Powder Metallurgy

NANO54
Foothill College

Overview

History
Definitions
Benefits
Process
Applications

Introduction
Earliest use of iron powder dates back to 3000 BC.
Egyptians used it for making tools
Modern era of P/M began when W lamp filaments were
developed by Edison
Components can be made from pure metals, alloys, or
mixture of metallic and non-metallic powders
Commonly used materials are iron, copper, aluminium,
nickel, titanium, brass, bronze, steels and refractory
metals
Used widely for manufacturing gears, cams, bushings,
cutting tools, piston rings, connecting rods, impellers etc.

Powder Metallurgy
. . . is a forming technique
Essentially, Powder Metallurgy (PM) is
an art & science of producing metal or
metallic powders, and using them to
make finished or semi-finished products.
Particulate technology is probably the
oldest forming technique known to man
There are archeological evidences to
prove that the ancient man knew
something about it

Powder Metallurgy
Producing metal or metallic powders
Using them to make finished or semi-finished
products.
The Characterization of Engineering Powders
Production of Metallic Powders
Conventional Pressing and Sintering
Alternative Pressing and Sintering Techniques
Materials and Products for PM
Design Considerations in Powder Metallurgy

Powder Metallurgy (P/M)

Competitive with processes such as
casting, forging, and machining.
Used when
melting point is too high (W, Mo).
reaction occurs at melting (Zr).
too hard to machine.
very large quantity.
Near 70% of the P/M part production is
for automotive applications.
Good dimensional accuracy.
Controllable porosity.
Size range from tiny balls for ball-point
pens to parts weighing 100 lb. Most are
around 5 lb.

Process Capabilities
Contional

HIP

Injection
Molding (IM)

Precision IM

Preform
Forging

Metal

All

All (SA,
SS)

All (Steel, SS)

All

Steel, SA

Surface detail

B-C

Mass, kg

0.01-5(30)

0.1-10
10-7000 (e)

0.01-0.2

0.005-0.2

0.1-3

Min. section, mm

1.5

0.1

Min. core diam. mm

4-6

0.2

Tolerance +/-%

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.25

Throughput (pc/h)

100-1000

5-20

100-2000

100-2000

200-2000

Min. quantity

1000-50,000

1-100

10,000

10,000

100,000

Eq. Cost

B-C

A-B

A-B

A-B

A: highest, B: median, C: lowest

ME 355 Sp06

W. Li

Design Aspects

(a) Length to thickness ratio limited to 2-4; (b) Steps limited to avoid density variation; (c) Radii provided to
extend die life, sleeves greater than 1 mm, through hole greater than 5 mm; (d) Feather-edged punches with flat
face; (e) Internal cavity requires a draft; (f) Sharp corner should be avoided; (g) Large wall thickness difference
should be avoided; (h) Wall thickness should be larger than 1 mm.

Advantages / Disadvantages P/M

Virtually unlimited choice of alloys, composites, and associated
properties.
Refractory materials are popular by this process.

Controlled porosity for self lubrication or filtration uses.

Can be very economical at large run sizes (100,000 parts).
Long term reliability through close control of dimensions and
physical properties.
Very good material utilization.
Limited part size and complexity
High cost of powder material.
High cost of tooling.
Less strong parts than wrought ones.
Less well known process.

History of Powder
Metallurgy
IRON Metallurgy >
How did Man make iron in 3000 BC?
Did he have furnaces to melt iron air blasts,

and

The reduced material, which would then be

spongy, [ DRI ], used to be hammered to a solid or
to a near solid mass.
Example: The IRON PILLER at Delhi
Quite unlikely, then how ???

History of P/M
Going further back in Time . . .

The art of pottery, (terracotta), was known to

the pre-historic man (Upper Paleolithic
period, around 30,000 years ago)!
Dough for making bread is also a powder
material, bound together by water and the
inherent starch in it. Baked bread, in all its
variety, is perhaps one of the first few types
of processed food man ate.
(Roti is a form of bread.)
12

Renaissance of P/M
The modern renaissance of powder
metallurgy began in the early part of last
century, when technologists tried to replace
the carbon filament in the Edison lamp.
The commercially successful method was the
one developed by William Coolidge. He
described it in 1910, and got a patent for it in
1913.

This method is still being used for

manufacturing filaments.
13

Renaissance of P/M
The Wars and the post-war era brought about
huge leaps in science, technology and
engineering.
New methods of melting and casting were
perfected, thereby slowly changing the
metallurgy of refractory materials.
P/M techniques have thereafter been used
only when their special properties were
needed.

P/M Applications

Electrical Contact materials

Heavy-duty Friction materials
Self-Lubricating Porous bearings
P/M filters
Carbide, Alumina, Diamond cutting tools
Structural parts
P/M magnets
Cermets
and more, such as high tech applications

Hi-Tech Applications of P/M

Anti-friction products
Friction products
THESE COMPONENTS ARE USED
Filters
IN AIR & SPACE CRAFTS, HEAVY
Electrical Contacts
MACHINERY, COMPUTERS,
AUTOMOBILES, etc
Sliding Electrical Contacts
Very Hard Magnets
Very Soft Magnets
Refractory Material Products
Hard and Wear Resistant Tools
Ferrous & Non-ferrous Structural parts etc . . .

Powder Metallurgy Merits

o
o
o
o

The main constituent need not be melted

The product is porous - [ note : the porosity can be controlled]
Constituents that do not mix can be used to make composites,
each constituent retaining its individual property
Near Nett Shape is possible, thereby reducing the post-production
costs, therefore:
Precision parts can be produced
The production can be fully automated, therefore,
Mass production is possible
Production rate is high
Over-head costs are low
Break even point is not too large
Material loss is small
Control can be exercised at every stage

Powder Metallurgy Disadvantages

o
o
o

Porous !! Not always desired.

Large components cannot be produced on
a large scale [Why?]
Some shapes [such as?] are difficult to be
produced by the conventional p/m route.

WHATEVER, THE MERITS ARE SO

MANY THAT P/M,
AS A FORMING TECHNIQUE, IS GAINING
POPULARITY

Powder Metallurgy

An important point that comes out :

The entire material need not be melted to fuse it.

The working temperature is well below the

melting point of the major constituent, making it
a very suitable method to work with refractory
materials, such as: W, Mo, Ta, Nb, oxides,
carbides, etc.

It began with Platinum technology about 4

centuries ago in those days, Platinum, [mp =
1774C], was "refractory", and could not be
melted.

Powder Metallurgy Process

Powder production
Blending or mixing
Powder compaction
Sintering
Finishing Operations

Powder Metallurgy Process

1. Powder Production
Many methods: extraction from compounds, deposition,
atomization, fiber production, mechanical powder
production, etc.
Atomization is the dominant process

(a)

(b)

(c)

(a) Water or gas atomization; (b) Centrifugal atomization; (c) Rotating electrode

Powder Preparation

(a) Roll crusher, (b) Ball mill

Powder Preparation

2. Blending or Mixing
Blending a coarser fraction with a finer fraction
ensures that the interstices between large particles
will be filled out.
Powders of different metals and other materials may
be mixed in order to impart special physical and
mechanical properties through metallic alloying.
Lubricants may be mixed to improve the powders
flow characteristics.
Binders such as wax or thermoplastic polymers are
added to improve green strength.
Sintering aids are added to accelerate densification
on heating.

Blending
To make a homogeneous mass with uniform distribution
of particle size and composition
Powders made by different processes have different
sizes and shapes
Mixing powders of different metals/materials
Add lubricants (<5%), such as graphite and stearic
acid, to improve the flow characteristics and
compressibility of mixtures
Combining is generally carried out in
Air or inert gases to avoid oxidation
Liquids for better mixing, elimination of dusts and reduced
explosion hazards

Hazards
Metal powders, because of high surface area to volume ratio are
explosive, particularly Al, Mg, Ti, Zr, Th

Blending

Some common equipment geometries used for blending powders

(a) Cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c) double cone, (d) twin shell

3. Powder Consolidation
Cold compaction with 100 900
MPa to produce a Green body.

Die pressing
Cold isostatic pressing
Rolling
Gravity

Injection Molding small, complex

parts.

ME 355 Sp06

W. Li

Die pressing

28

Compaction
Press powder into the desired shape and size in dies
using a hydraulic or mechanical press
Pressed powder is known as green compact
Stages of metal powder compaction:

Compaction

Increased compaction pressure

Provides better packing of particles and leads
to porosity
localized deformation allowing new contacts
to be formed between particles

Compaction

At higher pressures, the green density approaches

density of the bulk metal
Pressed density greater than 90% of the bulk density is
difficult to obtain
Compaction pressure used depends on desired density

Friction problem in cold

compaction
The effectiveness of pressing with a single-acting punch is
limited. Wall friction opposes compaction.
The pressure tapers off rapidly and density diminishes away
from the punch.
Floating container and two counteracting punches help
alleviate the problem.

W. Li

 Smaller particles provide greater strength mainly due to

reduction in porosity
Size distribution of particles is very important. For same
size particles minimum porosity of 24% will always be
there
Box filled with tennis balls will always have open space between
balls
Introduction of finer particles will fill voids and result in density

 Because of friction between (i) the metal particles and (ii)

between the punches and the die, the density within the
compact may vary considerably
Density variation can be minimized by proper punch and
die design

(a) and (c) Single action press; (b) and (d) Double action press
(e) Pressure contours in compacted copper powder in single action press

Compaction Pressure of
some Metal Powders
Metal Powder

Pressure (MPa)

Al
Al2O3
Brass
Carbon
Fe
W
WC

75-275
100-150
400-700
140-170
400-800
75-150
150-400

(a) Compaction of metal powder to form bushing

(b) Typical tool and die set for compacting spur gear

A 825 ton mechanical press for compacting metal powder

Cold Isostatic Pressing

Metal powder placed
in a flexible rubber
mold
Assembly pressurized
hydrostatically by
water (400 1000
MPa)
Typical: Automotive
cylinder liners
FFT: Advantages?

4. Sintering
Parts are heated to 0.7~0.9 Tm.
Transforms compacted mechanical
bonds to much stronger metallic
bonds.

Shrinkage always occurs:

Vol _ shrinkage

Vsintered
Vgreen

green

sintered

green

Linear _ shrinkage
sintered

1/ 3

Sintering Compact Stage

Green compact obtained after compaction is brittle and
low in strength
Green compacts are heated in a controlled-atmosphere
furnace to allow packed metal powders to bond together

Sintering Three Stages

Carried out in three stages:
First stage: Temperature is slowly increased so that all
volatile materials in the green compact that would
interfere with good bonding is removed
Rapid heating in this stage may entrap gases and
produce high internal pressure which may fracture
the compact

Sintering: High temperature stage

Promotes solid-state
bonding by diffusion.
Diffusion is timetemperature sensitive.
Needs sufficient time

Sintering: High temperature stage

Promotes vapor-phase
transport
Because material
heated very close to MP,
metal atoms will be
released in the vapor
phase from the particles
Vapor phase resolidifies
at the interface

Sintering: High temperature stage

Sintering: High temperature stage

Third stage: Sintered product is cooled in a

controlled atmosphere
Prevents oxidation and thermal shock
Gases commonly used for sintering:
H2, N2, inert gases or vacuum

Sintering Time, Temperature,

and Indicated Properties

Liquid Phase Sintering

During sintering a liquid phase, from the lower MP
component, may exist
Alloying may take place at the particle-particle interface
Molten component may surround the particle that has
not melted
High compact density can be quickly attained
Important variables:
Nature of alloy, molten component/particle wetting,
capillary action of the liquid

Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP)

Steps in HIP

Combined Stages
Simultaneous compaction + sintering
Container: High MP sheet metal
Container
subjected
to
elevated
temperature and a very high vacuum to
remove air and moisture from the powder
Pressurizing medium: Inert gas
Operating conditions
100 MPa at 1100 C

Hot Isostatic Pressing

It may sound like some new, exotic dry
cleaning process and though many have
heard of "HIP", Hot Isostatic Pressing, few of
us understand the many benefits of this
materials process. Since it's largely
misunderstood, many conservative
engineers are reluctant to adopt HIPping as
an element in their manufacturing designs,
thus missing a valuable process tool.
HIP is a process that subjects a material
simultaneously to both high temperature and
high gas pressure, usually Argon, in vessels
equipped with sophisticated control systems
and telemetry.
Typically, the temperature is selected to
permit limited plastic deformation of the
material being processed in the solid state at
an argon gas pressure of 15,000, 30,000, or
at times, 45,000 psi (1,000 to 3,000
atmospheres) is isostatically exerted on the
heated parts for a period of time. The
chamber is then slowly cooled,
depressurized and the parts removed.

Combined Stages
Produces compacts with almost 100%
density
Good metallurgical bonding between
particles and good mechanical strength
Uses
Superalloy
components
for
aerospace
industries
Final densification step for WC cutting tools
and P/M tool steels

Slip-Casting

(i) Slip is first poured into an absorbent mould

(ii) a layer of clay forms as the mould surface absorbs water
(iii)when the shell is of suitable thickness excess slip is poured away
(iv)the resultant casting

 Slip: Suspension of colloidal (small particles that

do not settle) in an immiscible liquid (generally
water)
Slip is poured in a porous mold made of plaster
of paris. Air entrapment can be a major problem
After mold has absorbed some water, it is
inverted and the remaining suspension poured
out.
The top of the part is then trimmed, the mold
opened, and the part removed
Application: Large and complex parts such as
plumbing ware, art objects and dinnerware

5. Finishing
The porosity of a fully sintered part is still significant (4-15%).
Density is often kept intentionally low to preserve
interconnected porosity for bearings, filters, acoustic barriers,
and battery electrodes.
However, to improve properties, finishing processes are
needed:
Cold restriking, resintering, and heat treatment.
Impregnation of heated oil.
Infiltration with metal (e.g., Cu for ferrous parts).
Machining to tighter tolerance.

Special Process: Hot compaction

Advantages can be gained by combining consolidation and
sintering,
High pressure is applied at the sintering temperature to bring
the particles together and thus accelerate sintering.
Methods include
Hot pressing
Spark sintering
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
Hot rolling and extrusion
Hot forging of powder preform
Spray deposition

Characterization of Powders

Size of powders 0.1 um 1 mm

Sieve size quoted as mesh number
Particle D = 15/mesh number (mm)
325 mesh 45 um

Atomization
Produce a liquid-metal
stream
by
injecting
molten metal through a
small orifice
Stream is broken by jets
of inert gas, air, or water
The size of the particle
formed depends on the
temperature of the metal,
metal flowrate through
the orifice, nozzle size
and jet characteristics

Electrode Centrifugation
Variation:
A consumable electrode
is rotated rapidly in a
helium-filled chamber.
The centrifugal force
breaks up the molten tip
of the electrode into
metal particles.

Finished Powders

Fe powders made by atomization

Ni-based superalloy made by

the rotating electrode process

P/M Process Approaches

Reduction
Reduce metal oxides with H2/CO
Powders are spongy and porous and they have uniformly
sized spherical or angular shapes
Electrolytic deposition
Metal powder deposits at the cathode from aqueous
solution
Powders are among the purest available
Carbonyls
React high purity Fe or Ni with CO to form gaseous
carbonyls
Carbonyl decomposes to Fe and Ni
Small, dense, uniformly spherical powders of high purity

P/M Process Approaches

Comminution
Crushing
Milling in a ball mill
Powder produced
Brittle: Angular
Ductile: flaky and not particularly suitable for P/M
operations
Mechanical Alloying
Powders of two or more metals are mixed in a ball mill
Under the impact of hard balls, powders fracture and join
together by diffusion

P/M Summarizing:
Powder Metallurgy is sought when a) It is impossible to form the metal or
material by any other technique
b) When p/m gives unique properties which
can be put to good use
c) When the p/m route is economical
There may be over-lapping of these
three points.

Summary

Powder metallurgy
Metals and ceramics
Particles and heat
Compaction and fusion
Interesting chemistry

References
Wikipedia Powder Metallurgy
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder_metallurgy)
Wikipedia Sintering
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintering)
All about powder metallurgy http://www.mpif.org/
Powder Metallurgy http://www.efunda.com/processes/metal_proces
sing/powder_metallurgy.cfm
John Wiley and Sons Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing Chapter 16 (book and handouts)

Appendix 1

POWDER METALLURGY TEXT

Powder Metallurgy
John Wiley and Sons
Powder Metallurgy (PM)
Metal processing technology in which parts
are produced from metallic powders
In the usual PM production sequence, the
powders are compressed (pressed) into
the desired shape and then heated
(sintered) to bond the particles into a
hard, rigid mass
Pressing is accomplished in a press-type
machine using punch-and-die tooling
designed specifically for the part to be
manufactured
Sintering is performed at a temperature
below the melting point of the metal

Why Powder Metallurgy is Important

PM parts can be mass produced to net
shape or near net shape, eliminating or
reducing the need for subsequent
machining
PM process wastes very little material about 97% of the starting powders are
converted to product
PM parts can be made with a specified
level of porosity, to produce porous metal
parts
Examples: filters, oil-impregnated
bearings and gears

More Reasons Why PM is Important

Certain metals that are difficult to
fabricate by other methods can be shaped
by powder metallurgy
Example: Tungsten filaments for
incandescent lamp bulbs are made by PM
Certain alloy combinations and cermets
made by PM cannot be produced in other
ways
PM compares favorably to most casting
processes in dimensional control
PM production methods can be
automated for economical production

Limitations and Disadvantages

with PM Processing
High tooling and equipment costs
Metallic powders are expensive
Problems in storing and handling metal
powders
Examples: degradation over time, fire
hazards with certain metals
Limitations on part geometry because
metal powders do not readily flow laterally
in the die during pressing
Variations in density throughout part may
be a problem, especially for complex
geometries

PM Work Materials
Largest tonnage of metals are alloys of
iron, steel, and aluminum
Other PM metals include copper, nickel,
and refractory metals such as molybdenum
and tungsten
Metallic carbides such as tungsten
carbide are often included within the scope
of powder metallurgy

Engineering Powders
A powder can be defined as a finely
divided particulate solid
Engineering powders include metals and
ceramics
Geometric features of engineering
powders:
Particle size and distribution
Particle shape and internal structure
Surface area

Measuring Particle Size

Most common method uses screens of
different
mesh sizes
Mesh count - refers to the number of
openings per
linear inch of screen
A mesh count of 200 means there are
200
openings per linear inch
Since the mesh is square, the count is
the same in
both directions, and the total number of
openings
per square inch is 2002 = 40,000
Higher mesh count means smaller
particle size

Interparticle Friction and

Flow Characteristics
Friction between particles affects ability of
a powder to flow readily and pack tightly
A common test of interparticle friction is
the angle of repose, which is the angle
formed by a pile of powders as they are
poured from a narrow funnel

Observations
Smaller particle sizes generally show
greater friction and steeper angles
Spherical shapes have the lowest
interpartical friction
As shape deviates from spherical, friction
between particles tends to increase

Particle Density Measures

True density - density of the true volume
of the material
The density of the material if the powders
were melted into a solid mass
Bulk density - density of the powders in
the loose state after pouring
Because of pores between particles, bulk
density is less than true density

Packing Factor = Bulk Density

divided by True Density
Typical values for loose powders range
between 0.5 and 0.7
If powders of various sizes are present,
smaller powders will fit into the interstices
of larger ones that would otherwise be
taken up by air, thus higher packing factor
Packing can be increased by vibrating the
powders, causing them to settle more
tightly
Pressure applied during compaction
greatly increases packing of powders
through rearrangement and deformation of
particles

Porosity
Ratio of the volume of the pores (empty
spaces) in the powder to the bulk volume
In principle, Porosity + Packing factor =
1.0
The issue is complicated by the possible
existence of closed pores in some of the
particles
If internal pore volumes are included in
above porosity, then equation is exact

Chemistry and Surface Films

Metallic powders are classified as either
Elemental - consisting of a pure metal
Pre-alloyed - each particle is an alloy
Possible surface films include oxides,
silica, adsorbed organic materials, and
moisture
As a general rule, these films must be
removed prior to shape processing

Production of Metallic Powders

In general, producers of metallic powders
are not the same companies as those that
make PM parts
Virtually any metal can be made into
powder form
Three principal methods by which metallic
powders are commercially produced
1. Atomization
2. Chemical
3. Electrolytic
In addition, mechanical methods are
occasionally used to reduce powder sizes

Conventional Press and Sinter

After the metallic powders have been
produced, the conventional PM sequence
consists of three steps:
1. Blending and mixing of the powders
2. Compaction - pressing into desired part
shape
3. Sintering - heating to a temperature
below the
melting point to cause solid-state bonding
of particles and strengthening of part
In addition, secondary operations are
sometimes performed to improve
dimensional accuracy, increase density,
and for other reasons

Blending and Mixing of Powders

For successful results in compaction and
sintering,
the starting powders must be homogenized
Blending - powders of the same
chemistry but
possibly different particle sizes are
intermingled
Different particle sizes are often blended
to reduce
porosity
Mixing - powders of different chemistries
are
combined
PM technology allows mixing various
metals into
alloys that would be difficult or impossible
to
produce by other means

Compaction
Application of high pressure to the powders
to form them into the required shape
The conventional compaction method is
pressing, in which opposing punches
squeeze the powders contained in a die
The workpart after pressing is called a
green compact, the word green meaning
not yet fully processed
The green strength of the part when
pressed is adequate for handling but far
less than after sintering

Sintering
Heat treatment to bond the metallic
particles, thereby increasing strength and
hardness
Usually carried out at between 70% and
90% of the metal's melting point (absolute
scale)
Generally agreed among researchers that
the primary driving force for sintering is
reduction of surface energy
Part shrinkage occurs during sintering
due to pore size reduction

Densification and Sizing

Secondary operations are performed to
increase density, improve accuracy, or
accomplish additional shaping of the
sintered part
Repressing - pressing the sintered part in
a closed die to increase density and
improve properties
Sizing - pressing a sintered part to
improve dimensional accuracy
Coining - pressworking operation on a
sintered part to press details into its
surface
Machining - creates geometric features
that cannot be achieved by pressing, such
as threads, side holes, and other details

Impregnation and Infiltration

Porosity is a unique and inherent
characteristic of PM technology
It can be exploited to create special
products by filling the available pore space
with oils, polymers, or metals
Two categories:
1. Impregnation
2. Infiltration

Impregnation
The term used when oil or other fluid is
permeated into the pores of a sintered PM
part
Common products are oil-impregnated
bearings, gears, and similar components
An alternative application is when parts
are impregnated with polymer resins that
seep into the pore spaces in liquid form
and then solidify to create a pressure tight
part

Infiltration
An operation in which the pores of the PM
part are filled
with a molten metal
The melting point of the filler metal must
be below
that of the PM part
Involves heating the filler metal in contact
with the
sintered component so capillary action
draws the filler
into the pores
The resulting structure is relatively
nonporous, and
the infiltrated part has a more uniform
density, as well
as improved toughness and strength

Alternative Pressing and Sintering

Techniques
The conventional press and sinter
sequence is the
most widely used shaping technology in
powder
metallurgy
Additional methods for processing PM
parts include:
Isostatic pressing
Hot pressing - combined pressing and
sintering
2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M. P.
Groover, Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing 2/e
Materials and Products for PM
Raw

Materials and Products for PM

Raw materials for PM are more
expensive than for other metalworking
because of the additional energy
required to reduce the metal to powder
form
Accordingly, PM is competitive only in a
certain range of applications
What are the materials and products that
seem most suited to powder metallurgy?

PM Materials Elemental Powders

A pure metal in particulate form
Used in applications where high purity is
important
Common elemental powders:
Iron
Aluminum
Copper
Elemental powders are also mixed with
other metal powders to produce special
alloys that are difficult to formulate by
conventional methods
Example: tool steels

PM Materials Pre-Alloyed Powders

Each particle is an alloy comprised of the
desired
chemical composition
Used for alloys that cannot be formulated
by mixing
elemental powders
Common pre-alloyed powders:
Stainless steels
Certain copper alloys
High speed steel

PM Products
Gears, bearings, sprockets, fasteners,
electrical contacts, cutting tools, and various
machinery parts
Advantage of PM: parts can be made to
near net shape or net shape
They require little or no additional shaping
after PM processing
When produced in large quantities, gears
and bearings are ideal for PM because:
The geometry is defined in two dimensions
There is a need for porosity in the part to
serve as a reservoir for lubricant

PM Parts Classification System

The Metal Powder Industries Federation
(MPIF) defines four classes of powder
metallurgy part designs, by level of
difficulty in conventional pressing
Useful because it indicates some of the
limitations on shape that can be achieved
with conventional PM processing

Design Guidelines for PM Parts - I

Economics usually require large
quantities to justify cost of equipment and
special tooling
Minimum quantities of 10,000 units are
suggested
PM is unique in its capability to fabricate
parts with a controlled level of porosity
Porosities up to 50% are possible
PM can be used to make parts out of
unusual metals and alloys - materials that
would be difficult if not impossible to
produce by other means

Design Guidelines for PM Parts - II

The part geometry must permit ejection
from die after pressing
This generally means that part must have
vertical or near-vertical sides, although
steps are allowed
Design features such as undercuts and
holes on the part sides must be avoided
Vertical undercuts and holes are
permissible because they do not interfere
with ejection
Vertical holes can be of cross-sectional
shapes other than round without significant
difficulty

Design Guidelines for PM Parts - III

Screw threads cannot be fabricated by
PM; if required, they must be machined
into the part
Chamfers and corner radii are possible by
PM pressing, but problems arise in punch
rigidity when angles are too acute
Wall thickness should be a minimum of
1.5 mm (0.060 in) between holes or a hole
and outside wall
Minimum recommended hole diameter is
1.5 mm
(0.060 in)