have a positive
Zu
nte
13
- 1500
Mo
C from 0.5 to 3.2 PDB. The
40C
50C
e
l
a
fluid
inclusion microthermometric
p
i
c
rin
aP
i
study
in
the Biancone Formation D1
2000
lom
Do
and D2 dolomites indicates the
same range of homogenization
- 2500
temperature (Th) values, mostly
Biancone Fm D1 D2 Fluid inclusion Th 90-100 C
comprised between 90 and 100 C.
Monte Zugna Fm D2 Fluid inclusion Th 85-105 C
In the Monte Zugna Formation the
D2 Th values are more scattered (85-105C) and the saddle dolomite records the
highest Th values of 108 C; no data were obtained from D1 phase. These
temperatures, largely higher than the burial temperature under geothermal gradient,
indicate a hydrothermal dolomitization. The ice melting temperature (Tice) was measured
in phases D2 and Ds from few Monte Zugna samples: the values indicate low salinity for
the dolomitizing fluids (lower than sea water). The strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr)
values of the dolomitized Monte Zugna and Biancone Formations samples from Monte
Grappa are more radiogenic than the original limestone (around 0,708500): this
suggests that the hydrothermal dolomitizing fluids in Monte Grappa passed through
siliciclastic succession or, alternatively, could have been derived from Tertiary sea water.
JURASSIC

CRETACEOUS

150
I

100
I

CENOZOIC

50
I

(Ma)

Uplift and Erosion

200
I

The hydrothermal dolomitization of the Monte Grappa can be interpreted as related to

the South Alpine thrusting. The squeezed dolomitizing fluids, after passing through the
fractured and permeably Monte Zugna Formation, were funneled upwards into the
brecciated neptunian dikes in the Biancone Formation which is otherwise quite
impermeable being made of muddy and cherty bedded limestone. This interpretation is
consistent with the dolomitization model proposed for similar Jurassic successions in the
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Central Southern Alps. An alternative interpretation suggests that during the early
phases of Monte Grappa thrusting, in submarine condition, a convective cell was
established, causing flow of dolomitizing sea water.
In the both interpretations it is evident the strong link between dolomitization distribution
and structural evolution, relationship that can be used as a driver for predicting the
presence of dolomitized bodies in analogue subsurface setting.

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Genesis and Evolution of Fault Related Dolomitisation in a Jurassic Carbonate

Sequence: Impact on 3D Geometries and Reservoir Properties.
1

Raffaele Di Cuia , Alberto Riva , Bruno Caline , Cecile Pabian-Goyheneche

G.E.Plan Consulting, Italy

Total, France

A partially dolomitised early Jurassic carbonate sequences of the Calcari Grigi Group
(Southern Alps, northern Italy) was studied with a multidisciplinary approach to build an
integrated geological and diagenetic model. The integration of petrographic,
geochemical and fluid-inclusion analyses allows for reconstruction of diagenetic
evolution in relation to burial and tectonic deformation, and to better understand the
hydrological regime active during these phases. The main features related to the faultrelated dolomitisation have been carefully measured to better understand their 3D
distribution and their impact on the reservoir model when this sequence is considered as
a outcrop analogue of some subsurface HC field.
The dolomitization model and the evolution of the system can be divided into two main
phases. The first phase refers to relatively early dolomites developed both at the surface
and within shallow burial environments. The dolomitizing fluid was mainly represented by
normal or slightly concentrated sea water. The second phase is represented by
estimated low-temperature hydrothermal fault-related dolomitization because the
estimated fluid temperature was higher than the host rock. The flat-lying dolomites of the
first phase contrast with the pinnacle-shaped geometry of the hydrothermal dolomite
bodies, coupled with dolomitic horizontal fingers. This geometry shows also that there
are strong relationships between the hydrothermal dolomites and the structural network,
implying an important role for the existing faults in the palaeohydrological system.
Near open fracture swarms or faults, the dolomitisation front uprises, sometimes
generating vertical chimneys that can cross the overlying sedimentary succession. In
these zones the dolomite is massive, with a complete reworking of the original
limestones, sometimes with strong evidence of hydrofracturing related to overpressured
fluids.

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Different types of dolostone features in one of the studied locations

From these vertical dolomite bodies, high permeability bedding-parallel dolomitic bodies
develop with lenticular or planar shape. These bodies can be 10s of meters in length
and 1-3 meters in thickness and are often stacked one on top of the other.
Based on core samples the porosity associated to these dolomitic bodies can be up to
25-30% with an extremely good connectivity. Matrix porosity and permeability, directly
measured on plug analysis, vary respectively between 0.5-25% and 0.05-40 mD. These
petrophysical data appear strongly related to the diagenetic facies associations.

Core picture, CT scan image and calculated porosity values for one of the cores cut in the high
porosity and permeability bedding-parallel bodies.

Paragenetic and fluid-inclusions data suggest an evolutionary trend of increasing

temperatures and decreasing salinity toward brackish fluids responsible for dolomite and
calcite precipitation.
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The integration of the available data seems to indicate that the diagenetic evolution of
the study area is related to i) the interplay between evolving fluids (from marine to
brackish), ii) the burial of the sequence (increasing temperature), and iii) the evolution of
the hydrogeological system (fault and fracture network, fluid mixing).
This complex paragenetic evolution is strongly linked with the development of the
porosity framework that evolved from a good widespread network in the early stages of
the burial history to a confined system in the later stages due to reduction of porosity by
the precipitation of late calcite and dolomite cements.
The suggested driving mechanism for fluid flow during the second phase (fault-related
dolomitisation) is associated with tectonic loading (cf. squeegee model of Machel, 2004;
Geological Society, London, Special Publications; 2004; v. 235; p. 7-63) forcing
pressurized fluids to move from the tectonic collision zone onto the foreland strata. In
addition, topographically-driven flow may introduce meteoric water into the burial
system, providing mixing of different waters which may result in a variety of diagenetic
fluids. This can be linked to a large recharge area for meteoric waters circulating in the
thrust-belt foreland system, as the Eastern Southern Alpine chain became emerged
since late Paleogene times. The high relief of the belt facilitated meteoric water supply to
the deep hydrogeological systems in the belt; and gave rise to a high hydraulic head
which allowed surface water to penetrate deeply into the Mesozoic carbonates.
In conclusion, the diagenetic evolution of the study area is related to different types of
dolomitization leading to different geometries. Early and shallow burial dolomites occur
during the Mesozoic with near surface temperatures, followed by relatively lowtemperature hydrothermal dolomites developing a pinnacle-shaped geometry
surrounded by dolomite fingers. The hydrothermal dolomitization is thus linked to: i) the
interplay between an evolving fluid (from marine to brackish), ii) burial of the sequence
coupled with thermal events (increasing temperature), and iii) the evolution of the
hydrological system (fault and fracture network, fluid mixing).

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NOTES

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Friday 5 November
Session Eight: Porosity Classification & Evolution

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The Third Porosity: Understanding the Role of Hidden Porosity in Well Test
Interpretation in Carbonates
Patrick Corbett, Sebastian Geiger, Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Well testing is a critical part of any evaluation of a carbonate discovery. Well test
interpretation in carbonate reservoirs poses additional challenges to those normally
faced in interpretational process in clastic reservoirs. The range of different boundary
and crossflow relationships that are generated by the complex porosity systems are
often poorly understood. The interval over which the pressure response is effective is
also a source of great uncertainty and could be critical at the exploration/appraisal stage
in any project.
Carbonate reservoirs can be broadly considered to contain three porosity types:
- Microporosity
- Macrporosity
- Fracture porosity
These occur in various nested geometrical distribution and varying contrasts. The
characteristic well test responses (i.e., fracture flow, fracture-matrix interactions) tend to
obscure one of these systems. Micro- and macroporosity can merge into a single
matrix porosity where the contrasts are not great and the correlation lengths short (which
can often be the case in carbonates). Macroporosity can also merge with the fracture
response.
As a result of the homogenising attributes of pressure dissipation away from the well, it
is not generally possible to see a triple porosity response. The double porosity (i.e.,
obscured triple porosity) response therefore needs careful interpretation in order to
attribute the appropriate properties during reservoir characterisation in carbonates.
In this work we use geological well testing to systematically analyse the effects of
microporosity, macroporosity, and fracture porosity on pressure dissipation and their
apparent homogenisation While recent studies propose that a triple porosity systems
should result in a W response we do not observe this behaviour in our simulations,
although we specifically designed our geological models with a triple-porosity. Instead
we observe how macroporosity merges with the fractures or micro- and macroporosity
merge, creating a sub-dominant matrix or a dominant fracture system, respectively.

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Dynamics of Cementation in Response to Oil Charge: Evidence from a Cretaceous

Carbonate Field, U.A.E
R.A. Wood

1, 2

, P.A. Cox

1, 2

2, 5

, J. A. D. Dickson , H. B. Al Rougha , H. Shebl , P. W. M. Corbett

School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh, Kings Buildings, West Mains Road,

Edinburgh, EH9 3JW. U.K. * e-mail: [email protected]
2
Edinburgh Collaborative of Subsurface Science and Engineering
3
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ,
U.K.
4
ZADCO, Abu Dhabi, U. A. E.
5
Institute for Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton Campus, Edinburgh, EH14
4AS, U.K.

Oil charge is thought to inhibit the growth of cements within subsurface pore systems.
We explore this phenomenon in a giant Cretaceous carbonate field from U.A.E., where
the oil-filled crest porosity ranges from 12-50% and permeability from <0.1 - 830mD but
coeval water-leg porosity is reduced to 12-23% and permeability to <0.1 - 4mD. Only 5%
of primary interparticle pores (>30 m diameter) in the crest are fully cemented,
compared to 99% of pores in the water leg (Figure 1).
Syntaxial calcite burial cements (>10 m diameter) in the oil leg show 12
cathodoluminescence zones with oil inclusions occurring in four of the five final zones.
Mean in-situ ion microprobe 18OVPDB data from the oil leg cements range from -1.2 in
the oldest zone decreasing to -10.3 in zone 11, returning to -7.7 in the final zone.
The oldest distinguishable cement zone in the water leg shows highly variable 18O from
-3.6 to -9.3 with a mean of -7.3, with subsequent zones decreasing to a mean
value of -9.4 for the youngest cement zone (Figure 2). Decreasing 18O values are
interpreted as indicating increasing temperature with burial and evolution of pore water
composition: broadly similar trends in the oil and water legs suggest precipitation under
the same general conditions.
Unlike the oil leg cements, the final zone in the water leg occludes nearly all remaining
pore space. The 18OVPDB of bulk micrite from the water leg shows an average of - 7.4
compared to -6.2 from the oil leg, suggesting precipitation of further micrite cement at
greater burial depths. We infer that burial cementation slowed in the presence of oil due
to a reduction of potential nucleation sites as well as porewater and solute movement
within weakly oil-wet pores, whereas continued flow and solute movement through all
pores including the micropores (< 10 m diameter) enabled extensive cementation in the
water leg.

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Figure 1 Porosity and permeability plot for the oil- and water-leg within a single reservoir horizon
of the Kharaib Formation, Thamama Group, U.A.E. Photomicrographs of (A) the oil leg, showing
relatively high porosity and permeability with retention of interconnected macropores and
mesopores, and (B) the water leg with near complete macropore and mesopore occlusion by
cementation leaving only the microporosity open. Scale bar = 1 mm.

18

Figure 2 Transects in situ

O data without reference to cement zone from oldest to youngest
cements (left to right) within syntaxial cements from, A) water leg, and B) oil leg.

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Acoustic Properties of Ancient Shallow-Marine Carbonates: Effects of

Depositional Environments and Diagenetic Processes (Middle Jurassic, Paris
Basin, France)
1,2

Benjamin Brigaud , Benoit Vincent , Christophe Durlet , Jean-Franois Deconinck , Philippe

4
2
Blanc , Alain Trouiller
1

UMR CNRS 5561 Biogosciences, Universit de Bourgogne, 6 bd Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France
Andra, 1-7 rue Jean Monnet, 92298 Chtenay-Malabry Cedex France
3
Cambridge Carbonates Ltd, 14 rue du mont 52320 Marbville, France
4
Lithologie Bourgogne, 21 rue de lingnieur Bertin, 21600 Longvic, France
2

Examination of petrophysical properties (acoustic velocity, porosity, permeability and

density) and petrographical characteristics (texture, facies composition and diagenesis)
of more than 250 core plugs from the Middle Jurassic carbonates of the eastern Paris
Basin provides insights into the parameters controlling acoustic velocities in relatively
low-porosity carbonate rocks ( <20%). The pore-type observations reveal distinct
acoustic velocities in samples with inter-granular macropores and samples with
micropores in subhedral micrite, such that velocities in microporous
mudstone/wackestone (lagoonal) deposits are greater than in macroporous grainstone
(shoal) samples, at a given porosity range (1520%). The standard Wyllie and Raymer
transforms fit very well with the linear regression between acoustic velocity and porosity
from mudstone or lagoonal facies. Marls and fine-grained deposits interpreted as
lagoonal facies include statistically significant correlation (r=0.9) between velocity and
porosity. However, the data suggest that the wide scatter in velocity-porosity data from
grainstones are not the result of different sorting, grain size, pore type, dolomite content
or clay content. Instead, early cementation greatly influences acoustic properties during
diagenesis, and are interpreted to account for the high variability of velocities over a
given porosity range (Figure 1). Specifically, at a given porosity, acoustic velocities in
compacted grainstone that did not undergo early cementation are higher than in earlycemented grainstone.
Petrographic observations suggest that early cementation limits mechanical compaction,
creating a heterogeneous medium from the earliest stages of diagenesis (non-touching
grains, preservation of intergranular macropores that are partially to totally filled by later
blocky calcite cement). The abundant interfaces between micritized ooids, early cement
fringes and blocky calcites in grainstones may induce significant wave attenuation. As a
result, the standard time-average equations fail to predict the effect of diagenetic
features such as early cementation on sonic velocity. Conversely, an absence of early
cementation favors mechanical compaction, grain-to-grain contact and suturing. The
result is a homogenous micritized grain-supported network that may facilitate wave
propagation.
Through demonstration of the key role of early cementation in the explanation of
variability in acoustic properties, the results of this study illustrate the complicated factors
influencing velocity transforms in carbonates (Wyllie and Raymer), i.e. classical tools for
predicting reservoir properties. These insights on the interpretation of Vp and the
refinement of velocity-porosity transforms in grainstone units may be broadly applicable
to enhancing seismic-based exploration in carbonate successions.

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Figure 1: Velocity-porosity diagenetic trajectories in carbonate grainstones. Early cementation

induces a different frame path compared to early-compacted grainstone. Two distinct diagenetic
trajectories can be described from an initial point (a: ooid grainstone): (1) grainstone rock fabric
with early cement (b-c-d) and (2) grainstone rock fabric without early cement (e-f-g).

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Climatic Controls on Porosity in Subtropical Carbonate Platform Reservoirs

Peter A. Gatt, Maurice E. Tucker, Howard Armstrong, Department of Earth Sciences, Durham
University, Durham DH1 3LE, U.K.

The vertical and lateral porosity development at the concession and regional scales is a
key uncertainty in the exploration and development of petroleum resources in carbonate
reservoirs. A primary consideration is the nature, abundance and composition (calciticaragonitic) of the shelly and framework biota and early diagenetic history.
Recent work on the Late Oligocene, subtropical isolated carbonate platform in Malta has
identified four depositional sequences marked by highstand and transgressive systems
tracts dominated by coralline algae. The following characteristics were identified:
1. A succession of alternating Heterozoan Assemblage (eurythermal mesotrophic
coralline algae and echinoids) and Photozoan Assemblage (oligotrophic aragonitic
corals and large benthic foraminifera);
18

18

2. Relative O depletion ( O = -1 to -2) of subtidal Heterozoan carbonates and peak

18
negative excursions ( O = -3) in the oligotrophic subtidal to peritidal carbonates
associated with meteoric diagenesis;
13

Isotope data from deep-sea cores show that C values become lighter during 405 ka
18

eccentricity maxima whereas relatively heavier O values mark low amplitude obliquity
minima (e.g. Oi-1 and Mi-1 glaciations) recurring at 1.2 Ma cycles (Plike et al., 2006).
These cycles reflect sea-level and temperature changes which would have affected the
flux between the oxidized and reduced global carbon reservoir. We find that sequence
boundaries and systems tracts in mid-Cenozoic Tethyan carbonate platforms were
paced by the same cycles.
However, the changes in carbonate platform ecosystems and constituent calcium
carbonate-secreting biota (which ultimately controls porosity evolution), were more a
response to nutrient fluxes, surface freshening and especially increased continental runoff over proximal environments and solutes over distal carbonate platforms. This is
reflected in the paradoxical occurrence of Photozoan Assemblages during glacial
lowstands and Heterozoan Assemblages during warmer highstands. These Late
Oligocene assemblage changes can be broadly correlated in carbonate platform
successions in the western Mediterranean, and through Libya, Oman to SE Asia (Figure
1).
The faunal assemblage changes can plausibly be explained by the latitudinal migration
of the Inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) during the Cenozoic. The ITCZ is a
dominant feature of atmospheric dynamics in the tropics and plays a crucial role in the
generation, maintenance and variability of global climate. It is characterized by a belt of
low pressure, low-level convergence and upper-level divergence, frequent cloudiness,
and heavy rainfall. Displacements of the ITCZ have been suggested as the main way the
tropics responds to climate change on a variety of timescales.

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We envisage that increased porosity in Tethyan carbonate platforms will correlate to

ITCZ proximity reflecting the changing abundance of calcitic/aragonitic biota and
enhanced aragonite leaching during meteoric diagenesis, as a result of increased
rainfall, beneath the ITCZ: The northward shift of the ITCZ towards the Malta Platform
18

during Antarctic glacial waxing phases coincides with more negative O values in
carbonates, whereas a southern shift towards the northern margin of Gondwana during
glacial waning is marked by a mainly Heterozoan assemblage in Malta and other
Tethyan carbonate platforms. This suggests that nutrient supply rather than temperature
and sea-level, was the main control on the carbonate platform skeletal assemblage.
Another control on aragonitic biota are the peak atmospheric pCO2 episodes
(hyperthermals) of a few thousand year duration reported by Pagani et al. (2005).
Hyperthermals may not be in phase with the oscillation of the ITCZ and in the Malta
Platform were marked by a significant decrease of aragonitic biota even in the
Photozoan Assemblage because corals failed to hypercalcify.
The available published data are scant particularly in the Middle East, a critical area
bridging the Mediterranean and Indo-Pacific regions, but we anticipate a model that
predicts carbonate reservoir potential enhanced by mouldic porosity and correlation with
ITCZ migration and global sequence stratigraphic boundaries.

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NOTES

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Friday 5 November
Session Nine: Geomodelling Challenges in
Carbonates

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Keynote Speaker: Three-Dimensional Modelling of Carbonates: Two Examples

from the Permian and the Triassic
1

Wolfgang Blendinger , David W. Hunt

Technical University Clausthal, D-38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld

Statoil ASA, Sandslihaugen 30, N-5020 Sandsli

Three-dimensional modelling is not an entirely new subject in sedimentary geology, but

is often simply used as a tool for visualization of concepts. But, 3D modelling has several
advantages as compared to the paper-and-pencil methods. The major points are
consistency and result quantification, provided that sufficient input data are available.
Three-dimensional modelling as used in this paper is an entirely static affair. Its purpose
is to transform 2D data, derived from well or outcrop data, into a 3D grid by various
techniques of filling the unknown between the points of observation.
Two examples from 2 carbonate key areas are shown here, where 3D modelling leads to
totally unexpected results. One is the Triassic of the Dolomites, the second the Permian
Capitan shelf of North America. Both areas are allegedly almost perfectly well known
and understood.
The first example concerns the dolomite question of the type area of the Triassic
Dolomites in northern Italy. Detailed field logs (10 to date) of a partially dolomitized
progradational, apparently cyclic, platform top, <120m thick, were loaded as well data
into 3D modelling software. A simple interpolation on a bed-by-bed basis of the point
data was carried out for petrography, facies type and stable isotopes. The cell models
and average maps produced from these show surprising results. Dolomite-limestone
transitions are clustered along discrete fracture zones, 10-20m wide, and remain
stationary over many tens of metres of section (Fig. 1). The fractures are
synsedimentary, indicated by thickness changes, and the result of gravity disintegration
of the high relief platform, a regionally compressional stress field, and compaction of
basinal sediment. Tepees are localized along fractures, too. Stable isotopes of oxygen
and carbon show not only vertical but also lateral trends. A hydrothermal reflux
dolomitization model can be developed from these findings, supported by simple but
quantitative petrographic data.
The second example concerns the depositional topography of the Permian Capitan shelf
area. All commercially available (ca. 80) wells of the area between the Guadalupe
mountains, NW shelf, Central Basin platform and Delaware basin with at least a GR log
were loaded into 3D modelling software. A well correlation of the stratigraphic key
horizons ranging from Bone Spring to top Tansill and equivalent formations was
performed, and the horizons mapped using a simple interpolation algorithm. The
surprising result is that the base of the Capitan shelf at the Bone Spring level is an
almost perfectly planar, unfaulted homoclinal surface, whereas the top of the Capitan
shelf shows a considerable topography locally exceeding 200m. The simple conclusion
derived from simple 3D mapping is that the top of the Capitan shelf is not a flat
platform, but shows two conspicuous synclines which parallel the shelf edge landward
and seaward of the Goat Seep reef (Fig. 2). The many geometrical reconstructions
implying a flat platform top may in fact be less unequivocal than previously thought. The
present shelf topography is most likely the result of a combination of depositional
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topography and early compaction of argillaceous sediment, but not of tectonic origin, and
this could have serious implications for the applicability of sequence stratigraphic
concepts.
These two examples show that, even in apparently perfectly well understood carbonate
key areas, 3D modelling using simple techniques can lead to new and not always
desired results.

Fig. 1. Three dimensional view of a ca. 120m thick interval of a Triassic carbonate platform in the
Dolomites showing stationary dolomitization fronts associated with a synsedimentary fracture
zone. Grey=digital topographic surface.

Fig. 2. N-S cross section, 2x vertically exaggerated, showing the actual structural situation of the
Capitan shelf from the NW shelf area to the Delaware basin. Well logs are GR only, forming the
foundation of the 3D model which indicates a homoclinal surface for the near top Bone Spring
formation, whereas the top of the Capitan shelf characterized by two synclines seaward and
landward of the Goat Seep reef.

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Geomodeling of Carbonate Mounds Using Two-Point and Multi-Point Statistics

1

Xavier Jansen , Darrin Madriz

1

Bureau of Economic Geology, University of Texas at Austin

ExxonMobil

The Late Carboniferous strata exposed in the Sacramento Mountains in Southern New
Mexico, USA, have long been considered classic exposures documenting reciprocal
high-frequency mixed carbonate siliciclastic cyclicity and shelf-edge algal-mound growth.
The growth style and internal architecture of these phylloid algae mounds depend on
their position on the shelf and are controlled by potential accommodation, depth of the
photic zone, and hydrodynamic energy. These parameters are extracted from the
outcrop on the basis of the amount of reworked debris compared with in-situ mound core
growth and the mound core fauna (Figure 1). This architecture creates a complex
distribution of these 2 lithofacies in 3 dimensions and is challenging to reproduce in a 3D
geocellular model. Two geostatistical estimation algorithms are used to stochastically
model carbonate buildups: the two-point statistics (TPS)-based, and the multiple-point
statistics (MPS)-based. The TPS based model can recreate the overall geometry of the
mound adequately but failed to reproduce the internal architecture (Figure 2). The MPS
model successfully recreates both the geometry and internal architecture of the mound
but required a complicated training image and complex multi-grid simulation that would
be hard to implement in subsurface (Figure 3).

Figure1: Schematic diagram of the carbonate buildup under study.

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Figure
2: TPS-modeled mound surface based on mound architecture mapped on the outcrop

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Figure 3: Comparison between MPS simulation and outcrop architecture. The green corresponds
to the debris while the blue represent the mound core

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Relevance of the Stochastic Sequence Stratigraphic Approach for the Study of

Complex Carbonate Settings: Application to the Malampaya Buildup (Offshore
Palawan, Philippines)
1

Florent Lallier , Sophie Viseur , Guillaume Caumon , Jean Borgomano , Franois Fournier

Nancy-Universit, CRPG-CNRS, ASGA, ENSG, rue du doyen Marcel Roubault, BP 40, 54501
Vandoeuvre-ls-Nancy, France
2
GSRC Universit de Provence, EA 4234, 3 place Victor Hugo 13331 Marseille Cedex 03 France
3
Nancy-Universit, CRPG-CNRS, ENSG, rue du doyen Marcel Roubault, BP 40, 54501
Vandoeuvrels-Nancy, France

The stochastic sequence stratigraphic correlation method is a new technique of

uncertainty management for the investigation of the subsurface. It proposes to consider
the correlation of well data not as a unique model but as a set of possible models. This
method samples uncertainty to address the incompleteness of typical subsurface data,
e.g. limited seismic resolution, seismic blindness due to the lack of impedance contrast
between distinct stratigraphic formations, borehole preferential location, etc. Automating
the stochastic correlation is generally necessary to appropriately sample possible
correlations, but relies on the definition of well-posed rules to incorporate geological
knowledge in the process. Establishing these rules is then extremely important,
especially in carbonate settings for which stratigraphic architecture is controlled by many
parameters. In this work, we use a numerical method proposed by Lallier et al. [2009]
and based on likelihood estimation of elementary correlation lines. The method, initially
developed for correlations in carbonate ramps using paleo-angle consistency, is adapted
here to carbonate buildup correlation: correlation rules to use depositional facies
described along wells and bioclastic content are introduced.
This method is applied to the Malampaya buildup, a well documented offshore gas field
located NorthWest of the Palawan Island, Philippines (Grtsch and Mercadier 1999;
Neuhaus et al., 2003; Fournier et al., 2004, 2005; Fournier and Borgomano 2007)
(Fig.1). This buildup, aged upper Eocene to lower Miocene, developed on the crest of a
tilt-block. Among the available data, ten wells, seven of which are cored, have been
drilled and a high resolution 3D seismic survey has been acquired by Shell Philippines in
2002. Previous studies highlight that sediment accumulation is controlled by tectonic,
climatic, eustatic and changes in benthic community, which constitute the theoretical
basis for defining the proposed stochastic correlation rules. This approach also accounts
for cycles defined on core data, isotopic studies and 3D seismic survey interpretation
while generating several high-resolution sequence stratigraphic architectures of the
reservoir.
The obtained correlation models are compared with the deterministic correlation model
proposed by Grtsch and Mercadier 1999; Neuhaus et al., 2003; Fournier et al., 2004,
2005; Fournier and Borgomano, 2007. Moreover, the stochastically generated
correlations are bound with geostatistical methods to build static reservoir model, on
which rock volumes are computed. This study highlights and quantifies the impact of well
correlation in reservoir unit characterization and rock volume assessment. Seismic
inversion method is applied on the acoustic impedance models conditioned to facies
models in order to obtain synthetic seismic profiles which are compared to the effective
3D high-resolution seismic survey.
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Figure 1 : a) Map of the top of the Nido limestone (depth isolines in meter subsea) and well
location of the Malampaya field. b) Seismic cross section displaying main seismic reflectors. c)
Stratigraphic framework of the Malampaya buildup. After Grtsch and Mercadier, 1999; Fournier
and Borgomano, 2007.
Acknowledgements
Authors would like to thank the industrial and academic members of the Gocad Consortium,
ASGA, for their support and Paradigm Geophysical for providing the Gocad Software and API.

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Carbonate Shoal Bodies, Part 2: Re-Building the 3D Outcrop Analog Model Using
Multipoint Statistics
Andre Jung, Thomas Aigner, Marco Pontiggia, Denis Palermo
University of Tbingen, Institute for Geoscience, Germany
Eni Exploration & Production, Milan, Italy

A 3D outcrop model of carbonate shoal bodies (Part 1: Triassic Muschelkalk, SGermany) provides an excellent testing scenario for evaluating the capabilities and
limitations of multipoint statistics (MPS) in producing realistic simulations of reservoir
architecture. The realisations of the MPS approaches are compared to the existing 3D
outcrop analogue models, that are largely deterministically derived. Furthermore the
abundance of well data allows to simulate a full field life cycle from early exploration to
late development by subsequently adding more data to the simulations . In the early
stage of this experimental life cycle where data density is low, we can make use of MPS'
ability to incorporate multiple types of input data as well as data from other appropriate
case studies. In addition to basic outcrop-derived data the controlling factors derived
from the existing outcrop model serve as input for the stochastic simulations. Firstly, a
set of training images (TIs) was built. Training images are a conceptual representation of
the expected geobodies, component facies and their relations. In a progressive series of
realisations, the ongoing development of the field was mimicked with more and more
data from the existing outcrop model becoming incorporated. The employment of MPS
allows to produce geologically meaningful and realistic realisations of carbonate ramp
architectures with shoal reservoir bodies already at the early stages of the experiment
with low data density. Benefiting from the extensive 3D outcrop analogue dataset, MPS
realisations can be cross-checked with the existing model at each stage of the
development of the field. The preparation of each simulation incorporates a hierarchical
set-up of a framework of zones and probability fields as well as multiple TIs. Whereas
the higher-level depositional controls are reflected by the framework, information on size,
orientation and shape are represented by the TIs. The shape of the depositional zones
(facies-belts) is traditionally modelled deterministically. Within this experiment we build
these depositional zones from the previously simulated (MPS) depositional shapes
(geobodies). Our experience, improved in the last two years through Eni R&D activities,
in carbonate environments leads to the conclusion that the generation of highly complex
geobodydominated facies distributions can be managed by a small number of relatively
simple Tis

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Use of Outcrop Observations, Geostatistical Analysis, and Flow Simulation to

Investigate Structural Controls on Secondary Hydrocarbon Migration in the
Anacacho Limestone, Uvalde, TX
1

Christopher E. Wilson , Atilla Aydin , Louis J. Durlofsky , Alexandre Boucher , Darrell T.

5
Brownlow
1

Chevron North America Exploration and Production, Houston, TX.

Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
3
Department of Energy Resources Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
4
Department of Environmental Earth System Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
5
CEMEX USA, Houston, TX
2

We combine outcrop observations, geostatistical analysis, and numerical flow

simulations to present a self consistent scenario that describes the secondary migration
of hydrocarbons and subsequent emplacement of asphalt in a volume of the Anacacho
Limestone, Uvalde, TX. At an open pit asphaltic limestone mine, we note that several
limestone beds contain one of two primary fracture geometries. These are either joints
that formed roughly perpendicular to bedding or inclined fractures of equivocal mode that
formed at lower angles to bedding (less than 45). Both fracture groups strike in the
northeast-southwest direction. Veneers of asphalt and hydrocarbon stains associated
with these fractures suggest that both groups of fractures increase the horizontal
permeability of the Anacacho Limestone along their strike direction. In numerous
locations, the bed-perpendicular fractures link together with inclined fractures to form
composite fractures and normal faults (less than 4 m vertical offset). There are two fault
zones where several composite fractures and normal faults are found (Figure 1). Since
asphalt coats most of the normal fault surfaces, we infer that they provided vertical flow
conduits that allowed hydrocarbons to enter the formation and migrate upwards across
impermeable volcanic ash beds, creating permeable connections between
stratigraphically bound fractured beds.

Figure 1. (a) and (b) show two fault zones containing normal faults and composite fractures
found. (c) Mapped mine outline indicating locations of fault zones .

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Using a globally positioned laser rangefinder, we created a digital geologic model that
resolves the facies and normal faults found in the Anacacho Limestone at the mine
(Figure 2a). Geostatistical analysis indicates that asphalt concentration correlates with
fracture orientation and fault location: high values of ordinary block kriging asphalt
concentration estimates qualitatively align with the trend defined by the aforementioned
fault zones (Figure 2a) and the spatial trend of the estimates follows the northeast strike
of fractures and faults (Figure 2b).

Figure 2. (a) Image showing the sides of the geologic model containing the digitally mapped
limestone facies and normal faults; an isosurface that encloses values of normalized estimated
asphalt greater than 0.65 is shown in semi-transparent red. (b) Ordinary block kriging asphalt
concentration estimates displayed on the discretized geologic model.

Under the assumption that present day asphalt concentration corresponds to paleo-oil
saturation, we present a secondary hydrocarbon migration scenario (Figure 3a) that is
based on physically realistic parameter values and agrees with field observations and
geostatistical analysis (Figure 3b). We arrived at this scenario after extensive sensitivity
analysis. We find that, in order to agree with asphalt concentration estimates, the
simulation requires oil to enter the Anacacho Limestone through highly permeable
normal faults under an enhanced pore pressure (magnitudes of 95% of the overburden
gradient) and that once the oil enters the Anacacho Limestone, its flow is largely dictated
by groundwater flow and a 10-fold increase in permeability anisotropy along the strike
direction of fractures and faults.

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Figure 3. (a) Normalized oil saturation field generated. (b) Ordinary block kriging asphalt
concentration estimates.

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NOTES

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Poster Presentation
Abstracts
(in programme order)

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Thursday 4 November

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Sedimentological and Depositional Environment Studies of the Mauddud

Formation, Central and Southern Iraq
1

Moutaz A. Al-Dabbas ,Jassim A. Jassim,Jassim , Amanj I. Qaradaghi

1

College of Science, University of Baghdad, Jadriah, Baghdad, Iraq

College of Science, University of Sulaimaniyah, Sulaimaniyah, Iraq

Nineteen subsurface sections and a large number of thin sections of the Mauddud
Limestone (age Albian - Early Cenomanian) were studied to unravel the depositional
facies and environments, (Figure 1). The allochems in the Mauddud Formation are
dominated by bioclasts, and peloids, whereas intraclasts are less abundant. The
sedimentary microfacies of the Mauddud Formation includes lime mudstone,
wackestone, wackestone - packstone, packstone, packstone - grainstone, in addition to
Dolostone lithofacies, and Green shale lithofacies . These microfacies have been
deposited in shallow warm marine environment of varying salinities and energy levels.
Cementation, neomorphism, dolomitization, compaction, and silicification are observed
affecting variably both, ground-mass and particles. The formation displays various
extents of dolomitization and is cemented by calcite and dolomite. Dolomitization
increases towards the north of the study area, and exhibit different textures. Similarly
cementation shows a variety of textures. In addition, authigenic minerals, such as
glauconite and pyrite are scattered within the groundmass and along solution surfaces.
The formation has gradational contact with the underlying Nahr Umr Formation but is
unconformably overlain by the Ahmadi Formation, despite local conformity. Thus, the
vertical bioclast analysis indicates that the Mauddud Formation is characterized by four
major depositional cycles, which control the distribution of reservoir quality as well as the
patterns of calcite and dolomite, cement distribution.
Petrographical study shows that the fossil represents the main Allochems, Peloids,
whereas intraclasts come second in abundance. Calcite and dolomite (as diagenetic
products) are the predominant mineral components of Mauddud formation. Fossil were
studied as an environmental, age and facial boundaries indicators. Five major
depositional microfacies are recognized. These depositional microfacies have been
subdivided according to their primary and diagenetic constituents into ten
Submicrofacies. The determined four major depositional cycles were representing
normal sequential regression from base upward. The lateral analysis shows the same
regressive cycle and by using the lithofacies association concepts to build the
depositional model of the Mauddud formation environment.

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Figure 1: Location Map for the Studied Boreholes of Mauddud Formation, (Modified after
Shubber, 1986)

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Reservoir Characterization of an Intra-Orogenic Platform Carbonates of the Pila

SPI Formation, Taq Taq Oil Field, Kurdistan, NE Iraq
Basim Al-Qayim, Divan Othman, Department of Geology, Sulaimani University, Kurdistan, Iraq

Outcrop studies are integrated with subsurface analysis to predict the reservoir
characterization of the Late Eocene Pila Spi Formation at Taq Taq oil field of Kurdistan
region from northeastern Iraq. Subsurface data include analysis of core and cuttings as
well as variable collection of wire-line logs from four wells which are recently drilled in
the newly developed oil field. Petrographic investigations and microfacies analyses gave
insight about the general lithologic characters and sedimentary facies types of the
reservoir. The formation in this area is about 80-50 m. thick and is subdivided into four
distinctive lithofacies. From button to top are: Lower Brecciated and silicified Unit (P1),
Dolomitized Tidal Flat Limestone (P2), Lagoonal Limestone and Dolostone (P3), and
Upper Brecciated Dolomitic Limestone (P4). The inter-association of these facies and its
relation to the basin succession indicate deposition in a shallow carbonate platform
during a quiescence time of the zagros orogenic evolution.
These rocks were variably affected by diagenesis and intensively modified by
dolomitization which is drastically overprint the original fabrics and microfacies. Several
types of dolomite were recognized including: Fenestral Fine crystalline Dolomite (D1),
Fine Crystalline Planner-e to Planer-s Dolomite (D2), Fine Crystalline Non-planner
Dolomite (D3), Medium Crystalline Non-planner Dolomite (D4), and Coarse Crystalline
Dolomite (D5). The dolomitization had positively influenced the reservoir characters by
enhancing inter-crystalline, intra-skeletal and micro-vug porosity of the middle lithologic
units (P2 and P3).
Six porosity units were identified with porosity values range from 0.5 - > 0.20 using
porosity cut off value of 8.2%. The best unit is Pu2 from top (15m. thick) which is
characterized by medium crystalline dolomite mosaic with average effective porosity of
21.5% and meso-micro pore size. Permeability ranges between 1 - 0.1 md. Fractures,
however, represents the main source of the reservoir flow potentiality. A cross-plot of
permeability against porosity indicate a matrix to a fractured imposed on matrix flow type
of the reservoir units. An integrated application of these petrophysical parameters to the
reservoir geology yields to a practical prediction of two basic reservoir units.

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Facies, Sequence Stratigraphic and Reservoir Framework for Albian-Turonian

Carbonate Depositional Systems of the Middle East, Iran
1

I. R. Sharp , J-C. Embry , D. W. Hunt , D. Morsalnejhad , M. Jalali , F. Keyvani , F. Livbjerg , A.

3
4
5
Ali Jahanpanah , S. Packer , E. Caus
1

Statoil - TNE RD Research Centre Bergen, Norway

National Iranian Oil Company, Tehran, Iran.
3
Statoil GEX, Oslo, Norway.
4
Millennia Stratigraphic Consultants, UK.
5
Universidad Autonoma, Barcelona, Spain,
2

The Albian-Campanian aged Bangestan Group contains some of the most prolific
reservoir-source-seal units of the Zagros hydrocarbon province of Iran. These units crop
out extensively in the Zagros Mountains, affording a unique opportunity for facies,
sequence stratigraphic and reservoir characterisation as an aid to understanding
datasets in the nearby subsurface. In this paper we present data from a multi-year
research study in Lurestan Province, Iran, which has resulted in a thorough reexamination of the existing lithostratigraphic and chronostratigraphic scheme, and the
establishment of a new sequence stratigraphic, facies and reservoir-source-seal
scheme. This scheme has been correlated to age equivalent reservoir units of the
Arabian Plate (Iraq, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Oman). Platform to basin
exposures of the Cenomanian-Turonian Upper Sarvak Fm in particular are exceptional,
allowing the establishment of a type facies and sequence stratigraphic framework for this
prolific Middle East reservoir Interval.
The base of the Bangestan Group is marked by the Albian-aged Kazhdumi Formation
sitting unconformably on the Early Aptian-aged Dariyan Formation. The Late Aptian is
absent, and where well exposed the unconformity is seen to be angular in nature,
indicating a period of tilting/normal faulting prior to deposition of the Kazhdumi
Formation. The Kazhdumi Formation can be divided into two main depositional
sequences (Kz1, Kz2), which represent a relatively complex mixed carbonate-clastic,
intra-shelf basin succession, which passes vertically and laterally (towards the northeast)
into a low-angle Orbitolina-dominated muddy carbonate ramp/shoal (Mauddud Member
Bala Rud Shoal). In the revised scheme the Mauddud Member is included in
depositional sequence Kz2 (Kazhdumi Formation), and is dated as latest Albian. The
Mauddud Member is capped by a regionally extensive karst of latest Albian earliest
Cenomanian age, and is unconformably overlain by the Sarvak Formation.
The Sarvak Formation, which forms the focus of this contribution, comprises both lowangle ramp and steeper dipping (510o) carbonate shelf/platform systems. In Lurestan.
the Sarvak Formation can be divided into six depositional sequences. Sequences Sa1
and Sa2 are entirely of Early Cenomanian age, and collectively define the Lower Sarvak
Formation (300 m+ thick). Sequence Sa1 is characterised by a strongly progradational
rudist-fringed carbonate shelf with well developed seismic-scale clinoforms. Slope facies
are characterised by cherty bioturbated wackestones, whilst platform top facies are
characterised by miliolid-Chondrodonta-Dasycladacae algae rich micrites-wackestones
with subordinate tidal grainstone shoals. Sequence Sa2 is dominated by benthic foram
platform top facies. Platform margin architecture is poorly constrained in sequence Sa2.
The Upper Sarvak Formation is 250-300 m thick and divided into four depositional
sequences (Sa3, Sa4, Sa5 and Sa6). Sa3 and Sa4 are Early Mid Cenomanian and
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Late Cenomanian in age respectively. Sa3 equates to the Rumalia Formation, and Sa4
to the strongly progradational Mishrif Formation. The base of sequence Sa3 is
associated with significant incision into the underlying Lower Sarvak Fm and the
development of a composite transgressive valley fill deposit comparable to
valley/channel fills successions recently described in age equivalent strata in Oman
(Grelund et al 2010). Lowstand and basinal to slope facies of sequences Sa3 and Sa4
are exceptionally well exposed, allowing for the first time a detailed examination of the
facies architecture of this interval. Well developed slope channel and levee facies are
exposed, with channel fills characterised by lateral accretion surfaces. Highstand
margins are characterised by coral floatstones overlain by high energy rudist
grainstones. Rudists are rarely preserved in-situ. Platform top facies again comprise
miliolid-Chondrodonta-Dasycladace rich micrites and wackestones. Three regionally
extensive karst surfaces are developed in the latest Cenomanian Turonian interval,
and are interpreted to be related to flexure of the Arabian Plate margin due to the
initiation of intra-oceanic deformation. The first of these karsts (Sb-Sa4) is proceeded by
a forced regressive basin-ward stepping wedge, and is overlain by Sa5. Sa5 is almost
always strongly truncated by SB-Sa5, which is represented by a fracture controlled karst.
The karst corresponds to the Cenomanian Turonian boundary, and the Lower
Turonian is typically missing. Depositional sequence Sa6 is of late Middle to Late
Turonian age, and is overlain by the Coniacian aged Surgah Formation. In proximal
locations this contact is an exposure surface (SB-Sa6), whilst in basinal locations the
contact is conformable.
Reservoir development within the Sarvak Formation is optimal within fractured HST
skeletal (rudist) foram-grain margin facies, whilst TST non-skeletal shoals tend to be
early marine cemented and of reduced reservoir quality. Reservoir heterogeneity is
marked however, related both to primary facies variation and to late-stage fracturecontrolled diagenesis.

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Active Intraplatform Depressions in Mesozoic Carbonate Platforms: Evidences

and Impact on Exploration and Production
Alberto Riva (G.E.Plan Consulting, Italy, [email protected]) Raffaele Di Cuia (G.E.Plan
Consulting, Italy)

Intra-platform (or intra-shelf) basins (depressions) are a

common feature within extensive carbonate platforms. Many
of these depressions are tectonically controlled basins
bounded by active fault scarps, with irregular shapes, often
difficult to predict.
We have studied and collected information on the deposits
associated to this depositional environment both from outcrop
and subsurface data. The studied sequences span from the
Triassic Moena and Forni formations in the Southern Alps to
the Cretaceous reservoirs of the Southern Apennines thrust
belt (Southern Italy) and of the NW Zagros thrust belt
(Northern Iraq). These kind of formations are well known in
the literature in the Middle East, the Kazhdumi Fm
(Cretaceous) in the Zagros Range and the Hanifa Fm (Upper
Jurassic) of Saudi Arabia.
The sedimentation inside these basins is quite complex, due
to the irregular topography generated by different
normal/wrench fault movements. The classic black shales
(thin section picture at the base of the page) of this sort of
euxinic basins are often remobilized and involved in
slumpings (picture on the right, core width 10cm), associated
with debris flow deposits with clasts coming both from the
anoxic seafloor and the surrounding carbonate scarps. The
walls bounding these basins can be actively eroded,
representing a source for clastic sediment production
(carbonate breccia and megabreccias) organized often in
lobes or eventually remobilized again in other slumpings.
The oxic/anoxic interface on the water column can be located some meters below sealevel, allowing active carbonate production in the surrounding carbonate platforms. In
one of the studied cases, it is possible to observe small calcarenites exclusively
composed by miliolid tests, coming directly from the surrounding carbonate platform.
The micropaleontological content
is normally very poor, with
diffused ostracods and rare
planktonic foraminifera. The fiable
planktonic content is related to
the stressed environment and
also to the preservation of calcitic
tests.

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The poor micropaleontological content can be interpreted as a very stressed anoxic

environment in partial communication with the open water. This connection can be
temporarily closed during lowstands or due to tectonic movements. In extreme
situations, the restricted anoxic circulation can evolve into hypersaline conditions: a
salina develops permitting the precipitation of gypsum and anhydrites.
These basins are normally located inside a wide platform, common in the Mesozoic of
the Tethys, with very rapid passage from oxic to anoxic conditions. The shape is difficult
to recognize in seismic, because of the thickness of these basins, the contrast in seismic
velocities and often because of the seismic data quality. Moreover, these intraplatform
"black shale ponds" may also lead to confusion when trying to interpret the stratigraphy as they by nature could not be expected in this setting

(left) Breccia within an intraplatform basin (Moena Fm, Anisian, Feudo Pass - The Dolomites);
(right) core picture of a breccias with clasts made of shallow marine deposits and planar disrupted
subaqueous stromatolites

The implication of the existence of these basins and associated deposits on exploration
is important, because they can represent source rocks located laterally or within a
carbonate reservoir, permitting a direct fluid flow from the source to the reservoir. Often
these source rocks are located in unexpected areas and may represent surprises in new
wells, because of their relatively random distribution, which is often associated with
small transtensional pull-apart basin.

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Exploring Shaikan: Early Evaluation of a Billion Barrel Supergiant Field in

Kurdistan
1

John Stafford , Adnan Samarrai , Chris Garrett , Adam Styles , Roddy M Garva , Marguerite
2
2,3
Fleming , Ann Murray
1

Gulf Keystone Petroleum Ltd.,

Task Geoscience Ltd.,
3
Wildcat Geoscience Ltd.
2

The Kurdistan region has seen a rush of exploration activity in recent years with over 30
companies operating in what many believe to be one of the last remaining frontier
hydrocarbon provinces. It forms the north-western margin of the Zagros fold belt, which
has seen prolific production from fields in Turkey, Iraq and Iran. Antiforms and synforms
are readily interpreted from satellite imagery, but access to the region was restricted for
geopolitical reasons.
The Shaikan prospect is a doubly-plunging antiform lying 85 km northwest of Erbil near
Dohuk. Pre-drill indications for oil were strong. A limestone outcrop to the north and
west of the structure bleeds oil, which occurs within fractures and vugs. Field
reconnaissance mapping validates satellite image analysis, defining a structural closure
extending around 35 km E-W and up to 6 km N-S. Interpretation of 2D seismic suggests
the presence of a compressional, possibly flower structure, with reverse faults bisecting
the north and south limbs.
A single well has been drilled on the crest of the Shaikan structure. The well, completed
in November 2009 was a significant discovery. It encountered Cretaceous, Jurassic and
Triassic hydrocarbon reservoirs with a cumulative net pay of circa 250 metres of oil in
multiple reservoirs. The well was TDd early at 2950m in the Triassic due to an influx of
high pressure gas thus the full extent of the hydrocarbon accumulation is not yet fully
determined.
Microresistivity image logs were gathered through much of the well section to
supplement conventional petrophysical logs, and core was cut in two limited intervals of
the Jurassic Mus and Triassic Kurre Chine Formations. Five drill stem tests were
conducted and confirm oil flow of up to 7480 BOPD from the Jurassic.
Borehole image log and core description results provide some insight into the
subsurface structure, some at variance with initial expectations, particularly the fact that
fractures are not simply orientated with respect to flexure:
Overall structural orientation differs little with depth.
Whilst surface structure has a strong E-W grain, fractures picked from images
and goniometry tend to strike N-S to NNE-SSW, across the antiform hinge. The
majority of fractures are conductive and occur in clusters with depth, some of
which coincide with mud loss events, suggesting they have aperture. Ten faults
were inferred.
Most strike NNE-SSW; only one E-W striking fault was
interpreted.
Structural core logging reveals that fractures are commonly steep, layer-bound
and discontinuous. Residual hydrocarbon coats fracture apertures. Fractures
appear to be of several generations. They individually have limited porosity, but
form a connected network.
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Stylolites are seen in core and borehole images, where they appear as highly
conductive beds. More than one generation is present, but bed-parallel
stylolites are the more common type. They are predicted to reduce vertical fluid
connectivity, although stylolite associated fractures are observed that may
improve layer parallel flow.
Drilling-induced tension fractures are seen in the borehole images, striking N-S to
NNE-SSW. This is subparallel to many of the conductive fractures, suggesting
that they could be stress-sensitive and may be enhanced, leading to better
drainage.
In addition to detailed structural information the core yielded important sedimentological
information:
The Jurassic core comprises a cyclic carbonate succession of laminated lime
mudstones (locally dolomitized), bioturbated and bioclastic lime mudstones
(mainly undolomitized), intraclastic packstones, in-situ breccia zones and thin
detrital shale laminae. The depositional setting envisaged is a shallow, sheltered
marine environment, possibly a lagoon or peritidal setting. The rapid variations of
lithology and thin units may indicate limited accommodation space and frequent
cyclic relative sea-level fluctuations.
An anhydrite succession in the deeper Triassic core appears to be a replacement
phase of precursor carbonate or carbonate-evaporite rocks. Relict grains and
ghosts of bioclasts and burrows are evident in replacive anhydrite after
carbonate lithologies. Planar, disrupted or ptygmatically folded layers occur
within laminated anhydrite intervals. This rock type may be a replacement of
sabkha deposits of gypsum, anhydrite, limestone and dolomite.

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Investigating Carbonate Platform Types: Multiple Controls and a Continuum of

Geometries
Peter M. Burgess
6
Granjeon

1, 2

, Huw. D. Williams , V. Paul Wright

3, 4

, Giovanna Della Porta , Didier

Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK
Shell International E&P, Kessler Park 1, Postbus 60, 2280 AB Rijswijk The Netherlands
3
School of Earth Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3YE, UK
4
BG Group plc, Thames Valley Park, Reading, RG6 1PT
5
Earth Science Department, University of Milan, via Mangiagalli 34, 20133 Milan - Italy
6
IFP, Avenue de Bois-Preau, 92852 Rueil-Malmaison Cedex - France
2

Current classifications of carbonate platforms use depositional gradient as the main

criterion for separating systems into two end member types, ramps and flat-topped
platforms (FTPs). Exploration predictions vary significantly between these two endmembers. However, many examples exist that do not conform to this simple
classification. To investigate why this is and to better understand likely controls on
platform development as a prelude to better subsurface prediction, we have used a
series of 2D numerical forward model runs to investigate how sediment production,
transport and other controls such as tectonic subsidence, antecedent topography, and
relative sea-level oscillation interact to determine platform geometry.
Modelling results suggest that rates of offshore sediment transport relative to rates of
autochthonous production are a critical factor in maintaining a ramp profile in stable
cratonic settings under a constant rate of relative sea-level rise. Type of carbonate
production profile, for example euphotic versus oligophotic, is not a significant control in
our model cases. Both euphotic and oligophotic production profiles produce FTPs when
sediment transport rates are low relative to production rates, and ramps when sediment
transport rates are relatively high. These results suggest a continuum of platform types,
ranging from transport-dominated, low-gradient systems at one end of the spectrum, to
in-situ accumulation dominated systems at the other. A system may be transported
dominated because of high-energy processes able to break down and transport even
bound sediment, or because carbonate factories produce only sediment easily
transportable even under low energy conditions.
Time evolution is also likely important. Initially low gradient systems will, in the absence
of sufficiently high sediment transport rates, tend to evolve towards a dynamic
equilibrium state as high-gradient flat-topped steep-margined platforms. Many observed
or inferred platform geometries are therefore likely to be transient out-of-equilibrium
forms, and this could complicate interpretation. Investigating how basin bathymetry and
style of subsidence control platform geometry suggests that in transport dominated
systems strata reach a dynamic equilibrium simply draping the underlying topography,
and that breaks of slope and differential fault subsidence are a stronger control on
platform geometry in in-situ accumulation dominated systems. Rotational subsidence
tends to create transport-dominated systems when transport rates increase during
rotation as topographic gradient increases and transport rate outpaces in-situ production
rate. Relative sea-level oscillations tend to move the locus of sediment production
laterally along any slope present on the platform, distributing sediment accumulation
across the whole width of the platform, suppressing progradation and steepening, and
so favoring development of low-gradient systems.
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Based on all these results, we suggest that simple cutoff classification into ramp and flattopped platform types can be useful, but a more meaningful approach is to describe and
predict platform strata in terms of a multiple dimension platform parameter space (Figure
1) containing a continuum of geometries controlled by sediment production, sediment
transport, antecedent topography, differential subsidence effects, relative sea-level
oscillations and perhaps other as yet unappreciated controls. Further work is required to
explore the facies prediction consequences of this parameter space, but this could be
done by integrating outcrop and subsurface studies with experimental work using the
new generation of process-based carbonate forward models being developed under the
Community Surface Dynamics Modelling System (CSDMS) initiative (see
http://csdms.colorado.edu/wiki/Main_Page).

Figure 1 Example of a platform parameter space, with multiple controlling factors on the axes,
and platform geometries plotted at the points where they occur within the parameter space.

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Timing and Mechanism of Sea-Level Changes on the Marion Plateau (NE

Australia): Implications for Miocene Eustasy
1

C. M. John , E. Browning , G. D. Karner , R. M. Leckie , Z. Mateo

1

Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, UK.

Department of Geosciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, USA
3
ExxonMobil Upstream Research Company, Houston, TX
4
Integrated Ocean Drilling Program, U.S. Implementing Organization, College Station, TX
2

Eustasy is a key parameter to understand sedimentary sequences on continental

margins, but its timing and magnitude remain controversial, especially for the Miocene
period. We studied sediment cores from the Marion Plateau (offshore northeastern
Australia, ODP Leg 194) to understand the mechanisms and timing of sequence
formation on this carbonate margin, and to establish the suitability of this stratigraphic
record to constrain the global sea-level curve. We focused our efforts on the more distal
part of this mixed carbonate-siliciclastic system. This work required a better
understanding of the sedimentologic response of mixed systems to changes in eustasy,
and thus an in depth analysis of the sequence stratigraphy of the Marion Plateau.
We significantly revised the existing biostratigraphic age model, characterized the distal
slope using the sediment coarse fraction (>63m) and digitally scanned core sections,
and investigated the temporal evolution of the planktic to benthic foraminifer ratio (P/B
ratio) and amount of glauconite in slope sediment. Results show that lowstands in the
distal slope are characterized by condensed, glauconitic facies, and by a lower P/B ratio.
However, care must be taken when using glauconite as an indicator of lowstand as on
the Marion Plateau this mineral can also be reworked during transgression and/or
lowstands.
We propose that sediment condensation resulted from exposure of the carbonate
factory, and further demonstrate that sequences on the Marion Plateau are controlled by
glacio-eustasy since each sequence boundary is marked by an increase in 18O
(increased ice volume on Antarctica). Thus, the best criteria to recognize lowstands on
the Marion Plateau is the combination of heavy d18O (i.e. large ice volume), abundant
glauconite (i.e. condensed interval), and low P/B ratio (i.e. lower water depth).The
Marion Plateau record comprises all of the sequences identified on the nearby
Queensland Plateau, Great Bahamas Banks, New Jersey Margin, and the Exxon
Production Research curve (Figure 1).
We conclude that the Marion Plateau provides one of the best records of the timing of
eustasy between 15.4 to 10.8 Ma, and has the potential to provide independent
amplitude estimates for this time period. Crucially, this is the geologic period for which
the New Jersey margin sea-level record is least constrained.

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Figure 4 Temporal evolution of A: Oxygen isotope (data from John and Mutti [2005]); B:
%glauconite (this study); C: 3 pts running average of the P/B ratio from ODP site 1195 (this
study); D: sea-level estimates from the EPR curve (Blue curve, Haq et al., 1987) and New Jersey
Margin (red curve, Miller et al., 2005). For panels A and B, data in green are from ODP hole
1194A and 1194B, in blue from ODP Hole 1192B, and in red from ODP Hole 1195B. Glauconite
layers discussed in this paper are named in panel A, and Mi events are indicated in panel B.
Glauconite layers highlighted in red correspond to major regressions as seen on the P/B ratio
(panel C) from the Marion Plateau and the New Jersey Margin curve (panel D). Glauconite layers
highlighted in blue represent transgressions. Sequences (left of panel A) are defined on the basis
of the position of the glauconite layers.

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A Paleogene Barrier Reef Offshore Southern Australia?

Alex Sharples, Mads Huuse, Basin Studies Group, SEAES, University of Manchester
Seismic images from the Great Australian Bight reveal the evolution of the southern
Australian Margin from prolonged Mesozoic rifting through break up, to Cenozoic
northward drift of the Australian plate.
Following break up, the Australian plate tilted northward, thus diverting siliciclastic
sediment routing systems to starve the Great Australian Bight. This led to one of the
largest and longest lived carbonate factories on record with environmental conditions
through time varying from near-tropical through temperate to cool water at the present
day.
The first occurrence of carbonate build ups is close to the Bartonian/Lutetian boundary
(~ 42 Ma) following the progradation of a prominent siliciclastic wedge with a distinct
shelf break. The initial carbonate build ups cluster around this paleo-shelf edge and in
patches further landward, defining a continuous positive build up, some 100 m high and
few kilometres wide with an along strike extent of more than 60 km along the paleo-shelf
break (Fig. 1).
Core or wireline data through the mound are non existent and its interpretation is thus
purely based on seismic stratigraphic analysis calibrated to the geological setting as
recorded in several ODP (Leg 182) boreholes and a single exploration well (Jerboa-1).

Fig. 1. A southern Australian barrier reef ?

This paper provides the first thorough description and morphometric characterization of
this extensive carbonate build up and its geological setting, leading to insights of paleoenvironmental conditions of the area and providing constraints for margin
reconstructions.

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An Integrated Approach to Developing a High Resolution Chronostratigraphy in

Carbonate Platforms
1

Paul Montgomery , Ted Playton , David Katz , Mitch Harris , Gareth Jones , Bill Robinson , Ken
2
2
2
3
4
4
Ratcliffe , Milly Wright , Jennifer Sano , David Wray , Maodu Yan , Eric Tohver ,
4
4
5
5
6
6
Peter Cawood , Florian Wellmann , Kelly Hilbun , Peter Ward , Joe Kirshvink , Sara Peek ,
7
7
8
8
8
8
Kliti Grice , Eric Maslen , Roger Hocking , Peter Haines , Trevor Holland , Phillip Playford ,
9
9
10
Updesh Singh , Mathew Duke , Mihai Ducea
1

ETC Chevron, Aberdeen, UK, San Ramon, USA & Perth, Australia
Chemostrat Inc., Houston, USA
3
University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, UK
4
University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
5
University of Washington, Seattle, USA
6
CALTECH, Pasadena, USA
7
Curtin University, Perth, Australia
8
Geological Survey of Western Australia, Perth Australia
9
Chevron Australia Business Unit, Perth, Australia
10
University of Arizona, Tucson, USA
2

Making stratigraphic correlations in reef systems can be problematic, particularly when

trying to recognize correlative surfaces from back reef, through reef, and into fore reef
settings. Typically, there is insufficient age diagnostic flora or fauna to provide a robust
correlation using biostratigraphy, and the prediction of dynamic facies changes that
result in variable, age equivalent rock types is challenging . Unraveling the relationship
between facies and chronostratigraphy is key to understanding reef complex
development, and robust characterization of the stratigraphy is of vital importance when
exploring for hydrocarbons in reef complex plays. In order to better achieve an
understanding of the stratigraphy in reef complexes, alternative stratigraphic methods
are required. Here we apply a range of stratigraphic techniques to a Devonian reef
complex outcrop.
This paper presents data from two field measured sections through an Upper Devonian
reef complex from the Windjana Gorge area, Canning Basin, Western Australia. The
sections record Upper Frasnian mixed siliciclastic-carbonate cyclic deposition in platform
interior to reef flat environments, with rock types including in situ skeletal boundstones,
detrital grainstones, algal-laminated mudstones, and silty- to coarse-grained sandstones.
The sections, Windjana North A (WNA) and Windjana North B (WNB), are approximately
1 kilometer apart and physical correlation ties the top of WNA to the middle of WNB
(Figure 1). The succession recorded at WNA consists of largely restricted platform
interior facies in the basal portion that grade upward into open marine outer platform
sediments, and finally transitioning into reef flat facies in the upper portion (Figure 1).
The reef flat section in WNA is shown, by the physical correlation, to be equivalent to
outer platform, with minor reef flat facies in WNB. 221 hand specimen samples have
been collected from the two sections and detailed sedimentary logs have been created
from field observation. Although the primary aim of the work is to better understand the
stratigraphy of reef complexes, the data collected also provides an opportunity to
demonstrate how aspects of each alternative stratigraphic dataset gathered respond in
the two measured sections.
Sequence stratigraphic interpretations have been made from field-based observations
and hand held gamma data have been obtained in the field, the latter providing a critical
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link between the field data and reef complexes that are targets for hydrocarbon
exploration. Hand specimen and oriented samples from the two sections have been
analyzed for magnetostratigraphy (polarity and magnetic susceptibility), inorganic carbon
and oxygen stable isotopes and inorganic whole rock geochemistry. Additionally,
absolute age determinations will be made using U and Pb isotopes from primary marine
carbonate samples such as marine cements, preserved micrite, and preserved
allochems. These dates will also be combined with 87Sr/86Sr isotope analysis to help
constrain the origins of the fluid for each sample. The geochemistry will ultimately be
used to test if physically disconnected outcrop locations are indeed coeval.
Therefore, the paper will demonstrate how sequence stratigraphy, magnetic reversal
stratigraphy, magnetic susceptibility stratigraphy, stable isotope chemostratigraphy and
elemental chemostratigraphy and U/Pb geochronology combine to provide a detailed
understanding of reef complex stratigraphy. It will also asses the strengths and
weaknesses of these stratigraphic techniques and how they could be used for better
understanding reef complexes in hydrocarbon settings.

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Application of Whole Rock Inorganic Geochemistry to Stratigraphic

Understanding of Mixed Carbonate Evaporite Reservoirs, an Example from the
First Eocene of the Wafra Field, PNZ
1

K. Ratcliffe , D. S. Wray , M. Wright , P. Montgomery , B. J. Archuleta , S. Bachtel , D. W. Dull ,

5
5
5
5
D. Pollitt , A. H. Saller , N. Toomey , W. Meddaugh
1

Chemostrat Ltd., Welshpool, Powys, U.K.

University of Greenwich, London, UK
3
Chemostrat Inc., Houston, Texas, USA
4
Chevron ETC, Aberdeen, UK
5
Chevron ETC, Houston, Texas, USA
2

Stratigraphic correlation in carbonate successions can be problematic; age diagnostic

faunas are often lacking and a strong facies control is exerted on faunal assemblages.
However, a defined stratigraphy is a prerequisite for the construction of reservoir models
and may also allow predictive reservoir modeling of exploration targets. Here, we
demonstrate how whole rock inorganic geochemical data are being used to define a
chemostratigraphic correlation framework in the First Eocene reservoir of the Wafra
Field in the Partitioned Neutral Zone (PNZ) (Saudi Arabia and Kuwait).
The First Eocene reservoir is a dolomitized carbonate of Palaeocene/Eocene age and is
a heavy oil (18-22API) reservoir. To date, 56 producers, injectors, and temperature
observation wells have been drilled on the 40 acre Large Scale Pilot (LSP) area that is
located in the southern portion of the Wafra Field. Carbonate strata were deposited in
shallow subtidal to supratidal environments on a low- to moderate-energy ramp. Based
on core observations facies are dominantly dolomitized peloidal wacke-packstones,
dolomitized algal wackestones and dolomitized mudstones. Depositional cycles within
the unit typically consist of a subtidal dolomitized peloidal wacke/packstone overlain by
algal wackestone or mudstone.
A total of 187 core chips from two wells were collected and analyzed using ICP OES
MS following cleaning in a toluene bath, grinding in a ball-mill and Li-metaborate fusion
(Jarvis and Jarvis 1995). These methodologies yield data for 10 major elements, 23
trace elements and 14 rare earth elements. From these data stratigraphic correlation has
been performed in two ways:
Firstly, what can be considered traditional chemostratigraphy, looks at changes through
time in key element ratios (in this case derived from P2O5, MnO and U) to define 7
isochemical chemostratigraphic packages and 15 geochemical units within the reservoir
(Figure 1). Packages are typically 50-150 in thickness, whereas the geochemical units
can provide a resolution of over several tens of feet. This approach therefore provides a
means for high resolution correlation between relatively closely spaced wells.
Secondly, a potentially more powerful long range correlation methodology is proposed.
This methodology used key elements (Al2O3 + SiO2 + TiO2 + K2O) as a proxy for
terrigenous content of the carbonates, which is interpreted to fluctuate in a pseudo-cyclic
manner (Figure 1). Each cycle starts with low terrigenous input, that gradually increases
upwards reaching a marked maxima several tens of feet above the cycle base, before
sharply decreasing at the base of the next cycle. The pseudo-cyclical nature of the
terrigenous input logs in Figure 1 suggests the influence of base level fluctuations.
Although the exact driving force behind the base level fluctuations remains enigmatic,
the interpreted terrigenous cycles offer the potential for longer range stratigraphic
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correlations that may have stronger chronostratigraphic implications than the more
traditional chemostratigraphic approach.

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Facies Control on Early Diagenesis: An Outcrop-Based Study of the Lower

Cretaceous Jurf and Qishn Formations, Haushi-Huqf Area, Oman
Claire N H Sena, Cdric M John, Veerle Vandeginste, Anne-Lise Jourdan, Janine Lahr, John
Cosgrove, Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London, Prince
Consort Road, London SW7 2BP, United Kingdom

The Lower Cretaceous shallow water carbonates of the Middle East are prolific
reservoirs. However, the control of diagenesis on the petrophysical properties of these
reservoirs is still poorly understood. The present study, based on excellent outcrops in
the Haushi-Huqf area of Oman (Fig. 1 and 2), proposes to link the depositional
environment of the Lower Cretaceous Jurf and Qishn formations (time equivalent to the
Kharaib and Shuaiba petroleum reservoirs) with their early diagenetic history to derive
conceptual models linking the distribution of porosity and permeability with primary
depositional factors. Understanding the diagenetic processes that control the lateral and
vertical distribution of petrophysical properties plays a key role in carbonate reservoir
exploration and production.

Fig. 1: Localization of the study area: Lower

Cretaceous outcrops in Wadi Baw, HaushiHuqf area in Oman are logged and sampled to
better understand fundamental processes of
early diagenesis in carbonate reservoirs

Fig. 2: Localization of the logged sections.

Sections A,B,I,J,G are in the Jurf Formation
and sections C,D,E,F,H are in the Qishn
Formation

This study is part of the Qatar Carbon Capture and Storage Research Centre
(QCCSRC) which is a project sponsored by Qatar Petroleum and Shell International to
assess the feasibility of carbon capture and storage in depleted carbonate oil and gas
reservoirs of Qatar. We focus on the interplay between the environment of deposition,
diagenesis and fracturation in carbonate platforms to determine the likely location of the
best reservoir units.
Our approach is to perform a detailed stratigraphic study combined with a study of early
diagenesis and mechanical stratigraphy. Ten sections spaced on average 5 km apart
have been logged in detail (Fig. 3 and 4). Systematic sampling was carried out on each
of these sections resulting in the collection of 299 samples. Currently, efforts are
concentrated on a study of the petrography using normal polarization microscopy,
cathodoluminescence microscopy, chemical element analyses (ICPAES) and stable
isotope analyses. By applying this methodology at high-resolution, we aim to relate the

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environment of deposition (rock facies) of each lithology to its diagenetic history and
determine the impact of this history on their fracture potentials.
Preliminary results indicate that the depositional environments range from tidal mudflat
(Jurf formation) to high-energy inner platform (Qishn formation). Based on the staining of
hand specimen (method from Dickson, 1965), we conclude that one third of the Jurf
Formation is ferro calcitic, half is calcitic and one sixth is composed of early dolomite
(Fig. 3). Within the Qishn Formation early dolomitization is a localised process: there are
only two discreet beds of dolomite (about 0.5 meters thick) accounting for 3 % of the
logged section (Fig. 4). Given the major role of fractures as preferential conduits for
diagenetic fluids and hydrocarbons, it is important to determine what processes result in
the more heterogeneous distribution of carbonate phases of the Jurf Formation versus
the very localized dolomitization of the Qishn Formation and how these processes
impact on the original and presentday mechanical properties of the rocks. This, task is
the focus of ongoing and future

Fig. 3: Log from section A in the Jurf Formation showing the sampling density. Preliminary
interpretations of the depositional environments are shown as well as results from the staining of
carbonate minerals. Note the heterogeneity of the carbonate phases distribution.

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Fig. 4: Log from section F in the Qishn Formation showing the sampling density. Preliminary
interpretations of the depositional environments are shown as well as results from staining of
carbonate minerals. Note the localized dolomitization.

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Heterogeneity of Holocene Coastal Facies: A Modern Production-Scale Analogue

for an Arid Monsoon Dominated Carbonate Ramp (Bar Al Hikman, Oman)
1

Sebastian Dirner , Joerg Mattner , Thomas Aigner

University of Tuebingen; Institute for Applied Geoscience, Sedimentary Geology, Sigwartstrasse

10, 72076 Tbingen, Germany
2
GeoTech Consulting; Manama Center, Entrance 4, Floor 6, Suite 601, P.O. Box 20393,
Manama, Bahrain

This analogue study focuses on a meter-scale transgressive/regressive Holocene

sequence of unconsolidated to semi-consolidated coastal deposits developed on an arid
carbonate ramp (slope ~ 0,01) on the Bar Al Hikman peninsula, Oman. It shows the
impact of short term relative sealevel changes on lateral and vertical facies
heterogeneity in a 40x40 km production scale area. Facies heterogeneity on a subseismic scale is important for inter-well correlation and reservoir modeling in the
subsurface.
Depositional facies were classified and mapped from various satellite image data sets of
90 to 0.6 m resolution (SRTM-DEMTM, LandsatTM, AsterTM, QuickbirdTM). Groundtruthing data comprises 324 points documented by field photographs, field description
and 59 sedimentary logs from shallow (0.5 to 2.5m) probings. The observed
heterogeneities were structured in a hierarchical fashion: Facies types (e.g. coral debris,
carbonate sand, etc.) were grouped in depositional elements (e.g. clinoforms, sheets,
etc.), which in turn form depositional shapes (e.g. bars, lobes, etc.). Groups of
depositional shapes were arranged in 4 depositional zones (facies belts): Supratidal,
tidal-lagoonal, barrier-beach, open-marine.
The preserved depositional facies record the Holocene transgressive and regressive
cycle. During that cycle, the width of depositional zones varies, e.g. the tidal-lagoonal
complex was one order of magnitude wider during the Holocene sea-level highstand
6000 years ago. Depositional shapes revealed distinct landward, seaward or alongstrike facies migration, reflecting changes in accommodation, sediment supply and
energy flux. Continuously amalgamated high-energy facies formed elongated barrierbeach zones 10's of km in length and several km in width. The lateral continuity and
thickness of depositional facies was interpreted by integration of satellite images and 2D
correlation between the shallow probings. Facies volumes were interpolated from 2D
sections and from a modeled topographic surface. The barrier-beach zone consists of
well-sorted carbonate sand and coral debris, interfingering with organic-rich mud from
the tidal-lagoonal zone. Thus the Holocene system provides an analogue of a reservoir
with a potential internal charging. This study provides data on shapes and sizes of
potential flow units from the modern, which could be useful for static reservoir modeling.

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An Ultra-Deep Paleokarst System in Ordovician, North-Central Tarim Basin, China:

High-Resolution 3D Seismic Interpretation
1

Xavier Janson , Hongliu Zeng , Bob Loucks , Quizhong Wang , Chunyang Wang , Shunxin Li ,
2
2
2
Tao Yang , Yiping Xia , Ligui Xu .
1

Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at Austin, USA;

BGP Inc., CNPC, China

An integration of 3D interpretation, core description, and outcrop analog reveals

numerous paleokarst features in the lower and middle Ordovician limestone in northcentral Tarim basin, China (Figure 1). Paleokarst systems developed on high relief
regional unconformities related to tectonic uplift, which is related to a global unconformity
on the top of the Middle Ordovician and a regional unconformity on the top of the Upper
Ordovician.
An interpreted seismic traveltime map illustrates erosional topography on the Ordovician
unconformity. Incised and depressed features on the unconformity reveal numerous
sinkhole-like surface depressions and a mature paleodrainage system. The sinkholes
are randomly distributed, roughly circular depressions, and are measured 50-500 m in
diameter and 50-100 m in depth. Multiple meandering channel systems initialed in
upslope area in the north, running downslope through rugged terrain, and extending to
large valleys or canyons in downstream area. The size of the channels increases
downstream, from tens of meters in upstream tips to several kilometers in downstream
lowland area. The remnants of erosion or hills can have a significant relief (10-150 m
over bottom of channel).
In seismic section, the Ordovician limestone formation beneath the unconformity can be
roughly divided as undisturbed and disturbed zones (Figure2). In the disturbed zones,
reflections are mostly chaotic, with short, small faults that separate many bright spots.
These chaotic features are interpreted as collapsed paleocaves. A conventional core
section in a nearby field that penetrates a similar disturbed zone confirmed that the
disturbed zones are composed of collapsed clast blocks and cave sediments
(sandstones). The clastic cave sediments are of low impedance compared to host
limestone, creating a significant impedance contrast that can be tied to patchy seismic
bright spots. As a result, the bright spots represent cave sediments in paleocaves and
therefore highlight collapsed paleocaves at seismic scale.
Equivalent exposed Ordovician strata in the western Tarim Basin in Northeastern China
show a karst system that consists of karst towers and paleocave breccias. The Lower
Ordovician limestones are unconformably overlain by Silurian shallow marine siliciclastic
deposits. The unconformity surface is highly irregular and shows up to 45 m of relief
along these buried karst towers. Approximately 60 meters below the unconformity, large
breccia bodies can be mapped on the outcrop. These breccias contain blocks of
Ordovician limestone embedded in red laminated silt interpreted as cave sediment of
Silurian age. The breccia size ranges from 150 to 500 m long by 70 to 250 m wide.
Using ground-based lidar, an outcrop-based 3D geocellular was constructed that was
used to calculate 3D synthetic seismic that shows distinctive high amplitude anomalies
corresponding to the breccias immediately below the high amplitude reflections
associated with the unconformity. A larger model was built using the unconformity
surface mapped in the subsurface by inserting 250 by 125 m ellipses to model the
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paleocaves. The resulting synthetic seismogram at 30 Hz displays very realistic

reflection geometries and character (Figure 3). The low impedance anomalies created
by the paleocave result in distinctive high amplitude anomalies that are very similar to
the ones observed in the subsurface. To recreate the amplitude anomalies observed in
the subsurface, paleocaves with sizes between ranging between 150 m and 250 m and
a 175 % impedance contrast between the paleocave and host rock is required.
Seismic-scale mapping and visualization of paleokarst system can be achieved by
interpreting circular and linear faults using continuity attribute, and analyzing relationship
between faults and bright spots.

Figure 1. Study areas with 3D seismic, cored wells, and outcrop data.

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Figure 2. (a) Faults interpreted on a poststack seismic section. (b) Faults and low-continuity
collapsed zones interpreted on the continuity slice at the center of the time window in a.

Figure 3. A) Perspective view of the top Ordovician unconformity from subsurface. B) Velocity
model used for the synthetic model. C) North-south vertical section through the resulting 3D
synthetic seismogram at 30 Hz. D) Seismic section from the subsurface scaled to similar
dimension for comparison.

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Tectono-stratigraphic Evolution of Pre-salt Carbonates, Aptian-Barremian of the

Campos Basin, Brazil
Moiss Calazans Muniz, Dan Bosence, Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University
of London, Egham, UK. TW20 OEX

Carbonate rocks of the Barremian - Aptian of the Campos Basin, comprise the geologic
record of the continental rift phase in the process of breakup of Gondwana and the
formation of the South Atlantic passive margin. The oblique extension rifting system
results in a complex arrangement of structures and features in a polygonal geometric
style. In this tectonic context, the late synrift bioclastic rocks (coquinas) overlie synrift
siliciclastic rocks and basalt. Postrift microbialites underlie the Aptian salt. A similar
tectono-stratigraphic framework can also be seen in the Miocene strata of the Suez Gulf.
Structural styles have been defined for the southern Campos Basin based on 3D seismic
interpretation using Landmark software, Seisworks and Geoprobe. The major structural
elements mapped are: graben, half-graben and horst. Proximal areas are characterised
by half grabens bounded by extensional planar to steep dip, normal faults, which are
dominantly synthetic but also with antithetic polarity. These faults are commonly
basement involved, oriented NE-SW, some NNE-SSW and are related to pre-existing
zones of weakness in the crystalline basement that were reactivated during rifting.
Internally, within half grabens, smaller-scale structures such as fault propagation folds,
faulted and rotated blocks, arranged in a domino structural style also characterise the
extensional rifting. Distal, basinward areas have horst and graben structures with more
symmetric geometry. Accommodation zones and a hinged margin with sinuous outline
are very impressive in the studied area.
This structural template exerts a strong control on depositional patterns by creating sites
of uplift and erosion, depocentres, intrabasin highs characterised by carbonates and
lows for pathways for siliciclastic sediment transport. The geometries and facies
distribution of the carbonate reservoirs are partially controlled by their tectonic setting.
Core logging and thin-section work together with FMI and sidewall core data indicate
proximal fluvial, alluvial and more distal lacustrine carbonate deposits. A biofacies
scheme will be presented that enables characterisation of facies and environments
within these molluscan rich carbonates. The dominant carbonate facies being molluscan
rudstones and floatstones with varying amounts of hydraulic reworking from their original
autochthonous facies. Facies analysis and exposure surfaces within the succession
indicate that these shallow lacustrine sediments accumulated in shallowing-upward
cycles. Microbialite facies appear to occur in the most distal locations.
Both molluscan-rich facies (coquinas) and microbialites, form the main carbonate
reservoirs of the pre-salt sequences in the Campos and Santos Basins Brazil. The
challenge is to generate tectono-stratigraphic models and facies models for these nonmarine carbonate reservoirs.

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Friday 5 November

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Fracture-Related Diagenesis in the Carbonate Carapace of a Salt Dome, Jebel

Madar, Oman
J. Lahr, C.M. John, J. Cosgrove, V. Vandeginste, C.N.H. Sena, A.-L. Jourdan, Department of
Earth Science and Engineering, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London.

This study is part of the Qatar Carbonate and Carbon Storage Research Centre
(QCCSRC), a research partnership between Imperial College London, Shell
International and Qatar Petroleum. The QCCSRC addresses fundamental questions and
issues related to carbonate reservoirs. Our particular study focuses on the interplay
between fractures, diagenetic fluid flow and precipitation of diagenetic minerals in the
fractured carapace of a salt dome. Understanding fault-related mineralization and the
relationship between diagenesis in the fault zone versus in the rock matrix will help
prediction of the reservoir quality of fractured zones in the subsurface. The specific
research questions addressed here are a) what controls the distribution and geometry of
fractures on the carapace of salt domes, b) what controls precipitation of minerals in the
fracture network, and c) what controls the spatial distribution of open versus cementinfilled fractures. To answer these questions, a dual approach combining structural
geology with carbonate diagenesis is being applied. The nature of the fluids and their
origin will be investigated by means of geochemistry and petrography, whereas the
process of fluid flow and the potential pathways for the migration of fluids will be
constrained by reconstructing the regional structural history. This dual approach is
powerful as it allows the two pieces of the same story (structures and minerals) to be
combined in order to better constrain the history of fluid flow. Ultimately, the aim is to
develop conceptual models linking faulting and fracturation during halokinesis with
diagenesis.
The outcrops selected are located in the Jebel Madar, in the southern foothills of the
Oman Mountains. Jebel Madar is a folded and fractured carapace above a salt dome,
and the lithologies comprise Jurassic and Cretaceous limestones. The presence of faults
and fractures in the carbonates testify to salt diapirism inducing a local stress field. The
structural history of the Jebel is currently being reconstructed through fracture analysis
of structural data gathered during earlier fieldwork. We plan to augment this with the
interpretation of seismic profiles as part of our ongoing research. Based on the crosscutting relationships of the fractures and their orientations, a paragenetic sequence can
be established. The fault planes show lineations. Initial results indicate that the dominant
fracture orientations are ~ N-S and NE-SW. However, this preliminary conclusion needs
to be confirmed during future fieldwork.
To understand the diagenetic history of the fracture infill, several techniques will be used
including petrography, major and trace elemental analysis, fluid inclusion, and stable
oxygen and carbon isotope analysis. An important observation made in the fractures of
the Jebel Madar is that several generations of calcite cements exist, with crystals
ranging in size from several cm in the centre of the fracture (Fig.1) to compact, mmsized crystals close to the host rock. In some fractures barite and calcite have been coprecipitated, potentially pointing to the origin of the diagenetic fluids (reservoir fluids
versus salt-related fluids). This offers some exciting avenues of research of direct
relevance to the oil and gas industry. The presence of minerals in fractures indicates that
these latter acted as fluid pathways. We hypothesize here that the regional stress field
linked to halokinesis was responsible for the migration in pulses of fluids within the
fracture network. Jebel Madar offers a natural laboratory in which it is possible to study
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the relationship between salt diapirism, the creation of a fracture network, and how this
network was subsequently transformed by diagenetic processes.

Figure 1: calcite infilling in fault zone, Jebel Madar, Oman.

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Bedding, Facies and Fractures in Zechstein (Permian) Carbonates, NE England:

Reservoir Implications
Juan-Carlos Laya

1, 2

, Maurice Tucker

Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Durham, UK.

Grupo de investigaciones de ciencias de la tierra TERRA, Universidad de Los Andes. Mrida,
Venezuela.
2

The reservoir potential of a formation is enhanced by the development of fractures,

particularly in the finer-grained lithologies. There is seemingly a control on fracture
development from the facies and bedding of a succession, but this has only been
explored in detail in a few formations. This presentation aims to address this through a
study of the fractures in the Zechstein carbonates of NE England. An understanding of
the development of fractures in sedimentary formations is important in considering their
potential for hydrocarbon reservoirs. Mostly fractures have been examined from a
structural point of view but in most cases there is a strong control from the sediments
themselves in terms of their mineralogy, texture, facies, internal heterogeneity and
sedimentary structures. An analysis of fractures more from a sedimentolgical point of
view will help in predicting their density and continuity.
The Zechstein carbonates of Northeast England are the onshore equivalents of reservoir
rocks in the North Sea and Poland especially, and they exhibit a wide range of facies
from reefal boundstones, through shelf oolites to slope lime mudstones and turbidite
packstones, arranged in various stratal geometries and bed thicknesses. The Zechstein
was also subjected to regional stress patterns as well as localized major faults.
Dissolution of interbedded evaporites has also given rise to extensive fracturing, as well
as collapse breccias. These Upper Permian limestones, dolomites and dedolomites
provide an excellent case study for the role of sedimentary attributes in fracture
development.
The fracture density within Roker and Raisby dolomites shows values between 1.0 and
16.8 (fractures/meter) with higher densities typical of finer-grained dolomite rather
dedolomite and oolitic facies. The bed thickness varies between 1 cm and 2 m and there
is a clear increase of fracture density in the thinner-bedded facies, which are typical of
outer ramp and slope carbonates. Most fractures are perpendicular or subvertical to
bedding planes, with some containing fracture-filling dolomite or calcite cements. Isotope
data indicate the shallow-deeper burial origin of the cements.

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The Formation and Propagation of Stylo-fractures

Zvi Karcz, Ovunc Mutlu, Richard Albert, Jim DeGraff, ExxonMobil Upstream Research Company,
Houston TX

Stylolites are dissolution surfaces that are common in various rock types, and are
especially prominent in carbonates. Their distinct rough morphology forms when rocks
on either side of the stylolite penetrate into each other by dissolution. The stylolite itself
is lined by insoluble particles, primarily clays and oxides, which form a layer up to
several centimeters thick. This layer of insolubles, and the common formation of a
cement halo around the stylolite where porosity is occluded to near zero, make stylolite
units effective baffles to flow in some reservoirs.
Although stylolites form through the non-brittle deformation mechanism of dissolutionprecipitation creep, they are commonly associated with secondary brittle structures such
as fractures and veins. We assume that these secondary brittle structures form after the
stylolite is well developed, but it is not clear what controls their formation and
propagation.
In this study we focus on small extension fractures that emanate from stylolite surfaces
in an anonymous Middle East reservoir. These stylo-fractures form on well developed
stylolites with amplitudes up to several centimeters and thicknesses up to 2 centimeters,
which occur in fine-grained, limy, wackestone to packstone units. The stylo-fractures are
sub-vertical hairline fractures (<0.1mm thick) filled with organic matter and calcite
cement.
We used standard finite element modeling and FEM/DEM techniques to interrogate
parameters that may control the formation and propagation of these stylo-fractures. We
explored the importance of stylolite geometry, the mechanical properties of the stylolite
fill and its contrast with the surrounding rock, as well as the stress regime. Preliminary
results indicate that the thickness of the stylolite fill, and the material property contrast
between the stylolite fill and the host rock have a primary role in determining whether
stylo-fractures will form, and on their morphology. Furthermore, we find that relatively
low ratios of horizontal to vertical stress imposed as external loading conditions, favor
the formation of stylo-fractures. We simulated burial and uplift cycles with varying
material properties to elucidate the timing of stylo-fracture formation in geologic settings.

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The Carbonate Clumped Isotope Paleothermometer: A New Tool for the

Characterization of Diagenesis in Carbonate Reservoirs
Anne-Lise Jourdan, Cdric M. John, Simon Davis, John Cosgrove, Veerle Vandeginste, Claire
N.H. Sena, Janine Lahr, Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London,
South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ

Carbonate reservoirs are very reactive systems where metastable carbonate minerals
interact with the surrounding fluids. Post-depositional processes such as dissolution and
re-precipitation of new minerals are common and result in modified reservoir
characteristics. Thus, determining the timing and spatial extent of these diagenetic
transformations is important for the oil and gas industry as it will improve prospectivity
and production in carbonate reservoirs.
In this project, which is part of the Qatar Carbonate and Carbon Storage Research
Center (QCCSRC), a research partnership between Imperial College London, Shell
International, and Qatar Petroleum, we focus on one fundamental parameter of
diagenesis, namely the temperature of precipitation of diagenetic phases. Given a
known geothermal gradient, if the temperature at which a carbonate cement phase has
been precipitated is known, it possible to predict at what depth the transformation
occurred. This can then be related to the timing of oil migration and potential charging of
the reservoir in other parts of the basin. Only very few techniques allow the precise
determination of the temperature of precipitation of diagenetic carbonate phases. This
includes fluid inclusion microthermometry and the ratio of oxygen isotopes ( 18O).
Unfortunately, these tools suffer from a lack of precision, require other unknown
parameters to be estimated (such as the isotopic composition of the fluid for 18O), or
are impossible to apply in certain carbonate phases (e.g. where fluid inclusions are too
small or absent).
Here, the use of a new isotopic paleothermother is proposed. The carbonate clumped
isotope paleothermometer has been developed recently (Gosh et al., 2006; Eiler, 2007),
and relies on the natural abundance of CO2 molecules containing two heavy isotopes,
e.g. 13C18O16O with a mass of 47. The association of two heavy isotopes into a chemical
bond is temperature-dependant, as more ordered systems are favored at low
temperatures. Temperatures are thus determined by measuring the differences between
a purely random (stochastic) distribution of the isotopes among the molecules and their
actual distribution in the lattice of the carbonate crystal. This deviation from the
stochastic value, which increases with decreasing temperatures, is referred to as 47.
So far, clumped isotopes have mainly been used for paleoclimate studies. Calibrating
clumped isotopes for diagenesis is a novel and challenging field of research, but most
importantly measuring clumped isotopes requires skills and high sensitivity mass
spectrometry. Following the calibration of the newly acquired mass spectrometer and the
new clumped isotope extraction line at Imperial College, we intend to calibrate the
clumped isotope paleothermometer for our specific purpose with synthetic carbonate
minerals precipitated under controlled conditions (i.e. diagenetic minerals such as calcite
and dolomite). Finally, we will apply the newly calibrated method to measure
precipitation temperature of cements and skeletal samples collected on reservoirequivalent outcrops in Oman (Lahr et al., Sena et al., Vandeginste et al., this meeting).
This will help constrain the depositional environment of these selected outcrops and
distinguish between early to late diagenesis.
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The Distribution and Origin of Porosity Enhancement at the Aptian-Albian

Unconformity, Oman
1

Aisha Al Hajri , Cathy Hollis , Joachim Amthor , Georg Warrlich

School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Science, University of Manchester

Petroleum Development Oman, Muscat, Oman

The Aptian Shuaiba Formation is one of the most important carbonate reservoirs on the
Arabian Plate. In Oman, its depositional framework is well established from surface and
subsurface studies. However, there has been relatively little focus on its diagenetic
modification, despite this offering a major control on reservoir quality and production
efficiency. Previous studies (eg Warrlich et al.,in press) have identified a zone of porosity
and permeability enhancement, approximately 10m thick, beneath the Albian Nahr Umr
Formation within a number of fields in Oman. Nevertheless, the regional distribution of
this poroperm enhancement has not been mapped and the processes that control it are
not well understood.
The boundary between the Lower Shuaiba Formation and the Nahr Umr Formation is a
regional unconformity, which in Oman represents a time gap of up to 10Ma. One
explanation for the enhanced porosity and permeability at the top of the Lower Shuaiba
Formation would be that it formed as a result of dissolution by meteoric porewaters.
Nevertheless, despite the length of the exposure event, there is little evidence for
pervasive karstification at or beneath contact. Furthermore, core data reveals significant
porosity enhancement along and adjacent to fractures and stylolites. This could imply
that dissolution was, at least in part, a late diagenetic, structurally-controlled event.
In this context, this study assesses the evidence for solution-modification and porosity
enhancement from meteoric porewaters during a period of subaerial exposure, prior to
and contemporaneous with deposition of the Nahr Umr Formation. It will also evaluate
the evidence for late diagenetic porosity enhancement, for example by up-dip migration
of undersaturated basinal brines or from dissolution by downward migrating,
compactionally-sourced fluids discharged from the Nahr Umr Formation The results are
clearly of direct relevance to the prediction of porosity and permeability distribution within
the Shuaiba Formation. In addition, the data permit the processes that control porosity
enhancement, during subaerial exposure and burial diagenesis, to be evaluated and
clarified. Ultimately, these data will therefore enhance exploration models across the
Arabian Plate by providing focus on the most appropriate criteria for the assessment and
prediction of regional porosity and permeability trends.

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Diagenetic Reactions Occurring in Carbonate Reservoirs during Petroleum

Emplacement
J. E. Neilson

1, 3

2,4

, N. H. Oxtoby

Carbonate Reservoirs Ltd., 16 Earlspark Road, Bieldside, Aberdeen, AB15 9BZ, UK.
41 Oaken Lane, Claygate, Surrey, KT10 0RG, UK
3
Also at: Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, University of Aberdeen, Kings College,
Aberdeen, AB24 3UE, UK.
4
Also at: Department of Geology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20
0EX, UK.
2

It has long been held that the emplacement of hydrocarbons stops or, more correctly,
inhibits diagenesis in carbonate (and clastic) reservoirs (e.g. Feazel and Schatzinger,
1985, Gluyas et al., 1993). From studies over the years by ourselves and others
however there are also some indications that petroleum emplacement can promote
diagenesis and the situation is clearly much more complex than previously thought (e.g.
Neilson and Oxtoby, 2008).
Precipitation and Dissolution
The precipitation of calcite appears to be inhibited by petroleum emplacement in some
cases (e.g. Neilson et al., 1998) but not always. Other minerals, collectively known as
exotic minerals (e.g. dolomite, anhydrite, quartz, kaolinite, fluorite, barite etc.) are also
found to have precipitated during petroleum filling as evidenced by the presence of
abundant petroleum inclusions (Figure 1). Fluid inclusion analysis has shown that these
cements precipitated around 80-150 C.
Late stage dissolution has also been observed affecting carbonate reservoirs (e.g.
Neilson and Oxtoby, 2008; Davies and Smith, 2006) and is currently being exploited as
an exploration tool in the US (Davies and Smith, 2006).
These effects have been observed worldwide in different types of basins (e.g. foreland
basins, rift basins) and in units from the Permian through to the Tertiary. Few detailed
studies with clear quantification of their effect however are available.
Processes
The processes involved are complex. Both internal (via pressure dissolution) and
external sources (e.g. basin shales, basement) for the cementing materials have been
considered and it is likely that both were involved (Neilson and Oxtoby, 2008). Also, it is
also not clear whether the materials for cementation travelled with the petroleum phase
or separately as suggested by England et al. (1987). However, precipitation occurred at
a time in the basin when fluids are moving, either along migration pathways or through
fault and fracture systems.
Whatever the source and transportation mechanisms however, fluid mixing in the
reservoir may well have driven both precipitation and dissolution processes. Modelling
has shown that, for a chemical system that is precipitating calcite to switch to the
precipitation of anhydrite, all that is required is a decrease in pH and a source of
sulphate (Neilson and Oxtoby, 2008). Barclay and Worden (2000) likewise showed that
the addition to the reservoir of CO2 from the source rocks, could account for the
precipitation of ankerite, quartz and kaolinite in the Magnus field.

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Effects on Reservoir Quality

Exotic minerals have a variable impact on reservoir quality, often forming no more than
5% of the rock volume but in some cases this figure can be much higher (e.g. up to
30%). Their impact on permeability can also be significant as they occur as late stage
cement, often blocking already restricted pore throats.
Such reactions not only have an effect on reservoir quality and the prediction of reservoir
quality but could have some other significant effects in the areas of production geology
and, increasingly, CO2 sequestration. In terms of production geology, the presence of
minerals such as barite can have a significant impact on density logs and hence porosity
estimation. CO2 injection and sequestration is also an area of growth over the next twothree decades. The impact of increased CO2 levels in formation waters must be clearly
understood before large-scale injection proceeds.
In summary therefore, significantly more needs to be understood regarding burial
diagenesis in carbonates at the time of petroleum generation, migration and
emplacement. Detailed case studies and the formation of databases recording the
occurrence and impact of exotic cements and late stage dissolution are required
together with modelling of the reactions involved.

Figure 1 - Dolomite (grey-brown, due to abundant

petroleum inclusions) and anhydrite (clear)
cement
post-dating
calcite
(circled)
and
overlapping with petroleum cementation. Inset
picture of dolomite containing abundant petroleum
inclusions.

November 2010

Figure 2 - Late stage dissolution of grains

and cements in a rifted basin.

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Role of Facies and Dolomitisation in Porosity Generation in the Dahra

Formation, Middle - Late Paleocene, Western Sirt Basin, Libya
Ibrahim E. Elkanouni, Maurice.E.Tucker, Stuart S. Jones, Department of Earth Sciences,
University of Durham, Durham, UK

The Sirt Basin is currently a major target for petroleum exploration and there is much
reservoir potential in the Middle / Late Paleocene carbonates. These were deposited
on shallow to moderate depth ramps developed upon structural highs, separated by
deeper water mudrock facies in basinal depressions. Several major reservoir units
occur within the Dahra Formation in the western part of the basin, and porosity
appears to be controlled by regional zones of early to late dolomitisation and the
pattern of carbonate cycles. Dominant microfacies are: dolo-mudstone, planktonic
foraminiferal wackestone, bioclastic wackestone, foraminiferal packstone and
bioclastic grainstone.
Coarsening-upward, shallowing-upwards and thinning-upwards packages can be
recognised in core, with porous zones located chiefly in the shallowest parts of these
cycles, which in many cases are associated with zones of dolomitisation. A notable
feature is that many of these intervals are characterised by significant concentrations
of pyrite and iron minerals with smaller amounts of phosphate and authigenic clays.
In some cases, cycles begin with argillaceous limestone and pass up into dolomitised
wacke-packstone. Of note is that despite the fact that dolomite-dominated cycles are
relatively thin in relation to the limestone dominated-cycles they generally have fair to
good porosity even in the mud-supported intervals.
The diagenesis has also involved some early dissolution of metastable grains from
meteoric influences, but most alteration has taken place during shallow to deep burial.
Dolomite occurs as a replacive mineral and a void-filling cement, with the replacement
process mainly controlled by original grain mineralogy, rather than grain-size. Dolomite
occurs as disseminated cryptocrystalline (few microns) through to coarsely crystalline
(250 microns), locally ferroan burial precipitates, precipitated from circulating seawater.
Calcite and dolomite cements are responsible for reducing the reservoir quality of the
Dahra Formation, but the grain-matrix dissolution, often associated with the
dolomitisation, along with fracturing, has led to the development of secondary porosity.
.

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Depositional and Diagenetic Evolution of a Papua New Guinean Onshore

Carbonate Reservoir: A Combined FMI and Petrographic Evaluation
1

Moyra E.J. Wilson , Dale Lewis , Louise Hombo , OKaro Yogi , Adrian Goldberg

Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University, Perth WA 6845 Australia

Schlumberger Oilfield Australia Pty., Perth WA 6850 Australia
3
SPI (208) Ltd., Papua New Guinea
4
InterOil Australia Pty. Ltd. Cairns, QLD 4870, Australia
2

The depositional and diagenetic controls on carbonate platform evolution, are

notoriously heterogeneous and difficult to determine from standard subsurface wireline
logging techniques. Here, we use a combined FMI (Formation Micro Imager),
petrographic and geochemical approach to evaluate depositional and diagenetic
trends across an Australasian subsurface buildup that is a major recent gas discovery.
The Elk and Antelope gas fields are hosted in Tertiary reefal, platformal and
associated deepwater carbonates in the present day foothills region of the Fold and
Thrust Belt in the Gulf Province of Papua New Guinea. A full suite of FMI logs (> 2000
m), > 150 thin sections (mainly from sidewall cores and cuttings) and additional
diagenetic data (cathodoluminescence, fluid inclusion, SEM and stable isotopes) from
both platform margin and shallow water deposits were evaluated during this study.
Despite the obvious scale differences between the data sets there was excellent
correlation between the independent petrography and FMI studies for: a) picking major
facies boundaries, and b) interpretation of depositional environment (except in areas
where diagenesis had strongly impacted original fabric). The micro-petrographic study
allowed more detailed examination of diagenesis and its impact on rock fabric (which
links to the FMI textures). Component analysis and depositional textures identified in
thin section are good indicators of original depositional environment. Full FMI
coverage allowed textural definition on a dm/m scale, identification and
characterisation of vertical changes, and likely large-scale variations in depositional
environments and sequences. It was clear from combining the results of the two
studies that diagenesis as well as depositional fabric had a strong impact on resultant
FMI facies. The diagenetic overprinting would have been difficult to extract from the
FMI data without the benefit of the micro-petrographic work. This study shows the
merits of selective petrographic analysis to enhance the quality of facies interpretation
from FMI images. A combined thin section and FMI study allowed enhanced definition
of micro- to metre-scale variations in depositional and diagenetic character in the Elk
and Antelope carbonate reservoirs.

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Diagenetic Processes and Their Impact on the Petrophysical Properties in

Kashagan Carbonate Platform Reservoir (Carboniferous, Kazakhstan).
1

Paola Ronchi , Andrea Ortenzi , Ornella Borromeo , William G. Zempolich

Eni E&P Division, Via Emilia 1, San Donato Milanese, Italy

Eni Petroleum, 1201 Louisiana Suite 3500; Houston, Texas, USA.

The Kashagan (offshore Kazakhstan) field structure is a huge isolated carbonate

platform (75 Km in length and 35 km in width) developed from Visean to Bashkirian in
the Pre Caspian Basin. The more than 3000m of cores cut in the first 16 explorative
and appraisal wells showed an inner platform facies association surrounded by a thin
platform margin; in the six main depositional sequences the sedimentation is organized
in shallowing upward cycles marked at the top by subaerial exposure surface.
The diagenetic study, which integrated petrographic analyses, fluid inclusion microthermometric study, stable isotopes and trace elements data, compared the diagenetic
evolution in the margin and in the platform interior and the relevant overprint on the
pore system. The early diagenesis is represented by marine cement fringes followed
by meteoric influx that locally caused dissolution enlargements of primary porosity and
partial cementation by pendant and blocky calcite. The meteoric diagenesis, related to
cyclic subaerial exposure surfaces, is more evident in the Bashkirian sequence, but it
is still detectable in the lower sequences by petrographic and geochemical signature
13
C). The main karst surfaces, correlated along the whole platform,
are marked by several evidences: non luminescent cements, root traces, sharp 13C
depletion, and fresh or brackish fluid inclusion calcites.
In the inner platform the porosity follows a cyclic pattern due to interaction of different
factors: the fresh water dissolution more intense and preserved in the middle part of
the cycle, cementation in the uppermost part of the cycle and pressure-solution and
compaction processes that destroyed the porosity at the cycle top and base. The
diagenetic processes and resulting porosity pattern are more complex in the platform
margin areas firstly because there the sedimentary cyclicity is less defined, and
secondly because of the stronger overprint of burial diagenesis.
The burial late diagenesis in the inner platform is represented by some calcite
cementation that not altered deeply the porosity network, while in the margins the
inflow of exotic fluids from the basin caused dissolution, cementation and local
dolomitization. These fluids were able to enter the rim through slope and margin facies
and karst/flank margin fracture network. The cementation related to these exotic fluids
is characterised by distinct petrographic and geochemical evidences: bright
luminescence, high Mn content, depleted 18O, high Th C and low salinity (% NaCl
eq.) of fluid inclusions. Due to this diagenetic overprint, the platform margin is
characterized by a more heterogeneous pore network with larger pores and fractures
but with lower matrix porosity values.
The superimposition of the different diagenetic events on the original sedimentological
setting originated distinct pore systems. The applied approach allowed understanding
the geological drivers that ruled the diagenesis and related pore system and finally
produced reservoir quality zones maps that are used as a base for reservoir modelling.

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Quantifying Numerical Heterogeneity in Carbonate Petrophysical Properties:

Application to Geological and Fluid Flow Unit Characterisation
1

Peter Fitch , Sarah Davies , Mike Lovell , Tim Pritchard , Peter Harvey .
1

Geology Department, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH

BG Group, 100 Thames Valley Park, Reading, Berkshire, RG6 1PT.

Exploration and production from carbonate reservoirs is challenging because

heterogeneities occur at all scales of observation and measurement. Geological
heterogeneity in carbonate rocks can be attributed to variable lithology,
chemistry/mineralogy, pore types, pore connectivity, and sedimentary facies. These
intrinsic complexities can be related to geological processes controlling carbonate
deposition and changes during their subsequent diagenesis. The term heterogeneity
is rarely defined and almost never numerically quantified although it is widely stated
that carbonate heterogeneities are poorly understood.
We investigate how heterogeneity can be defined and quantified using a range of
statistical heterogeneity measures modified from previous studies (for example the
Lorenz and Dykstra-Parsons coefficients). Through this investigation, we have
developed a heterogeneity log by applying these techniques to wireline log data, over
set intervals of 10, 5, 2 and 1m, through a carbonate reservoir. Well log data occur
over different numerical ranges (for example, bulk density ranging from 1.95 to 2.95
g.cm-3, and natural gamma ray from 0 to 250api) and so we investigate the effect of
normalising data prior to running the statistical techniques. In the normalised dataset,
the same heterogeneity features are identified but its values are different, typically
changing by less than 10% from the original wireline data. In a dataset from a
particular reservoir, neutron porosity and P-wave transit time show greatest variability
through the succession, indicating textural/facies-based heterogeneities are of most
importance in this example. This is confirmed by documenting the underlying
geological heterogeneities in shale content, porosity and pore size distributions and
demonstrating these relate strongly to the petrophysical characterisation.
Heterogeneity zones, based on the wireline logs, show strong correlations to fluid flow
zones, suggesting we have developed a novel and useful method for identifying
reservoir units. By applying the same statistical measures of heterogeneity to logderived hydraulic units it is possible to rank these units in terms of their internal
heterogeneity. We show that, in this carbonate reservoir, the greater the internal
heterogeneity the better the reservoir quality. This study highlights how investigating
heterogeneity over various scales of measurement enables an improved
understanding of optimal sampling strategies to capture intrinsic heterogeneities.

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New Approach to Solving the Problems of Petrophysical Evaluation in Carbonate

Gas Reservoirs with Isolated Vuggy Porosities
Ali Omidi, Seyed Javad Safavi, Pars Petro Zagros Engineering & Services Company

Carbonate gas reservoirs usually contain good porosities. Some parts of this volume
includes isolated vuggy porosity. Most of wireline logs are affected In these conditions,
such as neutron log that affected by gas. density log calculates porosity that contains
isolated vuggy porosity in summation of whole value of porosity & DT log cant calculate
the porosity of isolated vuggs that filled with non-conductive fluids. So, detailed evaluation
of reservoir & determining the petrophysical parameters such as effective porosity and
water saturation, according to the variations of m & n parameters, have problematic
procedures & using of advanced logs such as Image logs or NMR method is not in access
always. So , sometimes we have to using wireline logs as main data in the way of solving
the defects of wireline logs.
In this paper, these kinds of reservoirs is inspected by using conventional petrophysical
logs & modules of Geolog Software and then porosity is calculated from different log
responses with using both of MULTIMIN & DETERMIN methods of Geolog together &
finally, useful & productive porosity is determined. in fact, by using wireline logs & primary
evaluation in MULTIMIN method, all of volumes of fluids & minerals is calculated & then by
using several formulas in deterministic methods and complex using of logs, according to
their effects, productive porosity values is calculated & volume of isolated vuggy porosity is
determined & deduced from primary effective porosity. By this method, exact values of
productive porosity is delineated.
Kangan Formation with Triassic age in one of Gas fields of south west of Iran in zagros
region was selected as Carbonate gas reservoir in this study that contains core data in
reservoir intervals of Kangan Formation. Results of this study was compared by porosity
values of core data & perfect match was obtained.

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Modeling of Carbonate Reservoirs Using Geostatistics: A Case Study for

Stimating of Porosity in A Oil Field in Zagros Basin (Iran)
1

Hassan Mohseni , Zahra Rahimi , Behroz Rafiei , Ramin Behzad , Rouya Emrani
1

Dept of Geology, Faculty of Science, Buali Sina Univ. Hamedan, Iran

Petrolum Engineering and Development Co. (MATN), Tehran, Iran
3
Beuroa of Education, District 2 (Teacher for Coledges and Highschools) Hamedan, Iran
2

Various methods are convenient for reservoir modeling, among which geostatistic
method is applied for 3-D modeling of Asmari Fm. reservoir in one of the Oil field in
SW Iran (Fig.1). This oil field is an asymmetric anticline trap located in south of Iran.
PETREL software was used for con struction of structural and Petrophysic models.
Data of 73 boreholes were imported into PETREL software in digital format. UGC
map prepared with Map card software were used as abase map for simulation (Fig.2).
The Asmari Fm. is being divided into 8 distinct lithozones (Fig. 3) in which reservoir
potential were individually evaluated. In order to reveal probable impact of structural
factors on porosity enhancement, data of all already mapped faults were also inserted
to the model. Modeling of the reservoir via data provided with those boreholes with
relatively more complete petrophysic data, give reasonable results. Accordingly
considerable porous intervals are recognized in upper and middle Asmari (Zones 1, 2,
3 and 6) and somewhat lower Asmari (subzone 7/2 and partially zone 8) Hence it is
evident that zones 2, 6, subzone 7/2, 8 and 1 are qualified as good to very good pay
zone and rest of the Asmari Fm. fall within moderate to poor productive zones.
Integrated modeling of the formation revealed that average porosity in southern flank
of the trap is higher than the northern flank (Fig. 4). Indeed, apparently a mutual
interplay exists between porous sectors and trends of faults that affect the anticline
(Fig. 4). A comparison between dominant lithofacies and porosity development also
revealed that dolostones are more frequent in this part. Hence, we concluded that it is
plausible due to role of faults on providing more interconnections between isolated
pore spaces, promoting better percolation of dolomitizing fluids, along with developing
new fracture porosities.

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Characterisation of Karstic Networks by Automatic Extraction of Geometrical

and Topological Parameters: Comparison between Stochastically Simulated
Networks and Observed Ones
A. Fournillon, S. Abelard, S. Viseur, B. Arfib, J. Borgomano, Laboratoire de Gologie des
Systmes et Rservoirs Carbonats Case 67, Universit de Provence, 3 place Victor Hugo,
13331 MARSEILLE CEDEX 3, FRANCE

Karstic features represent a major challenge in carbonate reservoir exploration: on one

hand, they are hardly observable and, on the other hand, they control fluid flow.
Studying accessible analogue karsts then represents a key to understand buried and
inaccessible ones. Karstic networks have a highly complex geometry but they are
simultaneously characterized by common attributes stemming from their settings.
These common attributes, like structural or lithological context, thus provide tools for
understanding the karst network development. Moreover, the geometry and the
topology of such networks are imperative for fluid flow applications. Two main
approaches have been explored for modelling karst networks: (1) the process-based
approaches which reproduce the karst setting (including faults and fractures) and then
involve the speleogenetical history; (2) the structure-based approaches which are
referred to as stochastic simulations and directly aim at reproducing karst network on
the basis of caves, faults and/or fractures distribution. Speleogenetical factors are so
complex and numerous that they are difficult to estimate from effective karst networks.
The process-based approaches are therefore rarely applied to reproduce actual karstic
networks conditioned to hard data. The structure-based approaches thus represent the
alternative strategy. However, for proposing and applying accurate simulations, it is
important to first quantitatively characterize the karst networks by geometrical and
topological parameters and second to develop stochastic simulations that reproduce
these parameters in average. In this paper, we propose a workflow: to first
automatically extract geometrical and topological attributes from observed karstic
networks and second to compare these attribute statistics with those computed from a
proposed stochastic simulation of karstic networks. This study is based on the real
case study of the Beausset area, near Marseille (South-East of France).
Cavers extensively explore and map karstic networks all other the world. Thus, a
database of several tens of thousands cavities has been built for nearly fifty years. The
surveys they provide represent useful analogues for unreachable karsts. However, this
database contains various and heterogeneous data formats and types. Indeed,
provided network descriptions are ranged over simple 2D sketches to full 3D precise
surveys. In this paper, we have chosen to use the database built on the Var area
(South-East of France) which gathers more than 2000 caves. This database
represents an interesting support for our proposed approach since less than 1800
caves are mapped and less than 500 have a horizontal development exceeding 20m.
The proposed approach firstly aims at developing tools to automatically extract
geometrical and topological parameters from 2D maps of karstic topography. These
maps correspond to gray-level raster images. The proposed algorithm has been
developed as a plugin of ImageJ open-source software and is the following one: (1) a
pre-processing phase fulfils the cave area in black colour to remove all drawn
descriptions and to binarize it into black and white raster image. During this step, the
picture is also georeferenced and scaled; (2) a skeletonization process is applied on
this B&W image in order to obtain a raster karstic network skeleton; (3) the karst
skeleton is vectorized by adapting algorithms proposed in Mena (2006) and during this
stage, it is decomposed into karstic branches. This means that as a final result the
karst information correspond to several connected polylines (fig. 1). Finally, the goal is
to compute discriminant attributes from the so-obtained karstic vectorized skeleton. For
each karstic network, several geometrical and topological attributes can be determined
to describe both its geometry and its connectivity. Firstly, the karstic network can be
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considered as a network of several karst branches. For each branch of the same
karstic network, we have chosen to compute: its main direction (azimuth), its length, its
width, its tortuosity and its coordination number (the number of other branches that are
connected to the given branch). Secondly, some attributes characterize the whole
network. Thus, per karstic network, we propose to compute, for example: topological
indices and the length and azimuth of its longer and smaller paths.

Figure 1: Automated extraction of statistical parameters. (A) Map of the La Foux de SainteAnne dEvenos Cave. (B) The same map converted in black and white. (C) The vectorized
skeleton of the considered cave compared with its outer limit.

The second purpose of the proposed approach is to use these computed parameters
as support both for regional scale analysis of karsts and for simulation quality analysis.
Indeed, the proposed method allows observable karstic networks to be quantitatively
described at a regional scale so that the variation of the computed attributes can be
analysed at this scale. Therefore, sensitivity analysis can be achieved to determine
trends and geological controls on the karst geometry and topology by using statistical
methods such as clustering and factorial analysis. In this paper, we have chosen to
also use the computed attributes to check the quality of karstic network simulations.
This approach could be applied for any stochastic simulators. However, the work
presented in this paper is based on the approach proposed in Fournillon et al (2010).
The authors described a geostatistical method for stochastically simulating karstic
networks based on azimuth and dimensions of the network conduits. This method
consists in decomposing karstic networks into sets of unidirectional elements. Each set
is then characterized by a variogram and a proportion. These two parameters are the
inputs for the stochastic simulations of the networks which are realized into a 3D
stratigraphic grid. This approach was applied to the database of the Beausset area. A
stratigraphic grid was built and defined the geological environment of the karst. Once
the karst simulations were obtained the proposed automatic extraction algorithm has
been applied on the simulations. In order to compare similar data, the karstic
simulations have been projected into a plane and a snapshot of these objects have
been performed. This way, 2D maps of observable karsts and of simulations have
similar meaning. The results of this statistical comparison lead to two different results:
(1) the validation of the simulated karsts from the observable ones; (2) the
discrimination of simulations that could have different dynamic behaviours and that will
be then exported into a flow simulator.
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The proposed method is preliminary and will be further developed. We aim at

implementing tools to obtain statistics on the full 3D geometry of the karstic network by
combining areal and vertical maps of the karst descriptions. Another enhancement will
be to extend the computed attributes, especially concerning the topology of the karstic
network. The ultimate purpose of this kind of studies is to propose stochastic
simulation approaches of karstic networks that are conditioned to both geometrical and
topological attributes.

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Constrained Stochastic Simulation of 3D Branchwork Karsts

Pauline Collon-Drouaillet, Vincent Henrion, Franois Bonneau, Jeanne Pellerin, Guillaume
Caumon, Nancy-Universit, CRPG-CNRS, ENSG, rue du doyen Marcel Roubault, BP 40,
54501 Vandoeuvre-ls-Nancy, France

Karsts and paleokarsts are complex features, common in carbonate reservoirs that
strongly influence underground flows. Due to lack of data and to the complexity of the
underlying physical processes, exact location and geometry of these systems are
poorly known. Being able to simulate different possible karstic networks honoring the
available data is a challenge that can be addressed from two angles: i) trying to
reproduce all the physical processes leading to the karst formation (genetic approach)
or ii) directly simulating the result of the dissolution processes (static approach).
Genetic approaches are various and Dreybrodt and Gabrovsek [2002] gave a good
review of them. They are essentially operating in 2D and would be difficult to
implement in 3D. Static approaches are less common but give also encouraging
results [Labourdette et al., 2007, Henrion et al., 2008].
The static approach initially developed by Henrion et al. (2007) simulates karstic
features by using an object-distance simulation method (ODSIM) [Henrion et al., in
process]. This method computes the Euclidean distance transform to a skeleton of the
geological body to be simulated providing a 3D distance field. Combining this distance
field with a spatially correlated random noise allows to build a 3D karst geometry with
realistic shape (Figure 1). First applications of this method to karst simulation are
based on a geomodel integrating a simulated Discrete Fracture Network (DFN) and
bedding planes to extract an initial skeleton of the karst [Henrion et al., 2007]. This
extraction is done by a discretization of the geomodel into a graph of connectivities
called a PipeNetwork [Vitel and Mallet, 2005]. Then, the karst skeleton corresponding
to preferential flow paths is computed using a graph search algorithm based on A* or,
in the simplest synthetic case, to the intersection of the main vertical fracture plane
with the horizontal bedding planes [Henrion et al., 2007]. As the flow path controls the
high scale geometry of the karst, its computation is a crucial step, independently of the
ODSIM method. In this paper, we present the modifications made on the A* algorithm
to generate more constrained karst skeletons.

Figure 1. 3D karst model obtained using the ODSIM method [Pellerin et al., 2008]

According to the qualitative pattern classification of Palmer [2003], karsts can be

separated in three main families: i) the branchworks (curvilinear or rectilinear); ii) the
mazes (anastomotic, network, spongework); and iii) the ramiform patterns. The present
work focuses on the branchwork cave patterns. In fact, first tries done by Pellerin et al.
[2008] show that, despite the possibility to impose some constraints on the
presence/absence of karst on observations points, the graph search algorithm tends to
generate parallel preferential flow paths that do not reproduce the hierarchical
organization usually observed (Figure 2).

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A solution is to first extract a main path, and then simulate secondary tubes that
connect to the principal one. A* is a depth-first graph search algorithm which finds the
least-cost path between two nodes. From the input node, graph nodes are explored
following a particular order. This order is defined by an operator minimizing an heuristic
plus cost function. Modifying this order allows extraction of paths which are not strictly
the least cost path. So, in addition to the distance between input and output points, we
suggest to use the distance to the previously extracted paths in the heuristic plus cost
functions to obtain deeper connection levels between karst conduits. In addition to this
modification, the branching point can also be randomly chosen (following a triangular
law) on the main path, between the nearest node of the secondary input point and the
next branching node (or output node). These methods produce more realistic
branchwork karst features (Figure 2), but do not allow the user to add morphometric
constraints.

Figure 2. Karst network skeleton obtained (a) using the graph-search algorithm version
detailed by Vitel and Mallet [2005] (b) using the modified version.

Considering that a karst skeleton is equivalent to a graph, a pure branchwork pattern,

i.e. without anastomosis, can be compared to a binary tree. A topological classification
of this binary tree can thus be done using the Horton-Strahler index [Horton, 1945,
Strahler, 1952]. Using this index, two parameters can be defined:
Ko, order of the karst system, is equal to the order of the output point,
RK, average confluence ratio, represents an indicator of ratio between the
number NKi of path of a given order i on the number NKi+1 of paths of the
order i+1.
The proposed method is to simulate karst networks honoring these two parameters
(given by the user). The different steps are the following:
1. Compute the main flow path and affect it the order Ko (NKo = 1),
2. Iteratively generate the inferior order paths :
calculate the number of path to generate NKi-1 = NKi RK
impose the input points of the i order paths to be the output points of two i-1
order paths and generate this paths
generate the (NKi-1 2NKi) paths remaining by imposing their output
points to be located on superior order paths, extremities excluded.
The results show that this algorithm allows the generation of 3D branchwork karst
models with a degree of connectivity strongly controlled by the user.
Knowing the geological context and specially the source of aggressive water and
dominant structures can guide the geologist to guess the pattern of karst that has
developed [Palmer, 2003]. If future works on karst characterization succeed in
identifying quantitative parameters related to a structural and geological context, one
can hope that these parameters will constitute input data to more realistic stochastic
simulation of karsts. In this case, this work provides promising tools to incorporate
these parameters and achieve this goal.
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