Revised 03/06 to conform with the 2004 ASME Extract

Part B1

CHAPTER 10
Piping

Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Explain selection criteria for piping materials.
2. Calculate the required thickness and maximum allowable working
pressure of piping.
3. Describe typical inspection procedures for piping installations and
repairs.
4. Describe a typical routine inspection procedure and schedule for highenergy piping.
5. Explain the effects of high temperature on piping strength.
6. Describe the design and installation criteria for a piping system layout.
7. Explain the theory and effects of water hammer.

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Chapter 10 Piping

OBJECTIVE 1
Explain selection criteria for piping materials.

PIPING MATERIALS SELECTION

The selection of materials for piping applications is a process that requires

consideration of material characteristics appropriate for the required service.
Materials are suitable for the flow medium and the given operating conditions of
temperature and pressure safety during the intended design life of the product.
Mechanical strength must be factored in for long term service and the resistance
to operational variables such as thermal or mechanical cycling.
Extremes in the process temperatures influence the material capabilities ranging
from:
Brittle fracture toughness at low temperatures
Creep strength at the higher operating temperatures
The operating environment surrounding the pipe or piping components must be
factored into the design. Corrosion and erosion can cause degradation of the
properties of the material. The products that are contained in the piping are also
an important factor.
The following properties contribute to the attractiveness and economy of a given
pipe material:
Ability to be bent or formed
Suitability for welding or other methods of joining
Ease of heat treatment
Uniformity and stability of the resultant microstructure
The piping used must be of the correct size in order to provide the required flow
and must have sufficient strength to withstand the pressure and temperature of
the fluid being transferred. In addition to this, the piping system must include
provision for expansion and contraction, proper support, insulation and
drainage.
The design, manufacture, testing and installation of power piping systems for
steam plants is covered in the ASME Code B 31.1 Power Piping and in the
ASME Code Section I Power Boilers.
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PIPING MATERIALS
Steels are the most frequently used materials for power piping systems. The
general classifications or steels are:
Low carbon steels
Alloy steels
Austenitic stainless steels
Table 1A in the ASME Code Section II, Part D, lists the allowable stress values
for these materials for various temperatures up to 900C.
Low Carbon Steel
Low carbon steel is the lowest priced steel and it is used extensively for steam,
water, fuel oil and compressed air piping for temperatures below 400C. Above
400C, it is not recommended as graphitization may occur within the pipe
material at these elevated temperatures. Graphitization is the breaking down of
steel into iron and carbon graphite. Failure of the material occurs along lines
where there is a concentration of graphite.
Pipe made from low carbon steel is seamless electric resistance welded or butt
welded. Specification numbers of some examples of low carbon steel pipe, as
listed in Table 1A, are: SA-53 E/B, SA-106 B and SA-178 A..
Alloy Steels
Alloy steels, such as the chrome-molybdenum types, are used for temperatures
above 400C. An application would be for use in the central boiler station steam
piping at 540C or more. Superheaters are normally made from chrome
molybdenum tubes and headers. The uses of some types, such as 1 chromium
molybdenum or 1 chromium molybdenum where graphitization can be a
problem, are limited to 525C. 2 chromium 1 molybdenum (or higher %
chrome alloys up to 9Cr-1Mo) is usually used above 460C.
Alloy steel pipe may be seamless or welded and some examples, as listed in Table
1A, are: SA-213 T12, SA-335 P11 and SA-335 P22.
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Austenitic stainless steels are a special class of high alloy steels which range from
18% chrome - 8 % nickel to 25% chrome - 20% nickel. They are also alloyed
with chromium, molybdenum and sometimes with copper, titanium, niobium
and nitrogen. Alloying with nitrogen raises the yield strength of the steels.

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Chapter 10 Piping

They are highly resistant to corrosion and maintain high strength at high
temperatures. This piping is available as seamless or welded pipe and tubing.
Applications are high temperature loop tubes in once-through boilers.
Some specification numbers as listed in Table 1A of ASME Section II Material
Specifications are:
SA-213 TP304 seamless tube,
SA-268 welded pipe,
SA-213 TP310S seamless pipe
Other Materials
Materials other than steel which may be used in power plant piping are cast iron
and nonferrous materials such as copper and brass. However, these materials are
limited by the code in regard to pressure and temperature.
According to the ASME Code Section I, PG 8.2.2 cast iron can be used for
steam pressures up to 1700 kPa providing the steam temperature does not
exceed 230C, but in no case, can be used for boiler blow-off connections. Cast
iron is not used where shock loading may occur.
The ASME Code Section I, PG 8.4 also specifies that nonferrous pipe or tubes
shall not be used for blow-off piping or for any other service where the
temperature exceeds 208C. PG 8.4.2 states that materials SB 61, SB 62, and SB
148 may be used only for parts of safety valves or safety relief valves subject to
the limitations of PG 67.7 at allowable stress values not to exceed those given in
Section II D table 1B with a maximum allowable temperature of 290C for SB
61 and SB 148 and 208C for SB 62
In cases where the use of nonferrous materials (any metal other than iron and its
alloys such as aluminium, copper or copper nickel) is allowed, there is a
possibility of galvanic corrosion occurring when these materials are used in
conjunction with steel or other metals. The galvanic corrosion occurs where the
dissimilar metals come in contact.

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OBJECTIVE 2
Calculate the required thickness and maximum allowable working
pressure of piping.

COMMERCIAL PIPE SIZES

Commercial pipe is made in standard sizes with different wall thicknesses or
weights. Up to and including 300 mm pipe, the size is expressed as nominal
(approximate) inside diameter. Above 300 mm, the size is given as the actual
outside diameter.
For example, if a pipe was designated as 152 mm size this would mean that it has
a nominal or approximate inside diameter of 152 mm. The outside diameter is
168 mm and this is a constant value no matter what the wall thickness is. The
actual inside diameter of the pipe will depend upon its wall thickness. For a
standard wall thickness (Schedule 40), the actual inside diameter of 152 mm pipe
is 154 mm. For an extra strong wall thickness (Schedule 80), the actual inside
diameter is 146 mm.
There are two systems used to designate the various wall thicknesses of different
sizes of pipe. The older method lists pipe as standard (S), extra strong (XS) and
double extra strong (XXS). The newer method, which is superseding the older
method, uses schedule numbers to designate wall thicknesses. These numbers
are: 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140 and 160. In most sizes of pipe;
Schedule 40 corresponds to standard
Schedule 80 corresponds to extra strong
Table 1 lists the dimensions and the mass per metre of different sizes of steel
pipe with varying wall thicknesses.

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TABLE 1
Dimensions and
Masses of Steel Pipe

Note: Upper figures in each square denote wall thickness in mm

Lower figures denote mass per metre in kilograms

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STRENGTH OF PIPING
The strength of a pipe depends upon:
Wall thickness
Material from which it is made
Temperature to which it is subjected
Method of its manufacture (whether seamless or welded)

REQUIRED THICKNESS
To determine the maximum wall thickness necessary for a pipe to withstand a
certain pressure and temperature, the following formula from the B-31.1 Power
Piping Code, Paragraph 104.1.2 (Straight Pipe under Internal Pressure) is used.
This is essentially the same formula as given in the ASME Code Section I
PG-27.2.2.
P Do
tm =
+ A where
2SE + 2YP
tm = Minimum required wall thickness in millimetres. (As pipe manufacturing
processes do not produce absolutely uniform wall thicknesses, the value
of tm as determined by the formula is usually increased by 12.5% to
provide a manufacturing tolerance).
P = Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (kPa may be rounded up to the
nearest 10 unit)
Do = Outside diameter of pipe in millimetres
SE = Maximum allowable stress value in MPa at the operating temperature as
listed in Appendix A Tables A-1 and A-2 in the Power Piping Code 31-1
The stress values in these tables take into account the efficiency of the
longitudinal seam of welded pipe E. Seamless Pipe has an E of 1.0
The values found in ASME Code Section II, Part D. do not contain the
weld joint efficiency factor which is given in the following table.
Factor E

TABLE 2
Factor E

1
2
3
a
b
c
d

Furnace butt weld

Electric resistance weld
Electric Fusion
Single butt without filler
Single butt with filler
Double butt without filler
Double butt with filler

Straight seam
Straight or spiral seam

0.6
0.85
100% radiograph

Straight or spiral seam

Straight or spiral seam
Straight or spiral seam
Straight or spiral seam

0.85
0.8
0.9
0.9

1
1
1
1

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A = Allowance for threading and structural stability, millimetres

Threaded steel or nonferrous pipe
A = depth of thread,
For machined surfaces or grooves
A = depth of machining with specified tolerances
A = depth of machining plus 0.4 mm if no specified tolerances
For plain end pipe
A=0
Plain end pipe is that which does not have its wall thickness reduced
when joining to another pipe. For example, pipe lengths welded together
rather than joining by threading.
y

= Temperature coefficient having values as given in Table 3

Temperature
C
Ferritic
Steels
Austenitic
Steels

482
and
below
0.4

510
0.5

538
0.7

566
0.7

593
0.7

621
and
above
0.7

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.7

For y values between the temperatures listed in Table 2, interpolation may be

used.
Example 1
Calculate the required thickness for 304.8 mm nominal size plain end steam pipe
to operate at 10 250 kPa and 500C. The material is seamless alloy steel SA-335P12.
Solution
tm

P
Do
S
E
y
A

=
=
=
=
=
=

P Do
+A
2(SE + Py )
10.25 MPa (given)
323.85 mm (Table 1)
88.3 MPa (Table 1A in the ASME Code Section II, Part D)
1
(SA-335-P12 is listed as seamless pipe)
0.464
(Table 3 Ferritic steel by interpolation)
0.000
(plain end pipe)

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TABLE 3
Values of y

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tm =

10.25 323.85
+A
2 [ (88.3 1) + (10.25 0.464)]

3319.46
+0
2(88.3 + 4.756)
3319.46
+0
tm =
186.112
tm = 17.84 mm
tm =

Using a manufacturers tolerance allowance of 12.5%, the required wall thickness

is:
= 17.84 1.125

= 20.07 mm ( Ans.)

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE WORKING PRESSURE

To calculate the value of P for a given value of tm, the formula is transposed to
solve for P as follows:

P=

2 SE (tm A)
Do 2 y (tm A)

Example 2
Calculate the maximum allowable working pressure, in MPa, for a 203.2 mm
nominal size plain end steam pipe with a minimum thickness of 18.24 mm. The
average operating temperature is 500C. The pipe material is a ferritic steel SA213-T11.
Solution
Where:
tm =
Do =
S =
E =
y =
A =

18.24 mm
219.08 mm (Table 1)
76.7 MPa (Table 1A in the ASME Code Section II, Part D)
1 (SA-213-T11 listed as seamless pipe)
0.464 (Table 3 by interpolation for 500C)
0.000 (See previous page)

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Chapter 10 Piping

P=

2 SE (tm A)
Do 2 y (tm A)

2 76.7(18.24 - 0)
219.08 - 2 0.464(18.24 - 0)
2798.016
=
219.08 16.927
2798.016
=
202.153
= 13.84 MPa (Ans.)
=

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OBJECTIVE 3
Describe Typical Inspection Procedures For Piping Installations And
Repairs.

INSPECTION PROCEDURES
Whenever new piping is installed or repairs are made to existing piping, the
piping is tested to ensure it will withstand its maximum allowable operating
pressure. The majority of piping is joined together with welding. The welding
process may cause a number of defects which include the following:
Incomplete fusion
Undercutting
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Cracking.
Various methods of non-destructive examination (NDE) are used to discover
these defects. NDE is the testing of materials without destroying the integrity of
the material or lowering its ability to perform its primary function. These tests
include:
Visual
Magnetic particle
Liquid penetrant
Radiographic
Ultrasonic
Leak
Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
Visual
Visual inspection is the most cost-effective method, but it must take place prior
to, during and after welding. The ANSI/AWS D1.1, (American National
Standards Institute/American Welding Society) Structural Welding Code-Steel,
states, "Welds subject to non-destructive examination shall have been found
acceptable by visual inspection." Before the first welding arc is struck, materials
are examined to see if they meet specifications for quality, type, size, cleanliness
and freedom from defects. Grease, paint, oil, oxide film or heavy scales are
removed.
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The pieces to be joined are examined for:

Flatness
Straightness
Dimensional accuracy
Alignment
Fit-up
Joint preparation
Process and procedure variables are verified, including electrode size and type,
equipment settings and provisions for preheat or postheat. All of these
precautions apply regardless of the inspection method used. During fabrication,
visual examination of a weld bead and the end crater may reveal problems such
as cracks, inadequate penetration, and gas or slag inclusions.
On simple welds, inspecting at the beginning of each operation and periodically
as work progresses is adequate. However, where more than one layer of filler
metal is deposited, each layer is inspected before depositing the next. The root
pass of a multipass weld is the most critical for weld soundness. It is especially
susceptible to cracking, and because it solidifies quickly, it may trap gas and slag.
On subsequent passes, conditions the shape of the weld bead causes or changes
in the joint configuration can cause further cracking as well as undercut and slag
trapping.
After welding, visual inspection detects a variety of surface flaws, including
cracks, porosity and unfilled craters regardless of subsequent inspection
procedures.
Magnetic Particle
Magnetic particle testing (MT) is used to detect surface or subsurface flaws. An
electric current produces a magnetic flux that attracts magnetic particles to the
cracks in the metal. In the presence of discontinuities, the magnetic flux in a
material is distorted. This distortion is a function of the orientation of the
discontinuity to the magnetic field (flux lines). The distortion is greatest when the
discontinuity is perpendicular to the magnetic field. When distortion of the
magnetic field is great enough, a pair of magnetic poles that act as small magnets,
are established at the discontinuity.
Fig. 1(a) shows how magnetic particle testing is used to locate cracks in
ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic particles are attracted to the poles and gather
at the crack, Fig. 1(b), indicating a surface or subsurface flaw. This technique can
only be applied on ferromagnetic materials. Magnetic particle testing is often
used for finding cracks in piping, vessels, and the storage tanks of deaerators.

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FIGURE 1 (a) (b)

Magnetic Particle
Testing

(a)

(b)

Magnetic particles, applied wet or dry, are available in various colors:

Silver-grey
Black
Red
Yellow
Green
Fluorescent
Various colours are necessary to obtain the maximum contrast between the
surface of the component and the discontinuity. Fluorescent particles are
extremely visible when viewed under ultraviolet light and have a high contrast
with the surface being examined.
Liquid Penetrant
Surface cracks and pinholes that are not visible to the naked eye can be located
using liquid penetrant inspection. This method is widely used to locate leaks in
welds and can be applied with austenitic steels and nonferrous materials where
magnetic particle inspection is not effective.
Two types of penetrating liquids are used:
Fluorescent
Visible dye

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Fluorescent
With fluorescent penetrant inspection, a highly fluorescent liquid with good
penetrating qualities is applied to the surface of the part to be examined.
Capillary action draws the liquid into the surface openings, and the excess is
removed. A developer is then used to draw the penetrant to the surface, and the
resulting indication is viewed under ultraviolet (black) light. The high contrast
between the fluorescent material and the object makes it possible to detect
minute traces of penetrant that indicate surface defects.
Visible Dye
Dye penetrant inspection is similar, except that vividly coloured dyes visible
under ordinary light are used (Fig. 2). A white developer is used with the dye
penetrants that create a sharply contrasting background to the vivid dye color.
This allows greater portability because it eliminates the need for ultraviolet light.
FIGURE 2
Dye Penetrant

The part to be inspected is clean and dry because any foreign matter could close
the cracks or pinholes and exclude the penetrant. Penetrants can be applied by
dipping, spraying or brushing with sufficient time allowed for the liquid to be
fully absorbed into the discontinuities. This may take an hour or more of very
exacting work.
Liquid penetrant inspection is widely used for leak detection. A common
procedure is to:
1. Apply fluorescent material to one side of a joint
2. Wait an adequate time for capillary action to take place
3. View the other side of the joint with ultraviolet light

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Radiographic
Radiography (X-ray) is one of the most important, versatile and widely accepted
of all the non-destructive examination methods. X-ray is used to determine the
internal soundness of welds.
Radiography is based on the ability of X-rays and gamma rays to pass through
metal and other materials opaque to ordinary light and produce photographic
records of the transmitted radiant energy. All materials absorb known amounts
of this radiant energy. Therefore, X-rays and gamma rays can be used to show
discontinuities and inclusions within the opaque material. The permanent film
record of the internal conditions shows the basic information that determines
weld soundness.
High-voltage generators produce x-rays. As the high voltage applied to an x-ray
tube is increased, the wavelength of the emitted X-ray becomes shorter and
provides more penetrating power.
The atomic disintegration of radioisotopes produces gamma rays. The
radioactive isotopes most widely used in industrial radiography are Cobalt 60 and
Iridium 192. Gamma rays emitted from these isotopes are similar to x-rays
except that their wavelengths are usually shorter. This allows them to penetrate
to greater depths than X-rays of the same power. However, exposure times are
considerably longer due to the lower intensity.
When X-rays or gamma rays are directed at a section of weldment, not all of the
radiation passes through the metal. Various materials, depending on their density,
thickness and atomic number absorb different wavelengths of radiant energy.
The degree to which these materials absorb the rays determines the intensity of
the rays penetrating through the material. When variations of these rays are
recorded, there is a means of seeing inside the material available. The image on a
developed photosensitized film is known as a radiograph (Fig. 3).
The opaque material absorbs a certain amount of radiation, but where there is a
thin section or a void (slag inclusion or porosity), less absorption takes place.
These areas appear darker on the radiograph. Thicker areas of the specimen or
higher density material (tungsten inclusion), absorb more radiation and their
corresponding areas on the radiograph are lighter.

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FIGURE 3
Radiograph

The reliability and interpretive value of radiographic images are a function of

their sharpness and contrast. The sharpness of an image and its contrast with the
background enables the observer to detect a flaw. To be sure that the
radiographic exposure produces acceptable results, a gauge called an Image
Quality Indicator (IQI) is placed on the part so that its image is produced on the
radiograph.
Image quality indicators, used to determine radiographic quality, are also called
penetrameters. A standard hole-type penetrameter is a rectangular piece of metal
with three drilled holes of set diameters. The thickness of the piece of metal is a
percentage of the thickness of the specimen being radiographed. The diameter of
each hole is different and is a given multiple of the penetrameter thickness. A
penetrameter is not an indicator or gauge to measure the size of a discontinuity
or the minimum detectable flaw size. It is an indicator of the quality of the
radiographic technique.
Surface defects show up on the film and must be recognized. Because the angle
of exposure also influences the radiograph, it is difficult or impossible to evaluate
fillet welds using this method. Because a radiograph compresses all the defects
that occur throughout the thickness of the weld into one plane, it tends to give
an exaggerated impression of scattered-type defects such as porosity or
inclusions.
An x-ray image of the interior of a weld can be viewed on a fluorescent screen as
well as on developed film. The screen makes it possible to inspect parts faster
and at lower cost than with film. Linking the fluorescent screen with a video
camera overcomes many of the shortcomings of radiographic imaging. Instead of
waiting for film to be developed, the images are viewed in real time. This
improves quality and reduces costs on production applications, such as pipe
welding, where a problem can be identified and corrected quickly.
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Radiographic equipment produces radiation that is harmful to body tissue in

excessive amounts, so safety precautions are followed closely. All instructions are
followed carefully to achieve satisfactory results. Only personnel who are trained
in radiation safety and qualified as industrial radiographers are permitted to do
radiographic testing.
Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic inspection (Fig. 4) is a method of detecting discontinuities. A highfrequency sound beam, at an angle of about 70, is directed through the base
plate and weld on a predictable path. These sound waves pass through the
material bouncing off the inner and outer walls. A defect reflects part of the
sound back to the source (a quartz crystal transducer). The sound pulses are
shown on an oscilloscope together with the reflected signal from the defect.
When the sound beam's path strikes an interruption in the material continuity,
some of the sound is reflected back. The instrument collects the sound which is
then amplified and displayed as a vertical trace on a video screen.
FIGURE 4
Ultrasonic Inspection

Both surface and subsurface defects in metals are detected, located and measured
using ultrasonic inspection, including flaws too small to be detected with other
methods. The ultrasonic unit contains a crystal of quartz or other piezoelectric
material encapsulated in a transducer or probe. When a voltage is applied, the
crystal vibrates rapidly. As an ultrasonic transducer is held against the metal to be
inspected, it imparts mechanical vibrations of the same frequency as the crystal
through a couplant material into the base metal and weld. The couplant transfers
the ultrasonic waves better than air does. For relatively flat, smooth surfaces, a
mixture of glycerin and water may be used as a couplant. For rough surfaces,
light motor oil with a wetting agent may be used. Waves are propagated
through the material until they reach a discontinuity or change in density.
At these points (discontinuities) some of the vibration energy is reflected back.
As the current that causes the vibration is shut off and on at 60-1000 times per
second, the quartz crystal intermittently acts as a receiver to pick up the reflected
vibrations. This causes pressure on the crystal and generates an electrical current.
Fed to a video screen, this current produces vertical deflections on the horizontal
base line. The resulting pattern on the face of the tube represents the reflected
signal and the discontinuity.

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Compact, portable ultrasonic equipment is available for field inspection and is

commonly used on bridge and structural work as well as for checking the
thickness of piping.
Ultrasonic testing is not as suitable as other NDE methods for determining
porosity in welds because round gas pores respond to ultrasonic tests as a series
of single-point reflectors. This results in low amplitude responses that are easily
confused with "base line noise" inherent with testing parameters. However, it is
the preferred test method for detecting common types of discontinuities and
laminations.
Portable ultrasonic equipment is available with digital operation and
microprocessor controls. These instruments may have built-in memory and
provide hard copy printouts or video monitoring and recording. They are
interfaced with computers which allow further analysis, documentation and
archiving, much as with radiographic data. Ultrasonic examination requires
expert interpretation from highly skilled and extensively trained personnel
Leak
Leak testing, to verify the integrity of a piping system, is performed in
accordance with ASME B31.1 Power Piping Code. The testing methods, most
widely used, are:

Hydrostatic
Pneumatic

Hydrostatic
It is mandatory that the design, fabrication, and erection of power piping,
constructed under this ASME Code demonstrate leak tightness. A hydrostatic
leak test prior to initial operation meets this requirement. A non-compressible
liquid, such as water, is usually the test medium used. Water is inexpensive and
readily available. A glycol/water mixture or methanol is used if the testing is
performed when the ambient temperature is near or below freezing.
The hydrostatic test pressure of a piping system is not less than 1.5 times the
design pressure, but does not exceed the maximum test pressure of any vessels
or components in the piping system. The test pressure is maintained for
sufficient time to inspect all joints, with a minimum time of ten minutes.
Hydrostatic testing is the preferred method because it is very safe. Liquids are
not compressible. When a leak occurs, the pressure is gone. Compressible fluids
continue to expand, creating a safety hazard.

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Pneumatic
Pneumatic testing of piping systems involves the pressurization with a
compressible gas, such as air or nitrogen. Air is an inexpensive and readily
available test medium. Nitrogen is selected if there is the possibility of
combustible gases being present. This type of test is only used when the design
of piping systems does not allow the complete removal of water.
The primary hazard with compressed gases is the amount of stored energy
contained. The results are catastrophic if a failure occurs. Pneumatic testing is
done with all nonessential personnel removed from the immediate area.
Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
TOFD is a type of ultrasonic inspection that uses diffraction signals instead of
reflection signals. The TOFD technique is an effective, fully computerized
inspection method for the detection and sizing of flaws with a high rate of
accuracy. The location, geometry or orientation of the anomalies is irrelevant for
detection and sizing. In the TOFD technique, a transmitter and a receiver are
placed equal distances from the weld. The scanner with the probes is moved
parallel to the weld.
TOFD is utilized over the entire length of the weld to classify inherent flaws and
creep damage. The small, high intensity beam spot used in this inspection is
effective in detecting creep damage due to an early form of cavitation.
Fig. 5 shows the typical TOFD arrangement for the detection of deep-seated
damage, with the probes set broadly. The intersection point of the beam centres
lies at a depth of approximately 2/3 wall thickness. This inspection is done in a
single scan pass with transducers straddling the weld.

FIGURE 5
TOFD Transducer
Configuration for Deep
Coverage

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OBJECTIVE 4
Describe a typical routine inspection procedure and schedule for
high-energy piping.

HIGH-ENERGY PIPING
High-energy piping includes main steam and hot reheat piping systems designed
to operate at high temperatures and pressures. Main steam piping has design
temperatures between 510C and 565C and operating pressures between 8.6
MPa up to supercritical. Hot reheat piping systems operate between 510C and
565C but at lower pressures than the main steam piping. For example, a
Combustion Engineering steam generator with a main steam pressure of 17.4
MPa has a reheat pressure of 4.05 MPa.
The ASME B31.1 Power Piping Code prescribes recommended practices for the
inspection of high-energy piping systems. High-energy piping systems, part of
the feedwater and steam circuit of a steam generating power plant, include runs
of piping and supports, restraints and all valves. This also includes all systems
under two-phase flow conditions. A record keeping program is developed to
analyze piping system distortions and potential failures.
The following procedures are established and implemented:
Operating and maintenance programs
Piping and pipe support inspection program

OPERATING AND MAINTENANCE PROGRAMS

Written procedures include the qualifications of personnel and material history
and records.
Each plant files and maintains the following documentation:
Flow diagrams
Valve data
Welding procedures and records
Support drawings
Pipe drawings
Operating records that document cases of exceeding piping design
criteria
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Piping drawings (isometric piping drawings)

Construction drawings that identify weld locations
Pipe specifications that outline the material, outside diameter and wall
thickness
Material certification records

PIPING AND PIPE SUPPORT INSPECTION PROGRAM

The piping and pipe support inspection program identifies the initial hanger
positions at the time of installation and unit startup. Routine visual surveys are
scheduled to identify any changes in position of piping and setting of pipe
hangers, slide supports and shock suppressors.
Attaching markings or pointers to the piping components allows for periodic
position determinations and permanent identification. These observations
include:
Any interference from other piping or equipment
Piping vibrations
General condition of the supports, guides, anchors, supplementary
steel and attachments
Procedures are developed for corrosion control and evaluation of the piping
components for corrosion damage. These procedures include the periodic visual
inspection of the following:
Condition of the paint on the piping to resist external ambient
corrosion
Condition of the insulation and/or wrappings for winter freeze
protection
Thickness testing for pipe elbows and welded joints
Check superheater and reheat piping for signs of creep. This is done after a
period of operation such as 10, 15 or 20 years. Samples of metal are taken for
metallurgical inspection or lengths of pipe are measured to detect increase in
length.

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OBJECTIVE 5
Explain the effects of high temperature on piping strength.

HIGH TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON PIPING

Piping in power plants and process plants is often subjected to high operating
temperatures. The operating temperature has an effect on the tensile strength of
the metal and may also cause creep.
Tensile Strength
As the temperature is increased, the properties of the pipe material change. The
tensile strength of the material rapidly decreases above a certain temperature.
This is indicated in Table 1A of the ASME Code, Section II, Part D. For
materials listed in this table, the working stress allowed decreases as the
temperature increases. For example, steel pipe of material SA-53E/B is allowed a
working stress of 118 000 kPa at 325C. But, at a temperature of 425C, the
working stress allowed is only 75 300 kPa.
The ultimate strength of carbon steel and a number of alloy steels as determined
by short time tensile strength tests over a temperature range of 38C to 816C is
shown in Fig. 6. The results of these tests indicate that the strength decreases
with an increase in temperature. There is a temperature region for the austenitic
alloy steels between 204 and 482Cwhere the strength is fairly constant. The
strength of carbon and many low alloy steels increases between the ranges of 38
to 316C.

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FIGURE 6
Tensile Strength of
Various Steels

CREEP

In addition to immediately reducing the tensile strength of a material, high

temperatures cause the pipe material to creep. This is a condition where the pipe
material gradually stretches or undergoes plastic deformation. This occurs if the
material is subjected to stress under high temperature and can become a long
term gradual decrease in tensile strength. Eventually the material will fail if the
stress at the elevated temperature is maintained for a sufficient length of time.
For power plant piping, an elongation or stretching rate of 1 percent in 100 000
hours is considered acceptable.
To determine the rate of creep of a material, a creep test is conducted. A
specimen of the material is held at constant temperature in a furnace and, using a
system of levers, a deadweight is applied. The deformation of the specimen is
measured periodically throughout the test and a curve is plotted showing the
percent creep throughout the time of the test.

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Fig. 7 shows the creep curves for a material tested at low stress and at high stress.
The rate of creep is divided into three stages. During the first stage, the creep
rate decreases (the slope of the curve decreases). During the second stage, the
rate is constant (the slope of the curve does not change). During the third stage,
the rate increases (the curve slope becomes steeper) until the specimen ruptures.
Another adverse effect of high temperature on pipe material is that it promotes
oxidation and corrosion. A low carbon steel heated in air for a certain period can
experience over 50 times as much oxidation at 800C as it did when heated for
the same period at 500C.
In addition to the above problems, if the operating temperature of the pipe is
high, then the pipe expands when coming up to that temperature. Movement of
the pipe due to expansion is allowed for when installing the pipe.
FIGURE 7
Typical Creep Curves

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OBJECTIVE 6
Describe the design and installation criteria for a piping system
layout.

PIPING SYSTEM LAYOUT

Piping systems, used to transfer fluids such as water, steam, oil, gas and air from
one location to another, must include:
Proper support
Provisions for expansion and contraction
Cold springing
Anchors
Drainage
Insulation
Piping Supports
Piping is supported so that the equipment to which it is attached does not carry
the weight of the piping. The supports used prevent excessive sagging of the
pipe and, at the same time, allow free movement of the pipe due to expansion
and contraction. However, unlike a pipe guide, the pipe support does not control
the direction of the pipe line movement.
The supporting arrangement is designed to carry the weight of the pipe, valves,
fittings and insulation plus the weight of the fluid contained within the pipe.
Fig. 8 illustrates two types of adjustable pipe hangers which are suspended from
overhead beams. Fig. 8 (a) shows an adjustable strap hanger while Fig. 8 (b)
illustrates an adjustable roller hanger.

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FIGURE 8
Pipe Hangers

The roller stands in Fig. 9 may be bolted to brackets, structural supports and
floors. Four adjustment screws which raise or lower the roller the pipe rests on
control the vertical adjustment of the pipe position in the adjustable stand..
FIGURE 9
Pipe Roller Stands

In the case of a horizontal pipe where the action of other parts of the piping
system causes vertical movement, the rigid type hangers or supports in Figs. 8
and 9 are not suitable. In this situation, variable spring hangers are used
permitting the pipe to move up or down without disturbing the load distribution.
Fig. 10 shows a type of a variable spring hanger.

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FIGURE 10
Variable Spring Hanger

If the amount of vertical movement of the supported pipe is large, then a

constant support hanger (Fig. 11) is used. This type features a coiled helical
spring which is arranged to move as the pipe moves and maintains a constant
supporting force on the spring. Roller bearings with sealed lubrication are used
to reduce friction between the moving parts of the hanger.
The constant support hanger is factory adjusted and tested to support the
specified load throughout a definite range of travel. The spring compression can
be adjusted in the field to give a plus or minus 10% variation in the load setting.
FIGURE 11
Constant Support
Hanger

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Expansion of Piping
Expansion control in pipelines that carry hot or cold fluids or are exposed to
large variations in ambient temperature can be a major problem. As the metal
temperature of the pipe increases or decreases, its length also varies due to
thermal expansion or contraction. Therefore, unless provision is made for these
changes in length, excessive stresses are induced in the piping and large forces
are transmitted through the system to anchors and connected equipment.
Several different methods are available for controlling pipeline expansion. Two
of the most common are:
Expansion bends
Expansion joints
Expansion Bends
With this method, the pipe is fabricated with special bends or loops. Flexing or
springing of the bends or loops takes up the increase due to expansion in the
length of pipe. Fig. 12 shows some typical shapes of expansion bends. Length
and height dimensions are used to install the bend that will withstand the
required amount of expansion.
FIGURE 12
Expansion Bends

Advantages of expansion bends are:

Easily added to piping systems and fit on pipe racks and high lines
Most trouble-free method as there is no maintenance involved
Leakage is unlikely
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Any temperature, pressure or fluid can be handled with proper

selection of material and thickness

Disadvantages of expansion bends are:

Require a larger amount of space
Produce a higher pressure drop and heat loss
Produce higher end thrusts which can present problems when
connecting to equipment such as turbines and pumps
Expansion Joints
Two types in use are:
Slip expansion joint
Corrugated expansion joint
Slip Expansion Joint
This type, illustrated in Fig.13, features a slip pipe which is welded to an
adjoining pipe. The slip pipe fits into the main body of the joint which is
fastened to the end of the other adjoining pipe. When the pipe line expands, the
slip pipe moves within the joint body. To prevent leakage between the slip pipe
and the joint body, packing is used around the outside of the slip pipe and the
slip pipe moves within the packing.
In the joint illustrated, the packing consists of two sections of packing separated
by a section of plastic packing. Additional plastic packing may be added using a
packing plunger while the joint is in service. Grease fittings are used to provide
lubrication.
FIGURE 13
Slip Expansion Joint

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Advantages of slip expansion joints are:

Simple and rugged
Capable of handling a large amount of expansion
Require minimum space
Produce little pressure drop and heat loss
Disadvantages of slip expansion joints are:
More moving parts and possibilities for leaks
Must be located where the packing can be given attention
Problems may arise if the joint is poorly aligned or if it becomes
corroded
Joint are installed and maintained according to manufacturers
instructions
Proper packing is used
Require lubrication two or three times a year unless self-lubricating
packing is used.
Corrugated Expansion Joint
A simple design suitable for only low pressures is illustrated in Fig.14 and is
available with either flanges or welding ends. This type of expansion joint has a
flexible corrugated section which can absorb a certain amount of endwise
movement of the pipe. They are often seen at the exhaust end of a steam turbine.
FIGURE 14
Low Pressure
Corrugated Expansion
Joint

For higher pressures, the corrugated joint uses control or reinforcing rings which
surround the corrugations as illustrated in Fig. 15.

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FIGURE 15
Reinforced Corrugated
Expansion Joint

The bellows type corrugated expansion joint, shown in Fig. 16, is suitable for
pressures up to 2070 kPa. It is equipped with an internal safety sleeve with a limit
stop to prevent undue extension or compression. Because this sleeve is closely
fitted, it prevents excessive leakage if failure of the bellows section occurs. This
type may be supplied with or without anchor bases.
FIGURE 16
Bellows Type
Corrugated Expansion
Joint

Advantages of corrugated expansion joints are:

Require less space
Produce less pressure drop and heat loss than the expansion bends or
loops
Do not require maintenance as in the case of the slip type

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Disadvantages of corrugated expansion joints are:

Amount of movement the bellows or corrugations provide is less
than the slip expansion joint provides
Vulnerable to condensate corrosion during shutdown periods as the
condensate does not drain effectively
Fig. 17 illustrates the various different designs of bellows or corrugations.
FIGURE 17
Types of Bellows

Cold Springing
Cold springing or pre-stressing of a piping system is applied to reduce the effect
of thermal expansion in the piping system. Leaving a gap at an appropriate
location in the piping system and "pulling up cold" during the
erection/installation of the piping achieves this. Cold pull, usually 50% of the
expansion of the pipe run under consideration, has no effect on the code stress
but can be used to reduce the nozzle loads on machinery or vessels.

EFFECT OF COLD SPRINGING

Cold springing introduces a predetermined stress in the pipe and reduces the
maximum thermal loads and stresses in a system when the pipe is cold. Its main
purpose is to reduce the peak loading on connecting equipment. However, it
does not affect the overall stress range, and therefore cannot be used in the stress
range equations. In piping systems well below the creep range, any cold spring
should stay for life. Pipes in the creep range eventually fully relax out, so they
become 100% cold sprung regardless of how much is applied at original build
stage. Some codes make use of cold spring to reduce the maximum hot stress
(deadweight + pressure +thermal expansion).

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Cold spring is used to:

1. Minimize the offset of a piping system from the neutral position
(installed position without cold spring) to the operating condition.
For example, if a pipe moves 50 mm from the neutral to the hot
position and it is cold sprung 25 mm, the offset from the neutral
position when cold will be -25 mm and in the hot position +25 mm.
2. Minimize the forces on an end point which may be at a piece of
equipment. Because a negative force is put on the equipment in the
cold position, the pipe passes through a neutral force condition
during heat up and has a reduced force in the hot or operating
position.
3. Reduce the stress in the hot position. Because a negative stress is
placed on the pipe when installed with cold spring and during heat
up, the pipe relieves this initial stress and passes through a neutral
stress condition. The final stress in the hot position is reduced.
4) Minimize hanger movement. For example, if a hanger is on a pipe
that moves 50 mm horizontally, the hanger is dislocated from its
neutral position 50 mm without cold spring. The hanger offset and
rod lengths are such that the hanger rod is not offset more than 4
degrees.
If 25 mm of cold spring is installed and the hanger is moved -25 mm
from its neutral position and in the hot position it is +25 mm from
the neutral position, then the rod can half the length and still be
within the 4 degree limit.
If the hanger offsets more than 4 degrees, the uplift becomes a factor
and induces more load and stress at the hanger point and possibly at
equipment connections.
Good judgment is necessary when applying cold spring. The cold spring
becomes a vital part of the design. Extra precautions and field verifications are
used when actually installing the pipe to ensure that the cold spring is installed as
designed.
Piping Anchors
Anchors are important in any piping system but there are some special
considerations necessary when expansion joints are used. No expansion joint
operates properly unless the pipeline is securely anchored. In addition, the
pipeline has enough guides or supports to prevent buckling or bowing of the
pipe.

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Chapter 10 Piping

When guides are installed near an expansion joint they hold the pipe in the
proper position for best operation of the joint. With the slip type joint, this
prevents misalignment of the sleeve in the joint. With the bellows type joint, the
guides prevent excessive stress on the bellows which results from misalignment
of the pipe.
A pipe alignment guide is a form of sleeve or framework, fastened to a rigid part
of the installation, which permits the pipe to move freely in one direction only,
along the axis of the pipe. It allows sufficient clearance between the fixed and
moving parts to give proper guidance without excessive friction.
Anchors are installed to:
Stabilize the piping at certain points, such as valves or other
equipment
Support junctions of two or more pipes
Terminal points
With expansion joints, anchors serve to divide the system into sections, so that
each expansion joint absorbs only the expansion of its own section.
If only one expansion joint is used, it is placed in the middle of the pipeline. If it
is not fitted with an anchor, the line is anchored at each end. If the single joint is
fitted with an anchor then it is placed at the end of the line.
When several expansion joints are used in a pipe line, the pipe may be anchored
midway between the joints or at the joints themselves if they are fitted with
anchor bases.
Drainage
All piping systems that have a possibility of forming liquids need to have
provisions for the liquid to drain to low spots. From the low spots, the liquid is
removed using traps and low point drains.

STEAM TRAPS
Steam traps are automatic valves that discharge condensate from a steam line
without discharging steam. Steam traps are an essential part of a steam system.
Without them the steam pipes and heat exchangers quickly fill with condensate
that prevents the flow of steam and transfer of heat. Steam traps are placed
along distribution piping and after all heat exchangers.

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There are four types of steam traps:

Inverted bucket
Float and thermostatic
Thermostatic
Thermodynamic
Inverted Bucket Traps
In inverted bucket traps (Fig. 18), steam is contained within an inverted bucket
floating in condensate. As the level of condensate rises, it is discharged.
Inverted bucket traps require water, called the prime, within the bucket to
operate. This trap is most appropriate for steady loads such as on distribution
systems. Condensate is discharged intermittently.
FIGURE 18
Inverted Bucket Trap
(Courtesy of Spirax
Sarco)

Float and Thermostatic Traps

In float and thermostatic traps (Fig. 19), condensate is discharged when the rising
level of condensate lifts a float attached to a level valve. A thermostatically
operated vent discharges air from the top of the trap. Float and thermostatic
traps have superior air removal characteristics. However, the internal valves and
seats are matched to steam pressure or the trap can fail in closed position.
Condensate is discharged continuously as it collects in the trap body.

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FIGURE 19
Float and Thermostatic
Trap
(Courtesy of Spirax
Sarco)

Thermostatic Traps
Thermostatic traps (Fig. 20) operate on the difference in temperature between
steam and condensate. When condensate reaches the trap, the filled thermal
element opens a pilot valve to allow limited flow. The main valve stays closed
until the condensate load exceeds the capacity of the pilot valve. Then the pilot
valve opens the main valve, and both discharge at full capacity. At startup, both
the pilot valve and the main valve are open for high-capacity discharge of air and
condensate. In standard operation, the pilot valve may drain condensate
continuously, closing only in the absence of condensate.
Although condensate is discharged continuously, thermostatic traps always cause
some condensate to remain in the system so steam is not blown through the trap.

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FIGURE 20
Thermostatic Trap

Thermodynamic Traps
Thermodynamic traps (Fig. 21) have a disk situated on a central orifice. As
condensate pressure builds, it lifts the disk, passes through the orifice at the
centre of the disk and exits through smaller orifices surrounding the disk. Flash
steam builds up pressure on top of the disk and closes the orifice. Condensate is
discharged intermittently.
FIGURE 21
Thermodynamic Trap
(Courtesy of Spirax
Sarco)

Piping Insulation
Insulation is materials or combinations of materials that retard the flow of heat
energy. Substances with a large number of microscopic air pockets dispersed
throughout the material make the most efficient insulators. These extremely

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small air spaces restrict the formation of convection currents and the air is a poor
conductor of heat.
Piping is covered with insulation to:
Reduce heat loss and condensation
Prevent uncomfortably high ambient temperatures within the power
plant
Prevent injury to personnel from contact with hot surfaces
Prevent sweating of cool pipe surfaces
A material suitable for use as an insulation has the following characteristics:
High insulating value
Long life
Vermin proof
Non corrosive
Ability to retain its shape and insulating value when wet
Ease of application and installation
Thermal conductivity or K value of a material is a way of measuring the quantity
of heat that passes through a metre thickness per square metre per time unit with
one degree difference in temperature between the faces. The units of measure are
watts per square metre per temperature difference (W/mK).
K value (W / m K ) =

Energy
Area T ( K ) Time

Thermal conductivity (k value) is important in determining a materials ability to

resist the flow of heat. The lower the k factor, the higher the materials insulating
power and thus lower overall heat transfer and operating costs. The value of
thermal conductivity is used:
As a benchmark of a materials performance during operation
To determine a utilitys savings in the consumption of steam or fuel
To measure the return on investment

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PIPE INSULATION MATERIALS

The following are types of pipe insulation materials used in commercial and
industrial installations:
Diatomaceous silica
Calcium silicate
Fibreglass
Cellular
Mineral fibre (rock and slag wool)
Expanded silica, or perlite
Elastomeric
Foamed plastic
Refractory fibre
Insulating cement
Reflective metal insulation
Diatomaceous Silica
Diatomaceous silica is combined with a hydraulic binder to form asbestos free
block insulation. These items are versatile products available in a range of sizes
and thicknesses up to 18 cm. Because of its low thermal conductivity (0.09 0.15
W/mK), this type of insulation is an economical, energy saving insulation. It
exhibits minimal shrinkage at its 1040C temperature limit, and does not readily
decompose even when exposed directly to flame.
Calcium Silicate
Calcium silicate is a granular insulation made of lime and silica reinforced with
organic and inorganic fibres and molded into rigid forms. Service temperature
range covered is 37.8C to 648.9C.
Calcium silicate insulation has the following features:
Light weight
Low thermal conductivity of 0.049 0.095 W/mK
High temperature and chemical resistance
Water absorbent
Non-combustible
Easily cut and installed
Ideal materials for insulation applications in power and chemical
plants.

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Fibreglass
Fibreglass insulation is available as flexible blanket, rigid board, pipe insulation
and other pre-molded shapes. Service temperature range is -40.0C to 250C.
Thermal conductivity of fibreglass is 0.039 0.045 W/mK. Fibreglass is neutral.
However, the binder may have a pH factor. It is non-combustible and has good
sound absorption qualities.
Cellular
This is available in board form and can be fabricated into pipe insulation and
various shapes. Service temperature range is -267.8C to 482.2C. Thermal
conductivity of cellular glass is 0.043 0.045 W/mK.
This product has the following features:
Good structural strength
Poor impact resistance
Non-combustible
Non-absorptive
Resistant to many chemicals
Mineral Fibre (Rock And Slag Wool)
Rock and/or slag wool fibres are bonded together with a heat resistant binder to
produce mineral fibres. Upper temperature limit can reach 1037.8C. The
thermal conductivity of mineral fibre is 0.05 to 0.17 W/m2K. The material has a
practically neutral pH, is non-combustible, and has good sound control qualities.
Expanded Silica (Perlite)
Perlite is made from an inert siliceous volcanic rock combined with water. The
thermal conductivity of perlite is 0.04 to 0.06 W/m2K at 24C. The material has
low shrinkage and high resistance to substrate corrosion. Perlite is noncombustible and operates in the intermediate and high temperature ranges. The
product is available in rigid preformed shapes and blocks.
Elastomeric
Foamed resins combined with elastomers produce a flexible cellular material.
Available in preformed shapes and sheets, elastomeric insulations possess good
cutting characteristics and low water and vapour permeability. The upper
temperature limit is 104.4C. The thermal conductivity of elastomeric insulations
is 0.036 W/m2K. Elastomeric insulation is cost efficient for low temperature
applications with no jacketing necessary.

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Foamed Plastic
Insulation produced from foaming plastic resins creates predominantly closed
cellular rigid materials. "K" values decline after initial use as the gas trapped
within the cellular structure is eventually replaced by air. Foamed plastics are light
weight with excellent moisture resistance and cutting characteristics. The
chemical content varies with each manufacturer. Available in preformed shapes
and boards, foamed plastics are generally used in the low and lower intermediate
service temperature range -182.8C to 148.9C.
The thermal conductivity of elastomeric insulations is 0.03 - 0.04 W/m2K.
Refractory Fibre
Refractory fibre insulations are mineral or ceramic fibres, including alumina and
silica, bound with extremely high temperature binders. The material is
manufactured in blanket or rigid form. Temperature limits reach 1648.9C. The
thermal conductivity of refractory fibre insulations is 0.019 - 0.038 W/m2K. The
material is non-combustible.
Insulating Cement
Cements may be applied to high temperature surfaces. Finishing cements or onecoat cements are used in the lower intermediate range and as a finish to other
insulation applications. The thermal conductivity of refractory fibre insulations is
0.011 - 0.022 W/m2K. Operating temperature limits reach 982.0C.
Reflective Metal Insulation
This is a new type of insulation constructed of metal reflective sheets of stainless
steel, spaced and baffled to form isolated air chambers around the piping. The
highly polished reflective sheets reflect the heat and prevent loss due to radiation
but absorb little heat through conduction. The k factor varies from 0.53 to 0.66
W/m2K.
Applications
The following indicates the general application of various piping insulations for
different temperature ranges:
Above 1040oC - refractory fibres are generally used or in some cases
reflective metal insulation
650oC - 1040oC - double layer construction is used with the inner
layer diatomaceous silica and the outer layer calcium silicate
150oC - 650oC - calcium silicate is generally used with double layer
construction for pipe temperatures over 316oC
0 - 260oC - glass fibre is most commonly used as it is generally the
most economical and has good resistance to normal abuse
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The effectiveness of a particular insulation is expressed as an efficiency E where:

E=

Heat loss from bare pipe heat loss from insulated pipe
heat loss from bare pipe

The heat losses are expressed in kJ/h/linear metre. Piping insulation is usually
fabricated in half-cylindrical sections for fitting over the pipe. The sections are
held together with metal wire or bands and then a surface finish, usually a canvas
type, is applied. Special shapes and arrangements of insulation are used for
fittings such as elbows, flanges, and valves such as shown in Fig. 22.
FIGURE 22
Insulation of Fittings

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OBJECTIVE 7
Explain the theory and effects of water hammer.

WATER HAMMER
Water hammer is a series of hammer blow-like shocks produced by a sudden
change of velocity of water or other liquid flowing within a pipeline. These
shocks may have sufficient magnitude to rupture the pipe or pipe fittings or to
damage connected equipment.
The sudden change of velocity necessary to produce water hammer may be
caused by the following:
Rapid operation of a valve
Sudden stoppage in flow due to a pump trip
Rapid condensing of a pocket of steam within the pipe
Valve Operation
In the case of a valve being quickly closed in a pipeline through which water is
flowing, the first effect is the sudden decrease in the velocity of the water and a
corresponding increase in pressure at the valve. This causes a pressure wave to
travel back upstream to the inlet end of the pipe where it reverses and surges
back and forth through the pipe, getting weaker with each successive reversal.
This pressure wave due to water hammer is in addition to the normal water
pressure within the pipe and depends upon the magnitude and rate of change in
velocity. Complete stoppage of flow is not necessary to produce water hammer
as any sudden change in velocity may bring it about to some degree depending
upon the above conditions.
Where too rapid closing of a valve is the cause of the water hammer, the remedy
is to ensure that the valve is closed slowly. The period of effective closing of a
gate valve takes place in the last 20% of the valve travel and this portion is
undertaken as slowly as possible. If the valve is equipped with a bypass, the
bypass is opened to equalize the pressure on both sides of the valve. The bypass
valve is closed after the main valve has been closed.
When opening a gate valve, the first 20% of the valve travel is the most critical
portion. If so equipped, the bypass should be opened to allow for pressure
equalization. Then the main valve is opened as slowly as possible. As a general
rule, all valves are opened and closed slowly and cautiously.
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Sudden Stoppage in Flow

When water hammer is due to the sudden stopping of a motor-driven pump due
to a power failure, the pressure drops at the pump discharge. The water in the
discharge line stops and then reverses direction. Subsequent rapid closing of the
check valve at the pump causes severe shock when the energy of the reverse flow
is violently expended against the check valve disc.
A pump trip may also cause water hammer in the pump suction line in cases
where the water flows to the pump through a long line by gravity or under
pressure from another pump.
The maximum intensity of the wave can be calculated using Joukowskys Law:

H wh =

cv
g

Where:
Hwh
c
v
g

=
=
=
=

head of water hammer, m

velocity of sound in the liquid, m/s
instantaneous velocity change in liquid (m/s)
acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2

Example 3
A pump delivers water to a tank 75 m above the pump. During a power failure,
the pump discharge check valve gets stuck in the open position for a few
moments and then slams shut. Before the check valve closes, water begins to
flow backwards through the pump with a velocity of 15 m/s. If the speed of
sound in water is 1469 m/s at 15.6C, what is the water hammer head produced?
Solution

cv
g
1469 m/s 15 m/s
=
9.81 m/s 2
= 2246.18 m

H wh =
H wh
H wh

A water hammer surge of 2246.18 m, added to the normal running head of 75 m,

would create a total head of:
2246.18 + 75 = 2321.18 m

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Converting this head to pressure:

Pressure = gh
Pressure = 1000 kg/m3 9.81 m/s 2 2321.18 m
Pressure = 22 770 776 N/m 2
Pressure = 22 770 776 Pa
Pressure = 22 771 kPa (Ans.)
This may be sufficient to destroy any weak point in the system. The above
example is for instantaneous closing. If the valve closing time is increased, the
shock wave is greatly decreased. Devices which can be used to reduce the shock
in a pump discharge line are air chambers, relief valves or check valves with a
built-in dashpot to prevent rapid closing of the disc.
Steam Condensing
In the case of a steam line, water hammer may occur if condensate is present in
the line. As the steam passes through the line above the surface of the
condensate it may raise up behind it a mass of the condensate (water). Thus an
isolated pocket of steam is formed. Because it is in contact with the cooler water,
the steam suddenly condenses and a low pressure is formed in the pocket. Water
rushing into this low pressure pocket causes severe shock to the pipe and piping
fittings.
Water hammer can also occur in a steam line that is horizontal or pitched
upward from the source of steam. It is most violent when a blank or a closed
valve dead ends the steam flow in the pipe.
To avoid water hammer in steam lines they are properly pitched and drainage
points installed between valves and at pockets in the line where water can
accumulate. The drainage points are equipped with drip legs, free-blow drain
valves, and traps. In addition, gate valves in the line are not installed with their
stems below the horizontal because the valve bonnets act as pockets.
When warming up a steam line all drain valves are opened wide before steam is
admitted. The steam admission valve should only be cracked open. If equipped
with a bypass, it is slowly opened to pressurize the line on both sides of the main
isolation valve. The main valve is slowly and carefully opened fully after the line
has been sufficiently warmed up. The drain valves are left open until all of the
warm-up condensate has been discharged and drains are blowing dry steam. The
trap is then able to handle the condensate that forms under standard operating
conditions.

Conforms with the 2004 ASME Extract Revised 03/06

Chapter 10 Piping

CHAPTER QUESTIONS
1.

List the properties that contribute to the suitability and economy of a

given pipe material.

2.

(a) Calculate the required thickness for 406.4 mm nominal size plain end
steam pipe to operate at 17 250 kPa and 540C. The material used is
seamless alloy steel SA-335P12.
(b) Calculate the maximum allowable working pressure, in MPa, for the
nominal size plain end steam pipe in the above example.

3.

With the aid of a simple sketch, show how the probes are located in
relation to the weld in time-of-flight diffraction.

4.

Explain how high temperatures affect the tensile strength of piping.

5.

Give the advantages and disadvantages of the following:

(a) Expansion bends
(b) Slip expansion joints
(c) Corrugated expansion joints

6.

Explain how the sudden closing of a valve can cause water hammer in a
pipe.

Conforms with the 2004 ASME Extract Revised 03/06

527