Exam Specifications Units Conversion Factors ‘Mathematics ‘Mechanies of Materials Engineering Probability and Statistics Staties Dynamics Fluid Mechanics ‘Thermodynamics ~~ eat Transfer ~~ ‘Transport Phenomena Biology Chemistry Materials Science/Structure of Matter V~ a Measurement and Controls ~~ EnginceingHeonomiea ~~ this ‘Chemical Engineering Computer Spreadsheets Civil Engineering Environmental Engineering Blectrical and Computer Engineering Industriel Engineering Mechani | Engineering Index 19 20 2 33 40 49 62 73 84 90 a 100 104 109 110 114 121 123 134 170 193, 218 234 249EXAM SPECIFICATIONS ‘Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Examination Effective April 2010 + ‘The FB examination is an 8-hour supplied-reference examination: 120 questions in the 4-hour morning session and 60 questions inthe 4-hour afternoon session. + ‘The afternoon session is administered in the following seven modules—Chemical, Civil, Blectrical, Environmental, Industrial, Mechanical, and Other Disciplines. + Rxaminees work all questions in the morning session and all questions in the afternoon module, + ‘The FR examination uses both the Intemational System of Units (SI) and the US Customary System (USCS), + Beginning with the April 2010 examination, the General nodule was renamed Other Disciplines. The module ‘was renamed to better deseribe it to the examinees for whom itis intended. No other changes were made to the FE exam specifications for April 2010. MORNING SESSION (120 questions in 12 topic areas) Approximate Percentage of Test ‘Topic Area Content 1. Mathematics 15% ‘A, Analytic geometry B. Integral calculus C. Matrix operations D. Roots of equations E, Vector analysis Differential equations G. Differential calculus I, Engineering Probability and Statisties 1% A. Measures of central tendencies and dispersions (¢.g., mean, mode, standard deviation) B, Probability distributions (e.., diserete, continuous, normal, binomial) C. Conditional probabilities D, Estimation (€g,, point, confidence intervals) for a single mean Regression and curve fitting FE, Expected value (weighted average) in devision- G, Hypothesis testing II, Chemistry 9% A. Nomenclavure B. Oxidation and reduction C. Petiodic table D. States of matter B, Acids and bases F, Bquations (eg, stoichiometry) G. Equilibrium HL Metals and nonmetals IV, Computers 1% A. Terminology (c.g., memory types, CPU, baud rates, Internet) B. Spreadsheets (e.g., addresses, interpretation, “what if" copying formulas) CC. Struetured programming (e.., assignment statements, loops and branches, function calls) ‘EXAM SPECIFICATIONS MORNING 1vi. vn. vit. 2 Ethies and Business Practices ‘A. Code of ethies (professional and technical societies) B, Agreements and contracts CC. Ethical versus legal D. Professional liability E. Public protection issues (¢g., licensing boards) Engineering Reonomies A, Discounted cash flow (e.g, equivalence, PW, equivalent annual FW, rate of return) B. Cost (eg. incremental, average, sunk, estimating) C. Analyses (eg, breakeven, benefit-cost) D. Uncertainty (e.g., expected valuc and risk) Engineering Mechanics (Statics and Dynamites) A. Staties Resbiltants of force systems Concurrent force systems Equilibrium of rigid bodies Frames and russes, Controid of area Area moments of inettia Frietion B. Dynamics 1, Linear motion (o.,, force, mass, acceleration, momentum) 2. Angular motion (¢g., Corque, inertia, acceleration, momentum) 3, Mass moments of inertia 4, Impulse and momentum applied to: a. particles rigid bodies ‘5, Work, energy, and power as applied 10 a, particles 1. rigid bodies 6. Friction Strength of Materials ‘A. Shear and moment diagrams B, Stress types (e.g., normal, shear, bending, torsion) C. Stress strain caused by: 1. axial loads 2. bending loads 3. torsion 4. shear D, Deformations (c.g, axial, bending, torsion) E, Combined stresses Columns G, _Indeterminant analysis H. Plastic versus elastic deformation EXAM SPECIFICATIONS —-ORHING 1% 8% 10% 1%1X, Material Proper 1% A. Properties 1. chemical 2. electrical 3. mechat 4. physical B, Corrosion mechanisms and control C. Materials 1. engineored materials 2. ferrous metals 3, nonferrous metals, Fluid Mechanies 1% Flow measurement Fluid properties Fluid staties nergy, impulse, and momentum equations Pipe and other internal flow mONBP XI. Electricity and Magnetism 9% Charge, energy, current, voltage, power ‘Work done in moving a charge in an electric field (relationship between voltage and work) Force between charges Current and voltage laws (Kirchhoff, Ohm) Equivalent circuits (series, parallel) Capacitance and inductance Reactance and impedance, susceptance and adn AC circuits Basie complex algebra wp inance rmompoA XIE Thermodynamfes 1% “Thermodynamic laws (e.g., 1st Law, 2nd Law) cal, and work ty and reversibility > Cycles Ideal gases Mixture of gases Phase changes leat transfer Properties of: 1. enthalpy 2. entropy rrompon EXAM SPECIFICATIONS—MORNNG 3APTERNOON SESSION IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING (60 questions in 11 topic areas) Approximate Percentage of Test ‘Topic Area Content 1. Chemistry 10% ‘A. Inorganie chemistry (¢.g., molarity, normality, molality, acids, bases, redox, ‘valence, solubility product, pH, pX, electrochemistry) B. Organic chemistry (¢.g., nomenclature, structure, qualitative and quantitative analyses, balanced equations, reactions, synthesis) Tl Material/énergy Balances 15% ‘Mass balance Bnergy balance Control boundary concept (e., black box concept) ‘Steady-state process ‘Unsteady-state process Recycle process Bypass process Combustion Q mommgay> TIL, Chemical Engineering Thermodynamies 10% ‘Thermodynamic laws (e.g., Ist Law, 2nd Law) ‘Thermodynamic properties (e.g., internal thermal energy, enthalpy, entropy, {ros energy) ‘Thermodynamic processes (e.g. isothermal, adiabatic, isentropic) Property and phase diagrams (.g., Ts, bP, -y, T-y) Equations of state (e.g., van der Waals, Soave-Redlich-Kwong) Steam tables Phase equilibrium and phase change Chemical equilibrium Heats of reaction Colic processes and efficiency (e.g., power, refrigeration, heat pump) Heats of mixing BP AScmommoD IV, Fluid Dynamics 10% ‘Bemoulli equation and mechanical energy balance Hydrostatic pressure Dimensionless numbers (e.g., Reynolds number) Laminar and turbulent flow Velocity head Friction losses (c.e., pipe, valves, flings) Pipe networks Compressible and incompressible flow Flow measurement (e.g,, orifices, Venturi meters) Pumps, turbines, and compressors Non-Newtonian flow Flow through packed beds PaSrmomeooee 4 EXRWSPECIFICATIONS CHEMICALHeat Transfer 10% A. Conductive heat transfer B, Convective heat transfer C. Radiation heat transfer D, Heat transfer coefficients E. Heat exchanger types (eg., plate and frame, spiral) F. Flow configuration (eg,, cocurrenUcountercurrent) G, H, 1 Log mean temperature difference (LMTD) and NTU Fouling Shell-and-tube heat exchanger design (e.g, area, umber of passes) VI. Mass ‘Transfer 10% A. Diffusion (e.g., Fick's Ist and 2nd laws) B. Mass transfer coefficient C. Equilibrium stage method (efficiency) D. Graphical methods (e.g., MeCabe-Thicle) E. Differential method (e.g., NTU, HETP, HTU, NTP) nn systems (c.g, distillation, absorption, extraction, membrane processes) 2 ‘VIL. Chemical Reaction Engineering 10% Reaction rates and order Rate constant (e.g., Arrhenius function) Conversion, yield, and selectivity Series and parallel reactions Forward and reverse reactions Energy/material balance around Reactions with volume change Reactor types (.g., plug flow, batch, semi-bateh, CSTR) Homogeneous and helerogencous reactions Catalysis reactor sr mommoap> VILL Process Design and Economic Optimization, 10% Process flow diagrams (PFD) Piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID) Scale-up ‘Comparison of economic alternatives (c.g., net present value, discounted ‘cash flow, rate of return) Cost estimation A B. ©. D, IX, Computer Usage in Chemteal Engineering, 8% ‘A. Numerical methods and concepts (c.g., convergence, tolerance) B. _Spreadshoets for chemical engineering calculations C. Statistical data analysis X. Process Control 5% ‘A. Sensors and control valves (e.g., temperature, pressure) B. _Dynamies (eg, time constants, 2nd order, underdamped) Feedback and feedforward control D. Proportional, integral, and derivative (PID) controller concepts E. Cascade control F, Control loop design (2.g., matching measured and manipulated variables) G. Tuning PID controllers and stability (e.g., Method of Zieglet-Nichols, Routh Test) 1H. Open-loop and closed-loop transfer functions EXAM SPECICATIONScHEWICAL 6XL 6 Safety, Health, and Environmental ‘A. Hizardous properties of materials (eg., corrosive, flammable, toxie), including MSDS B, Industrial hygiene (e.g, oise, PPE, ergonomics) C._Process hazard analysis (e.g, using fault-tee analysis or event tree) D. _ Overpressure and underpressure protection (e.g. relief, redundant control, intrinsically safe) BE, Storage and handling (e.g. inerting, spill containment) E-Waste minimization G. Waste teatment (e.g, ai, water, solids) EXAM SPECIFICATIONS CHEMICAL 5%AFTERNOON SESSION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING (60 questions in 9 topic areas) Mm. Ww. ‘Topic Area Surveying A. Angles, distances, and trigonometry B. Area computations C. Closure 1D, Coordinate systems (0.g., GPS, siate plane) E, Curves (vertical and horizontal) F. Earthwork and volume computations G. Leveling (e.g, differentia, elevations, percent grades) Hydraulles and Hydrologie Systems ‘A. Basie hydrology (cg. infiltration, rainfall, uno, detention, flood flows, watersheds) B. Basie hydravlis (e.., Manning equation, Bernoulli theorem, open flow, pipe flow) €. Pumping systems (water and wastewater) D. Municipal water distribution systems E. Reservoirs (e.g, dams, routing, spillvays) F Growudwater (¢., flow, wells, drawdown) G. Sewer collection systems (Storm and sanitary) ‘Soil Mechanies and Foundations ‘A. Index properties and soil classi 1B, Phase relations (air-water-solid) C._ Laboratory and field tests D. Effective stress (buoyancy) E, Retaining walls (e.g. active pressure/passive pressure) FE Shear strength ©, Bearing capacity (cohesive and noncohesive) H, Foundation types (c.., spread footings, piles, wall footings, mats) 1. Consolidation and differential setlement J. Seepage K, Slope stability (eg, fills, embankments, cuts, dams) L, Soil stabilization (e.g., chemical additives, geosynthetics) wironmental Engineerin ‘Water quality (ground and surface) ‘Air quality Solidshazardaus waste ‘Sanitary sewer system loads Basie tests (-g,, water, wastewater, at) vironmental regulations ‘Water treatment and wastewater treatment (e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary) Approximate Percentage of Test Content, 1% 120% 12% EXAM SPECIFCATIONS—oWL 7vi. vu. vil. IX. 8 ‘Transportation A. Streets and highways 1. geometric design 2. pavement design 3. intersection design B. ‘Traffic analysis and controt 1. safety 2, capacity 3, tralfie Row 4, trafic control devices Structural Analysis Force analysis of statically determinant beams, trusses and frames Deflection analysis of statically determinant beams, (russes and frames ‘Scability analysis of beams, trusses and frames Column analysis (e.g, buckling, boundary conditions) TLoads and load paths (c.g, dead, live, moving) Elementary statically indeterminate structures mmpaED> ‘Structural Design A. Codes (€.8,, AISC, ACI, NDS, AISI) B, Design procedures for ste! components (., bears, columns, beau-columas, tension members, connections) ©. Design procedures for eoncrete components (g., eas, slabs, columns, walls, footings) Construction Management Procurement methods (e.g., design-build, design-bid-build, qualifications based) Allocation of resources (ef. labor, equipment, materials, money, time) Contraets/eontraet 1a Project scheduling (e.g., CPM, PERT) Engineering economics Project management (.g., owner/contractor/clicnt relations, saety) Construction estimating Materials Concrete mix desiga Asphalt mix design ‘Test methods (eg., steel, concrete, aggregates, asphalt) Properties of aggregates Engineering properties of metals PUREE ammpoR> EXAM SPECIFICATIONS ON, 12% 10% 10% 10% 8%ARTERNOON SESSION IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (60 questions in 9 topie areas) L nL 1m, v ‘Topic Area Circuits KCL, KVL, Series/parallel equivalent ‘Node and loop analysis ‘Thevenin/Norion theorems Impedance ‘Transfer functions Frequencyftransient response Resonance Laplace transforms 2-port theory Filters (simple passive) routs Sephase ‘Transmission lines ‘Voltage regulation Delta and wye Phasors Motors Power electronics Power factor (pi) “Transformers PRON MOOE> ey ASK EOMRDAD> Electromagnetics A. Blectrostaties/magnetostaties (e.g., measurement of spatial relationships, vector analysis) B. Wave propagation C.‘Transmission lines (high frequency) Control Systems Block diagrams (feed Forward, feedback) Bode plots, Controller performance (gain, PID), steady-state errors Root locus Stability Communications ‘A. Basic modulationidemodalation concepts (e.g., AM, FM, PCM) B, Fourier transforms/Foutier series C. Sampling theorem D. Computer networks, including OSI model E Multiplexing Approximate Percentage of Test Content 16% 1% 10% 9% (2AM SPECIFICATIONS ELECTRICAL 9vi vu. vit. IX. 10 Signal Processing 8% A. Analogidigital conversion B. Convolution (continuous and discrete) C. Difference equations D. Zetransforms Hleetrontes 13% Solid-state fundamentals (wnmeling,difusionddrift current, energy bands, doping bands, pea theory) Bias cireuts Differential amplifiers Discrete devices (diodes, transistors, BJT, CMOS) and models and their performance Operational amplifiers Filters (ative) Instrumentation (measurements, data aequisition, transducers) > esmpooe I Systems 12% ‘Numbering systems Data palh/vontrol system design Boolean logic Counters Flip-flops, Di A. B. c D. F. Programmable logic devices and gate arrays G. Logie gates and cireuits H, Logie minimization (SOP, POS, Karnaugh maps) T. State tables/diagrams J. Timing diagrams Computer Systems 10% A. Architecture (e.g. pipelining, cache memory) B, Interfacing C. Microprocessors D. Memory technology and systems E, Software design methods (structured, top-down bottom-up, object-oriented design) F Softvare implementation (structured programming, algorithms, data structures) EXAI SPECIFICATIONS ELECTRICALAFTERNOON SESSION IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (60 questions in § topic areas) ri m1. a v ‘Topic Area Water Resources A, Water distribution and wastewater collection B. Water resources planning C. Hydrology and watershed processes D. Fluid mechanies and hydraulics Water and Wastewater Engineering A, Water and wastewater B, Environmental microbiology/ecology C. Environmental chemistry Air Quality Engineering ‘A. Ait quality standards and control technologies B. Atmospheric seiences Solid and Hazardous Waste Engineering A. Solid waste engineering 1B. Hararclous waste engineering CC. Site remediation D. Geohydrology FE. Geotechnology Environmental Science and Management ‘A, Industrial and occupational health and safety B. Radiological health and safety C. Radioactive waste management D. Environmental monitoring and sampling B g G Pollutant fate and transport (air/waterisoil) Pollution prevention and waste Environmental management syste imization Approximate Percentage of Test Content 28% 30% 15% 18% 18% KAM SPECIFICATIONS ENVIRONMENTAL "AFTERNOON SESSION IN INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING {G60 questions in 8 topic areas) 1 ML. wv. ‘Topic Area En A B. 2 ears Probability and Stat MmOmSDOE> HmomscoseEg Ing A poop ngineering Economies Discounted cash flows (equivalence, PW, EAC, FW, IRR, loan amortization) ‘Types and breakdown of costs (eg. fixed, variable, direct and indirect labor, material, capitalized) Analyses (e-., bene! incremental, life cycle) ‘Accounting (financial statements and overhead cost allocation) ost, breakeven, minimum cost, overhead, risk, jtion and taxes Capital budgeting tes Combinatories (e.g., combinations, permutations) Probability distributions (e.g,, normal, binomial, empirical) Conditional probabilities ‘Sampling distributions, sample sizes, and statistics (e.g., central tendeney, dispersion) Estimation (point estimates, confidence intervals) Hypothesis testing, Regression (finear, multiple) ‘System reliability (single components, parallel and sc Design of experiments (e.g., ANOVA, factorial designs) systems) lodeling and Computation Algorithm and logic development (e.g, low charts, pseudo-code) Spreaisheets Databases (e.g. (ypes, information content, relational) Decision theory (@.g uncertainty, risk, utility, decision trees) Optimization modeling (decision variables, objective functions, and constraints) Linear programming (e.g., formulation, primal, dual, graphical solution) Math programming (network, integer, dynamic, transportation, assignment) Stochastic models (¢.g., queuing, Markov, reliability) Simulation (e.g., event, process, Monte Carlo sampling, random number generation, steady-state vs, transient) dustrial Management Principles (e.g. planning, organizing) and tools of management (c.g MBO, re-engineering) Organizational structure (e.g., functional, matrix, Tinedstatf) Motivation theories (e.g., Maslow, Theory X, Theory Y) Job evaluation and compensation Project management (scheduling, PERT, CPM) EXAM SPECIFICATIONS INDUSTRIAL Approximate Percentage of Test Content 15% 15% 2% 10%vi. vu. vill. ‘Manufacturing and Production Systems A SrommoO ing systems (e.g., cellular, group technology, flexible, lean) (e.g. aumber of machines/people, equipment selection, and line balancing) Inventory analy Forecasting Scheduling (e.g. sequencing, eycle time, material control) Agercate planning (e.g, JIT, MRP, MRPIL, ERP) Concurrent enginecring and design for manufacturing, Automation concepts (e.g, roboties, CIM) is (€g., BOQ, safety stock) 13% Beonomies (@.g., profits and costs under various demand rates, machine selection) Facilities and Logistics mao Ae> A A, somommooD ere omron juman Factors, Productivity, Ergonot ‘Flow measurements and analysis (e.g, from/to charts, flow planning) Layouts (e.g. types, distance metrics, planning, evaluation) Location analysis (e.g, single facility location, multiple facility location, storage location within a facitity) Process capacity analysis (e.g., number of machines/people, trade-oft8) ‘Material handling capacity analysis (storage & transport) ‘Supply chain design (e.g., warehousing, transportation, inventories) es, and Work Design ‘Methods analysis (¢., improvement, chatting) and task analysis, (e.g, MTM, MOST) ‘Time study (e.,, time standards, allowances) ‘Workstation design Work sampling Learning curves Productivity me: Risk factor iden 12% 2% ication, safety, foxicology, material safely data sheets (MSDS) Environmental siress assessment (e.g, 10ise, vibrations, heat, computer-related) Design of tasks, tools, displays, controls, user interfaces, ete. ‘Anthropometry, biomechanics, and lifting ‘Total quality management theory (¢.g., Deming, Juran) and application Management and planning tools (eg, fishbone, Parcto, quality function deployment, scatter diagrams) Control charts Process capability and specifications ‘Sampling plans Design of experiments for quality improvement ‘Auditing, ISO cevtification, and the Baldridge award 11% EXAM SPECIFICATIONS INDUSTRIAL 2APTERNOON SESSION IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (60 questions in 8 topie areas) u. m1. Ww. 4 ‘Topic Area ‘Mechanical Design and Analysis ‘Stress analysis (c.g., combi Failure theories (¢g., static, dynamic, buckling) A stresses, torsion, normal, shes) B. C, Failure analysis (e.., ereep, fatigue, fracture, buckling) D, E Deformation and stifiness Components (eg. springs, pressure vessels, beams, piping, bearings, ‘columns, power screws) Power transmission (e.g, bells, chains, clutches, gears, shafs, brakes, axles) Joining (e.g. thrended fasteners, rivets, welds, adhesives) Manufacturability (e.g. fits, tolerances, process capability) Quality and reliability Mechanical systems (.¢., hydraulic, pneumatic, electro-hybrid) seman Kinematics, Dynamites, and Vibrations ‘A. Kinematics of mechanisms B, Dynamics of mechanisins C.Rigid body dynamics D, E E ‘Natural frequency and resonance 1g oFrolating and reciprocating equipment isolation, force transrnis n, support motion) Materials and Processing ‘A. Mechanical and thermal properties (¢.g., stess/strain relationships, ductility, endurance, conductivity, thermal expansion) B. Manufacturing processes (e.g, forming, machining, bending, casting, joining, beat treating) C. Thermal processing (e.g., phase transformations, equilibria) 1D. Materials selection (e.g., metals, composites, ceramics, plastics, bio-materials) E, Surface conditions (¢.£., corrosion, degradation, coatings, finishes) FE. Testing (eg, tensile, compression, hardness) Measurements, Instrumentation, and Controls ‘A, Mathematical fundamentals (¢.g., Laplace transforms, differential equations) B._ System deseriptions (e.g., block diagrams, ladder logic, transfer functions) C. Sensors and signal conditioning (¢.g., strain, pressure, flow, force, velocity, displacement, temperature) D. Data collection and processing (c.g., sampling theory, uncertainty, digital/analog, data. transmission rales) B. _Dynamie responses (ef, overshoottime constant, poles and zeros, stability) ‘Thermodynamics and Energy Conversion Processes Ideal and real gases Reversibility/irreversibility ‘Thermodynamic equilibeium Prychrometries Performance of components Cycles and processes (e-g., Otto, Diesel, Brayton, Rankine) ‘Combustion and combustion products Energy storage Cogeneration and regeneration/reheat HronmonEP EXAM SPECIFICATIONS—SECHANICAL Approximate Percentage of Test Content 15% 15% 10% 10% 18%VL vutl. Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machinery 15% Fluid staties Incompressible flow Fluid transport systems (€g., pipes, ducts, sevies/parallel operations) Fluid machines: incompressible (e.., turbines, pumps, hydraulic motors) Compressible flow Fluid machines: compressible (eg., turbines, compressors, fans) Operating characteristics (e.g. fan lnws, performance curves, efficiencies, ‘work/pawer equations) H. Liftérag 1, Impulse/momenturm eampoe> Heat ‘Transfer 10% A, Conduction B. Convection C. Radiation D. Composite walls and insulation B, Transient and periodic processes F. Heat exchangers G. Boiling and condensation heat transfer Refrigeration and HVAC 10% A. Cycles B. Heating and cooling loads (e.g., degree day data, sensible heat, Intent heat) C. Psychromettie charts, D. Coefficient of performance E._ Components (e.g.. compressors, condensers, evaporators, expansion valve) EAM SPECIFICATIONS MECHANICAL 8AFTERNOON SESSION IN OTHER DISCIPLINES (60 questions in 9 topic areas) Topic Area Advanced Engineering Mathematics A. Differential equations 1B. Pactial differential calculus C. Numerical solutions (e.g, differential equations, algebraic equations) D. Linear algebra E. Vector analysis, I, Engineering Probability and Statistics A. Sample distributions and sizes B. Design of experiments C. Hypothesis testing 1D. Goodness of fit (coefficient of comclation, chi square) E, Estimation (e.g. point, confidence intervals) for two means TI. Biology ‘A, Cellular biology (eg. structure, growth, cell organization) B. Toxicology (eg, buman, environmental) CC. Industrial hygiene {e.g personnel protection equipment (PPE), carcinogens} D. Bioprocessing (eg. fermentation, waste treatment, digestion) TV. Engineering Economies A. Costestimating B. Project selection CC. Lease/buy/make D. Replacement analysis (¢., optimal economic life) V. Application of Engineering Mechanles ‘A, Stability analysis of beams, trusses, and frames 1B. Deflection analysis C. Failure theory (e.g, sta D. Failure analysis (e.g, creep, fai ind dynamic) ve, fracture, buckling) VI. Engineering of Materials A. Material properties of 1. metals 2. plasties 3. composites 4, concrete VI. Fluids ‘A, Basic hydraulics (¢.g,, Manning equation, Bernoulli theorem, ‘open-channel flow, pipe ow) Lainar and turbulent flow Friction losses (¢.., pipes, valves, fittings) Flow measurement Dimensionless numbers (¢.g., Reynolds number) Fluid transport sysiems (e.g. pipes, ducts, series/parallel operations) ‘Pumps, turbines, and compressors Lifvarag momeooe 46 EXAM SPECIFICATIONS OTHER DISCIPLINES Approximate Percentage of Test Content 10% 9% 5% 10% 13% 1% 18%vu, Electricity and Magnetism 12% A. Equivalent circuits (Norton, Thevenin) B. AC circuits (frequency domain) ©. Network analysis (Kitchhoff laws) D, REC citeuits B. Sensors and instrumentation F.Blectrical machines ‘Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer 15% A. Thermodynamic properties (¢-g., entropy, enthalpy, heat capacity) B. Thermodynamic processes (e.g. isothermal, adiabatic, reversible, irreversible) C. Equations of state (ideal and real gases) D. Conduetion, convection, and radiation heat transfer E, Mass and energy balances F. Property and phase diagrams (e.g.,’Ps, h-P) G, Tables of thermodynamic properties H, Cyclic processes and efficiency (c.g. refrigeration, power) 1. Phase equilibrium and phase change J, ‘Thermodynamic equilibrium K. Combustion and combustion products (¢.g., CO, CO,, NOx, ash, particulates) L. Psychromettics (eg, humidity) EXAM SPECIFIATONS.~OTHER DISCPLINES 718 Do not write in this book or remove any pages. Do all scratch work in your exam book.UNITS “The FF exam and this handbook use both the metric system of units and the U.S, Customary System (USCS). Inthe USCS system of units, both fore and mass are called pounds, Therefore, one must distinguish the pound. force (Ib) from the pound-mass (Ibm), ‘The pound-force is that force which accelerates one pound-mass at 32.174 fsec*. Thus, 1 Ibf= 32.174 Ibm-fi/sce”. The expression 32.174 llom-fU(lbf-sec2) is designated as g, and is used to resolve expressions involving both mass and force expressed as pounds. For instance, in waiting Newton's second lay, the equation would be written ag F= ma/g., where Fis in lb, m in Ibm, and ais in f/se?. Similar expressions exist for other quantities. Kinetic Energy, KE = mv??2g., with KE in (R-lbf); Potential Energy, PE mahi, with PE in (Alb); Fluid Pressure, p= pele, with p in (bi%); Specie Weight, SH = pgig, in (Ib), Shear Suess, ¢= Gug.Xeila), With shear stress in (Ibi) In all these examples, g, should be regarced as a unit conversion factor. It is frequently not written ‘explicitly in engineering equations, However, is use is required fo produce a consistent st of units [Note that the conversion factor g,[Ibm-ft(Ibf-sec*)] should not be confused with the focal acceleration of gravity g, which has different units (ms? or fVSee%) and may be either its standard value (9.807 mvs? or 32.174 fUsee®) or some other local valu. ts, it may be necessary to use the constant g inthe equation fo have a consistent set of units. Ifthe problem is presented in USCS u neces COMMONLY USED EQUIVALENTS Miltiple Prefix Symbol cy ie oe _ 1 gallon of water weighs 8.34 Ibe io? to J eubie foot of water weighs eA tot io? ane 1 cubic inch of mercury weighs 0.491 Ibe 0 milo u The mass of ] eubie meter of waters 1,000 kilograms 10% mill m eestor cent . to" ‘deol a ‘TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS 10! deka da : 10 hreoto h oF = 1.800) +32 ‘a Kilo i °C CF -32N1.8 mega won 4480 iw cas 7 RaMP 4459.69 10? | tera T K =9C#273.15 108 pect P 10 exa B IDEAL GAS CONSTANTS ‘The universal gas constant, designated as Fin the table below, relates pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of an ideal gas. When that universal constant, is divided by the molecular weight ofthe gas, the result offen designated as R, has units of energy per degree per unit mass [k/(kg-K) or f-bi(Ibm-"R)] and becomes characteristic ofthe paticlar gas, Some disciplines, notably chetnical engineering, often use the symbol to refer to the universal gas constant FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS Quantity, ‘Symbol Value Units electron charge e 1,6022 x 10""? C (coulombs) Faraday constant F 96,485 coulombs(mol) gs constant metic R gid Si(kamolsK) ns constant metic R aia ‘kPa? /(kinol®) is constant USCS R 134s RetbOb mole*R) R 0108208 Leatea(mole-X) gravitation - newtonian constant Cc 6.673 x10 mX{kges*) gravitation - newtonian constant G 6.673 x10 Name? gravity acceleration (standard) metrie g 9.807 mis? gravity acceleration (standard) USCS g 32.174 ‘flsec? molar volume (ideal gas), 173.15K, p = 101.3 kPa y, 22,414 Likmol 299,792,000 mis 5.67 x10" Wéan?sK urs 19 speed of light in vacuum Stephan-Boltzmnann constantCONVERSION FACTORS, Multiply by Tobit by ‘Te Obtain sere 43,560 ‘square fet (1?) 978 x 104 Bu anpersie(A-h) 3.600 0, a iyperbola is define. I B*-44C= 0, the conic isa parabola and B= 0,a evel is defined. 0, astraight line is defined, B+ P+ Dax + 2by Ho=0 {the normal form of the eonie seetion equation, if that conic seetion has a principal axis parallel 10a coordinate axis. ke =b 22 uatwemanes Ifa?+ Ic is positive, a circle, center (-a, 8). Ita?-+ Pe equals zero, a point at (-a,~b). Iko?+ #~c is negative, locus is imaginary, ‘QUADRIC SURFACE (SPHERE) ‘The standard fonn ofthe equation is (e- AE HOR = mPa? with center at (A, k, wt). Ina three-dmtensonalsprce, the distance between two points is as — 5) + Oa) + (a) LOGARITHMS ‘The logarithm of x to the Base b is defined by Jog, * 6, where 6F= x Spocial definitions for 6 ~ € or b= 10 are: nx, Base =e log.x, Base = 10 “To change from one Base to another: log, x = (log, (log, 6) e.g, bn x= (loggx)Alog,¢) = 2.302585 (loge) Identities log.xfy= log.x log y ‘TRIGONOMETRY ‘Trigonomettic functions are defined using a right triangle, sin 8 = y/r, cos 0 = x/r tan 6 = ylr, cot = x/y esc 0 rly, see 0 = re e ° x Law of Cosines @= B+ 2 2be cod B= a+ 2 2a0 cos B = a+b! 2ah cos C “vk, RA at ar of Clee Madea, D pleton Cry Co, bie, Emlomoos ci N 1857Identities csc = 1Ain O seo 0 = 1/e08 0 tan 0 = sin Ofos 0 cot 0= Ian & sin’@ + cos" = 1 tan?@ + 1 = sec’@ cote + 1 = csc" sin (0+ B)=sin Leos + cos ein B cos (0+ B) = cos & 00s sin otsin B sin 20,=2 sin 0s a 08 2c = cos*a— sin’, ~ 1 — 2 sin*e tan 20. = (2 tan oi)/(1 — tan?) cot 20, = (cot’ar— 1)/(2 cot ot) tan (c+ B)~ (on + tan Py tan can B) cot c+ B)~(cot cot 1)e0t e018) sin (ct — B) = sin cos pcos sin os £006 + sin asin B ‘tan (ot ~ B) = (tan o.— tan BY/(1 + tan oF tan B) oto cot p+ I)(eot B-cot @) fT = cosa)i2 aU cos alla +/T — cosa)/(l + cosa) cot (a2)= £/{T + cosa) — case) sin o& sin = (1/2){cos (et —B)— cos (oe + BY) cos cos B = (12)[co (a B) + cos (2 BY] sin «cos = (U2ysin (a+) +sin (0B) sin oc + sin B=2 sin [(1/2)(0.* B)] cos [(1/2)(0— 8)] sin ot sin B = 2 cos ((1/2)(cr+ B)] sin ((1/2)(0.~ B)] cos a+ c0s = 2008 [(1/2}(0+ B)] e08[(1/2,.~ B)] cos a—e0s B =~? sin [(L/2,+ B) sin (12\(.~ BD] 2eos'o~ 1 COMPLEX NUMBERS Definition i= /=1 (a+ ib) + (e+ id)= (atc) +i (b+ dy (a+ ib)- (c+ id) =(a—e) + 1(b-a) (a ibe + ie = (ao~ bd) + i(ad* be) a+ ib (a+ ibe id) _ (ac+ bd) + ilbe — ad) evid “(e+ idem id) e+e Polar Coordinates x= 08 0; = sin 0; 0~ arctan (4) sols very X+ ly = (cos @ + isin 0) = re" {7,(c0s 8, + isin 8,)]fr,(cos 0, + é sin 0,)) = ryrs{eos (0, + 03) + isin 0, +8,)} Gtiy =[r (60s 0+ isin "(cos n8 + i sin n€) ‘nfcos®, + fsin®) _ nj ‘leos®, + /sin®) ~ 7 Buler’s Identity P= cos 0+ isin O = cos O—i sin ® oso = te fanaa Roots If fis any postive integer, any complex number (other than zero) has f dstnet roots, The k rots ofr {cos 0+ sin 0) can be found by substituting successively 1270, 1,2) (k= 1) in the formula Be nS) + sain( + n)] w = #/F cos! Also, see Algebra of Complex Numbers in the ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING section, MATRICES ‘A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers with ‘m rows and m columns, The element cy refers to row i and colums j Mu IPA= (jy) is an m % n matrix and B= (by) isan n % s matrix, the matrix product AA is an mx s matrix (a)-(5.4) where mis the common integer representing the number of columns of A and the number of rows of B (and &= 1, 25-51. Addition IfA= (q,) and B = (6) ate two matiees ofthe same size nxn, the sum A+ Bis the mx n mattix C= (e,) where ey ay Idontity The mattix 1= (g,) isa square n * n identity matrix where y= 1 for = 1, 2, mand ay =0 for ij. ‘Transpose ‘The mairix B isthe transpose of the matrix A ifeach entry ‘yin B is the same asthe entry ain A and eonverscy. In equation form, the transpose is B = AT. warwewmnios 237 =, adj(A) E BeA'= where Acthr CE Al KC adj(A) = adjoint of A (obtained by replacing AM elements with their gofactors, see DETERMINANTS) anc LAl-‘Gétermiriont ofA. Also, AA“ = AA = where I is the identity matrix. DETERMINANTS Addeterminant of order n consists of ? numbers, called the elements of the determinant, arranged in rows and n columns. and enclosed by two vertical lines, In any determinant, the minor ofa given element is the determinant that remains afier all of the elements are struck ‘out that lie in the same row and in the same column as the ‘given element, Consider an element which lies in the th ‘column and the ih row. The cofactor of this element is the value of the minor of the element (if + is even), and itis the negative of the value of the minor ofthe element GF i+ jis odd) If is greater than I, the value of a determinant of order m is the sum of the n products formed by multiplying each element ‘of some specified row (or column) by its cofactor. This sum is called the expansian of the determinant {according to the clements of the specified row (or columan)]. For 2 second-order determinant ea maha [ie] = am - an For a third-order determinant: la @ a ln be oy la a of thats + eabney + anlaey = aabaoy ~ canes ~ abscn VECTOR! 24 watwemanics Addition wal subtraction: A+B=(a,+b)14 (G+ d)i 10,4 6)k A-B=(a,~ B14 (4,5 * (4-8) “The dot prodic isa scalar produet and represents the projection of B onto A times IAI. Itis given by AB a,b,+ 9,8, + ab =IAIIBIcos 8 = BA The cross product is a vector product of magnitude IBLIAL sin 0 which is perpendicular to the plane containing Acand B, The product is idk © AxB=|a, a, a) Lo. lb, b, 6 se ‘The sense of A > B is determined by the right-hand rule, A® B=IAlIBln sin 0, where ‘n= unit veetor perpendicular to the plane of A and B, Gradient, Divergence, and Curl vo=(21+ dir Rule Bis Bu)-0 0 + 109 vival ax vxV (Rie Bie 2 ) x (+H +) The Laplacian of scalar fnetion is oH HH Pos bo ae tat tat jAtBEOmABHALC 7 oot 10g) bay 2 ae IFA + B=0, then either A= 0, B=0, or A is perpendicular toB. AX Bo BEA Ax(B+O)=(A*B)+(AxC) (B+C)XA=(BXA)+(CxA) ixisjxjakx xjek=-jx kxie jack IA x B=0, then either A= Vib = V+(V) = (7 Vd VX Vb =O VHVxa)=0 Vx(VXA)= VIVO A) VA , B= 0, or A is parallel to B2 }OGRESSIONS AND SERIES, Arithmetic Progression To determine whether a given fnite sequence of mmbers is an arithmetic progression, subtract each number from the following number. I the differences are equal, the series is avitometi. 1. The fst erm isa. “The common difference isd. ‘The numberof terms i. “The last o th ter i The sum of terms eS. Ima (n~ Id S=naeh2=n[a+ (nd Geometric Progression ‘To determine whether a given finite sequcnce is @ geometic progression (G.P), divide each number afte he first by the preceding number, ifthe quotients are equal, the series is geometric. 1 The fist te 2. The common ratio is 3. ‘The mimber of terms is 4. ‘The lst ornth term is 5. The sum of terme is ent a(l-PV-rral =a rire limit = al(I-er< AGP. converges if < 1 and it diverges iff > 1 Properties of Series Power Series =n L.A power series, which is convergent in the interval “Rx 0. ‘Test for a Point of Inflection =F Ge) has a point of inflection at x= itf"(@)~ 0, and if") changes sign asx increases through rea. The Partial Derivative In a funetion of two independent variables x and y, 2 derivative with respect to one of the variables may be found if the other variable is assumed to remain constant. Ip is kept fived, the function ey) bocomes a funaton ofthe single variable x, an is detivative (itt exists) can be found. This derivative is called the partial derivative of with respect ox, The partial derivative with respect to is denoted as follows: ac _ Mss) ae oe waruenmnios 25The Curvature of Any Curve + The curvature K of a curve at Pis the limit ofits average curvature for the are PQ as Q approaches P. This is also expressed as; the curvature of a curve ata given point is the rate-of-change ofits inclination with respect to its acc Jength = fnig 4 = Amy Bs ~ as Curvature tn Rectngulac Cooninses panei leo When it may be easier to differentiate the function with respect to y rather than x, the notation x” will be used for the derivative. q usof “The ractus of curvature R at any point on a curve is defined as the absolute value of the reciprocal of the curvature K at that point (k # 0) O* #0) 2% waTvenanies LMospita’s Rule (L’Hopita’s Role) Ifthe factional funetion fx) assumes one ofthe indeterminate for 0/0 o / (where ois ite oF init), then liens fxdighd) is eq tothe it ofthe xpos im oe. iit £2, nin LD amit oil yl Sy) whieh is not ea provided such first indicated limit exists INTEGRAL CALCULUS ‘The definite integral is defined as: iit Bs) = fi Ards ‘Also, &x;90 forall A table of derivatives and integrals is available in the Derivatives and Indefinite Integrals section. The integral ‘equations can be used along with the following methods of integration. ‘A. Tategration by Parts (integral equation #6), B. Integration by Substitution, and C. Separation of Rational Fractions into Partial Fractions. ‘id, Thm, Coa, i Canyon & Sete Pb, 1988DERIVATIVES AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS. In these formulas, x v, and w represent functions of x. Also, a,c, and n represent constants. All arguments of the trigonometric fictions ar in radians, constant of integration should beaded to the integrals, To avoid terminology difficlty, the following definitions are followed: aresin w = sin“, (sin n)'= 13, 14. 15. 16. 17 18, 19. 20. 21. 22, 23, 4, 26. 26, Uae dels = 0 éxlde= 1 Aeuyléx = ¢ dul det v— wills = dls + dvds — dle lays = n dole + v dul: vw vlde = vy dields + wow dvs vw duds Aut). vis <0 de athe = nul dul Af (aye = {lf (w)Yeds} dulce ) duly = Adie) Mose) 1 du (ose ae dad a ala’) de ow a au finale de ale" Vide = & dul du cke = yu" clude + (ln u) w" doves d{sin ulfdx = 008 u du/de loos ube sin u dulte eltan uf = sect dls Avot uf =—e802u dvd: aise uyds= see tan w dus lose ud = ese u cot u duds deg. cL Cats sta xt) dlcos'w) __ 1 aloo) = (0 < cosy < x) tan”) ree (Gra < taney < n!2) Ta loots) (0 9) delet (a 2. fata x (a #9) dt ews 2 (a> ue > 26, Jf = hte (a> 0,60) tax + 2a eee " Yaae — FF (dae — 6*> 0) jj ara alex + ~ 10" — Aa 2Tedl GPa be JP — hac [2ax +b + 1B — dee (i? = dac > 0) 2 para efor aghcy WP -tae= 0) wamewanics 27MENSURATION OF AREAS AND VOLUMES Nomenclature A= total surface area Po perimeter = volume, Farabola Ante Pagns = fa + BYR b+ (6 + hx at P= what B+ (4x YX YM + (AX MX KPA} HY XM XH XI K Hal NO oe where A= (a= dia + 6) Circular Segment ’ “gia [2 ( - sind)]2 = sir = 2{arecosltr — a)ir]} 28 MATHEMari¢s Circular Sector ee | ‘ A= O12 = sri2 gaa Sphere + V=4nr'f3 = 1d 6 A= du = nd Parallelogram (a+ b) [o£ 2abloos) = fal BP 4 Rableosb) dit dj=2a' 46°) A= ah= ablsind) Ifa= b, the parallelogram is a rhombus. sk 8 Olek, cing rma ho, Gk Pb 1957MENSURATION OF AREAS AND VOLUMES. (continued) Regular Polygon (v equal sides) + 2r{tan(o2)] (nr) ” ¥ = (W6)(4, + Ay + 4A) Right Circular Cone Valera) A = side area + base area =wlrs (P42) Ag dy = PIP Right Cireular Cylinder y= wrth = eA Ves wth = A = side area + end areas = 2ar(h +) Parabolotd of Revolution, ah ae et, Rie, gern erat, ea, Geek Tg 167 warenanes 29CENTROIDS AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA ‘The location of the centroid of an area, bounded by the axes tnd the function » ~ fx}, ean be found by integration. xdA eet a A= J fxdc dA = flxdde = g(y)dy The first moment of area with respect to the y-axis and the x-axis, respectively, are: ivdd = yA “The moment of mertia (second moment of area) with respect tothe yraxis and the x-axis, respectively, are J,= haa Le ltd “The moment of nesta taken with respect to an axis passing through the aree's centroid isthe cenioidal moment of inertia ‘The parallel axis theorem for the moment of inetia with sespect to another axis paraliel wih and located d units fom, the centroidal axis is expressed by Fost tet A? Ina plane, J={Pda =1,+1, ‘Values far standard shapes are presented in tables inthe STATICS and DYNAMICS sect DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS: ‘A common class of ordinary linear differential equations is 1, HDs + BD + bays) = Aa) were By oy By w+ yy Byars constants, ‘When the equation is « homogeneous differential equation, fis) =, the solution is dnla) = Ge Ge Ce Ge where 1, i the nth distinct root ofthe characteristic polyaomial PG) with POP) = byt + By te Ifthe root r,= 7, then Ce" replaced with Cyxe™ Higher orders of multiplicity imply higher powers ofx. The complete solution forthe differential equation is 28) = 08) 9,60) where y, (2) is any particular sohution with fx) present. Ix) has ¢ferms, then resonance is manifested, Furthermore, specifi fix) forms result in specific y,(x) forms, some of which are: + by + Dy 30 waTHenancs 4 5 ae Be ase, Asin ax + A,c08 Ifthe independent variable is time f then transient dynamic solutions are implied. First-Order Linear Homogencous Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients, ¥+ ay=0, where a is a real constant: Solution, y= Ce whore C'= a constant that satisfies the intial conditions. jnst-Order Linear Nonhomogenous Ditfere Equations Bye ml x={ y(0) = KA Atco [B 1>0| ‘is the time constant Kis the gain ‘The solution is Hd = KA + (KB ~ KA)(1 — exo (= «B — KA Second-Order Linear Homogeneous Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients ‘An equation of the form yt aye by =0 can be solved by the method of undetermined coefficients where 2 solution of the form y= Ces sought, Substitution of this solution gives (Part b) Ce*=0 and since Ce cannot be zet0, the characteristic equation must vanish or Prartb=0 The roots of the characteristic equation are axa" 4b and can be real and distinct for a* > 4b, real and equal for a= 4b, and complex for a? < 46. If.a?> 4b, the solution is of the form (overdamped) ya Cer + Cer Ifa’ = 4b, the solution is of the form (critically damped) ya (creger Ite? <4®, the solution is of the form (anderdamped) y= (C, cos Br + C, sin Bx), where anFOURIER TRANSFORM “The Fourier transform pair, one form of which is Fo) = [ema fli) = [W0an)] [2 PlwdeMeto can be used to characterize a broad class of signal models in terms of their frequency or spectral coutent. Some uscfial transform pairs are: KO) Fo) a) 1 ua) x8(o) + jo u(t +8)-a(t- oft 2n8(@ — w,) ‘Some mathematical liberties are required to obtain the second tnd fourth form. Other Fourier transforms are derivable from the Laplace transform by replacing » with ja provided Lo [°1foldr 1 Li stadar = Be slo + 2" fo + 4x) 4 0] ‘Simpson’ Rule/Parabolic Rute (n must be an even integer) forn=2, (poder = (L54)[o) + 4-4) + 0)] forn>4 fla)+ 2, "3 fla + Kx) Lefora = 8 . 4 "E fla kee) +f) with dx (6 a)/n ‘n= number of intervals between data poinis Numerical Solution of Ordinary Differential Equations lex’s Approximation Given a differential equation diddt = f(s, 0) with x(0) =x, ‘At some general time AA sf(k + 1) = atk) + da Toth), ka) which canbe used with starting condition x, fo solve recursively for (40) x@24), (0A). “The method can be extended t nt onter differential equations by recasting them asm first-order equations. In particular, when dela =) f+ 1p] (ka) + Af xt) which can be expressed a the recursive equation sees =a + AN (ds Refer to the ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING section for additional information on Laplace transforms and algebra of complex nurabers 32. warvemaiesMECHANICS OF MATERIALS. UNIAXIAL STRESS-STRAIN Stress-Strain Curve for Mild Stect “The slope of the linear portion of the curve equals the ‘modulus of elasticity. DEFINITIONS Engineering Strain = AL/L where © = engineering strain (units per unit), AL = change in length (units) of member, 1, = original length (units) of member. Percent Rlongation %Etongation = (44) x 100 Percent Reduction in Area (RA) ‘The % reduction in area from initial area, 4, to inal ares, Apis lr %RA ( | x 100 Shear Stress-Strain y= UG, where y= shear strain, 1 = shear stress, and G = shear modulus (constent in linear torsion-rotation relationship) E Ga Ep tere m+ B= modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) = Poisson’ ravi, and ~ (lateral strain)/(Longitudinal strain). ‘Uniaxial Loading and Deformation = Pi, where © = stress on the russ setion, P= loading, and A = eoss-sctional ara, e= 81, where & = elastic longitudinal deformation and 1 = length of member, E=ole= $A vat aE ‘True stress is load divided by actual cross-sectional area whereas engineering stress is load divided by the initial area. ‘THERMAL DEFORMATIONS 8,=al(T~T,), where = deformation caused by a change in temperature, = temperature coefiicient of expansion, L = length of member, T= final temperature, and 7, = initial temperature CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE, Cylindrical Pressure Vessel For internal pressure only, the stresses atthe inside wall are and 6, = tangential (hoop) stress, 6, = radial stress, P, = internal pressure, P, = external pressure, = inside radius, and ry = oulside radius. For vessels with end caps, the axial stress is: 6, G,. and a, are principal stresses. 1 Pim itt an aa co: Bsr MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 33When the thickness of the cylinder wall is about one-tenth or less of inside radius, the eylinder can be considered as thin- walled, In which ease, he internal pressure is resisted by the hoop stvess and the axial stress. Pr a= and where 1= wall thickness STRESS AND STRAIN Principal Stresses For the special case ofa fwo-dinensional stress state, the ‘equations for principal stress reduce to Get Oy ‘The two nonzero values calculated from this equation are temporarily labeled G, and Gand the third value oy, is always zero in this case, Depending on their values, the three roots are then labeled according to the conventio algebraically largest = 0, algebraically smallest = 0, ‘other =, A typical 2D stress element is shown below with all indicated components shown in their positive sense. 4h Mobr's Circle ~Stress, 2D ‘To construct a Mohr’s circle, the following sign conventions are used. 1, Tensile normal stress components are plotted on the horizontal axis and are considered positive, Compressive normal stress components are negative. 2. For constructing Mobr’s cirele only, shearing stresses are plotted above the normal stress axis when the pair of shearing stresses, acting on opposite and parallel faces of an element, forms a clockwise couple, Shearing stresses are plotted below the normal axis when the shear stresses form a counterclockwise couple. 34 WECHAINES OF WATERIALS ‘The cirele drawn with the center om the normal stress (horizontal) axis with center, C, and radius, R, where c £6, toy, yo Ray ‘The two nonzero principal stresses are then: ‘The maxin inplane shear stress is t},=R. However, the ‘maximum shear stress considering three dimensions is always B= Hooke's Law hree-dimensional case: = (VEO,- 49,40) y™ Ty/G 2, (VE6,-We OD) eG = (N6,-AG + GT WMG Plane stress case (6,= 0) & = (MENG, ¥0,) &,> (ENG, ¥0,) £,=—(/E\va,+ 16,) 9) Uniaxial case (6, 8,8) £,= normal strain, 6,,6,,6, nominal stress, Yo Yor Yor Shear strain, yp Tyo T= shear stress, E= modulus of elasticity, G= shear modulus, and y=Paiston’s ratio, + cht as en tn rn fa Me A, Nea 1STATIC LOADING FAILURE THEORIES See MATERIALS SCIENCE/STRUCTURE OF MATTER for Stress Concentration in Brittle Materials, Brittle Materials Maximum-Normab-Stress Theory The maximum-notmal-stress theory states that failure o¢eurs \hen one of the three principal siresses equals the strength of the material, 6,2 62 05, then the theory predicts that failure ocours whenever G, 2S, or 6 S—S,, where Sand Scare the tensile and compressive strengths, respectively. Coulomb-Mohr Theory ‘The Coulomb-Mohr theory is based upon the results of tensile ‘and compression tests. On the 9, + coordinate system, one citele is plotted for S,,and one for S,.-As shown in the figure, lines are then drawa tangent (o these circles. The Coulomib- Mohr theory then states that fracture will oceur for any stress situation that produces a circle that is either tangent to or ‘erosses the envelope defined by the lines tangent to the Sy and S,ccircles, Ifo, 20,26, and 0; <0, then the theory predicts that yielding will occur whenever > 1 Duetite Materials ‘Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory ‘The maxinurn-shear-stress theory states that yielding begins when the maximum shear stress equals the maximum shear siress in a tension-test specimen of the same material when that specimen begins to yield. If, 2 6,2 cy. then the theory predicts that yielding will occur whenever Tyaq.2 S,/2 where is the yield strength. =o Gaea Distortion-Energy Theory “The distortion-energy theory states that yielding begins ‘whenever the distortion energy i a unit volume equals the distortion energy inthe sume volume when uniaxially stressed to the yield strength, The theory predicts that yielding will occur whenever 2 aye oy) + (1-6) os (= oY +o 2 zs ‘The term on the left side of the inequality is known as the coffective or Von Mises stress, For a biaxial siress state the effective stress becomes 7 22 (6%, — a4 + 04) (a? ~ 0,9, + 03 + 313)" where 6, and are the two nonzero principal stresses and 6, 6,» and T,,are the stresses in orthogonal directions. VARIABLE LOADING FAILURE THEORIES, ‘Modified Goodman Theory: The modified Goodman criterion states that a fatigue failure will oceur whenever Se 4 Ie > Sao > Gee or zh, 20, where 5. = fatigue strength, Sg = ultimate strength, S, ~ yield strength, g, = alternating stress, and Gy mean stress. Cn = nt a ‘Soderberg Theory: The Soderberg theory states that a fatigue failure will occur whenever Sn > > SP Eel wee ‘Endurance Limit for Steels: When test data is unavailable, the ‘endurance limit for steels may be estimated as 05 Sp Sw S 1,400 MPa ‘= 1700 MPa, S,,> 1,400 MPa MecHaNies OF MATERIALS 35Eacuranee Limit Modifying Factors: Endurance limit ‘modifying fuctors are used to account for the differences between the endurance limit as determined from a rotating bearn fest, 5", and that which would result in the real part, S,. $= bolikskeSe where Surface Factor, ky = aS% Surface Factor a Exponent Finish, pst MPa ’ Ground 14 158 | 0.085 Machined or 5 | asi | -t ae 2.70 5 0.265 Rotvolled | 144 370 O78 ‘As forged | 39.9 272.0 =0.995 Size Factor, ky For bending and torsion: ds8mm, al Smms 250 mm; 0.6 £450.75 For axial looding: hel Load Factor, ke k= 0923 axial loading, 8, 1,520 MPa axial loading, S,, > 1,520 MPa bending 4-057 torsion Temperature Factor, ky for TS 450°C, ky Miscellaneous Effects Factor, k,: Used to account for strength ‘reduction effects such as corrosion, plating, and residual stresses, In the absence of known effects, use k= 1. ‘TORSION Torsion stress in circular solid or thick-walled (> 0.1 7) shan: +28 where = polar moment oferta (ee able at end of STATICS section). 36 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS ‘TORSIONAL STRAIN “ye = fimit, e(A/A2) = rave) “The shear strain varies indirect proportion to the radius, from. ‘evo strain at the center to the greatest strain atthe outside of the shat, do/c is the (wist per unit length or the rate of twist. tye = Oty. = Gel dbldz) T = Glablde) {Pda = Gulabide) * Hh wee o=[Ge = total angle (radians) of twist, = torque, and L.~ length of shaft ‘Tip gives the twisting moment per radian of twist. This is called the forsional stiffness and is often denoted by the symbol kor e. For Hollow, Thin-Walled Shafts Aq, = the fotal mean area enclosed by the shaft measured to the midpoint of the wall. BEAMS. ‘Shearing Foree and Bending Moment Sign Conventions 1, The bending moment is positive if it produces bending of the beam concave upward (compression in top fibers and {ension in botiom fibers). 2, "The shearing force is positive ifthe right portion of the beam sends 10 shear downward with respect fo the lef (et i $8 mtn Ming owas Mri MadTThe relationship between the load (g), shear (¥), and moment (2) equations are: a) = y= ae) B— K= ([-a@)]ae Me Mo [Uae Stresses in Beams e=— yp, where: p =the radius of curvature of the deflected axis of the boeam, and y= the distance from the neutral axis to the longitudinal, fiber in question. Using the stress-strain relationship o = Be, Axial Stress: 6,=~Ey/p, where =the nonnal stress ofthe fiber located y-distance from the neutral axis. Lp = MAE, where ‘M_—= the moment atthe section and © the moment of inertia of the cross section. 9,=— Myf, where 1» =the distance from the neutral axis to the fiber location above or below the axis. Let y= ¢, where ¢ = distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber of a sytnmetrical beam section, o> Moll Let S~ He: then, 6, = MIS, where S$ = the elastic section modulus of the beam member. q= VOM and FOAIb), where ‘Transverse shear flow: ‘Transverse shear stress: ¢, aoe shear flow, shear stress on the surface, shear force at the section, ‘width or thickness of the eross-section, and Ay, where 4’ = area above the layer (or plane) upon which the desired transverse shear stress acts and distance from neutral axis to area centroid. Deflection of Beams Using /p = MED, 2142, = Mf, ifferential equation of deflection corve 1d = aMUdide = ¥ a1 = avadies Determine the deflection curve equation by double integration (apply boundary congitions applicable to the deflection and/or slope). BI (dfs) = Mi) ae Ely = SUM) dx] de ‘The constants of integration can be determined from the physical geometry ofthe beam. COLUMNS For long columns with pinned ends: Euler's Formula P., = critical axial loading, © = unbraced column length. substitute /= 174: Pe we se BE, whore 4 eo = radlus of gyration and Ur = slenderness ratio for the column, For further column design theory, see the CIVIL ENGINEERING and MECHANICAL ENGINEERING sections. MECHANCS OFMATERALS 37ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY Ifthe strain remains within the elastic limit, he work done during deflection (exte potential energy and can be recovered. ‘ft final load is P and the corresponding elongation of tension member fs 8, then the fota energy U stored is equal to the work iF done during loading, UsWw=P82 ) of'a member will be transformed into i: 3 ‘The stmin energy per unit volume is u= UAL" ORE (for tension) MATERIAL PROPERTIES e|./¢ e/g /& Material elzlile]3 6 jaj2)s |e Modulus of Mpsi 29.0 | 10.0} 14.5 16 Plasticity, B GPa 200.0] 69.0 | 100.0} 11.0 Mpsi ILS] 3.8 6.0] 0.6 Gm | 800] 260[ a4] at Poisson's Ratio, 030) 038] 024 | 033 Goetticint of yor | os] 3i[ 67] br Thermal txpanston, oc | 10% | 11.7] 236] 1] 3.0 38 MECHAMCS OF MATERIALSEy = yy pe ty at SERIA Die apg 7 bese Tae quae sa XTC = 2% =(X) 7 ve ola (erste =D eq HOR a Chie > osm ann wae evo waranty Utne al TEVE _ me, we_,| ae wig"? (@tere- are ep pea. awe? nD, cae = nia Grea" wal” esemy'p(a- a+ x4ieae par HIS __ove| vex iay {ea dee d0-4 | = Toma" * yeaa? explo ajse- eg} ane TT ae HI ae Smarty a8 wae 159 au, 158 a — og gil facia ryan (ee aoe a) ene = HH cupemanmesaveof, psxuy orts-\2 ag oe bh 1 IIE _ wy rd x a vexm(onnj aq] “e Fa cme : the population mean, ‘6 = the standard deviation of the population, and When 11 = 0 and o?= o = 1, the distribution is called a standardized ot unit normal distribution, Then fey) = Fhe, where -00 < x ¥ ow. Vn It is noted that Z 3 follows a standardized norinal distribution function, ‘A.unit normal distribution table is included atthe end ofthis section. In the table, the following notations are utilized F(a) = the area under the curve from -=9 to x, RG) =the aren under the curve from sto», Wx) = the area under the curve between —x and x, FE)=1- FQ) Sentral Li orem Let yp wn, bea sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables each having mesn jt and variance oF, Then for large n, the Central Limit Theorem asserts that the sum Y= X+4,+..X, is approximately nommal, 42 ENGINEERING PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS eDisteibution ‘The variate is defined as the quotient of wo independent ‘variates x and r where « is uni! normal and ris the root mean square ofr other independent unit normal variates; that is, 1=.0r, The following is the ¢-distribution with n degrees of freedom: _ Pite+ ve 1 LO Sam aA where -9 $1, ‘A table atthe end of this section gives the values off, for ‘values of and is, Note that in view of the symmetty of the tdistribUtiOn, fy. sga= “for ‘The funtion for follows: a= [rfid 32+ Distribution 112), 2, 2, ar independent uit normal random vatibles, then PaRtRe 4B is seid to have a chi-square distribution with degrees of freedom A table at the end of this section gives values of 27, for selected values of cc and Gamma Fun LINEAR REGRESSION Least Squares y= a+ bx, where yointerepts a =F = Bi, and slope:5 = Sy/Se. Se) sh Sam) fee 5 88 —cm(, sample size, tes ¥= in| By), and ¥= 0m Sa}.Standard Error of Estimate Confidence Interval for a 4 hae? le Confidence Interval for 6 B+ loan 2 [AOE Sample Correlation Coefficient S, pas TBS Si Sy HYPOTHESIS TESTING Consider an unknown parameter 6 ofa statistical distribution. Let the null hypothesis be Hy: 0= 0, and let the alternative hypothesis be Hy: 0=8, Rejecting Ff, when itis true is known as a type I ero, while accepting Hg when itis wrong is known asa type Il err: Furthermore the probabilities of type Land type Terrors are usualy represented by the synbols . and fi respectively: c= probability (type I error) B = probability (type I ero") ‘The probability of a type I error is known as the evel of significance of the test Assume thatthe values of cand B are given The sample size can be obtained from the following relationships. In (A) and (B), ui the value assumed to be the true meat. (A) Hee Hos Heh # to en 8 0(MH + Za) ~ 0 An approximate result is pw Ate © (t= He) (B) Hos = He eM > Bo Be ose +24 (a+ Zyo (us = Ho)” Refer to the Hypothesis Testing table in the INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING section of this handbook. ENGINEERING PROBABILITY AND StaTIsTCs 43CONFIDENCE INTERVALS Confidence Interval for the Mean jt of a Normal Distribution (A) Standard des Xo RnB Su Skt ha Fe jon a is known (R) Standard deviation cis not known Xo tafe Su SK hae where tan corresponds to — I dogrees of freedom. Confidence Interval for the Difference Between Two Means jt, and jt, (A) Standard deviations , and 6, known -K-2a/% + (B) Standard deviations oy and are not known (E+ Allee = st (m= noi] (eee eaee me aaa wher tn comssponds fom + m ~ 2deres of feedom HK ba Confidence Intervals for the Variance o? of a Normal Distribution wads ogre is? Sample Size Values of Zu2 ‘Confidence Interval Zan | 80% 12816 90% 1.6449 95% 1.9600 96% 2.0537 98% 2.5263 99% 2.5758 44 ENGWEERIG PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS Sith SH - Ht boUNIT NORMAL DISTRIBUTION i A x x = x 5) Fe) Ri) 5) 00 03989 0.5000 0.5000 1.0000 ot 0.3970 0.5398 0.4602 0.9203 0.0797 02 03910 0.5793 0.4207 oats 0.1585 03 03814 0.6179 0.3821 0.7682 0.2358 04 0.3683 0.6554 0.3446 0.6892 0.3108 os 0352 0.6915 0.3085 eit 0.3829 06 03332 ons? 02783 0.5485 0.4515 o7 03123 0.7580 0.2420 0.4839 o.si6t 08 02897 0.7881 02119 0.4237 0.5763 09 0.2661 08159 0.1941 3681 0.6319 Lo 0.2420 8413 0.1587 03173 0.6827 ul 02179 0.8643 0.1357 0.2713 0.7287 2 0.1942 0.8849 ost 02301 0.7699 13 ona 0.9032 0.0968 0.1936 0.8064 M4 0.1497 09192 0.0808 0.1615 0.8385 Ls 0.1295, 0.9332 0.0668 0.1336 0.8664 16. 0.1109 0.9452 0.0548 0.1096 0.8904 “7 0.0940 09554 0.0446 0.0891 0.9109 18 0.0790 0641 0.0359 0.0719 saat 19 0.0656 09713 0.0287 o.0s74 0.9426 20 0.0540 osm 0.0228 0.0485 osas 21 0.0440 0.9821 0.0179 0.0357 0.9643 22. 0.0358 0.9361 0.0139 0.0278 0.9722 23 0.0283 09893 0.0107 oo2i4 0.9786 24 0.0224 0.9918 0.0082 ov 0.9836 25 0017s 0.9938 9.0062 00124 0.9876 26 0.0136 0.9983 0.0047 0.9093 0.9907 27 0.0104 0.9965 0.0035 0.0069 0.9931 28 0.0079 0.9974 0.0026 0.0051 0.9949 29 0.0060 0.9981 0.0019 0.0037 0.9963 3.0 0014 0.9987 o.0013 0.0027 0.9973 Fractiles 1.2816 0.1755 0.9000 0.1000 0.2000 0.8000 L6aa9 0.1031 0.9500 0.0500 ‘0.1000 0.9000 1.9600 0.0584 0.9750 0.0250 0.0500 0.9500 2.0597 0.0486 0.9800 0.0200 0.0400 0.9600 2.3263 0.0267 0.9900 0.0100 0.0200 0.9800 2.5758 oo1as 0.9980 0.0080, 6.0100 09900 ENGINEERING PROBABILTY AND STATISTICS 45STUDENT'S - DISTRIBUTION VALUES OF tay, 250.20 0.10 0.05 0.025 1.000 1.376 1.963" 3.078 6314 12.706 fl 2 0816 L061 1.886 2.920 4.303 3 0.765 0978 1638-2353 3.182 4 0741 0941 1833 2132-2776 5 0.727 0.920 1476 2.018 2.571 6 0718 0.905 1.134 1.440 1.943 2.447 7 OTL 0896 1119 Sls 1.895 2.365 8 0.706 0.889 1.108 1.397 1.860 2.306 9 0.703 0883 1.100 1383 1.833 2.262 1 0.700 0879 1.093 1.372 L812 2.228 If 0.697 0.876 1.088 1363 1,796 2.201 12 0.695 0873 1.083 1.356 1.782 2.179 13 0694 0.870 1079 1,350 1L77l 2.160 2.650 3.01213 14 0692 0868 1076 1345 L76L 2.145 2.624 2.9771 1s 0.691 0.866 1.074 L341 1.753 23 2.602 2.94715 16 0690 0,865 1.07) 1,337 L746 2.102.583 2.92116 17 0.689 0.863 1.069 1,333 1.740 2.102.567 2.89817 13 0.688 0.862 1.067 1,330 1734 © 2.101 2.552 2.87818 19 0.688 0.861 1.066 1328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.86119 20 0687 0.860 1.064 1,325 1.725 2.086 2528 2.84520 2 0.686 0.889 1.063 1.323 «L721 2.080 2518-2831 22 (0.686 0.858 1.061 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.81922 23 0.685 0858 1.060 1319 1.714 2.069 -2:500 2.80723 240.685.0857 «1.059 1.318 TIT 20642492 2.79724 25 0.684 0.856 «1.058 1316 1.708 2.060 2.485.787 25 26 0.684 0.856 1.058 1315 1.706 2056-2479 -2.779 26 27 0684 «0855 1.087 131417032052, 2473 TTL 28 0.683 0855 1.056 1.313 L701 2.048 2.467 2.76328 29 0683 0.854 1.055 1.311 1699 20045 2.462 2.756 29 30 0683 0.854.088 1.310 1.697 2.042 2750-30 w= 0.674 O842—«(1,036 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576 46 ENOWEERING PROBABILITY AND STATICSTET BT] et wr 7 = tet wr | wr wor | oz » rer | aoe ewe | ae ov rez | az & vee | oz & sex | tet a art | cee % wt x eI wet | ore = vet | we a ust | oe @ wet | sve oC et we | are sc is we | ist a wor ore | st a sot wee | oer 31 soe | ove n se uz | we a see ore | ser a SFE ose | sez it 5ST we | we o 1st | wre s ove oy | see 9 or uy | ove 5 99 ws | tos ¥ 558 ws | sve 5 rst erat ot | cee z od ese) eee soc] sece t eo [oar or [0 wts{twe#tale tls ~Tete Ts a Ps ‘yp aosessty, soyeunsousq, a CR Sp at 0 7 ‘) Baus ea sadn payssods« ob so = ‘Bunpuedsozso9 1 30 sonqen wep a) Saaseudoy Li9n9 “m0 p39.5 Jo sxfop sopeumauop pue es9m0 Je woneuiquos senopsed 304 FIGV— [email protected] 4A JO SANTA WOUTRD a ENGINEERING PROBABILTY AND STATISTICSoeuttze Osseo Gar NOUNERUSIG X JO SANTVA TORRID ENGINEERING PROBABILITY AND STATSTICS| 8FLUID MECHANIC: DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME, SPECIFIC WEIGHT, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The definitions of density, specific volume, specific weight, gravity follow: = fimit, Am/av 1 AW/AY it, gm /AP also SG = Y= Ply» Where 1p ~ = density (also called mass density), ‘Am = mass of infinitesimal volume, AV = volume of ifinitesimal object considered, 1 = specific weight, = Pe AW = weight ofan infinitesimal volume, SG = specific gravity, density of water at standard conditions 1,000 kg/m? (62.43 Ibm), and ‘Yn ~ specific weight of water at standard conditions, 9,810 Nim? (62.4 Ibf/N®), and = 9,810 ky/(m*ss?) STRESS, PRESSURE, AND VISCOSITY Stress is defined as x) imit, AFIAA, where ‘t(1)_ = surface stress vector at point 1, AF = force acting on infinitesimal area Ad, and AA = infinitesimal area at point 1 ye-P +t, = p(dv/dy) (one-dimensional; ic, y), where ‘tend %, =the normal and tangential stress components at point 1, P= the pressure at point 1, Ht absolute dynamic viseosity of the Buid Neséa? [bnv{it-see)], dv = differential velocity, fferential distance, nomnal to boundary. v= velocity at boundary condition, and jormal distance, measured from boundary. v= kinematic viscosity; m"/s (Acc) where v= wp 62 FLUIowecHaNies For a thin Newtonian fluid film and a linear velocity profile, v(9) = vplB; dvldy = vib, whhere ‘of plate on film and 8 = thickness of fluid film, For a power law (non-Newtonian) fluid (avteyy, where K — ~consisteney index, and n ower law index. n< 1 psendo plastic > 1 = dilatant SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY Surface tension ¢ is the force per unit contact length FAL, where 6 surface tension, force/length, F = surface force at the interface, and L = length of interface. ‘The capillary rise his approximated by = (des 00s PY), where h the height of the liquid in the vertical tube, © =the surface tension, B =the angle made by the liquid with the wetted tube wall, Y= specific weight of the liquid, and d= the diameter of the capillary tube. ‘THE PRESSURE FIELD IN A STATIC LIQUID ’ “The diferenc in pressure betwee two diferent points is Pao Pye“ (t,~3) =k =p Fora simple manometer, Pym Pat hha NA Absolute pressure = atmospherie pressure + gage pressure reading Absolute pressure = stmospherie pressure — vacuum gage pressure readingFORCES ON SUBMERGED SURFACES AND THE CENTER OF PRESSURE, ’ PRESSURE DISTrIBUTION ON WALL » am onside wl) brandon ten ire conc ‘The pressure ona poin ata distance 2” below the surface is Po pyt ¥E, forZ’ 20 Ifthe tank were open tothe atmosphere, the effects ofp, could be ignored, ‘The coordinates of the center of pressure (CP) are y*= Oy, 2, sina, A)and (a y,sina. Yip, A), where y* = the yudistance from the centroid (Q) of area (A) to the center of pressure, the z-distance from the centroid (C) of area (4) to the center of pressure, and J,,,,~ the moment and product of inertia ofthe area, Pe = the pressure at the centroid of area (4), and 7, = the slant distance from the water surface to the centroid (C) of area (4). fa. 4 sccnowes. the fice surface is open to the atmosphere, then p= Oand p,= YZ, sino, t=, AAzZ and 2* =, KAZ) ‘The force ona rectangular plate can be computed as bd, + OP) AAI + He dl where force on the plate, Py = pressure al the top edge of the plate area, P, = pressure at the bottom edge of the plate area, A, = vertical projection of the plate area, ¥, = volume of column of fluid above plate, and spocific weight of the Quid. ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND BUOYANCY |, The buoyant force exerted on a submerged or flonting body is equal to tho weight of the fuid displaced by the body. 2, Afloating body displaces a weight of fluid equal to its ‘own woight; i¢., a floating body is in equilibrium, ‘The center of buoyeney is located at the centroid of the displaced fuid volume In the case of a body tying at the interface of two immiscible fluids, the buoyant foree equals the sum of the weighs of the ‘uids displaced by the body. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS ‘The Continuity Equation So long as the flow @ is continuous, the continuity equation, 8 applied to one-dimensional flows, states that the flow passing two points (J and 2) in a stream is equal at each point, A= Ay Q-Av i= pQ= py, where Q = volumetric low rate, m= mass flow rate, A = cross section of area of flow, v= average flow velocity, and p = thefluid density, For steady, one-dimensional flow, isa constant. If, in addition, the density is constant, then Q is constant. FwOMecHawes 63he Field Equation is derived when the energy equation is applied to one-dimensional flows. Assuming no friction losses and that no purap or turbine exists between sections | and 2 in the system, 2 wl Po Ban Datine Pa Benegegen yw v Fo Banga ths Da 2g, where Pes Baaga T+ + ae wh pressure at sections 1 and 2, average velocity of the fluid atthe sections, the vertical distance from a datum to the sections (the potential energy), Y= the specific weight of the Dud (pg), and =the acceleration of gravity. FLUID FLOW ‘The velocity distribution for Jamtinar flow in circular tubes or between planes is 60) = vont = (6) vor r= the distance (m) from the centerline, R= theradis (m) ofthe tbe or half the distance between the parallel planes, Y= the Leal velocity (nv) at rs and aq the velocity (av) atthe eenterine ofthe duct. Yous 1.18%, for fully twbulent flow Yu 2¥; for circular tubes in faminar flow and Yau 1:5¥, for parallel planes in laminar fow, where % = the average velocity (an) in the duct. ‘The shear stress distribution is Ex fe where ‘cand ¢, are the shear stresses al radii and R respectively. ‘The drag force Fon abjects immersed in a large body of loving fluid or objects moving through a stagnant fluid is, CoOVA here Fy EEA wt the drag eveffictent, the velocity (mA) of the flowing fluid or moving object, and. A. = the projecied area (1?) of blunt objects such as spheres, ellipsoids, disks, and plates, cylinders, cllipses, and air foils with axes perpendicular to the flow. 64 FLUMEciANes For flat plates placed parallel with the tlow Cp= 13YRES (10< Re <5x 109) 031/Rel” (10% Re < 10") “The charaeteristic length in the Reynolds Number (Re) is the length of the plate parallel with the flow. For blunt objects, the ‘characteristic length isthe largest linear dimension (diameter ‘of eylinder, sphere, disk, ete.) which is perpendicular to the flow. AERODYNAMICS Airfoil Theory ‘The lif force on an airfoil is given by Gedy = Gbyte © lit coeficient y= velocity (nvs) of the undisturbed fluid and Ap =the projected area of the airfoil as scen from above (plan area), This same area is used in defining the drag, coefficient for an ainfoil. ‘The lift coefficient can be approximated by the equation Gi, = 2risin(o+ 8) whichis valid for small values ofc and k= nconstant of proportionality a = angle of attack (angle between chord of sisfoil and direction of flow) B= negative of angle of attack for zero lift, ‘The drag coefficient may be approximated by ct Lin y= Com + AR Cow = infinite span drag coefficient “The aerodynamic moment is given by Pde ‘where the Moment is taken about the font quarter point of the airfoil Cy = moment coefficient 4, = plan area € = chord length b= span length gc ovNE MOMENT CENTERREYNOLDS NUMBER Ri vbpl. = viv ee where = the mass density, = the diameter of the pipe, dimension of the uid stvearnline, or characteristic length be c = the dynamic viscosity, the kinematic viscosity, the Reynolds number (Newtonian fluid), Re’ = the Reynolds number (Power law fluid), and K and are defined in the Stress, Pressure, and Viscosity seotion. "The critical Reynolds number (Re), is clefined to be the minimum Reynolds number at which a flow will turn turbulent Flow through a pipe is generally characterized as laminar for Re < 2,100 and fully turbulent for Re> 10,000, and transitional flow for 2,100 < Re < 10,000. HYDRAULIC GRADIENT (GRADE LINE) ‘The hydraulic gradient (grade line) is defined as an imaginary line above a pipe so that the vertical distance from the pipe axis to the line represents the pressure head at that point. Ifa row of piezometers were placed at intervals along the pipe, the ‘grade line would join the water levels in the piezometer water columns. ENERGY LINE (BERNOULLI EQUATION) ‘The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure, ‘velocity, and elevation heads is constant. The energy line is this sum of the “total head line” above a horizontal datum. The difference between the hydraulic grade line and the energy line is the v*2g term, STEADY, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN CONDUITS AND PIPES. ‘The energy equation for incompressible flow is A Miwa ng ah phat ggg tat ag thy or 2 2 D, WP, yj A 2 pa tte og tet ag thy hy the head loss, considered a friction effet, and all remaining torms are defined above, Ifthe cross-seetional area and the elevation of the pipe are the samme at both seetions (1 and 2), then z,~ 2, and v, =v, The pressure drop p Psi given by the following: PvP. 1h = ay ‘The Danep-Weisbach equation is ath Jp whore » fiRe, e/D), the Moody or Darcy friction factor, diameter of the pipe, = length over which the pressure drop occurs, roughness factor forthe pipe, and al ther symbols axe defined as before, An alternative formulation employed by chemical engineers is Yuning LY” Dg £ z A chart that gives f versus Re for various values of e/D, known ‘88 4 Moody ot Stanton diagram, is available atthe end of this section. eet 4 y= (Afrmang Be Fanning friction f8etor, fom Friction Factor for Laminar Flow ‘The equation for Q in terms of the pressure drop Ap;is the ‘Hagen-Poiseuille equation. This relation is valid only for flow in the laminar region, R'Ap, _ D*Apy 2 Bul T28nL Flow in Noneireular Conduits ‘Analysis of flow in conduits having @ noncireular cross section uses the Ayedraulic radius Ryy oF the hydraulic diameter Dy, 2s follows cross-sectional area _ Dy fu = SSpetied permeter A Minor Losses in Pipe Fittings, Contractions, and Expansions Head losses also occur asthe fluid flows through pipe fittings (Le. elbows, valves, couplings, ee.) and sudden pipe contractions and expansions. Da Bane te Bage eh hy Di ge te Bama thy + Irae 28 CHa Specific fittings have characteristic values of C, which will be provided inthe problem siatement, A generally accepted rrominal vave for head loss in well-streamlined gradual contractions is ny = 0.04 ¥°/ 2g feent Pay eaten Og! be TE My + Myron whee cans I velocity head hy he Fuupmecianes 65‘The head Fass at either an entrance or exit ofa pipe from or to a reservoir is also given by the ly qupg equation. Values for C for various cases are shown as follows, + 7 fe & & 2" atteatice ears tne PUMP POWER EQUATION W = Ovhin = Qoghhn, where Q = volumetric flow (ms or ef), fh = head (m or ft) the fluid has to be lifted, 1 = efficiency, and W = power (watts or f-Ibilsec), For additional information on pumps refer to the MECHANICAL ENGINEERING section of this handbook. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW ‘See the MECHANICAL ENGINEERING section for compressible flow and machinery associated with compressible flow (compressors, turbines, fans) ‘THE IMPULSE-MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE ‘The resultant force in a given direction acting on the fluid ‘equals the rate of change of momentum of the fluid. EF = 0,93%1-0,0\%, where ZF —~ the resultant ofall exterat forces acting on the control volume, 0,9,¥, ~ the ate of momentum ofthe fluid flow entering the control volume in te same diretion of the fores, and ,p,v, = the rte of momentum ofthe id ow leaving the control volume in the same direetion of the force, Pipe Bends, Enlargements, and Contractions ‘The force exerted by a flowing fluid on a bend, enlargement, ‘or contraction in a pipe line may be computed using the impulse-momentum principle. Pxdy~ Pade08 0.~ Fie= Op (v608 O-¥) F,- W— peAasin o.~ Op (w,sin 0-0), where FF the foree exerted by the bend on the uid (the fores ‘exerted by the fluid on the bend is equal in magnitude and ‘opposite in sign), F,and F, are the s-eomponent and _y-somponent ofthe free, 66 FLUDNECHANICS the internal pressure inthe pipe line, the cross-sectional area of the pipe line, the weight of the fluid, the velocity of the fluid flow, (.= the angle the pipe bend makes with the horizontal, = the density of the fuid, and = the quantity of fluid flow. [eooeiue tt we F = Opv,~0) P= 2yhd,, where = the propulsive force, the specific weight of the fluid, the height of the fluid above the outlet, the area of the nozzle tip, 4, /2gh, and Pah. Deflectors and Blades Fixed Blade ie fai“ F = Op(v,008 &—v,) Qplv,sin a~0) Moving Blade = OPC ny = Qpcv, = vill c08 a) F,= OPlyy~ Vy) = + Opty, -v)sin o, where v= the velocity of the blade, ‘Dobe WB R.A, Kenyon, id Meson, Wiley, New Yr, 1980 Dagram ‘spine by prison of Wali Babee & Wich A. Kye. + Neco LK, Hear Fa Meroe, th, 3, Yea 1SImpulse Turbine a ie Or8h FORa 10 wiper Fone 100" I 4% W = Qoly, — v)(1 — cosa), where W = power of the turbine. Wag = On| vi/A) (L — eos.) When a ~ 150%, Woux = (pvt) 2 = (Qwi)i2e MULTIPATH PIPELINE, PROBLE! wo. LA ‘ a “The same bend loss oveus in ech branch a nthe combination of the two, The following equations may be Solved simultaneously for vad Ly Lave ny = feed = gla vh n= MD, 2g FD, 2 (xo%)v = (x044)v, + («0 }4ve ‘The flow O can be divided into Q,,and Q, when the pipe characteristics are known, OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW AND/OR PIPE FLOW Manning’s Equation = (lin) RES', where & = 1 for Stunits, k= 1,486 for USCS units, v= velocity (in/s,fUsee), n= roughness coefficient, Ry = hydraulic radius (m, M), and S = slope of energy grade line (an/m, fUf). ‘Also see Hydraulic Elements Graph for Citeular Sewers in the CIVIL ENGINEERING section. Hazen: Williams Equation {CRYPSH, where C= rovghnesscoetcient, k= 0849 for ST its, and k= 1318 fr USCS units Other terms defined ss above WEIR RORMULAS See the CIVIL ENGINEERING section. FLOW THROUGH A PACKED BED ‘Aporous, xed bed of solid panicles ean be charaetetized by & 8 length of particle bed (m) average particle diameter (im) = sphericity of particles, dimensionless (0-1) porosity or Void fraction of the particle bed, dimensionless (0-1) “The Engun equation can be used to estimate pressure Loss theougla a packed bed under laminar and turbulent flow conditions. Bp _ 150veutt — et ASpvi(l = 5) = 150veyl 56)’ , LTSeve(l = 6) Torpte OD,€ ‘Ap = pressure loss across packed bed (Pa) ¥p = superficial (flow through empty vessel) fiuid velocity (®) f p= Ai deat (#5) B= fui viscosity (; 85) FLUID MEASUREMENTS ‘The Pitot Tube - From the stagnation pressure equation for an incompressible fluid, v= f(270) lp — p.) = (alow — palit, where the velocity of the fluid, Po = the stagnation pressure, and ip, = the static pressure of the fluid at the elevation where the measurement is taken, Fora compressible fluid, use the above incompressible fluid ‘equation if the Mach number <0.3. 4+ Voom, 1K, lant Pek! Mohan, te, 1X eur 1954 FuiomecHanies 87Manometers Fora simple manometer, Po= Pa Yalta Why = Pa* & (Pa te hy) Ith, =h,=h Pos Pr Note that the di Another device that works onthe same principle as the manometer is the simple barometer. Ah = pr * (P2~ Pgh Pay = Pa Py t Yh = Py * Th = Py* Pole + Pte hi by P, iL |-eanoweren RESERVOR _p,= vapor pressure of the barometer fluid ‘Venturi Meters on ee ag(B + 4-2-2), where ne coefficient of velocity, and 17 PB ‘Tho above equation is for incompressible fluids. Ae% Cue 68 RLUIDwEcHANS rence between the two densities is used. Orifices The cross-sectional area atthe vena contracta A, is ‘characterized by a coefficient of contraction C,and given by Ke AeC, OF = Chy/re[B +4 - Ba) where C, the coefficient of the meter (orifice coefficient), is given by Tetra roo Ae 1 For incompressible flow through a horizontal ovfice meter installation o=cafE@nn) % Bee ‘Submerged Orifice operating under steady-flow conditions: a aS a O= Ans = CCA [26h — hy) = 04 fal — hs) in which the product of C.and C, is defined asthe coegiient of discharge of the orifice. WOT 4+ aber We RA. Kenji Meri, Wey, New Yok, 1840. Dig ‘pind pormiron of Wiliam Bobo Richard A Kenyon. Sean, omen Fid echnes, Sh, LK. Ye 95,1g Freely into Atmosphere h i & SE ae Rees ea Q = Cho /2gh in which fis measored from the liquid surface to the centroid of the orifice opening. DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY AND DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS Equations that are in a form that do not depend on the fundamental units of measurement are called dimensionally homogeneous equations, A special form of the dimensionally ‘homogeneous equation is one that involves only dimensionless groups of terms. Buckingham’s Theorem: The munber of independent dimensionless groups that may be employed to describe a phenomenon known to involve 1 variables is equal to the ‘number (a P), where F is the number of basic dimensions (ic, M, L,T) needed to express the variables dimensionally, 4+ Venn FX. Hlomontry Pi Meche, 5, 3K Vea, 1954 MILITUDE In order to use a model to simulate the conditions of the prototype, the model must be geometrically, kinematically, and dynamically similar t the prototype system. ‘To obiain dynamic similarity botween two flow pictures, all dependent foree ratios that can be Written must be the same in both the model and the prototype. Thus, dynamic similarity between two flow pictures (when all possible forces are acting) is expressed in the five simultaneous equations below, 5 ate a= ae ay a where the subseripts p and m stand for prototype and modet respectively, and F, = incatia force, Fy = pressure force, Fy = viscous force, Fg = gravity force, F,, = elastic foree, F, = surface tension force, Re = Reynolds number, We = Weber number, Ca = Cauchy number, Fr = Froude number, 1 = characteristic length, y= velocity, p = density, 6 = surface tension, E, = bulk modulus, b= dynamic viscos pressure, and = acceleration of gravity. Fusomecaucs 62nm ’ PROPERTIES OF WATER’ (SI METRIC UNITS) s i “3 Slts i $ zg | 8 7 Es i # | oe | & Ze Ez. & gs: Bo, Be s a | 22 | 28 | 22s 33 & as a2 sek ea has ar woori [wom 7 35 —| sont Lomsis —Tonoon st 7 i S| prone — {rosa i Spa Sat porns —[ eee ra oe Sea paots ——[ poset za ber Ses Boone —[ reson 7 3 a a — [nena ah 3—hs ee 7 3 — eas ee a a —paee sae pamese —[ reseed ra 2S 3 pooner —[tosmoot a 380. 9.530 STB 0.000354 0.000000364 A134 3s Fas woos [woot ae oes 25+ iems —[oompost —{ T0135 PROPERTIES OF WATER (ENGLISH UNITS) SR eo aaa aoe Se | lel alee Clee meas) edo! Ss Te = i = fl, ee = a = oe = = 3 a * som "yl Moe" ASC Mal of Eadnering Prac, 25, ASCE 12, Strom 14 Kee ml F.. Keyes, Thro Popes of San, hn Wily & Svs, 936. ‘Compiod ton many sores feng tons tna Hand of Chemary and Pps, Sh ‘TRO CRC Pros, 197% a anda 9 Tls for feplid Engineering Scece, Te Chil Rb Co 1970, ean Kan Robt See leery Fd eho ite, Wiley, Ne York, 1D, FLU MecHanes /MOODY (STANTON) DIAGRAM ‘Material eff Gum) Riveted steel 0,003-0.03 09-90 Concrete 0.001-0.01 03-30 Cast iron 0.00085 028 Galvanized iron 0,000 0.15 Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.00015 0.046 Drawn tubing 0.000005, 0015 oxo eae ace a7 08 04 ace a ane ava 7 aor oct 010 § + ee eee cons 8 omg & u 5 0.002 é E coe coow ooce 6 006 Fa ‘20004 5 ooss z e002 g oro 0.010 8.00005 000 008 0001 a REYNOLDS NUMBER, om ASHRAE te Ameicon Soy Heng. Reigeag an Ab-Cononing Exp la) fc FLUO MECHANICS 71‘8 PUP ‘9p ae suptssp cueipouuonsy “ION, a toe Gag 77! 8IGWON SOTONATE ooo'e60t ooo oo'ot ooo't oot or 1 v0 100 000 000'9 0 oot ono't ovo'at oo0'cot wd Le ore masz =% SUAGNITAD ONY ‘SUSI ‘SHATHAS AOI LNATOATTO OVAG 99 LNBIDLHOD OVE vad | id Lup wecannes n4 ° Mf Te two an K a | PROPERTTES OF SINGLE-COMPONENT SYSTEMS "Nomenclature 1. Intensive properties are independent of mass. (7,2, ) 2. Extensive propetios are proportional 10 mass. (Vf, O79) 3. Speeifie properties are lowercase (extensive/mass). ‘State Funetions (properties) Absolute Pressure, P (lbfin? or Pa) Absolute Temperatu, 2 ya: CRerk) Volume, 7 vn (@ orn!) Specific Volume, v = V/m = ~ (A°nbm or mg) Internal Energy, 2 (wor kd Specific Internal Energy, u=U/m Us uw )U- (usually in Biu/lbm or ki/kg) Bthalpy, (Bworks) Specific Enthalpy, [eM haut Po= Hin (sully in Btulbm or kirkg) , Entropy, S wa wath, nay (BtwPR or KI/K) [Bto/tbn0"R) or kikerK)] ORY peste Batons s = Sin pits Fre Enewy.g= #1 (aly nb oh) jell Fre Bnerey, a=u-B (usually in Beu/lbm or lle) Heat Capacity at Constant Volume, case a mit rai (plies to liquid-vapor systems at saturation) is efi as the mass faction ofthe vapor phase: = mgd +m), where in, = mess of vapor, and ‘my, =mass of gui. Specific volume of a two-phase system can be written: v Savyt (L-ahypor y= wt iv, Where vy = specific volume of saturated liquid, ie = specific volume of saturated vapor, and Vjg_ = specific volume change upon vaporization, Similar expressions exist for u,/t, ancl s y= sgh (—3) orn uy tly hh = xh, + (L—a} hor bhp * ah, $= xs, F (asp ors = 57+ a55 or a simple substance, specification of any two intensive, independent properties is sufficient to fx all the rest (Lovo Laws dq. Theenwoel ( 9. dbf OA. yoy UBapoevad Gp. Kw nie te: yey ve 4 waleouler & a ata) . ‘THERMODYNAMICS p | Pays = Pg af ‘abn Wu n Foran idyt Ge, Pr= RT or PY=nkt, ant C py &'T 4 ) PrvefTy, Where woop. tral behanort : ape volane, mem ne orate i R= gas constant, and M Pr T= solute tenperatre en ® + myohune aw isp o each gab can be fond fom R ome Gnol. i)’ R= the universal gas constant = 1,545 ft-lb {(Ibmol-"R) = 8,314 JAkmol-K). For ideal gases cy [Also for ideal gases [ah\ an) 9 (Bl-° BL =0 For cold nr standard, heat capaciies are assed tobe constr thet rot temperate vale, Tn that case, he following ae tre V Au=c AT, B= GAT s=GIn(Ty/T))—Rln PJ and AS=¢ ln (T/T) + Rn (A Forheat capacities tht are temperature dependent, the value tobe used in the above equations for is known ss the mean heat capacity (2,) and ie given by 2 “ Soar pee cone = seer ae pounliope f 7 Also, for constant entropy processes Selah BUA) Ba (a) where t= For real gases, several equations of state are available; one such equation is the van der Waals equation with constants based on the critical point 21) Rr eal a where P, and 7 are the pressure and temperature a the eiial point, respectively and ¥ isthe moler specie volume, Neumade Thr (Thiocd Loner, “(horwro) THERMOoWNANICs 73 Cenieoppo0) Yim § = © TA‘ IRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS ‘The First Law of Thermodynamics isa statement of ‘congaivation of energy ina thermodynamic system, The net ‘energy crossing the system boundary is equal tothe change in ‘energy inside the system. Heat Q is energy transferred due to temperature diffe and is considered positive if itis inward or added to the system, Closed Thermodynamic System Com howe Oru okber No mass crosses system boundary Volume O-W=AU+ AKE+ APE where NEY) AKE = chenge in kinetie energy, and APE = change in potential energy. Energy can cross the boundary only inthe form of heat or ‘work, Work can be boundary work, w,, oF other work fonns (lecttical work, ete.) Work W (w = ©) is considered positive fis outward or ‘work done by the system. Reversible boundary work is given by w,=1P av. “P< Rem. Sposa Cass of onal systems (Te Gases Y Constant Pressure (Charles' La): Wye PAY (ideal gas) 7h =constant Constant Volume: ee a (eal yas) 77P = constant Jsentropc (ideal 0s): ven Pit= constant = Py, Py lB = ROT VIB _Posstent Tempertare Bayle’ Lan (deal gas) Py = constant RT (vy) = RT (PP) Potytropie (ideal gas) Py'= constant w= yyy Po V0) Open Thermodynamie System as eroses the sytem boundary ‘Thor is dow work (Py) done by mass entering the system. The reversible flow work sgivenby: WY og.omelPy ge v JvaP + Ake + Ape ¢ eit First Law applios whether or not processes are reversible (FIRST LAW (eneray balance) Bin [hy + 22 + 9%] — Lm, + HR + 2%) Vv + Oe Hag = dy) et where Hag ™ tate of net or shaft work trans, rm ~ mass of id within he syste, 74 weneoomacs Was Aral. tabent & Leon oh the Seaped put de Leena foe ope Al in = specific internal energy of system, and Q = rate of heat transfer (neglecting Ki energy ofthe system). Special Cae of Open Sats (Idsat Gases Gonstat Volume jc and potential Mon Py oer Conse Tec ie ga) Pcs Wyee= RP'In (v4) ~ RT'bn (P,/P,) _Uppntrople (ideal gas): Pv‘= constant Wp Pyyam Py Ml 8) R(T, TAK) sew = pe (8) op olatropic: t gases Pyle constant" Wg =I (Py Py ML =) Steady-State Systems ‘The system docs not change state with time. This assumption is valid for steady operation of turbines, pur, compressors, throttling valves nozzles, and heat exchangers, including boilers and condensers A Sain(hy + WPI bg) ~ Bite (he + WRI + 22) F Oy Bros = 0 and Boy = Da ge where ‘in mass flow rate (Gubseripts and e refer to inlet and exit states of system), = COmak Grol g = acceleration of gravity, Z ~clevation, V- = velocity, and W = rate of work. Special Cases of Stendy-Flow Energy Equation ‘Nozcles, Diffuvers: Velocity terms are significant, No 1 tcansfe, and ng-work. Single mass eleyation change, no ha Bn = he OR yw entropic iene (rae) = =F where h,.= enthalpy at isentropic exit state Turbines, Paps, Compressors: Oe considered adi (no heat transfer). Velocity terms usually can be ignored "There are significant work terms and a single mass stream. y bateIsentropic ‘ ‘Throttling Valves and Throwing Processes: No work, no ‘opie Efficiency (compressor, pup) heat insignifeant = hee vy the sae te Boilers, Condensers, Evaporators, One Side in a Heat Bxchanger: Heat traysfr terms are significant. For a single- sass stream, the folléwing applies: htam he Heat Exchangers: No by ay and ri: or wax Two separate flow rates 7 Billy Ihe) = Hane tn) See MECHANICAL ENGINEERING section. x as ae, wade en or Closed Feedwater Heaters: Mixers, Separators, Zant = Did Bay = Diy ‘and BASIC CYCLES {Heat engines tke in beat Qy ta high temperature Tp produce a net amount of work W, and reject heat Q, sta fow (EO semperatuce 7, The efficiency n of « beat engine is given by SS = Dy = (Oy OVOn = Pye» +The most efficient engine possible is the Carnot Cyele, Its efficiency is given by ne (y= Tp where Ty nd, =absolute temperatures (Kelvin or Rankine) “The following hestengine cycles are plotted on P- and 7s diagrams (se later in this chapter: Camo, Oto, Rankine (wok: te danalonyaak) Refrigerition cycles we te reverse of heat-engine cycles. Hest is mioved for low to high temperature requiring work, . Cycles can be used cither for refrigeration or as heat pumps Coefficient of Performance (COP) is defined as: Y-COP = Qu for beat pumps, and as VV COP = Q,/W for refrigerators and air cond Upper limit of COP is based on reversed Camot Cycle: Y- COP. Tyl(Ty~ 1) for heat pumps and vy COP FT = T,) for soigeration Won reftigeration = 12,000 Btw/he = 3,516 WP Apreifee, r ig = Moola fer, and single-mass stream. Velocity terms are often Xfass Fraction: "5 “pe inthalpy is =f, +o, \ Pew Poin Temperature Ty: Volrawelte caddy wie Ahearn Tables , . IDEAL GAS MIXTURES eae copetens Each consuent (an ideal ge, Widen OETog SF egies) Wael ENUM NRENGES= les of component i Molecular Weight: M Gas Constant: R = RIM “To convert mole fractions x, to mass fractions yj ii MMW =(aj4) ‘To convert mass fractions to mole fractions: nf, (n/a) Deuba in arta Pressures P= DIB 2 = (nen —prach g gods) aout P, V,.7= the pressure, volume, and temperature of the smbeture Yor Other Properties: n=Z On) #- LGM EO” iz,and f, are evaluated at 7, and PP = VF nt 8 Oda s;is evaluated at Tand P,, PSYCHROMETRICS Cem. 01) Wie deal here with a mixture of dry ar (subscript a) and water vapor (subscript) PAP, Spee Humidity (absolute humidley, hurt ratio): ae emi, where ~ mags of water vapor and tags of dry ai. 0 0.622P, 0,622P, APP) Relative Humidity (th) & fay To tt Pe Bo : rtid gprarevinrele cody wugh tid. ¢ weg Rb» pemoonaues 75(adiabechc. at p hockes ) Wet-bulb temperature Ty isthe temperature indieated by a thermortcter covered by a wick saturated with Figuid water and in contact with moving az. Humid Volume: Volume of moist ihnass of dry ait. Psyehrometrie Chart Apllot of specific humidity as a function of dry-bull temperature plotted for a value of atmospheric pressure. (Soe chart at end of section.) PHASE RELATIONS Cuoran Egon Pas Tanston: (0/7, ¥) (des Mie She (Hf, = BiB vt digg” enthalpy change for phase transitions, Y= volume change, 1g entropy change, = absolute temperature, and (dP/dD gq Slope of phase transition (e.g,vapor-liquid) saturation line, (Clousius-Clapeyron Equation This equation results ifit is assumed that (1) the volume change (vg) can be replaced with the vapor volume (4), (2) the latter can be replaced with P/ RT from the ideal gas law, and (3) hig Gibbs Phase Rule (now-reacting systems) P+P=C+2, where P = number of phases making up a system F = dogrees of freedom, and C,T, ) C® number of components in a system COMBUSTION PROCESSES First, the combustion equation should be written and balanced: For example, for the stoichiometric combustion of methane in oxygen: CH, +20, CO,+2H,0 Combustion in Air Vor ench mole of oxygen, there willbe 3.76 moles of nitrogen For stoichiometric combustion of methane in sir (CH,+ 2 0, + 2.76) Ny > CO, +2 1,0 + 7.52 Ny Combustion in Excess Alr The excess oxygen appears as oxygen on the right side of the combustion equation. aby we e+ be) BD 1S 20.4 We 16-88 £40 y bn Kote (Pe deonsts >? } aH cs a . weal 0, Incomplete Combustion (yina.eq! ») Sut tai ne to ent carbon monoxide (Con i aoa = (74 ptnd Air Fuel Ratio (A/F). AP = masoFair = TM pine Theo ek Stoichiometric (theoretical) air-fuel ratio isthe air-fuel ratio calculated from the stoichiometric combustion equation. Percent Theoretical Air = om x 100 vercoot Excess air= “Fleas —(4/Pasosas 199 (ALP mets Regd Jor complete costes SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS “Ahernal Energy Reservoirs . Moen OTercwvinere Roy) 2% th Qis icisared with expect to thereseroit. Crp etlyee 1BceS Te. de Kelvin-Planck Statement of Second Law ‘No heat engine can operate in a eycte while transferring heat ‘witha single heat reservoir, COROLLARY to Kelvin-Planck: No heat engine can have a higher efficiency than a Carnot Cycle operating between the eens Cmay poslale Clausius’ Statement of Second Law No refiigertion or heat pump cycle can operate without a net workin CW allways orton JOH -O, COROLLARY: No reffigerator or heat pump can have a higher COP han a Camot Cyelerefriggtr or est pup, VAPOR-LIQUID MIXTURES“ \_Alenry’s Lav at Constant Temperature ‘At equilibrium, the partial pressure of a gas is proportional to its concentration in a liquid. Henry's Law is valid for low concentrations; ic, 20. P= Py, hx, where ho = Hemy’s Law constant, P, = partial pressure of a gas in contact with a liquid, ‘= ynol fraction of the gas in the liquid, y, = mol fraction of the gas in the vapor, and P= total pressure, Raoult’s Law for Vapor-Ligquid Equilibrium Valid for concentrations near 1; Le, x1 xP; where partial pressure of component P= 4, = tol fraction of component in the liquid, and Ps = “ yapor pressure of pure component atthe temperature ofthe mixture [pt t mua tt & 4]ENTROPY = (1/7)BQe 9-9 = PUT) Inequality of Claasius H{I/T)BQoe $0 BUUT)RG S 5-5 Isothermal, Reversible Process beens OT © Inentropic Process oe ‘r= 0; ds=0 4, ; reversible adiabatic process is isentropic, (4) Adiabatic Process 80 =0; Azo G2, y Increase of Entropy Principle (24) As, Asoaiem + ASarroustins = 0 ASoai = Daysige ~ EPhasa — E(Qesera Tete) = 0 ‘Temperature-Entropy (7-5) Diagram T Entropy Change for Solids and Liquids ds = 0 (40/2) : 8,78, = Je ATT) = Cult F/T). where © equals the heat capacity of te solid or liquid. Tereypriiity 7 Than EXERGY Exergy is the portion of total energy available to do work, A Closed-System Exergy (Availability) (no chemical reactions) ow = 1) =T.0=8) + PQ0- V9 \whers the subseipt o designates environmental conditions Maes 41°45 ‘Open-System Exergy (Availability) ‘a y= (h (9-8) + V2 + ge Wreyeiie* Va Wa Jibs Free Energy, AG Energy released or absorbed in a reaction occurring reversibly al constant pressure and temperature. Helmholtz Free Energy, MA nergy released or absorbed in a reaction occurring reversibly at constont volume and temperature, Chon Roar” cam Occ. spelonnert ifthe Gicse t chia ragorted ‘erwooyuawies 77COMMON THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES Reversed Carnot i Carnot Gyate i st fe a8 Otte Cyate (Gasoline Engine) ir Refrigeration (Reversed Rankine Cycle) ao! |, PAE [Bi fowrnesson * 2 compressor 8 THERMODYNAMICSSTEAM TABLES Saturated Water - Temperature Table a ‘Specie Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy Entropy Temp. | ste wd kag ig lige) vc | BR ae Sat. Sat Sa | Sat. Sat. 7 | BP | agate | vapor | squia | 8 vp. vapor | quid | PYP* | vapor ae ¥ ve ye te | he fy | ST] cma | toms fies | sem | dams zone | see | vom | taes B | hie | dom ween | boo tos | Se Mpa ‘THerwoovnnes 79‘Superheated Water Tables T ? ¥ a 3 v i i = Temp. milk kag, talkg | seg) || mtg kik, eilg | kag K) “ P= 0.01 MPa @S.80C) P= 0.05 MPa (135°C) Se Tae Trg DAT Tsar 3a He TAs Tai 0 14869 289 35925 £170 0 tase sis ns 24 sais sins asers e947 1 sin bine ms 2 a9 288885 a0. 73201 0 aus 2613 aw9s 038 se 24599 wr 250 26 2360 am 1002 rity ins 2760 Soa baaas mint mas 53813 see aus sons ‘ St 2580 i968 saan an des's mons 500 ise 31323 a1 sso nis sin 50887 ‘an ‘ass sas rasa ea ost Syn sos sa aon base Soon tome oat asa ones t 56 sone a9 Toast 3 Mas ‘seo 0 Par isso “sea rosso rok 3E543 960 1000 5157 ‘asso aso Hows hast tas29 eras 108 asm ans an 23s sts ‘asta sont (200 sow sro sus Ha091 1397 ens su (309 5203 68h 5100 usa les sash S006 toe P= 0.10 MPa 09.63°O) 3.20 MP a (120.23) Sa Taxa "HG Tiss Tae TST bs HRT TH ina Noose 200? mane Tae 150 rose ase area Ta 49396 ase 088 ams 200 ain oak 283 730 1 esta bars 15068 ast Png m7 anes 053 L98 ma ne 305 on erty belo Sones 82158 Voie oss son 4036 oo dita ere uma s5u9 ra 19583 as aa 500 3s iste sage seo st Siok mer e133 ome sors wrote some 201 soa smo a 00 wpe sons 598 aaa 7s sons soe oa sass asks 936s ans ash isa sau Salt hast be snd ams sases as 86 Ses waa on 64 aos asa 400 Siss63 can sr 10 ro.689 Ses 10 90 ose rey ae sus Wo34es oc) wars sens oma Sa pi Sis 1sias 380 i S109 10.982 P= 0d MPaT3.67O) [= 0.60 MPa (15885°O) on Ta Ts TRS ‘case wa 75674 ses TT 130 are 2304s nse ‘98 20 ose dete aos 06 03520 oes asa 69555 0 ost thet 29682 a3789 om 209 sna 16 00 waste aetus 5a 1082 vase 2010 sets tant o on det a0 hae oan Ban Sus Tt a ors Isoaa ena ams 05197 mat ao ho soo es sr ses as 020 aan sak oat om 1008s soa pms Ress 57 bot sma a8 10 hats uns snes won non bane js S107 ie ian saan sr fot bias Saat ses ner 0 ss 34589 ‘os one oan? ass ‘sot a6 1000 hess 020 dao 9360 ores ‘asi cone eas 00 ‘See ‘ase 602 95256 sss 36) 3 93381 00 v8 sn, Sta ore 11330 ‘ees ‘i463 Sins 10 ist pr 5088 siava0 24a, i603 Siae3 Sie B= 0,80 MPa (170.43) P= 1.00 MPa (i79.9C) Ta aaa Bie 7.0 Tua ona 7556 TRL ror 20 one 2808 m9 ese bane aro amy Seo 250 ast ass ‘00 Sante nasa a9 bas ‘ney xo naa ria ses ja nasis 22 5osi.2 111229 x0 Baste bene nia 7.4089 danas ns bist rat Pr baes 2507 Rent 1316 D506 29573 Ba asst 24a Saso Sia 73 Dasa ahaa sanes ye sane ono st03 aa saa soon Sa90 8001 ane sar bse seis sa fant aes Bost ans ious saat se ‘08 oer sane on a3I53 sear 5402 ‘920 one 0730 40s au S013) san ‘sas aan aon om ass fa01 92050 ens fst ‘st S07 ouis7 eet sus 355 rae ss Siasa 3m as eats seas 978 a6 eats sian 5usi3 80. THeRWoDYNAMESPo DIAGRAM FOR REFRIGERANT HFC-134a, (metsic units) Reprod by pexnision ofthe DuPont Company) (seq) eunsselg Enthalpy (ki/kg) HQez sa 5 6 (edw) aunsseid Teraoorwamese e (Reprocehy permison of ASHRAB) e ASHRAE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART NO. 1 (et unis) Set A371 VasTHERMAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTY TABLES. (al room temperature) GASES Ff & @ R Substance” |) Mot < —| mm kJ/(kgK) Btu/(bm- R) kJi(kg-K) -| Btu/(bm- R) J/g K) Gases Air 29 1.00 0.240 oi oT! 140] 02870 Argon 40 0.520 os o312 0076 | 167 | 02081 Butane 38 172 oais 137 o381 109 | 0.1830 Carbon dioxide 44 0.6 0.203 ost ose 129 | 01889 Carbon monoxide | 28 1.08 0.249 0744 ore 140 | 0.2968 Ethane 30 un 0427 149 0361 Lis | 0276s Helium 4 5.19 1.25 302 0.753 ter | 20769 Hydrogen 2 143 343 102 2d 140} 4.240 Methane 6 225 032 1.74 403 130 | osts2 Neon 20 1.03 0.246 osis 0.148 167 | oats Nitrogen 2 1.04 ous 0.743 0.177 140 | 02968 Octane vapor 14 in 0.409 64 0392 ios | oo79 Oxygen 2 oon o219 0.658 0.137 140} 02598 Propane 4“ 1.68 0407 149 0362 Liz] osas Steam 18 137 o.08s Lat 0335 133_|_ oasis SELECTED LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 6 Density Substance = | sveegiky [Btwldban’R)| gin’ | toms Liquids “Ammonia 430 Tie | oa] 38 Mercury 0.139 0033 | 13,560] a7 Water 48 1000 |_ 997] 62.4 Solas Aluminum 0.900 oats | 22700] 170 copper 0386 o092 | 8900] 555 oewe;ay | 2.11 oso | 917) 572 Lon 0.450 0.107 | 7,840] 490 Lead 0.128 oso | 11,310) 70s ‘reRwonvuamcs 83Qe (Min ~ Hour’ mh 2 maps flow Mabe He tnthelpy There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. BASIC HEAT TRANSFER RATE EQUATIONS, Conduction Fourier’s Law of Conduction Qa— belewhere = Ofna + Q = rate of heat transfer (W) ke = the thermal conductivity (W/(msK)] = the surface area perpendicular to direction of heat transfer (m2) Convection Newvton’s Law of Cooling Q= half ~ T,), where hk =the convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid [Wms] = the convection surface area (m?) 17, = the wall surface temperature (K) = the bulk fluid temperature (K) Radiati ‘The radiation emitted by a body is given by Q = ead", where = the emissivity ofthe body ‘5 = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 x 108 Wikmn?sK) A = the body surface area (n?) CONDUCTION igh 9 Plane Wall y* _ zr wher = Apa A. = wall surface area normal to heat flow (mi) T= wall thickness (m) 7, = temperature of one surface of the wall (K) 1, = temperature of the other surface of the wall (K) TA YX Pengith 2 Aube = 84 HEAT TRANSFER HEAT TRANSFER, Conduetion Through a Cylindrical Wall Cylinder (Length = 2) Critical Insulation Radius = Knyisin he insulation ‘Thermal Resistance (R) Kinsutation = AZ on he Resistances in series are added: Ryyy = ER, where Plane Wall Conduction Resistance (K/W): L= wall thickness Cylindrical Wall Conduction Resistance ((/W): where = eylinder length e stance (Ki aah Convection Resistance (KAW): R = 7h CorTo ovale Surface or Intermediate Temperate ete R-f Oe Steady Conduction with Internal Energy Generation The cation for one-dimensional steady conduction i + 2 = 0, where a Ojos = the heat generation rate per unit volume (Wim') Fora Plane Wall ‘Fora Long Ciroular Cylinder t. "= 118 Ope where O' ~the heat transfer rate ftom the cylinder per unit length of the cylinder (Wim) ‘Transi tion Usi um ‘Model ‘The lumped capacitance model is valid if AY. & Awhere Biot number, Bi = fy f= the convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid [Wier*-K)) ¥ =the volume of the body (mn) ke =thermel conductivity of the body [WA(meK)] ‘A, =the surface area of the body (tn?) es ‘sy p Men T. If the temperature may be considered uniform within the body at any time, the heat transfer rate a the body surface i given by Q=14,(7- 7) T_ =the body temperature (K) 7, = the Muid temperature (K) the density ofthe body (kw/*) the heat capacity ofthe body [kes] ne (8) ‘The temperature variation of the body with time is T= T= (G~ Te, where Fer = = time constants) ‘The total heat transferred (Qyg) Up t0 time is Ont = Ven T = 7), where inital body temperature (K) Wear TRaNsFER 85Voriable Fluid Temperature Ifthe ambient fluid temperature varies periodically according to the equation To = Taxon + 3 (Tas ~ Tae} 208(01) The temperature of the body, after initial transients have died away, is [5 (aan ~ Pants] for + BP et cos|tor — tan™*(2)) + 2, wan {or-r'(g] Fins For a straight fn with uniform cross section le heat transfer ftom tip), O= [PIAA ~ ,)ta0h{nl,), where 1h =the convection heat transfer coefickent ofthe id Dwi(m?-K)] CONVECTION ‘Terms D_ = diameter (m) F_ avernge convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid [WICK] L_ =lengti (i) ‘Nu = average Nusselt number 7 = felt Prandtl number = Se ty, = mean velocity of fluid (mis) 1, = fie stream velocity of fluid (rv/s) 1. dynamic viscosity of fluid [ke/(sem)] p density of fluid (ke/m’) External Flow Inall cases, evaluate fluid properties at average temperature botwaen that of the body and that of the flowing fluid, Flat Plate of Length Lin Parallel Flow P- =petimeter of exposed fin oross section (i) k= fin thermal conductivity (W/(aK)] ‘A, = fin cross-seetional area (1?) eee ; 1, = temperature at base of fin (K) 0,640 Rey? Pr! (Re; < 10°) T,, ~ fd temperature (K) oe : oe 0.0366 Re94Pr? (Re, > 10°) cz Cylinder of Diameter D in Cross Flow wz fled. Rep = Oe Way = AB» cRelp Pe, where P= Dw +21 Ry a i] den we 14 0.989) 0330 { if 440 ogi 0385; = he 4.000 0.683 0466 % 4,000 — 40,000 0.193 0618 0,000 250,000 | 0.0266 0.805 Flow Overa Sphere of Diameter, D Pin Fin wi, 10%, Pr > 0.7) fr ether uniform surface enperatae of uniforn heat fix condition, Siedor- “ate equation offers good approximation: ie opps (ie) ap = onset) ‘Non-Circular Ducts In place of the diameter, B, use the equivalent (hydraulic) diameter (Dy) defined as =: 4X cross—scotional area Pu = "vetted perimeter annlus (D,> Dd Inplace ofthe diameter, D, use the equivalent (hydraulic) diameter (Dy) defined as Dy =D, ~ Dy {quid Metals (0,003 < Pr= 0,05} Nip = 63 + 0.0167 REA pe? (aniform heat x) yp = 7.0 + 0.025 ReBtPs* (constant wall emperaire) Condensation of a Pure Vapor (On.e Vertical Surface — A 2s Nara hh Pgh Nin = Ah = o9as) Erle) where Py ~ density of liquid phase of fluid (ke/n?) g “gravitational aceleration (9.81 m/s?) yg, = latent eat of vaporization [kg] E- =length of surface (rm) y= dynamic viscosity of liquid phase of Mud [kg/(setn)} 1k, = thermal conductivity of Tiquid phase of fuid [W/mK] Tay = saturation temperature of fluid (1) T, = temperature of vertical surface (K] ‘Note: Evaluate all liquid properties at the average temperature between the saturated temperature, 7, and the surface temperature, 7, Outside Horizontal ‘Tubes Fi, «iP - oms|_tista®™ My ROP aT) D= tube outside diameter (m) "Note: Evaluate all liquid properties a the average temperature between the saturated temperature, Ty aid the surface temperature, 7, Natural (Free) Convection ‘ential Flt Plate in Lares Body of Stationary Fluid ‘Equation also can apply to vertical cylinder of sufficiently large diameter in large body of stationary fluid. (Ret, wee =the length of the plate (cylinder) in the vertical direction Ra, = Rayleigh Number » SAE = TE py 77, = surface temperature (K) T.,, ~ fluid tempereture (K) =coeflcient of thermal expansion (1/K) (For an ideal gas: = q-P ae with Pin absolute temperate) 9 kinematic viscosity (17/5) [eRengeofRep po Ge z 10" 10? 059) 107 108 0.10 Long. Horizontal Cylinder in Large Body of Stationary Fluid j = o(4) Rep where . Roy = SE— TIP’ p, Srna ce a io? 10° 1.02 0.148 1108 0.850 0.188 io" 107 0.480) 0.250 10" 107 0.135 0333, Heat Exchangers ‘The rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger is Q = UAFAI, where A =any convenient reference area (m?) F —_ =heat exchanger configuration correetion factor (F=1 iftemperanure change of one fluid is negligible) wverall heat transfer coefficient based on area A and the log mean temperature difference [W/(m?+K}} Ty, log mean temperature difference (K) u eaT TRANSFER 87Heat Exchangers (cont,) E eticcn ws ‘Shelland-Tube Heat Exchangers wf Bek A; = inside area of tubes (om?) A, outside area of tubes (m") D,, = inside diameter of tubes () D, = outside diameter of tubes (in) ‘h,_ = convection heat transfer coefficient for inside of tubes (Wi) ‘h, = convection heat transfer coefficient for outside of tubes (Wim) = thermal conductivity of tube material [Wi(m¢K}] Ry ~ fouling factor for inside of tube [(u’sKYW] Bj, ~ fouling factor For ouside of tube (m?KYW} ‘Log Moan Temperature Difference (LM™D) For countrfiow in tubular beat exchangers jy = T= d= a Bs in = Te le 2) For pareilel ffow in tabular heat exchangers log mean temperature difference (K) inlet temperature of the hot luid (K) itlet temperature of the hot fluid (K) Tey ~ inlet temperature of the cold fluid (K) Tey ~ outlet temperature of the cold fluid (K) or : geese actual heat transfer rate Bom ~ Warum possible heat wansfer ats Gillin = Te) Celia = Ta) © *GGin= ta) °° Gan (Bin = Ta) where C= tcp = heat eapacity rate (WK) Coin = smaller of Ceo Cy Number of Transfer Units (V7U) UA pe 88 HEAT TRANSFER ‘Effectiveness-NTU Relations: GS ~ heat aps rao For parallel flow concentric mbe beat exchanger 1 = exp[-A7U(I + Gi] toeolwmt sal aro = iat) For counterffow concentric tube heat exchanger 1 ~ exp{—N7U(t ~ G)) T= Gew[-NTU = G) ot oto =i ary = gh yi S=-h) (cet) NTU =) RADIATION ‘Types of Bodies Any Body For any body, 0+ p+ t= 1, where ‘0. absorptivity (ratio of energy absorbed to incident energy) p =tefletivity (ratio of enerpy reflected to incident energy) ‘c= transmissivity (ratio of energy transmitted to incident energy) Opaque Body. Foran opaque body: a+ ‘A gray body is one for which a=e,@ é cH, Sain foe a z eae see cma Cee sous Ate aad crores, tho ee Hee errr eee HCOOH dion tt,080 = “The Embden-Meyerhof Parnas (EMP) pathway, Notice that exch six-earbon glucose substrate molecule yields two three-earbon intermediates, each of which passes through the rection sequence on the right-hand sie. 4 tL DO ee cng Poe Fh, Msi te 82 BowosrOverall Stoichiometry CisOg +B, + 2ADP + 2NAD* ~ 2CH,03 + 2ATP + 2(NADH +H!) where ADP is Adenosine diphosphate ATP is Adenosine triphosphate. ADP and ATP are the primary energy eartiers in biosynthesis, Zach mole of ATP ‘carries “7.3 keal froe energy in the process of being reduced to ADP. NAD is Nicotinamide adenine dinueleotide (+ denotes the oxidized form and NADIT denotes the reduced form), The role of this group is to serve as an electron cartier, CHO, is pyruvate, a compound of central importance in biosynthesis reactions. ‘The EMP pathway, among several other biochemical pathways, provides carbon skeletons for cellular biosynthesis and provides ‘energy sources via substrate level phosphorylation, The EMP pathway is perhaps the most common carbohydrate catabolic pathway. Other catabolic pathways inelude the pentose phosphate cycle, yielding 1.67 ATP for each mole of glucose and the Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway, yielding 1 ATP per mole of glucose. Pathways are called upon by the elaborate control mechanisms within the organism depending on needed synthesis materials and available nutrients, Biochemical Respiratory Pathways Respiration is an energy producing process in which orgenic or reduced inorganic compounds are oxidized by inorganic compounds. IFoxygen is the oxidizer, the processes yields carbon dioxide and water and is denoted as aerobic. Otherwise the process is denoted as facultative or anaerobic. Respiratory processes also serve as producers of precursors for biosynthesis. A ‘suinimary of redhictants and oxidants in bacterial respirations are shown in the table below. “TABLES REDUCTANTS AND OXIDANTS IN BACTERIAL RESPIRATIONS * REDUCTANT OXIDANT PRODUCTS ORGANISM i o: 1,0 HYDROGEN BACTERIA ny S07 HO pS! Bendinibro ORGANIC COMPOUNES 0, C0, + 1,0 MANY BACTERIA, ALL PLANTS AND ANIMALS Ny ° NOs +H,0 NITRIFYING BACTERIA Nod °, NO; +H,0.— NITRIFVINGBACTERIA ORGANICCOMPOUNDS NO} «Ny +CO, ——_DENITIUFYING BACTERIA re o ret Ferri (non but) 7 °; SO}" + HO hobo alr bce) 7 From WA, Sion, Michio Lf, 2, ble 3, Ho, Rint, and Winston la. New York, 1969. siouosy 93‘The most important of the respiratory eyeles isthe tricarboxylic acid (denoted as TCA, citric aeid eycle or Krebs cycle). ‘The TCA eycle is shown in the figure below. a cH,écoont Pyruvie acid CoASH. 2H co; (o NAD) « ) ° CHL C—CoA = Aeeyi-cornaymed GOOH qin) COOH cont (Cl a, no f nee coou coon coon Orletionsd Cs Male -b-cH, #0 HO Go coon coor coo * ma i Citic acid Cy ts t coon coo# Fumarie Acid Cy HE-CH,COOH oo CoH ae (oEAD) COOH ——(wriewronylie weld, COOH Isocitrie acid C, Krvbs,citie acid) by 2H cycur fat (oNAD) cn, ©. coon H,C~CH,Coon Suesinie acid Cy g-0 ~ CoASHL coon ane - Ketoglutaic acid C, POOF = Cth; ——— AP +, CoASH on © CHL 1,0 GONAD) be gcon t ° Snecinyl CoA ‘The tricarboxylie acid eyele eg FO Behn eg Pen ee, Nw 94 sloLoay‘An associated respiratory reaction isthe oxidative phosphorylation in which ATP is regenerated. Adding the EMP reactions with the TCA and oxidative phosphorylation reaetions (not shown), results in a ‘stoichiometry giving a net upper bound on ATP yield from glucose in a respiring cell with glucose as the primary carbon source and oxygen as the electron donor. Cili0g + 38ADP + 38P, + 602 > 6CO; + 38ATP + 4440 “The free energy is approximately 38 moles (7.3 keal/mole) or 277 keal/mole glucose. Anaerobic reactions, where the carbon source aneV/or electron donor may be other inorganic or organic substrates, provide less free energy and thus result in lower product yields and ower biomass production. ‘The energy capture efficiency of the EMP-TCA sequence compared to the inorganic combustion reaction of glucose (not free energy of -686 Keal/mole glucose with the negative sign indicating energy evolved) is about 40%, Photosynthesis Photosynthesis is a most important process form synthesizing glucose from carbon dioxide. It also produces oxygen. The ‘most important photosynthesis reaction is summarized as follows. 6CO; + 6HO + light Cdhz0¢ + 60; “The lights required to he in the 400- to 700-nm renge (visible ight), Chlorophyll is the primary photosynthesis ‘compound and itis found in organisms ranging from tree and plant leaves to single celled algae, The reaetion above ‘equites an energy equivelent of roughly 1,968 keal per mole ‘of ghicose proshiced. The inorganic synthesis of glucose requires +686 kcal/mole glucose produced. Henge the efficiency of photosynthesis is roughly (686 keal/mole glucose inonganie)/(1,968 kealémole glucose photosynthesis) 686 kcal/mole. 5, 350 1968 kealimote ©" *5* Other bacterial photosynthesis reactions may occur where the carbon source is other organic or inorganie substrates, + Organismal Growth in Bateh Culture sqauRe mine ALERT BRONTE Sw 1 2 ww OW AS OO HS ‘TME a) Exponential (og growth wth constant specific growth 6, CE ge were x = the celV/organism number or cel¥organism concentration ime (hr) |= the specific grovrth rate time") while in the exponential ‘growth phase. Logistic Growth-Bateh Growth including initial into stationary phase $=n(\-2) ga 2), where where, 4. = logistic growth constant 2p ~ inital concentration (9) xa = earying capacity (g/). + ina. PinaEebumenl Bry, Mat Ya, 2 poLosy 95Characteristics of Selected Microbial Cells ; Ts ae Gran “Morphotogiea Organismr genus or type |) Type Mutation ‘eeaction characteristics" Tod yo a ot seri bacese | Chenoorgarophsiostnve | Nogulve tt, a natu tte Eero Buc | Chemooranscph-icutaie | Negaive | Rous eines cin cea | chemoorgmocopcabic Postve Roi sae nally Lactbacis Breen | Chemoorsmovoptoetasve | Vrle eno ie exter tanec Staphylococcus Bactonia ‘Cremoorganotoph-feaitve Positive er caeeeeunnntE aes mana | Chemonisviaeaie ass pie So saan ade bassinet Bae nitrite us electron donor _— Uitte extracellular material un Tam) Crsrorgaaph ace HCE | Nose Rodiote copa — i fixing bac ‘extracellular slime Chanccrgantopk acted sone itomona aces | anoltiouepnetative ing | Megane | Rede-natl te Noyes leton soto) “hbase icin | Chemeanooph-Roatave Negine | Rate ne Cosa Baceria Chosoorgstcoph-anacrobic Positive ee meimerniee te oie oreo notity Matanobaceon ticer | Chemonuonephansedic vokaown | non some extraetale alive Croat Bucci | Phoonsaoph-amerobic NA Rode-notle Sehoaya ne Pacancnphae Wa Reino a Fiuetne Finite 0 ‘Aspersilas Meta eee rereeereeeee dete ee colingscal conidia ant varios Sore Usa al ata Candida Yous opus longated eels, myeclis, and ‘aoe et pel relink Suctaonyses Yost CCronooraotpinicative wl by binge form various pores splits outer yer * Aeobie—teqies area we oxygen at lean veep. Facalaive~can vary the elestroneeetr fom oxygan to organic teil Amnerabie— rgee o inorganic other tap exygen serve as ero ace. Chemoorgantophs deve enurgy ad when ro ogee msi, CClemosinotop ~ desveeeegy fom orgie carbon and ean ram eabon dane. Some pees an alu dsiveeoergy orn inogaiesosses Poole - dcve eng fom ligt sd eben Lom CO,, Mey beserobi or anaerble, > ca negate indctesaconpex cll wall witha ligogly sacha utr layer. Gra postive inet less complicated ell al with a > araclllr nati prodtion analy scat with edvced onyaen level aeulatv), Carbon source as fits produto: extracel ‘nse may be plysecries anor rein sternon sve we be understood s penal in ante ‘ops Pasar SLR nd BS Gm Micky Cozpaanlenos, WeG le Ya 9% BioLosy‘Transfer Across Membrane Barriers Mechanisms Passive diffusion — affected by lipid solubility (high solubility increases transport), molecular size (decreased with molecular size), and ionization (decreased with ionization), Passive diffusion is influenced by: 1. Partition coefficient (indicates lipid solubility; high lipid solubility characterizes materials that easily penetrate skin and other membranes). 2, Molecular size is important in that small molecules tend to transport mnuch easier than do large molecules. 3. Degree of ionization is important because, in most eases, only unionized forms of materials transport easly through membranes, Ionization is deseribed by the following relationships: Avid _ p= ionized for HA PR, = pH = logo gnized form | ~ °8*® Base — pH = loge| —i2nized form_] — tog, HB pKa = pH = lotiol onionized form) ~ "98°" B Facilitated difision ~ requires participation of a protein cartier molecule. This mode of transport is highly compound dopendent. [Active diffusion — requires protein carrier and energy and is similarly affected by ionization and is highly eompound dependent. Other ~ includes the specialized mechanisms occurring ia lungs, liver, and spleen. power 97BIOPROCESSING Stoichiometry of Selected Biological Systems Aerobic Production of Biomass and a Single Extracellular Product CyetTenesOneneg + 803 + BNE, + CC pg Hemiee genes NGtnice* €CregPherneg OpeiegNeenep * CHO + FCO, Substrate Biomass Bioproduct where Nes = the number of carbons in the substrate equivalent molecule Nee= the number of earbons in the biomass equivalent molecule [Nep = the number of carbons in the bioproduct equivalent molecule Coefficients m, n, & 8, x, ¥.2 a8 shown above are multipliers usefi! in energy balances. The coefficient times the respective ‘number of carbons is the equivalent number of constituent atoms in the representative molecule as shown in the following table. Degrees of Reduction (available electrons per unit of carbon) +m—2n ya 44 a~28-36 yprdte-2p3e Subscripts refer to substrate (5), biomass (2), or product (p). A high degree of reduction denotes a low degree of oxidation, Carbon balance Nee + dNep + f= Nes Nitrogen balance cBNeo+ daNep = Blectron balance ey, Nob + dy, Nep=y, Nes 4a Bhergy balance Quer, Nee + Q,dy,Nep = Quy, Nes — Qu4a, Q,, = heat evolved per unit of equivalent of available electrons, = 26.95 kcal/mole O, consumed Respiratory quotient (RQ) is the CO, produced per unit of O, no-£ Yield coeicent = (grams of cells per gram substrate, Vy) ord (grams of product per gram substrate, Yyxp) ‘Satisfying the carbon, nitrogen, and electron bolances plus knowledge of the respiratory coefficient and a yield voeficient sufficient (o salve for a, b, ¢, d, and F coefficients, 98 sioLosy‘Composition Data for Biomass and Selected Organic ‘Compounds ’ MOLECULAR —_DEGREEOF coMPOUND "FORMULA REDUCTION, WEIGHT. srowass th aa 40TH as Taasane 4650) S45 (N03) METHANE ny 5 to ALKANE Cali 60 ut METHANOL CHO so no ERIANIOL cto so a0 GLYCEROL GOs a6 07 mawnuTOL GD 43 303 ACENCACD GH “0 200 LACHEACID GO) “0 90 ‘e.ucose cath a9 300 FoRMALpestybe cIhO wo 300 faLucoNcActD ClO) ae 27 SUCERICACID CWO, aso ws ccrmmicaciy CAYO 30 no MALCACID —— CHeDs 30 ns Forsicacin os 20 60 oxauicacin —_Gth0. to 450 ‘The weights in column 4 of the above table are molecular ‘weights expressed as a molecular weight per unit carbon; frequently denoted as reduced molecular weight. For example, glucose has a molecular weight of 180 g/mole and 6 carbons fora reduced molecular weight of 180/6 ~ 30. Except for biomass, complete formulas for compounds are given in column 2 of the above table, Biomass may be represented by: Ca aH. 21Nor0¢ O2.20¢Po2siSo022 ‘Acrobic conversion coefficients for an experimental jaconversion of a ghucose substrate to oxalic acid with, dicated nitrogen sources and conversion ratios with biomass ‘and one product produced. Su ea cvefcienit! 1 hoon the HNO yy = oo * The stoichiometric coefficients repreveat theoretical balance conditions, ee Ne Energy balance Quey,Nec = Q, Nes — Qa Q,= 26.95 keal/mole O, consumed Agtobie Bios swith No Product ‘Ammonia Nitrogen Soureg, Cell Production Only, RO = LL C4H204+ 20, + BNE, eCH, 40) sNyg + €CO, + €H,0 Substrate Celis For the above conditions, one finds that: an 194 ‘The c coefficient represents a theoretical maximum yield coefficient, which may be reduced by a yield factor, ‘Anzeroic Biodegradation of Organic Wastes, Incomplete. Stabilization CBONG> NCHLON, + MEM, + SCO, +10 + (6 ONE c-ny-2s Knowledge of product composition, yield coefficient (n) and a metbane/CO, ratio is needed. Anaerobic Biodegradation of Organic Wastes, Complete ‘Stabilization CH,O.Nj+ #H,0 > mCH, + sCO, + dNH, 4g ~b = 20 43d a 4a 6 4.204 3d 8 ma Matha 203d 4 asso a Aan esa Ee At ht a siowocy 99(04) tory of Sofions ~The nab of CHEMISTRY Avogadro's Number: The nutnber of elementary particles in # mol of a substance. 1 gram mole 6.02 x 10 particles ‘A mol is defined as an amount ofa substance that con ‘many particles as 12 grams of "°C (carbon 12), The elementary particles may be atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons, ACIDS, BASES, and pH (aqueous solutions) pH = loga| (tah where {11"] molar concentration of hydrogen ion, in gram moles per liter Acids have pH <7. Bases have pH > 7 ELECTROCHEMISTRY Cathode ~ The electrode at which reduction occurs. Anocte ~‘The electrode at which oxidation occurs Oxidation Reduction —The gaining of electrons, The loss of electrons, Osidizing Agent — A species that eauses others to become oxidized. Redueing Agent —A species that causes others to be reduced, Cation —Positive ion Anion = Negative ion DERINETIONS Ia ype wt unit ubstance disealved inate of on Molality of Solutions ~The number of gram motes of a substance per 1,000 grams of solvent. Normality of Solutions ~ The product of the molarity of a ‘solution and the aumber of valence changes taking place in a reaction, Equivalent Mass ~The number of parts by mass of an clement oF compound which will combine with or replace directly ot indirectly 1,008 paris by mass of hydrogen, 8.000 parts of oxygen, or the equivalent mass of any other element or compound, For all elements, the atomic mass is the produet of the equivalent mass and the valence, Molar Volume of an Ideal Gas {at 0°C (32°F) and 1 atm (14.7 psia)); 22.4 Li(g mole) [359 Ub mole)} Mole Fraction of a Substance ~ The ratio of the number of ‘moles of substance to the total moles present in a mixture of substances, Mixture may be a solid, a liquid solution, or a gas 100 chewsrer Equilibrium Constant of a Chemical Reaction a4 + bB = eC + dD Ickloy lara? Le Chatelles's Principle for Chemical Equilibrims ~ When ‘stress (guch as a change in concentration, pressure, oF temperature) is applied toa system in equilibrium, the ‘equilibrium shifts in such a way that tends to relieve the stress. Ke Heais of Reaction, Solution, Formation, and Combustion ~ Chemical processes generally involve the absorption or evolution of heat, In an endothermic process, heat is absorbed (enthalpy change is positive) In an exothermic process, heat is evolved (enthalpy ctiange is negative) Solubility Product of a slightly soluble substance AB: A,B, ma 4 1B Solubility Produet Constant = Kyy=[4'(BY ‘Metallic Elements —Tn general, metalic elements are distinguished from nonmetallic elements by their luster, malleability, conductivity, and usual ability to form positive Nommetaltic Elements —In general, nonmetallic elements are not malleable, have low electra conductivity, and rarely form positive ions, Faraday’s Law —In the process of electrolytic changes, equal quantities of electricity change or discharge equivalent quantities of ions at each electrode. One grain equivalent weight of matter is chemically altered at each electrode for 96,485 coulombs, or one Faraday, of electricity passed through the electrolyte. A catalyst isa substance that alters the rate of a ebemieal reaction and may be recovered unaltered in nature and amount at the end of the reaetion, The catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium of a reversible reaction. “The atomie mumber is the number of protons in the atomic rucleus, The atomic number is the essential feature which distinguishes one element from nnother and determines the position of the element in the periodic table. Boiling Point Elevation ~The presence of a nonvolatile solute in a solvent raises the boiling point of the resulting solution ‘compared to the pure solvent; ie. to achieve a given vapor pressure, the temperature ofthe solution must be higher than that ofthe pure substance, Freezing Point Depression ~The presence ofa solute lowers the freezing point ofthe resulting solution compared to that of the pure solvent.wo | Go | eo | ue | Go] Go | Go] Go | Go | wd | wm | cone wore vn | ow foe | oe jos | oo | om | o> | wy | ow | we | u wx | om | wm | om | w | © | w | «» | 6 | we | ow | os ts sm Vee ever | voest | essen | seem | covet | oszor | coast | scust | seust | scot | Geo | veer: E0ri wy | ex | wm | aa | oon | sa | a | po | ma | ws | we | ww | xr | 29 ses, ula lo |» |» |» |» |» |o | » | » | o | ow | too | sd | eum | ox] oe fom |v joe | sor_| sot a fa Toset | soci | wees | cost | woet | seeax | swost | rset | tose | eeuer | vozer wow oa foo | fw | | om fot | a | wfeiul«|swte |e be lw | | Tsuot | won | weer | wwiar | wo | rose | soeze | verte | oovss | cous | aorse ay Pa co mL aL ow aN az A as Te | om x |o | ow |» | ow | «© | |i wae | ows Tess | weer | core | inser | aur | osom | exoor | saver » | ow afm | o | a | uw | os | oo | aie x|«xf{xijelez|elelo wer | 09st aw | ow alu ioe | 68 Be aTHOHY a [on a |«{s{tetstfs oe + | is yor | DA IA A ALO mW | ewe = sagem ay ic z ' 1A Z SLNAINATA JO ITAVL DIGOrdad conewasray 101pug ~ SQNAOJWOD DINVOUO JO SATUS LNVINOANI fury i “ —3-0-9-| Ho-9- | —2- x= cosa- | 929 no Lee ii i 77 | omemoy POX | paw | penopeang 8 5 ko a 219 = A x09 noow | Ata | How wou | wno=2F8 i neu | vow Hoa x v my | sma 8 en ak aM wy | onow | woshow wins tH = HOU — cay | 2m | eRGRP Re | eoae niga | PEP | oem | cone SaN fr | Pevaney | yanomty | aoe apg | 9091 ara mag | eunceoy wwo0a | ypamey ms wordnoy sss ppv z aus | curqou Be) eee tee fe an amex vino, fourm | MY | MEE | aay | -corpog | MA | SNMIMOIOND | Stozaeal “S| vant exter | susp soos | oot | ‘HODHO] atHD andwesa 4 4 4 4 FHNEHD | HHDOHD | HOMO | OHHH © oson | tO-98 | AotHO | “Imag PPV : ‘ asa | gy @huieg | 280M | aPuPIY | ete | asa | rowoory | omens | aussy | usury | suomty | omemty sunva 102 chemsterStandard Oxidation Potentials for Corrosion Reactions® Potential, Za, Volts ( Corrosion Reaction : ‘ys. Normal Hydrogen Electrode Aus Au +3e> —1.498 2H, + 02 + 4H" + de 1.229 Pt— Pett 267 ~1.200 Pad Pa +26 0.987 Ag— Agi tem 0.799 2Hg > Hes" + 2e- -0.788 Fe" Fe" +e 071 4(OH) — 02+ 2H0 +42 -0.401 Cu Cu? + 26 ~0.337 Sa"* Sn!" + 2e 0.150 Hy > 2H" +207 0.000 Pb—» Pb™* + 2¢ +0.126 Sn— Sn** + 2e° 40.136 Ni Ni**+ 267 0.250 Co Co” + 26> +0.277 : Cd Ca 4 20 +0408 Fe — Fe” + 26- 40.440 Cr Cr 4 3 40,744 Za > Dn + 20- 40.763 AIS APT + 3e- +1.662 Mg Mg? + 26" 42.368 Na Na’ +e" 42.714 KoK*+e 42.925 * Measured at 25°C, Reactions are written as anode half-cels Arrows are reversed for cathode half-cells, Tim Rel Asi Ton Pl Eghcrag Ni wl Pc Appleton sive on Miia Canny, PR NOTE: In some chemistry texts, the reactions and the signs of the values (jn this table) are reversed; for example, the half-cell potential of zine is given as -0.763 volt for the reaction Zn" + 26+ Zn. When the potential Ey is positive, the reaction proceeds spontaneously as written chemstry 103,MATERIALS SCIEN ATOMIC BONDING Primary Bonds onic (e.g, salts, metal oxides) Covalent (e.g. Within polymer molecules) Metallic (e.g,, metals) CORROSION A table listing the standard electromotive potentials of metals is shown on the previous page. For corrosion to oceur, there must be an anode and a cathode in electrical contact in the presence of an electrolyte. Anode Reaction (Oxidation) of a Typical Metal, M Mo MF ne ‘Possible Cathode Reactions (Reduction) Y0,+2€4H,0 > 201" YO,+2e% 21,0" 3 HO 2e+2H,0'32H,0+H, ‘When dissimilar metas are in contact, the more clectropositive one becomes the anode in a corrosion cell Different ceyions of carbon steel can also result ina corrosion reation: e.g, cold-worked regions are anodic to noneoldworked; different oxygen concentrations can cause ‘oxygeindeticient regions 10 become cathodic to oxygen-rich regions; grain boundary regions are anodic to bulk grain; in multiphase alloys, various phases may not have the same galvanic potential DIFFUSION Diffusion Coefficient D= De, where D =4iffusion coefficient, proportionality constant, @ ~sctivation enorgy, R = gas constant [8.314 IAmol*K)], and T absolute temperature. ERMAL AND MECHANICAL PROCESSING Coid working (plastically deforming) a metal increases strength and lowers ductility Raising temperature eauses (1) recovery (stress relief), (2) recrystalization, and (3) grain growth, Hot working allows these procesees fo occur simultaneously with deformation. Quenching is rapid cooling from elevated temperature, preventing the formation of equilibrium phases. In steels, quenching austenite [CC (7) ion] can result in ‘martensite instead of equilibrium phases—fervite [BCC (@) iron] and cementite (iron carbide). 104 WATERIALS SCIENCEISTRUCTURE OF WATTER “E/STRUCTURE OF MATTER ‘TESTING METHODS Standard Tensile Test Using the standard tensile test, one can determine elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility (% elongation), (See Mechanics of Materials section.) Endurance Test (Peyaotid loadings Enurnes ets ight fo find endurand@ apply ‘a cyclical loading of constant maximum amplitude. The plot (usally sm logo logo) of te maximurs ses () and the ne (\) ofeete ares known a an pl ‘he gute blow is ypical fect but may nat be tre for other metals alumi alos ted wane. [hae ENOURANGE Lit Los njevctEs) ‘The endurance stress (endurance limit ot faigue limit) is the maximum stress whieh can be repeated indefinitely without ‘causing failure, The faligue life is the number of cycles required to cause failure for e given stress tevel. Impact Test "The Charpy Impact Testis used to find energy required to frgeture and to identify ductile to brittle transition, _—thaatTion —~ TEMPERATURE evency TEMPERATURE Impact tests determine the amount of energy required to cause failure in standardized test samples. The tests are repeated over a range of temperatures to determine the ductile 10 bridle transition temperatureCreep Creep ocoars under load at elevated tennperatutes. The general equation describing creep is de gre 0107) de = Ac! where: e =sttsin, 1 time, A =pre-exponential constant, 6 applied stress, n= stress sensitivity. For polymers below, the glass transition temperature, Te 8 ‘ypically between 2 and 4, and Q is 100 kino. Above Ta, is typically between 6 and 10, and Q is~ 30 ki/ml. For mietals and ceramics, is typically between 3 and 10, and Qs between 80 and 200 Kol. STRESS CONCENTRATION IN BRITTLE MATERIALS When a crack is present in a material loaded in tension, the stress is intensified in the vicinity ofthe erack tip. This phenomenon can cause significant loss in overall ability of a ‘member to support a tensile foad, Ki = yo fia K, = the stress intensity in tension, MPaen!, y ={sa geometric parameter, y= | for interior erack y= 1.1 for exterior crack « is the nominal applied stress, and 4 =is crac length 3s shown inthe two diagrams below. LA 4 <— fae ta ¥ ¥ EXTERIOR GRACK (y= 4) INTERIOR CRACK ‘The critical value of stress intensity at which catastrophic crack propagation occurs, X,, is a material property. Representative Values of Fracture Toughness Material Ke (MPa!) | Xie Gain) [Al 2014-T6st | 24.2 22 AL 2024-73) 44 a | 52100 Steel 14.3 3 4340 Steel 46 42 ‘Alumina: 45 41 Silicon Carbide 35 32 | HARDENABILITY OF STEELS Harcenability isthe “ease” with which hardness may be attained, Hardness is a measure of resistance to plastic deformation. ‘cooing teat 700°, “Ch 600-9? 60 Bs ws 0 sg ts Phat 9 a one y beo—l |_| th “FE ‘ es wore L — SR sfasilasu lens irae l 1 10 20 u 4 “60 mm ksance rom quenched and, Des (a) ond tat ran sae {JOMINY HARDENASILITY CURVES FOR SIX STEELS Cooling ate 3 700°, “Cisse . 200 sr0 40 COVE os as 9 56 100 TES Pane * e galt : e° = Bl py 7 a 3 a 418 t Teiaea to Lihud, ES EC aan era] oP ee ‘stance rom quences at. ye ‘COOLING RATES FOR BARS QUENCHED IN AGITATED WATER 1m Vik Loner of Hop Sein & Raging Aion ese, Boson, 199 MATERIALS SCIENCESTRUCTURE OF MATTER 105eating a0 2 700°, “cee oe 7 ool E os as 8 ss, ‘Also, for axially oriented, long, fiber-reinforced composites, the strains of the two components are equal. (LIL), = (AL/L), ve ‘AL, ~ehange in length of the compost, 1 = original length ofthe eompasite i, 9 f ef 4 Deity [Yous Mod] pp i 8 Material P % ‘ iat : mpm’ | cba mig 7 we 8 ‘Aluminom 27 70 26,000 aa 1 +e Stes! 78 205 26,000 eta: Magnesium ics 45 26,000 suse iss 23 ” 28,000 t ane if Polystyrene 1.05 ia 2,700 Peep ed Potyeny chloride | 13 es | <0 Auuminafier | 39° | 400 | 10,000 uc om gid a : . : eee ‘Aramide fiber 13 as 100,000 cooLNG RATES FOR BARS QUENCHED WACMATED OL Bown ber 23 | 400 — | 170,000 Bentiumrter =| 19 | 300 | 160,000 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDNESS AND Be0 fier 30 | ao | 30,00 ‘TENSILE STRENGTH Caton ber 23 | 700 | 300,000 For steels, there i «general relationship betweon Brine} Silicon Carbide fiber | 3.2 400 120,000 Iie siegha lore" “DG ata po a Wye, hore wom) =s5am 4 yA {Ly eset manir ofan erwanamvsize Meta a mateo nu hep ime OS = haltite ate BY yi ‘ : ie Note whos wun CONCRETE etal Area ~ (6.0645 mm’) Portland Cement Conerete ‘ernin-boundary surface per unit volume, ‘umber of points of intersection per unit length between the line and the boundaries, number of grains observed in a area of 0.0645 ma, and = grain size (nearest ceger> 1). COMPOSITE MATERIALS Pe = SiO, o. = B0; Pe = density of composite, C,_= heat cap smposite per unit volute, = Young's modulus of composite, Jf, volume fraction of individual material, = heat eapacity of individual material per unit volume, and = Young’s modulus of individual material strength parallel to fiber direction x % 108 MATERIALS SCIENCESTRUCTURE OF MATTER Conerete is a mixture of portland cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate air, and water. It is temporarily plastic ‘material, which can be cast or molded, but is later converted toa solid mass by chemical reaction, Water-cement (WIC) ratio is the primary factor affecting the strength of concrete. The figure below shows how WIC, expressed as a ratio by weight, affects the compressive strength for both air-entrained and non-air-entrained concrete, Strength decreases with an increase in W/C in both cases, 4009 6.00 i 4009}-— RECOMMEND CENT EnTRANED AA ee Taos 080 F00 we B¢ wecer CConerete stenath decreases with increases in watar-coment tall foc concrete with and without enrained at (Fo Cone Manus he, US. Suc of Redan, 175) 2.000} - 1.00 AVERAGE 2#-2AY COWPRESSIVE STRENGTH. SI Min Vl lament of Matra See Bg ng, Aion Wey, Boston 199,Water Content affects workability. However, an increase in water without a corresponding increase in cemer roduces the conerete strength. Superplasticizers are the most typical method to increase workability. Air ‘entainment is used to improve durability GLASSES OR AMORPHOUS: NATERALS yl | + son a SRT Z - g Soomae |] Er = Seems’ | 8 seal Werner wens | 5 le TEUPERATIRE & 0 — ear ar gO : “Therino-Mechanical Properties of Polymers © The curve forthe elastic noduls, Eo strength of polymers, bse g, behaves according to the following pattern: see 30 180 soe ws ee inoue cmon unghie i oi 3 Frereerineasmanonipenaet aie g erat maen ex enact i POLYMERS | ' ~\ Classification of Polymers L i Polymers are males consisting of high molecular weight % carbon-based chains, often thousands of atoms long. Two ‘TEMPERATURE broad casicaione of poles ee thermoplastics or thermosets, Thermoplastic materials can be beated (0 Polymer Additives high temperature and then reformed, Thermosets, such as ‘vulcanized rubber or epoxy resins, are cured by chemical cr thermal processes which cross link the polymer chains, preventing any further re-formation, Amorphous Materials and Glasses Silica and some carbon-based polyimers can form either crystalline oF amorphous solids, depending on thei ‘composition, structure, and processing conditions. These two forms exhibit different physical properties. Volume expansion with ineressing temperature is shown schematically in the following graph, in which Tis the melting temperature, and, is the glass transition temperature. Below the glass transition temperature, amorphous materials behave like britle solids, For mest common polymers, the glass transition occurs between -40°C and 250°C. + Monit eek, Stn Hondboh for Ch nice Sb, Chemicals and compounds are added to polymers to improve properties for commercial use. These substances, such as plasticizers, improve formability during processing, while others increase strength or durability. Examples of common additives are: Plasticizers: vegetable oils, low molecular weight polymers or monomers Fillers: tale, chopped glass fibers lame retardants: halogenated paraffins, zine borate, chlorinated phosphates Ultraviolet or visible light resistance: carbon black ‘Oxidation resistance: phenols, aldehydes NATERIALS SCIENCEISTAUCTURE OF MATTER 107BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS ‘Allows determination of (1) what phases are present at equilibrium at any temperature and average composition, 2) the compositions of those phases, and (3) the fractions of those phases. » (liquid ~» two solid phases) Eutectic reset Eutectoid reaction (solid + two solid phases) Peritectic reaction (liquid + solid — solid) Peritectoid reaction (two solid phases — solid) Lever Rute ‘The following phase diagram and equations illustrate how the weight of each phase in « two-phase system can be determined: 1 T 1 i IL ' TEMPERATURE, °F TEMPERATURE, “C 8 100%8 O%A A x 0% ‘00% A COMPOSITION, WT% (In diagram, L = liquid.) IF = the average composition at temperature 7, then Tron-fron Carbide Phase Diagram. ‘ ATOMIC PERCENT CARBON | fine 9 * w | a g B nm g eae pes & eo a 5 eal Pee res al J Paces ecaeie seas seresaane cea WEIGHT PERCENT CARBON 4 vad oro Mai Sie Eg Ain i, es. 88 108. MATERIALS SCENCEISTRUCTURE OF MATTERCOMPUTER SPREADSHEETS A spreadsheet isa collection of items arranged in. a tabular format and organized in rows and columns. Typically, tows are assigned numbers (I, 2, 3, ...) and columns are assigned letters (A, B, C, ...) as illustrated below. ‘Accell is a unique element identified by an address consisting of the colums letter and the row number. For example, the address. of the shaded cell shown above is E3. A cell may contain a number, formula or Inbel. ‘By default, when a cell containing a formula is copied to another cell, the column and row references will automatically be changed (this is called relative addressing). The following example demonstrates relative addressing, (C3=B4+Ds IfC3 is copied to ‘The results| D3 D3=C4+ES oH (C4= BS + D6 Ba B4=A5+C6 ES BS =D6+F7 Ifa row or column is referenced using absolute addressing (Iypically indicated with the $ symbol), the row or column reference will not be changed when @ cell containing a formula is copied to another cell. The following example illustrates absolute addressing. C3 = $B4 + D$S 4 SASL by "5s & If C3 is copied to Results D3 D3 = $B4 + E854 SASL ch (C4 = SBS + DSS + SASI Ba Ba = $5 + C$5 + SABI ES TS = SB6 + FS5 + SAS] ‘COMPUTER SPREADSHEETS 109MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS MEASUREMENT Definitions: ‘Transducer ~a device used to convert a physical parameter such as temperature, pressure, flow, light intensity, ete. into an electrical signal (also called a sensor), Transducer sensitivity — the ratio of change in electrical signal magnitude to the change in magnitude of the physical parameter being measured. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) ~a device used to relate change in resistance to change in temperature. Typically ‘made from platinum, the controlling equation for an RTD is, civen by’ Ry = Rall + al ~ B)h where eis the resistance ofthe RTD at temperature 7 (measured in °C) gis the resistance of the RTD at the reference temperature T, (usually 0° C) z ‘ais the temperature coefficient of the RTD Sirain Gauge —a device whose electrical resistence varies proportion to the amount of strain inthe device. Gauge factor (GF) — the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistanee tothe fractional change in length (strain): _AR/R _ARIR nate GF = Ry ~ Te wen ‘is the nominal resistance of the strain gauge at nominal length L. AR is the change in resistance due the change in length AL. ‘is the normal strain sensed by the gauge. ‘The gauge factor for metalic st around 2. in gauges is typically Whearstone Bridge —an electrical cireuit used to measure ‘changes in resistance, WHEATSTONE BRIDGE ‘10 MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS TER, Ry = RyRy then V,=0 V and the bridge is said to be balanced. IR, =R, Rand Ry=R+ AR where AR AR < Aton = BB+ SAMPLING ‘When a continuous-time or analog signl is sampled using a discrete-time method, certain basic concepts should be considered, The sampling rte oF frequency is given by ae Fray Shannon's sampling theorem stats that inorder to accurately reconstruct the analog signal from the disrete sample points the sample rate nus be larger than wes the highest frequency contained in the measured signal, Denoting thi frequency, which is called the Nyquist frequency, as fy the sampling theorem requires that Ky When the above condition is not met, the higher frequencies in the measured signal will not be accurately represented and will appear as lower frequencies in the sampled data. These tare known as alias frequencies, Analog-o-Digtal Conyersi ‘When eonveringanantog signal oda form, the resolution ofthe conversion ian important factor. era teased analog sgral over the nominal ange (Yh where 78 the low end ofthe volageringe and Vis the nominal high end ofthe volage range, he voltage resolution given by ‘here i the number of conversion bits of the A/D converter with typical values of 4,8, 10, 12, or 16, This number i a key design parameter, After converting an analog signal, the [NID converter produces an integer number of m bits. Call this number N. Note that tho range of Wis (0, 2"~ 1]. When calculating the discrete voltage, using the reading, from the A/D converter the following equation is used V=eyN40, [Note that with this strategy, the highest measurable voltage is ‘one voltage resolution les than Vy oF Hy — epSignal Conditioning Signal conditioning of the measured analog signal is often required to prevent alias frequencies and to reduce measurement errors. For information on these signal conditioning circuits, also known as filters, see the ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING section MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY ‘Suppose that a calculated result R depends on measurements whose values are. +t ,.t My, 2) Ey, ele, where Rf. Xp Ny ey) Hs the meagured value, and wis the ‘uncertainty in that value, The uncertainty in R, wp, can be estimated using the Kline-MeClintock equation: fo H) ‘CONTROL SYSTEMS ‘The linear time-invariant transfer function model represented by the block diagram x Ye) oe Iweur output ‘can be expressed as the ratio of two polynomials inthe form where the Mzer0s, zy and the N poles, p,, arc the roots of the numerator polynomial, N(s), and the denominator polynomial, D(s), respectively. One classical negative feedback control system model block diagram is where G(s) is a controtler or compensator, G(s) represents & plant model, and /7(s) represents the measurement dynamics. ¥(s) represents the controlled variable, R(s) represents the reference input, and Z(s) represents a load disturbance. Y(s) is related to R(s) and Z{s) by Gls) Yl) = GIGS) SECs Gp (2) ECE T+ Gls), GAG) TF G(G (IAC) A RUS) G,(9) G(s) H) is the open-loop transfer function. The closed-loop characteristic equation is 1+ G0) G@)HE)=0 Systein performance studies normally include 1 teady.-state analysis using constant inputs based on the Final Value Theorem, Ifall poles of « G(s) funetion have negative real parts, then DC Gain = Jima(s) Note that G(@) could refer to either an open-loop or a closed- loop transfer function. For the unity feedback control system modet Re) Ele) as 9) —_I with the open-loop transfer fimetion defined by The following steady-state error analysis table can be constced where Toots the ype of system, PE, wpe It. Baayen mare] reo | rar | r=2 ‘oii Stp mer] f Ran © [im [0 ‘Aecteaon eo [oe Lm 2, Frequeney response evaluations to determine dynamic performance and stability. For exampte, relative stability ‘can be quantified in terms of ‘2, Gain margin (GM), which is the additional gain required to produce instability in the unity gain feedback contro! system. If at © = gy GG yy9) = ~180°5 ther, GM =~ 201o859 (Gorse) », Phase margin (PM), which is the additional phase required to produce instability. Thus, PM = 180° + ZGG 0) here ysis the @ that satisfies |G(o)| = 1 MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS ff53. Transient xesponses are obtained by using Laplace transforms or computer solutions with numerical integration Common Compensatos/Controller forms are PID Conttoler Ge(s) = KI + + Tos) Lag ot Lead Compensator Ge(s) = (+57) depending on the ratio of Ty, Routh Test For the cheractevisti equation ag dg + ay 24. A a= 0 the coeficients are arranged into the first two rows ofan array, Additional rows are computed, The array and coefficient computations are defined by 4 2 Ana Bb, by “4 8 were = Sean = em be Ward gs by = Goelnns = Gets ‘The necessary and sufficient conditions forall the roots of the equation to have negative real parts is that all the elements in the first column be of the same sign and nonzero, First-Order Control System Models ‘The transfer function model for a first-order system is Ys) K_, where RG) wT K-= steady-state gain, + ‘Tho stop response ofa first-order system to a step input of magnitude M is y= ye + KML ime constant In the chemical process industry,» is typically taken to be zero, and y() is referred to as a deviation variable. For systems with time delay (dead time or transport lag) 8, the tcansfer function is YO) = ke Rs) FT 12 MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS. ‘The step response for /2 0 fo a step of magnitude M is Ol (y= 0), where 1(() isthe unit step function, Second-Onder Control System Models One standard second-order control system mode! is Ys) Ke wt Rs) 3° + 2bw,s + oF haa K =steady-state gain, © =the damping ratio, he undamped natural (5 ~ 0) frequency, 0,0, (1 —E, the damped natural frequency, avd 0,= 0, (1 267, the damped resonant frequency. Ifthe damping x jess than unity, the system bbe underdamped; if is equal to unity, itis said to be critically damped; and if ¢ is greater than unity, the system is said to be overdamped. For a unit step input to « normalized underdamped second order control system, the time required to reach a peak value /, and the value of that peak M, are given by x/(o, fi-#) 1 eal The percent overshoot (% OS) of the response tone 8/A=F % OS For an underdamped second-order system, the logarithmic decrement is where xyand x, are the amplitudes of oscillation at cycles ‘and k-+m, respectively. ‘The period of oscillation tis related tow,by yt = 20 The time required for the output of a second-order system to settle to within 2% ofits final value is defined to be 4 ne‘An alternative form commonly employed in the chemical process industry is ¥(s) x Rls) Ua? + Ets + were K-=steady-state gain, =the damping ratio, ‘t= the inverse natural frequency. Root Locus ‘The root locus is the Locus of points in the complex s-plane satisfying as Kis varied. The p,and 2, are the open-loop poles and zeros, reapeetively. When K is increased from zero, the locus has the following properties. 1. Locus branches exist on the real axis tothe left of an odd number of open-loop poles andior zeros, 2. ‘The locus originates at the open-loop poles py... yan terminates at the 2108 2. 2y- Hn <2 thea (7 =m) branches terminate at infinity al asymptote angles (2k + D180" as k= 0,41 2,43,. with the zeal axis. 4. The intersection ofthe real axis with the asymptote is called the asymptote conoid and i given by ERelw) ~ B,Rela) % i 4, If the locus crosses the imaginary (o) axis, the values of K and ware given by letting s = jo in the defining equation, able Conteol odel One common state-variable mode! for dynam s the form §( = Ax) + Bu) (9 =Cx( + Du) stems has (state equation) {output equation) where (0) = N by 1 state vector (N state variables), utd by 1 input vector (R inputs), Moby 1 output vector (M outputs), systern matrix, = input distribution matrix, vuiput matrix, and = feed-through matrix, ‘The orders of the matrices are defined via variable definitions. State-variable models automatically handle multipte inputs ‘and multiple ontputs. Furthermore, state-variable models ceati be formulated for open-loop system components or the ‘complete closed-loop system. “The Laptace transform of the time-invariant state equation is 5X(6)=x(0) = AX(@) + BUG), from which X() = OE) 0) + (9) BUG) where the Laplace transform ofthe state transition mati is (5) = [= AT’. ‘The state-tansition matrix 0) = 1409)} {also defined as e) can be used to write. x()=() x00) ff & (1) Bula) de ‘The output can be obtained with the output equation; e.g, the Laplace transform output is ¥(s) = (CO(s) B+ DJU(s) + CH(s) x(0) ‘The latter term represents the output(s) due to intial conditions, whereas the former (erm represeats the output(s) due fo the Ul) inputs and gives rise to transfer flunetion definitions NeAsuREWENT ano conTROLs 113ENGINEERING ECONOMICS aay Nam Cana Saal ara Peer to F given P (FPP, 7%, ” ata PresntWorh toP given F (PH, Ben) ae | Shkiag Haat tod given F (WF, i, i) Capital Revovery to given P wr. oe oe Pa Peon Wort to Piven (A, ten) Posi Work rime ©1669) end ee Wer i to FgivenG (FIG, 1%, m) wero . Uni Sones twa given (WG, 25,0) a NOMENCLATURE AND DEFINITIONS A coonn Uniform amount per interest period B vowenn Benefit BPs BOOK vale Corns COS sores Combined interest rate per interest period youu Depreciation in year Future worth, value, or amount General inflation rate per interest period vw Uniform gradient amount per interest period Interest rate per interest period Annual effective interest rate von Number of compounding periods per year esmonon Nunnber of compounding periods; or the expected life ofan asset Present worth, value, or amount crapn seve Nominal snnual interest rate Sy snonne Expected salvage value in year Subseripts j onetime onus FG = (FIA ~ li = (FIA) x (A/G) ‘114 eNoWeERINa Econowies NON-ANNUAL COMPOUNDING w=(+e)- BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS BBy altering the value of any one of the variables in situation, holding all of the other values constant, itis possible to find a value for that variable that makes the two altematives equally ‘economical. This value is the break-even point, Break-even analysis is used to describe the percentage of | ‘capacity of operation for a manufacturing plant at which income will just cover expenses. ‘The payback period is the period of time required forthe profit or other benefits of an investinent to equal the cost of the investment INFLATION To account for inflation, the dollars are deflated by the general inflation rate per interest period f and then they are shifted ‘over the time scale using the interest rate per interest period |. Use a combined interest sate per interest period d for ‘computing present worth values P and Net P. ‘The formula for disd=i+/+ (x).DEPRECIATION Straight Line c-5 Accelerated Cost Recovery System (ACRS) Dy= (factor) C A table of modified factors is provided below. ‘Sum of the Years Digits ati-jic-s) by D, BOOK VALUE BY = initial cost D, ‘TAXATION Income taxes are paid at a specific rate on taxable income. ‘Taxable income is total income less depreciation and ordinary expenses. Expenses do not include capital items, which should be depreciated. CAPITALIZED COSTS Capitalized costs are present worth values using an assumed perpetual period of time. Capitalized Costs 4 BONDS Bond Value equals the present worth of the payments the purchaser (or holder of the bond) receives during the life of the bond at some interest rate i Bond Yield equals the computed interest rate of the bond. value when compared with the bond cost. RATE-OF-RETURN “The minimum aeceptablerate-of-return (MARR) is that interest rate that one is willing to accept oF the rate one desires to eata on investments. Te rate-of-return on an investment i the interest ate that makes the benefits and costs equal BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS Ina benefit-cost analysis, the benefits B of a project should exceed the estimated costs C. B-C20,0r C21 ae MODIFIED ACRSFACTORS — = e Recovery Petiod (Years) 3 3 7 10 Year Recovery Rate (Percent) 1 33.3 20.0 143) 10.0 2 445 320 245 18.0 3 148 192 175 144 4 74 us 25 us Ss us) 89) 92 6 58 89 74 7 89 66 8 45 66 9 6S 10 65 uw 33, ENONEERNIGECONOMICS 115Factor Table - = 0.50% n PE PG FP. TA, AP. a AG. T 09950 ‘0005 TOS To007 1030 Toon cry ( 2 3601 43501 {0100 2030 0038 oases bases 3 09851 29504 worst S010 03367 03317 05567 4 ‘9402 S901 1202 moi 02531 bast 4938 3 oats 026 ins Stsn 2000 seo 19800 ‘ pstas 145550 oo sorss 01696 nteH6 2asss 7 8657 20493 ass 71089 os) 1807 25.01 5 3609 Tass oor Baie ours ize sane 5 oss61 baazed oso Sigal ois 21089 39668 ssi3 ‘sakes ‘asi! | 102280 eas 20978 asso doves | ier 28826 sea | ution baer? .a87 ‘9501 dss | 6ia9 eo2i36 tasty | 123356 eet ‘oat! S406 osm | insser 74.602 vom | 1aa9m io vos Sosa oss | iase7 $6835 Noms | taser ont 2001 Gai90 oar | iKsi6s 99183 ton | 15368 nose ets e009 eae | tsa300 nan osst Iesiaz 0.0682 oer 73940 asia? | 162586 ai231 tows | 78075 20615 Doses 73803 Osu ins 143.6634 Looe | ta 7ass 0.0582 bass2 e688 90% | woe ouseo Love | i977 20585 bast 83504 ast | tasers i722 me | 20971 vost oar? sau Ooms] 188m 932684 Kiias | 220800 dose noes Ssirz ovat | 2n7801 2140611 tha | 2ipue paws Bows! 102993 arse | 2ersr naw Nine | asian Dade: ost o05 are | 223s sso on | 2sas20 nous bos Hasit name | 2.4kss 2rs2606 Kise | 265sor our? 9377 707 dasa | 258 jan Nieie | 322800 rr) 20x10 1265 asin | anime si soa tao | aise bors 0.0226 3359 brs | aise | nesses Haan | S602 bout 0177 mass ora | Sizass | tassouse ibe9 | zm noivs ous 2R068 oui | mses | asin7088 Nias | 293397 00127 ur ss3613 Factor Table - #= 1,00% 1 PA “PIG. 7 a 7 7 AG T 9501 ‘wooo 000 Toro Tooee To1o0 0000 ‘aa000 2 09403 1904 sas (ono 2otee oars ours oases 3 09706 29410 2013, ‘nas S01 03400 03300 09934 4 09610 Som Soa oes ‘et 02363, 2483 14896 5 9st as oie ‘sta saoi0 02060 81960 ot 6 09420 Sos 205 ross sie ins 162s 2and 1 0027 ore, 9168 Lora rans uses 1356 cca ® 9235 nasi? 263812 182 82857 007 17 sae > ois 3680 32039 os? 93683 auist 01087 som 0 08s sar 18035 1.1046 ose 8.056 0956 ans " das | 103676 So406? hsp rer 095s 0.0855 soos 8 oa | 1.2551 0.687 bass ins 08s 0788 Sais 8 eam | iss i126 Hit 180 one 07 S007 4 exmo | 10037 wnat Hays tasers 0.0% 69 came 15 eseis | 1s36st 54810 cate aon eae crt) 16 oss | ai sona7sa ine 079 0879 12886 7 oss | 155603 17834 (nes 063 hoses 763 % oss | 16398 ages set Ipsia7 ‘0610 fpsi0 22003 » oxy | 72260 as.a950 81 anaios set re or » ears | 80456 165.4564 002 22019 esse nossa ess 2» oan 570 te10950, V4 nar i530 coo ass n ono | 9.604 985563 ve mars 0308 0.0409 0.098 B ord | 204sse 2160560 vasa ase ‘hows 0.069 103626 x one | 12404 i800 (20 aeons Gorn oat 110037 3s oars | anans ras0s a maar cst 0.0354 1st io amis | 25807 3ss.n21 13478 aT ois? 00277 19537 * very | Sesur Soe 8861 1s ‘eat6t 0305 00205 1176 50 veoHo | 39.196 rasnTs Nowe sacs 8.05 oss 28363 0 psses | 4¥9ss0 | Laszanst Laer s16097 ‘m2 baz 2assss 100 oe | enon | 20s 7758 ays | smasig 8 fs 136 116 ENGWEERNG EcoNoWeSFactor Table - = 1.50% PF PIA PG. EP FA AP. AP AG ToT ro cant Tose Tao ToI50 0 on ovr Toss asm ‘02 20180, ost O83 aves Osea zon aes oust 0432 ost 78 09501 asin: Ssue 5088 ste ‘apo 02304 aie ase ass ome Sian9 107 S193 0201 tasa t9me2 ois sen 139956 934 62296 01758 aes 24565 5010 S392 194008 os rao olsis 01565 29s oss77 14839 rests? C65 sans 0336 outs Sais osn46 340s sasi2s tia 95595 .n198 81046 3.9008 ‘4617 om eae%s nas azo ‘pee 901 am asap | roo7it eases Line 118683 0553, oe 4352 pasos | 109075 S057 Livss Bom noi 00167 sam? dan | tits sr9ast 12136 Ha Gass 0%2 Si97 pens | ise a4998 Voute sas ors et? 2582 nave | tase won tt 0.018 ass9 sma ozo | twisis so01si78 W794 0.0708 basse i) ores | 149076 3.940 92014 05m Dosti 2831 pre | i476 eas 20.198 0538 Oras 80097 76 | azo ‘40.3084 13270 217967 00608 anis9 33839 ores | i616 Iscas4 13469 ans ease nai 93087 oais | 17300. 169.2453 13671 2am sso 20409 9880 e707 | tsa0e ras 13876 28806 sar bo3s7 99018 orion | 193309 pnat0e 1081 2s onsi7 0367 103462 faxoes | 20.006 2160801 1095 29.35 ou use rourest nose | 207196 inate 30.630 ass 0333 sem | 260158 aissio vs387 ous 00266 oss | sss Soa3s08 342679 oan doiss ans | 39997 9636 qsaa78 ons poise cao, | 33.008 SHR. seaua7 ons bolas asim ogse | suse | evens sata 0134 Duane 518098 Factor Table - i= 2.00% ne PR PA |G] FP WA AR | AR | AG. 7 coo TaD ‘oo 7200 Ti ‘mor 1.0000 ‘camo 2 ‘ota (3416 asei2 aie asiso ox8s0 0350 aI 9103 29 2s Seo osaes 03268 03868 4 tome | Sun Sein ite Oe 0206 arse 5 to | drs pacen ‘sau aan 0.922 ose ‘ eso | Sou 600 cet ons 58s 2403 : eas | Gamo 89035 fase oists aies 2908 : oasis Tass rsa asmo | aes 6s Saset 2 e008 ‘ion2 histo dass | as outoas Sees w rn sisi 1200 09497 bas tuys ser t tao | Suse sooo sn 12168 doz ‘uaa ‘scat Q forms | 10553 Ssat2 12682 Gata Doms os Sea 8 oro | ina asus 12936 4603 Dose! oss! Sum 4 asm | (toe 743999 13185 i309 Dose 006 6786 is ea0 | ai aszeat 13469 i133 wre asi 608 16 oye | Bsr 9.1286 ars 136395 ns eos? tome 1 ana | wan 1075554 vat anon ‘0700 eos 15256 i 3002 | M3m0 ipaset aoe pais ‘0667 04s? 50st is fawer | tsers brane ‘ase maw | oocte 008 £4073 ” tomo | teasie 1446003 1a neon ase anit, 88433 Ff fase | 012 157959 iSisr 257833 ass owe sme 2 ease | 17.580 Tsres 15460 nase | a0ss5 nis 9.7085 4 eon | 122 ras3309 (sie missy | 00s? bow? wont au oat 199 i580 Se joany | aos fuan9 lossar 5 osins | 195335 nats ‘6 soso oosiz asia roots bo osst | 2306s ors 1st ‘aosest diets fiom bas! 0 oasis | brass ‘et99n1 280 oan 0366 166 testes 0 cons | sian36 12.3606 Bess as fate cous roan Py dao | 347008 sans 3asi0 | 145i cus rd Daavot 100 tase | som | aeease7 waa | sa93 eon ws 5398 ENGINEERING ECONOMIES 117Factor Table -/= 4.00% _ PF PA PG TP. PA AP aE AG. O95I5 a6 “0.0000 ooo 6000 T5000} 000 ‘0000 09246 hast 006 ane 20x00 sion | ose oaou2 00 2731 205 ce State 3603 | Osan oon onsee cv) Sisto 1699 antes fo2ss | 02355 Taso os asta ass. 16? sass dae | ose re ons Saint 120s 12653 Sante Bisex | ois est 07599 Sant Hs? 15159) fas Diets | 1266 reas 07307 eam mss These 52a Dives | oxoss hat O72 fast sans ras ase Biss | fos 37381 nas ai S314 1480 0st tias | sos tina oiso8 ars foam 15395 Hawt tit | cone teaso sas SaKsi aan oro ose Bioes | 00665 Soa 06 59856 Stasto asst o85 dion | ocor 54533 oars | taset i968 un te2919 aon | onsen S269 ness eres 2amss Gt | soe cami Osu | tose a 2aas aosss | does Son0 fsie | 2687 S954 2875 oosez | oom oss cane | 659 5988 assist Som | none 74810 Gane | tata | rongss3 nse dire | ost rae tase | sous | nse a7 arse | posse 2081 oo tena | iosaie Noa dans | boas ner famo | teas ‘9.2004 aaa ence | 9292 nour aos | teases | 38 izse rea oon | boars oaen3 foam | isa | serio sona26 Sooss | voase pens e3mt | san 16.640 ants) fase | cone bans ono | 72920 | orosie sca fas | pore | iter pana | Wyo | 2365303 deazss fasts | cows | ares amo | 22 Tol ts oar 12.061 Gana | ono | tasiar cost | ians | s22056 105196, 2a00T sae | deo | isan eas | 24s | sez 505069 130.8087, asm | cacoe | 229000 Factor Table -/= 6.00% 7 PF. PA, PG. FP PA AE WG. T ro) cou sate 1000 Ta000 Toa “30000 2 29900 se ossuo nse 2600 oaest oss 3 0896 260 25052 isi0 0836 oats) 88512 4 ora Saest oes 12a a3ns anes tan 5 07473 aan asus 132 saan var si6 & | bas aor Hasse ras oon Ose 2330 ; osest S524 tsar 1036 38 bist aes i ane S008 ais 15938 sams ivi Libs > | oss sao sree 10s 114913 baer Bens 10 sae 23a 2003 {p08 1.808 e759 ona 1 bes re) Sgro Ue iaomte sizes | css an B bare es ne zoe 168555, oii | oosos aan 6 Dats as77 ‘89009 aims sae e130 | 09530 S1020 i bans 2080 S728 as 210151 oir | cons Sais 6 on Sree 23066 nae ‘e100 | 090 S5260 i soi1056| aso 25004 Bsa ‘0090 | 00890 Gama 0 ware eaoit devon 22129 basse | onsst 600 (08276 383860 23s eous? base | opsze 69597 i sth 13062 025s 7600 awse | O06 eer 2 ose | Lawes as06 saa 367856 ong | om o0st 21 ome | 11360 Shs 396 eon Sows | 50 51st 2 aims | ese eat Saas 4933 aso | bo2s0 fey 2 cas | tnso |10cm007 34197 wanes Goris bos 55059 4 pam | i2ssoe | asaia foe Soaise sue | coi epost Fs nase | tna |) usar ta Shaess oom | cam sa Dia | ites | esses Shas spose eons | coe | wom 2 bere } Tsou | 59568 10.2887 1547620 ous | tons | 2380 so bess | iste | aipasre 189902 pons deca | come | 137960 oo bine} tated | 22008 goer Sonam dacis | cons | 14709 100, nam | tgeirs | amon 30 ase seu pees | _wooo2 | _r637un 118 ENONEERING EcoNoMNesFactor Table -/= 8.00% n PIF. PA PG TP. FA 7 WG T 12259 19a ‘0000 T0 05 Tosoo | 10005 “D000 2 oss 3 08573 166 2.0800 seas | casos ass 3 07938 asm 2ues0 12597 52K basi | 03020 0989 4 0.7350 aa 4500 1308 sast nos | a22p 4010 5 Diese hos yams 4698, 5.856 oasis | wes sues é dae hans 3238 ‘sk 73389 o2e | ass. 22768 ? Dass 52064 woe Tas Noms aim | ona aes & sis 4685 1130 13509 Wise ore | vse Sioos 5 os002 6260 21 g08t 15990 rare ort | oogo 34010 0 bac? or 259768 21589 re o1as0 | o0s0 asm u bazKo i390 32687 23316 Teatss air | o0s0. ats 2 bast 13361 34339 2312 es77t o1ser | cosa ‘isos Bb O36 19038 390K 27196 214953 126s | cos 9402 6 0.3405 a2, fans aon 2219 ois | cots S273 15 sist on ps7 3am mas nate | Gass 5045 6 oi kisi 13880 30259 jaa bits | Goss $5046 0 0.2103 21216 sess 3.7000 inism Dice | 0.0296 ans7 6 0.2502 93719 cosine 39) masa Dios | oo2s7 easa0 iw 03317 8036 es0134 aois7 14a dion | Gaza 6087 Ft ous osial 6.098 445610 ssc20 asois | 0219 sas a diver | sais 11068 sons saaz29 Bove | 0198 12540 2 ain | 102007 69287 Sans Ssasce oso | ono 7512 a aims | toa s067% Saris tosis oss | nist 1786 Pa ois | tesza 442997 eau oss 0080 | opiso Sis as agra soit aes 3089 oor | oo1s7 aanss So Some | ize | resasse 10062 3262 ort | ono 91897 0 Soro | tba | raeer 2inas 259.0568 pose | ovo | Loses 0 eos | ans | sso Aso0i6 sracr02 oon? | ooo | tater o amo | i2sne | 1472000 so12sit 1382133 ose | eons | tis0ts 100 ms | 2a | _tsssi07 21983613, a7sa43ist 0800 1ases Factor Table -/= 10.00% na PAR] PA PG. iP TA, aE AG. v ‘O35 ‘5051 Dono Tom T.00 Ton ‘000 2 64 ss ones 2100 21000 bane ore 3 07513 bees 23081 ‘sata 100 3021 a9ie6 « 05830 3169 13781 act aoue oatss 13812 5 sa08 Spo Geis 10s tsi 1638 thot é assis, 235s Seat 17m 77136 e286 2an6 7 ose aks i761 1908) oasre 81054 216 ‘ ass S338 180287 2iae 114359 osr4 Soo 5 aati S300 Igaats 23509 sss an7i6 samt 10 13455 Gate ass 2507 isos 007 Ans un 03805 asst 2s962 28531 ies sae ‘get 2 03186 esis 23301. Suse 2a 0.0468 ness 6 0240 sui ham has ser 0408 aeons 4 02633 13887 dax00s ass mais asst 498s Is 02304 1061 ‘nisi im sums ons 52789 6 02196 sam anaiot 45850 ashio7 bors $5193 0 01978 0216 agsn Soses sosear boner sa07 6 0.1799 £2018 0639s 55559 ss 3992 nous 6.0526 9 buss Shou suse atts8 511591 baiss 2get » ce86 a5136 5.060 ens 72750 ors 081 n oust 6487 581085, ‘4002 sans boise S78 2 ons ws snes alan T1027 Bois0 69189 B oun nse sit402 89503 49430 tine | a0i6 708s Fy 101s a9 sani o8007 Baas7s tans | caus Tams as 0053 90770 sr0364 ro37 oasa7i fae | oi asi 3 0s anes rane oh eto Biost | oo0si elma a 0221 97781 shoses 452593 4823025 102s | a.0003 Siva 0 008s pois SuaKs9 173509 1.9085 10% | 0.0009 esr 6 0.0033 oer gr7010 oLAsis ousiot 1003 | 0.0003 sans 100 2000! ont 599202 1,700.6123 131960234 1000 99927 ENGINEERING EcOKONICS: 119Factor Table - i= 12.00% 7m PF PA PG TP. WP | AF [AG i aa020 ‘O96 TaN 100 Tr200 | — ona [0.0000 2 opr Isso apn sae os | any | os 5 one 2018 2.208 os asics | 02963 | ose 4 ois aon ann isms osm | 0202 | 13509 5 asin es on tra tam | ease | irs é 05066 ain 39302 tone e2ez | oie | 2170 1 4523 Ase | Loe 22107 1.0890 gait | oot | 2381s a any dpe | wane 24760 122997 oz | oasis | 29131 5 03006, saa | ras 2m lars oikir | aos } 325m Pr eano Seam | 202su1 51058 nists? turm | cos | 3sse7 u o2ars Sov | 22a sans 20346 ousst | coves | 3.53 2 03587 Gisas | 253825 3.00 aust ousie 31597 0 2 tarss | 23.7008 A305 roo oiss7 | oot | eases a 02046 Geom | 313604 an bans cise | ome | axst7 15 user csi0g | Ss920 SATs aw essa | ocx | oma 16 cies! somo | dese S304 27533 Guise | ooo | Sai47 1 01456 Saige | 3893 fsee0 ‘iss? ais | coms | sas ie 01300 rao | 40.9080 73300, Ss1097 cum | oom | sour » oust aiask | ‘so Ree Sst cuss | nous | sas 0 01037 tas | 44s6r6 363 ‘nats oie | sere | enn n 00926 ‘sea | Aeates sasone heer oi | 012 | sists 2 0.0826 rstas | asses rao0s snsm6 oro | oro | east a 0078 ina | sore 135503 sonny ot9 | 0086 | 6010 Mu 659 Gina | Staso Isis 352 08s | 008s | estos a5 ase rawr | sai0d raat 1333839 ons | coors | e778 fo | boas tose | Sazm1 299599 21337 ois | ooo | 32074 » cow? eaux | esttso Sxosi0 rors ois | aoa | 7588 so ons eas | 6776 asco 200.0182 oo | ooo | a1s87 @ aot! sia | 6x3100 1390 rartstt oo | oot | s2068 100, soz | _ o9aass 35022657, ssag0se7t e200 3321 Factor Table -/= 18.00% oP. PA | PG FP EA. ap] Ae | WG T oa Ons ‘i000 00 T00 Tisoo | 0000 J — one 2 ane 15686 ore 3024 21800 one | o4ser | oasi7 3 acne ans 18s 15030 isan eas | 2m | oss 4 osist 2601 34808 19388 52154 o3m | oisir | 12007 5 oat azn san 22578 nase ose | nase | tere ‘ 03704 havie on 20 saan 024s | 40s | 2am ? 03138 sans e070 3188s ais oa | ons | 23506 4 02660 tore | xs 3589 rer) o2is2 | 062 | 20588 5 oss 4a00 | 126520 ass ‘woes oa | oona | 25558 " oust dast | taasis 52338 238213 vans | aons | 3196 "1 nats heseo | 1396 eb 287551 eae | osm | 3305 R ous ao | aa, 126 34931, bao | aos | 30470 6 bie ooes | 1s't6s toot wai p20 | oos7 | 36 ie bores soos | 201576 wae Sasis0 niss7 | oo? | sons0 5 bans sone | 23268 u9E7 61.9655 504 ‘ins? 16 bons Sse | maeas 4.1290 ‘m3 oss 43308 a ceo Sma | mea teem 0380 Biss 08 i esas Sam | 2203 wars 103.7403, 01806 ane 0 fan) Su | 2asu77 oie rai3s gst 43008 » anes sis | 2613 naw 65280, orseh ase 2 Soe samy | deseo s23238 (e210 ones? {ixes1 2 ooo Saas | 26306 Setar 2063448 Onna 4962 2 oor Saat | 273394 45076 Deas oust Sans ™ Soret Sas | drs 31080 aonanes bins 50950 as 10159 Sac | 2kIsss ‘nen 32.6038 ams sis. a 0070 Ssiex | 293868 M3306 aoo4s0 O13 Sos o outs Sum | sas ss03 sig.21%0 5502 5a 9.0003, sssat_ | 30.7886 aisiosy? 5508 oo 0001 Ss | 3osdos islissc66s 35526 100, Ssss6 | sss | is.n4 3191 689,616 35555 120. ENGNEERNG EcoNOMICSETHICS Engineering is considered to be a "profession' rather than ‘an “occupation” because of several important characteristics shared with other recognized leaned professions, kw, ‘medicine, and theology: special knowledge, special privileges, and special responsibilitcs. Professions are based on a large knowledge base requiring extensive training, Professional skills are important ¢o the well-being of society. Professions are self-regulating, in that they control the training and ‘evaluation provesses that admit new persons to the field Professionals have autonomy in the workplace; they are ‘expected to utilize their independent judement in carrying ‘out thebe professional responsibilities. Finally, professions are rogolated by ethical standards." ‘The expertise possessed by engineers is vitally important {o public welfare. In order to serve the public effectively, cengineets must maintain a high level of technical competence, However, a high level of technical expertise without adherence to ethical guidelines is as much a threal to public welfare as is professional incompetence. Therefore, engineers must also be ‘guided by ethical principles. ‘The ethical principles governing the engineering profession are embodied in codes of ethics. Such codes have been avlopted by state boards of registration, professions) ‘engincering societies, and even by some private industries. An example of one such code isthe NCEES Rules of Professional Conduct, found in Section 240 ofthe Model Rules and presented here. As part of his responsibility to the public, ain engineer is esponsible for knowing and abiding by the ode, Additional rules of conduct are also included in the Model Rules ‘The three major sections of the Model Rules address (1) Licensee's Obligation to Society, (2) Licensee"s Obligation to Employers and Clients, and 3) Licensee's Obligation 0 Other Licensees, The principles amplified in these section are important guides to approptiae behavior of professional engineers. Application of the code in many situations is not controversial, However, there may be situstions in which applying the code may raise more difficult issues. In particular, there ‘may be cizcumstances in which terminology in the code is not clearly defined, or in which wo sections of the code ‘may be in conflict, For example, what constitutes “valuable consideration” of “adequate” knowledge may be interpreted differently by qualified professionals. These types of questions are called concepial issues, in which definitions of terms may be in dispute, In other situations, frctual issues may also affect ethical dilemmas, Many decisions regarding engineering design may be based upon interpretation of dispated or incomplete information. In addition, rradeoffs revolving, around competing issues of risk vs. benefit, or safety vs. ‘economics may require judgments that ate not fully addressed simply by application of the code. No code ean give immediate and mechanical answers to all cibical and professional problems that an engineer may face. Creative problem solving is often called for in ethies, just as i is in other arens of engineering, ‘Model Rutes, Section 240,15, Rules of Professional Conduct A, LICENSEE'S OBLIGATION TO SOCIETY 1. Licensees, inthe performance of their services for clients, employers, and customers, shall be cognizant ‘that ther fest and foremost responsibility isco the public welfare. 2, Licensees shall approve and seal only those design ‘documents and surveys that conform to accepted ‘engineering and surveying standards and safeguard the life, health, property, and welfare of the public. 3, Livenseos shall notify their employer or client ancl such other authority as may be appropriate when their professional judgment is overruled under cireumstances waere the life, health, property, oF ‘welfare of the public is endangered. 4, Licensees shall be objective and truthful in professional reporis, statements, ot testimony, They shall inelude all relevant and pertinent information in stich reports, statements, or lestimony. 5, Licensees shall express a professional opinion publicly only when it i founded upon an adequate Knowledge of the facts and a competent evaluation of the subject matter. 6. Licensees shall issue no statements, criticisms, oF ‘arguments on technical matters which are inspired or pid for by interested parties, unless they explicitly identify the intorested parties on whose bebalf they are speaking and reveal any interest they have in the matters, 7. Licensees shall not permit the use of their name or firm name by, nor associate in the business ventures ‘with, any person or firm whieh is engaging in fraudulent oF dishonest business or professional practices. Licensees having knowledge of possible violations of any of these Rules of Professional Conduct shall provide the board with the information and assistance necessary to make the final determination of such violation, " sane M45 Pind & MU Rabe. ari Eh: Coes nd Ces, ‘eters using Company, es 7-28 19 ewes 121B, LICENSEE’S OBLIGATION TO EMPLOYER AND CLIENTS Livensees shall undertake assignments only when qualified by education or experience in the specific technical fields of engineering or surveying involved, Licensees shall not affix their signatures or seals to ‘any plans or documents dealing with subject matter in which they lack competence, nor to any such plan or document not prepared under their direct control and personal supervision. Licensees may accept assignments for coordination of tn entire project, provided that each design segment {is signed and sealed by the licensee responsible for preparation of that design segment. Licensees shall not reveal facts, data, oF information obtained in a professional capacity without the prior consent of the client or employer except as authorized or required by law. Licensees shall not solicitor accept gratuities, directly or indircetty, from contractors, their agents, or other partes in connevtion with work for employers or clients. Licensees shall make full prior disclosures to their ‘employers or clients of potential conflicts of interest ‘or other circumstances which could influence or appear to influence their judgment or the quality of their serviee. Licensees shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more than one party for services pertaining to the same project, unless the circumstances are fully disclosed and agreed to by all interested parties. Licensees shall not solicit or accept a professional contract from a governmental body on which a principal or officer of their organization serves a member, Conversely, licensees serving as members, advisors, or employees of a government body ot department, who are the principals or employees of a private concern, shall not partieipate in decisions with respect to professional services offered or provided by said concern the governmental body which they serve. 122. eras C. LICENSEE'S OBLIGATION TO OTHER LICENSEES 1 Licensees shall not falsify of permit misrepresentation ‘oftheir, or their associates’, academic or professional ‘qualifications. They shall not misrepresent ot ‘exaggerate their dogree of responsibility in pi assignments noe the complexity of said assignments, Presentations incident tothe solicitation of employment or business shall not misrepresent pertinent facts concerning employers, employees, associates, joint ventures, or past accomplishinents. Livensees shall not offer, give, soli ve, either directly or indirectly, any commission, oF gilt, ‘oF other valuable consideration in order to secure ‘work, and shall not make any political contribution with the intont to influence the award of a contract by public authority. Licensees shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, direetly or indirectly, he professional reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of ‘other licensees, nor indiscriminately criticize other licensees’ work,CHEMICAL ENGINEERING For additional information concerning heat transfer and fluid ‘mechanics, refer o the HEAT TRANSFER, THERMODY- NAMICS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING or FLUID MECHANICS sections. For additional information concerning chemical process ‘control, refer to the MEASUREMENT AND CONTROLS section, For additional information concerning statistical data analysis, refer to the following: Confidence Intervals See the subsection in the ENGINEERING PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS section of this handbook. Statistical Quality Control See the subsection in the INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING seotion of this handbook, Linear’ 0 See the subsection in the ENGINEERING PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS section of this handbook. ne-W Variance (ANOV/ See the subsection in the INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING section ofthis handbook, Microbial Kinetics, See the subsection in the ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING section of this handbook. SELECTED RULES OF NOMENCLATURE IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Alcohols Three systems of nomenclature are in general use. In the first the alkyl group attached to the hydroxyl group is nained and the separate word alcohol is added, Inthe second system, the higher alcohols are considered as derivatives of the first mem- ber of the series, whieh is called carbinol. The third method is the modified Geneva system in which (1) the longest carbon. ‘chain containing the hydroxy! group determines the surname, (2) the ending e of the corresponding saturated hydrocarbon is replaced by of (3) the carbon chain is numbered from the tend that gives the hydroxyl group the smaller number, and (4) the side ehains aro narned and their positions indicated by the proper number, Alcohols in general are divided into three asses. In primary alcohols the hydroxy! group is united to a primary carbon atom, that is, a carbon atom united directly to only one other carbon ator. Secondary alcobols have the hyalroxyl group united to a secondary carbon atom, thal is, one united to two other carbon atoms. Tertiary alcohols have the hydroxyl group united toa tertiary carbon atom, that is, one united to three other carbon atoms, Ethers Ethers are generally designated by naming the alky! groups and adding the word ether, The group RO is known as an alkoxyl group, Ethers may also be named as alkoxy derivatives, cof hydrocarbons, Carboxylic Actas The name of each linear carboxylic acid is unique to the number of carbon atoms it contains, 1: (one carbon atom) Forme, 2: Acetic. 3: Propionic. 4: Butyric. 5: Valeri 6: Caproie. 7: Enanthic. 8: Caprylic. 9: Pelargonic, 10: Caprc. Aldehydes ‘The common names of aldehydes are derived from the acids that would be formed on oxidation, that is, the acids having the same number of carbon atoms. In general the i acid is| roped and aldehyde added. Ketones ‘The common names of ketones are derived from the acid which on pyrolysis would yield the ketone. A second method, especially useful for naming mixed ketones, simply names the alkyl groups and adds the word ketone. The name is written as three separate words. Unsaturated Acyelie Hydrocarbons “The simplest compounds inthis lass of hydrocarbon emicals ste olefins or alkenes with a single earhon-cnrbon doube bond, having the general formula of CH, The simplest exarople in this eategory is elhylene, C,H. Dienes are acyclic hydrocarbons with wo carbon-carbon double bonds having the general formula of C,H, ; hutadiene {Cali an example of such. Similarly, tienes have thee carbon-carbon double bonds with the general formule of CH hexatiene (CgH,)is such an example. The simplest alkynes have a single carbon-carbon wile bond with the ‘general formula of C,H, ». Tis series of compounds begins with aerylene or CF CHENICALENGINEERNNG 123Common Names and Molecular Formulas of Some Industrial (inorganic and Organic) Chemicals ‘ Molecular Common Name | Chemical Name Perauls Muriaticacid Hydrochloric acid ——-HCL Cumene Isopropyl benzene CaH/sCH(CHL)2 Styrene Vinyl benzene CeHgCH=CH Hypochlorite fon ocr! - Chlorite ion clos" - Chlorate ion clos" Perchlorate ion clo,! Gypsum Calcium sulfate CaSO, Limestone Calcium earbonste CaCO Dolomite Magnesium carbonate MgCO; Bauxite Aluminum oxide ALO; Anatase Titanium dioxide TiO, Rutile Titanium dioxide TiO, - Vinyl chloride CH,-CHCL - Bthylene oxide CHO Pyrite Ferrous sulfide 8 Epsom salt Magnesium sulfite MgSO, Hydroquinone —p-Dihydroxy benzene CeHa(OH), Soda ash Sodium carbonate NagCO3 Sait Sodium chloride NaCl Potash Potassium carbonate -K;COs Baking soda Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO Lye Sodium hyoxide NaOH Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide fr Vinyl alechol Carbolic acid Phenol Aniline ‘Aminobenzene — Urea (NH),CO Toluene Methyl benzene CoHsCHs Xylene Dimethyl benzene CsH4(CHs)> = Silane Sia - Ozone 05 ‘Neopentane 2,2-Dimetbylpropane — CHyC(CH,),CH; “Magnetite Ferrous/ferric oxide FesOx Quicksitver Mercury Hg Heavy water __Deuterfurm oxide 0 - Borane BH, Byewash, Boric acid (solution) H3BO3 _ Deuterium a Tritium Laughing gas Nitrous oxide = Phosgene Wolfram Tungsten — Permangonate ion — Dichromate ion oe Hydronium ion Brine Sodium chforide (olution) 124 CHEMICAL ENGWEERINGCHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Fora multi-component mixture at equilibrium Ht =Fh, where fugacity of component / in the vapor phase, and fagacity of component iin the liquid phase. Fugacities of component iin a mixture are commonly calculated in the following ways: Fora liquid 7! = 3,7,f, where x, = mole fraction of component 4, 1¥, = activity coefficient of component /, and Jf = fugacity of pare liquid component i. Fora vepor J! = yb,P, where y= mole fraction of component iin the vapor, , = fugacity coefficient of component j in the vapor, and P= system pressure, ‘The activity coefficient is a correction for liquid phase rnon-ideality, Many models have been proposed for 7,such as the Van Lar modet: AyS y “dam tn = alt + (1+ 4p)" where alae 4am +y, = activity coefficient of component 1 in a two-component system, = activity coefficient of component 2 in a two-component system, and Argo Aay ‘The pure eomponent fugacity is calculated as: Si = OF Pexp utp — P™)/(RT)}, where constants, typically fitted from experimental data. of P= saturation pressure of pure vi =specifie volume of pure liquid j, fugacity coefficient of pure saturated i, R= Idea] Gas Law Constant, and T= absolute temperature Often ot systom pressures close to atmospheric: fea Pe ‘The fugacity coefficient , for component inthe vapors caleulated from an equation of state (e-., Viral) Sometimes iis approximated by a pure component value from a correlation. Often at pressures close to atmospheric, 6b, = 1. The fugacity coetiient is conection for vapor phase non-idealiy For sparingly soluble gases the liquid phase is sometimes represented as it = xh here kis a constant st by experiment (Henry's consent). Sometines other concentration units are used besides mole fraction with a corresponding change in kj, Reactive Systems Conversion; moles reacted/moles fed Extent: For each species in a reetion, the mole balance may be writen: noles= mols, + vf where & isthe extent in moles andy, isthe stoichiometic Coefficient ofthe ith species, the sig of which is negative for reaetants and postive for product fing reactants reactant that would be consumed frst if the reaction proceeded to completion. Other reactants are excess reactants moles of desired product formedimoles of undesired product formed. Yield: moles of desired product formed/moles that would have been formed if there were no side reactions and the limiting reactant had reacted completely Chemica! Reaction Equilibrium For rection ad + bB = oC 4 dD AG =-RTINK, (#8)(@8) _ ray kK, e = T(a)", where (an)(em) : ii tivity of component /= 2 f; agacity of pure Fin its standard state y= stoichiometric coefficient of component i stondard Gibbs energy change of reaction ‘hemical equilibrium constant CHEMCALENGHEERNG 125‘For mixtures of ideal gases: f= nil pressure, often J bar f= yP=p; where p= partial pressure of component J ale (o)(#) For solids 4,=1 Forliguids d=, ‘The effect of temperature on the equilibrium constant is dink _ A ar where AH?= standard enthalpy change of reaction, MEATS OF REACTION For a chemical reaction the nssociated energy can be defined in orms of heats of formation of the individual species Af, at the standard state (ati) = 2» (Aa;) <2 ol AH) The standard state is 25°C and 1 atm. The heat of formation is defined asthe enthalpy change associated with the formation of a eompound from its atomic species as they normally ovcur in nature fLe., Oe), H,(a), C(soid, ete] ‘The heat of reaction varies with the temperature as follows: DHpCT) = BH (Ber) + re AcpaT where Tris some reference temperature (typically 25°C or 298 K), ani Ae =F and ¢, isthe molar heat capacity of component vipa Mod “The heat of reaction fora combustion process using oxygen is also mown a8 the heat of combustion, The principal products are CO,(@) nd HOU). HEMICAL REACTION ENGINEERING A chemical reaction may be expressed by the general equation aA + BB eC + aD. ‘The rate of reaction of any component is defined as the moles ofthat component formed per unit time per unit volume. =r =— AE [negative because 4 disappears] if is constant 126 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING ‘The rate of reaction is frequently expressed by WGC Cop & =reaction rate constant and ), where C, = concentration of component /. In the conversion of 4, the fractional conversion X,is defined as the moles of A reacted per mole of 4 fed. Ke Cp- CC ‘The Arrhenius equation gives the dependence of k on temperature if Vis constant k= de®! where 4_ =pre-exponential or frequency factor, E, ~actvtion energy (Uo, calAnol), 7 = temperatuwe (K), and R= gas law constant = 8.314 IAmolsK). For values of rate constant (i) two temperatures (7), RIB ( hi) L to a) (é Reaction Order If 1, = KCC the reaction is x onder with respect to reactant A and y order ‘with respect fo reactant B. The overall order is naxty BATCH REACTOR, CONSTANT TAND V Zero-Order Lrreversible Reaction =n = ich = KD) =dey/dt or Ce aX, fat or Cos dO flat = ky Cg 1p = ACpfdt = kyCy = kyl ry = dCyldt = ky Cy ‘Yield and selectivity definitions are identical to those for two 1s in parallel. The optimal yield of D in a inreversible rea PER is Nulite ko) In(ku/to) Foam (By ~ Eo) “The optimal yield of D in a CSTR is oom megan at time Som Loko MASS TRANSEER Diffusion ‘Molecular Diffision Gas: Ny = FB(Ny + Ne) : p28 Liquid: Ny = sa(N + Np) ~ CD SE nidirectional Diflusion of « Gas A Through 4 Secon: ‘Staguant Gas B-(Y,= 0) Nyx Pay (Bn = Pa “RT PRig, in which (9), the log mean of py, and Psy, 1, = diffusive flux {mole/{time * area)] of component i through area 4, in z direction, Dy = mass diffusivity, P C= concentration (mole/volume) artial pressure of species J, and EQUIMOLAR COUNTER-DIFFUSION (GASES) (My=-Nd z= Daf (RT) (par ~ Pe)/(B2)] Ny = Du (Can ~ Cea) Be 128 checAL ENONEERING CONVECTION ‘Two-Film Theory (for Equimolar Counter-Diffusion) Ng =H (Paa~Pad HC Cad Ko Wa Pa) KUCH Cw) ‘where pis the patil pressure in equilibrium with Cy, and C+ = eancenteation in equilibrium with pg Pye H+ Cy, and C,? = pe/Hl where Hi the Henry's Law Constant. Overall Coefficients UK'g= Uk'g+ Hk, LK = VE + UK, Dimensionless Group Equation (Sherwood) For the turbulent flow inside a tube the Sherwood number sv = (52) = o«ns[242)" (ib) V average velocity in the tube, p= fluid density [e = fluid viscosity, ond sy ~ mass transfer coeflicient Distillation Definitions: @ = relative volatility, B_ = molar bottomns-product rate D_ = molar overhead-product rate, P= molar feed rate, = molar liquid downfiow rate, Ry ~ ratio of reflux to overhead product, Y= 1molar vapor upfow rate, = total moles in still pot, x =mole fection of the more volatile component in the liquid phase, and yy =mole fraction of the more volatile component in the vapor phase, Subseripts: B_ =bottoms product, D_ =overhead product, P= feed, in any plate in stripping section of column, a plate below plate m, y= any plate in rectifying section of column, +L» plate below plate, and 0 = original charge in stil pot.Elash (or equilibrium) Distillation ‘Component material balance: Fep= yx Overall material balance: FaVveL aa wl) = LoS When he relive volt Li conta, yaaa +01) aie aaamnoe (ele aby For binary system following Raoult’ Law c= Gi) gH), Ply Where , =partal pressure of component Continuous Distillation (binary system) Constant molal overflow is assumed (trays counted downward) OVERALL MATERIAL BALANCES ‘Total Material: F=D+B Component 4: Fep= Dg By OPERATING LINES Rectifying Seetion Total Material: Vygy= Lg? D Component 4: Vga Yme = Lily DX You Ugly DI Sy DepED) ‘Swipping Section ‘Total Material: Ly Fant B Component 4: Taoin= Vag Pst Bp Bags = Lally BY) yg BX HlLeg~ BD Reflux Ratio Ratio of reflux to overhead produet Ry= LD 2 (Vq—DYD Minin reftux ratio is defined as that value which result in tan infinite number of contact stages. For a binary system the equation ofthe operating line is Te ea Feed Condition Line slope= gf(g~ 1), where. heat to convert one mol of feed to saturated vapor ‘molar heat of vaporization Murpluve Pate Efficiency Bae = On — Yo)! (h — Ynauh where 1y,, “concentration of vapor above plate, Vins concentration of vapor entering from plat below nnd {yf =concentration of vapor in equilibrium with liquid leaving plate 1. ‘A similar expression ean be written forthe stripping soction by replacing m with m. (CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 129Yaw Ue MET CF NORE VOLAME cou Absorption (packed columns) Continuous Contact Columns Z=NTUq+HTU, = NIU, + HTU, = Ngo * HETP Z = column height NTUg = number of transfer units (gas phase) NIU, ~ number of transfer units (liquid phase) Neg = number of equilibrium stages HTU,, = height of transfer unit (gas phase) ATU, = height of transfer unit (liquid phase) HETP = height equivalent to theoretical plate (stage) 7 G pe HM = gz HT = eG G = gas phage mass velocity (mass or moles/flow area + time} liquid phase mass velocity (mass or moles/flow area * time) Kz = overall gas phase mass transfer coefficient {mass or moles/mass transfer area + Lime) Ki, = overal liquid phase mess transfer coefficient (ass of molesimass transfer area time) a= mass transfer area/volume of column (lengtt!) wttg= f —&— wr= f ay) = (x =x) y= gas phase solute mole fraction X= liquid phase solute mole faction yt = Kx, where K = equilibriom constant af = yK, where K = equilibrium constant Mn = mole fractions atthe fean end of column dy %, = mole finetions atthe rich end of column 130 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING For dilute solutions (constant G/ and constant K value for ceatire columa): For a chemically reacting system—absorbed solute reacts in the liquid phase—the preceding relation simplifies to: nar = ol] Other Mass Transfer Operatio Refer to the ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING— Water Treatment Technologies section of this book for the following operations: Reverse Osmosis Ulefiltration Blectrodialysis, Adsorption Solid/Fluid Separat Refer to the ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING section of this book for information on Cyclones, Baghouses, Electrostatic Precipitators, and Particle Setting.COST ESTIMATION Cost Indexes Cost indexes are used to update historical cast data to the present, If purchase cost is available For an item of equipment in year -M, the equivalent current cost would be found by: Current § = (Cost in year 4) { Current Index Tndex in year M ‘Component Range Direct cosis Parchased equipment-delivered (inchuding fabricated equipment and process machinery 100 such as pumps and compressor8) Purchasod-equipment installation 39-47 Instrumentation and controls (installed) 9-18 Piping (installed) 16-66 Electrical (installed) 10-11 Buildings (including services) 18-29 ‘Yard improvernents 10-13 Serve feclitis (installed) 40-70 Land (if purchase is required) 6 “Total direct plant cost 264-346 Indirect costs Engineering and supervision 32.33 Construction expenses 344 “Total dreet and indirect plant costs 336-420 Contrnctor's fee (about 5% of direct and nT indirect plant costs) Contngrey oa 0% of direct and ae Fixed-capital investment 387-483, Working capil cout 15% of total eae ‘Total capital investment 55-569 Sealing of Equipment Costs “The cost of Unit A atone capacity related to the cost of a similar Unit B with X times the eapacity of Unit A is approximately X° times the cost of Unit B. Cost of Unit A = cost of Unit B| CHEMICALENGINEERNG 131‘TYPICAL EXPONENTS (n) FOR EQUIPMENT COST VS. CAPACITY. Equipment Size range Exponent ayer, drum, single vacuum 10-10? a 0.76 Dryer, drum, single atmospheric 10-10" a oan | Fan, centrifugal 10108 W/m oa | Fan, centrifugal 2x 10-7 «10min 1.17 ‘Heat exchanger, shell and tube, floating head, ¢.s. 100-400 £0" 0.60 Heat exchanger, shell and tube, fixed sheet, cs. 100-400 oad Motor, squirrel eage, induction, 440 volts, i explosion proof cae cd Motor, squircel eage, induction, 440 volts, explosion proof 20-200 hp oe “Tray, bubble cup, es. 340M diameter 1.20 Tray, sieve, es 3110 ft diameter 0.86 CHEMICAL PROCE! SAPETY ‘Threshold Limit Value (TLV) ‘TLV is the highest dose (ppm by volume in the atmosphere) the body is able to detoxify without any detectable effects, Examples are: Compound my Ammonia Chiorine 25 os Ethy! Chloride 1,000 Ethyl Ether 400 Flammability LPL = lower flammability limit (volume % in air) UFL = upper flammability limit (volume % in ait) ‘A vopor-air mixture will only ignite and burn over the range of concentrations between LFL and UPL. Examples are: ‘Compound L Ethyl alcohol Ethyl ether Ethylene Methane Propane 132 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 33 19 27 24 DEL 19 36.0 36.0 1s 95Concentrations of Vaporized ‘Vaporization Rete (0, mass/im) from a Liquid Surface Q,=IMKA PRT) M_ = molecular weight of volatile substance K = mass transfer coefficient [Ag area of liquid surface pt = saturation vapor pressure of the pure liquid at T, R= ideal gas constant 1, = absolute temperature of the liq ‘Mass Plow Rate of Liquid from a Hole inthe Wall ofa Prosess Unit a= AnCol2PP" Ay, =area of hole ‘= aravitational constant nuge pressure within the process unit 32 (Cy) of Vaporzed Lig Space Cpa 1QuR,T * 1OUKQYPMD] T =absolute ambient temperature tra k = nonidea! mixing factor Qy.= ventilation rate P absolute ambient pressure Concentration in the Atmosphere ‘See “Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling” under ‘AIR POLLUTION in the ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING section. Sweep-Through Concentration Change in a Vessel Qyt= VinleC = CMC p~ CO] lumettc flow rate stime v Cy = inlet concentration vessel volume , = initial concentration ©, = final concentration CHENWCALENGNEERNG 133,( CIVIL ENGINEERING GEOTECHNICAL WEIGHTS. (ORMASSES} Py of fi Wa Wy a 5 Ws PHASE DIAGRAM ‘VOLUMES ‘weight of water ‘weight of solids total weight total volume volume of air volume of soil solids volume of water volume of voids =V,-+Vyy total unit weight = W/V unit weight of water (624 Ib or 9.81 KN/n") saturated unit weight G+) WAI +2) 1G, + MC +0) whore , ¢, and @ are in-situ soil properties effective (submerged) unit weight ‘unit weight of soil solids = W/V, dry unit weight= W/V Gyyl(Le) = 46) maximum dry unit weight minimum dry unit weight water content (%) = (WW) * 100 specific gravity of soil solids = (We! Vo)Aty void ratio= Vy/Vg maximum void ratio :minimum void ratio porosity = V/V = e/(I+e) degree of saturation (%) = (V/V) x 100 relative density (%) {(eyeax— 2M eax ~ und * 100 (O-s1a,~ Yoamn/Opasax™ toad l(t aax! Yue] X 100 134 cIMLeNaneeRNG relative compaction (%) Cto-ievo!Yosnas) * 100 plastic limit liquid fit plasticity index = LL—PL effective grain size, grain size corresponding to 10% finer on grain size curve rain size comesponding to 30% finer grain size corresponding to 60% finer coofficient of uniformity = Dyy/Dyg coeflicient of concavity (or Oy7AD Mal} — De vo kr NPERMENBLE LAYER FLOW NET coefficient of permeability hydraulic conductivity QUEA fy) from constant head test where Q = total {quantity of water for constant head test 2.303[(aL)/(Atz)Tlogyafly/h,) from falling head test hydraulic gradient = dH/AL (parallel to flow) ‘cross-seetional area (perpendicular to flow) area of reservoir tube during falling head test elapsed time during f head at time t= 0 during falling head test head at time t= fy during falling head test ing head test discharge velocity = ki KETQN IN for Row nets (Q per unit with) total iydravli head differential (potential) length of flow through a fow channel numberof flow channels number of equipotential drops eriticl gradient = (74) seepage exit gradient (in vertical direction) factor of safety against seepage liquefaction icyPo Pe tp deror ey Sur RANGE OF RECOMPRESSION | _ RANGE OF | VIRGIN ‘COMPRESSION \ VOID RATIO, € PRESSURE (LOGn SCALE) SOIL CONSOLIDATION CURVE on P compression index = slope, AelAlogap, in viegin A compression portion of consolidation curve t 6,009(LL.— 10), by cortelation to liquid limit T recompression index = slope, Ae/Alog! 0p, u recompression portion of consolidation curve jy, Cel6, by correlation tC. 2 initial void ratio (prior to consolidation) : change in void ratio (by sign convention, positive change in void ratio corresponds to «decrease in total volume of sol). d inital effective consolidation stress, or oun cffective in situ overburden stress at center 8 ‘of consolidating stratum at beginning of consolidation. te past maximum consolidation stress induced change in consolidation stress at center of consolidating stratum =T os e sess influence value at center of consolidating SHEAR STRESS,+ stratum ay applied surface stress causing consolidation total change in void ratio due to recompression Kp = (any) and dus to virgin compression (ifany) guy average ultimate strin in sot layer Aeronl(l¥2o) uma consolidation settlement in soil layer ty Hs thickness of sil layer coefficient of consolidation time feet for vertical consolidation Cy top? elapsed time from beginning of consolidation load length of pore water drainage path average degree of consolidation (se Degree of Consolidation Curve later inthis section) approximate settlement at t= tc Un Sur Is total normal stress normal force ‘ross-sectional area over which foree acts TWA shearing force pore water pressure = hy Yy uplift or pressure head effective sttess= 6-0 shear stress Inean normal tess ‘maximum she tes inajor principal stress ‘minor pinepal sess orientation ange between plane of existing noma stress and plane of major pincipal shear sress a fire ++ oyfang , by Mohr-Coulom criterion cohesion angle of internal friction ‘meonfined compressive strength = 22 in tmeonfined compression test ‘oy (at failure) uimate bearing capacity rp footing) ety DN EY'BN, bearing capacity factor fr cohesion bearing capacity factor for depth bearing capacity factor for unit weight allowable beating capacity = ays™5, fhctor of sfety for beating eapecity width of stp footing depth of footing below ground surfice CWMLENGWEERING 195Hy Ha SIMPLE RETAINING WALL, Effective vorial pressures He He ‘SIMPLE RETAINING WALL t Lateral pressures and forces : (eclve shown, passive simiat) EFFECTIVE VERTICAL PORE WWATER _-SOLPRESSURES 1 PRESSURE By=Hyy v= Hey uta Ye EFFECTIVE HORIZONTAL PORE WATER i SOIL PRESSURES: PRESSURE Pw Hee ‘Active forces on retaining wall per unit wall length (as shown) Xg-Rankie sve h psi eit amet al oO) = 45 $) Pa, ~area of pressure block = FK,H?1 [Py foree and remaining Py; forces found in similar manner] Pago) Py * BPA Passive forces on retaining wall per unit wall length (similar to the active forces shown): K, Rankine pie eh perro (noah wall, ¢~0, vel aki) =a? 45+ $) Ppp Py td Phy forces Computed in similar manner GROUND SURFACE ASSUMED PLANAR SLIP SURFACE ( SLOPE FAILURE ‘ [ALONG PLANAR SURFACE 136 GML ENGNEERING FS = _ factor of safety against slope instability = TeTuos Ter = available shearing resistance along slip surface = chy + Wyy costs tanb Tyron = mobilized shear force along slip surface = Wy sinas Ly = length of assumed planar slip surface Wy = weight of soil above slip surface os = angle of assumed slip surface with respect to horizontal991 YL RENO Os EN EE] aoe a ee ee sescanoauomanusrocanenn | | ¢geceatSe| ——— aaa mean Sn SSE RTE one cecesaenon en | __ wiltEES eonawaes coo, | SORBRRNCRT (mame 5 : Sseaeeeias | Siren aie eae Z sel, |g] deeesiensdne: [agama 1 13 | ow REE Fromme ae : ; ie eal Gre Sew 32 la" 2 la E E Gos’ | BS o | : : : wil on ISSN i E eae|3 883/ 2g 2 sgl core RAPERS| ns | cu | gE Be a eee : za et ELE RR] eel i Hae seuononurson mowsss| G59 Be a2 [Sye ole moi RERR| oo | anearemen eas] “S8 Be i Ae oe (8 lz 3S ee ere vonage Eset |e : a oseraen| ~ | aosmmermn aH a Se el a ae Phe ae) S88, a He ax a a & 388 wanggmatie| mo | munammmemoai) Fi wou eR aumBOSSE | canna —_ brgnad anouoras ontyg gy af aoe soUMNe ONG) NOLWOIISSW19 110 CalaINA CWILENGWEERING 137+ AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION ‘GENERAL CLASSIFICATION SAR ATER ORES PSENUNTS GENE) | GET CLAY MATERIALS i 0 7 MES (GROUP CLASSIFICATION ns at | as | as | mre ieee [ee ‘Soa [ars RST ‘SIEVE ANALYSIS, PEROENT PASSING: 2.00. (No.1) sso} - | -|-])-|-]-] - -|- 1426 nen. 4D) sso jssoles| -|-|-|-]-]- ]-]- ‘1078 mm No. 200) 315] 525 | si0 | 95 | REARING PRESSURE 84 © AT ANY DEPTH, 2: Ap = hae 5 6 00 02 oa 06 08 1 INFLUENCE VALUE, I, CWLENGWEERING 139STRESS INFLUENCE VALUE, I, 140. com enoneeRie 026 o24 0.22 020 ots oud 0.10 pos 0.06 0.04 0.00 VERTICAL STRESS AT A POINT DIRECTLY BELOW THE CORNER ‘OFA UNIFORMLY LOADED RECTANGULAR AREA BEARING PRESSURE, AtPointA: AP= Teas for m~B/Z and n= L/Z. a2 ns 230 +0 Lo NORMALIZED BEARING WIDTH. 0.250 ‘48 240 0237 0207 028 022 0205 0196 oss on 0156 0137 0127 oats o.103 0.090 0076 0.062 oer oust 0016 tooPORE PRESSURE, DISTRIBUTION INA CLAY LAYER BOUNDED AT TOP AND BOTTOM BY PERMEABLE LAYERS DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION CURVE FOR PORE, PRESSURE DISSIPATION WITH TIME [NORMALIZED POSITION WITKDS CONSOLIDATING LAYER = 2/p AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION, Usy PERCENTAGE OF EXCESS PORE PRESSURE REMAINING = ye ‘CONTOURS OF TIME FACTOR, Ty, ARE SHOWN: » {CONTOUR INTERVAL FOR Ty = 008, PERCNTAGEOF EXCESS PORE PRESSLIE DISSIPATED © U6 (Sata) oo — Py —-Uavit) r ie 290 400 000 040 080 120 10 200 ‘TIME FACTOR, T ‘CVILENGWNEERING 141STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Influence Li eric oe Fee by tel a for Beams and Trusses (AT), for temperature change in member ‘An influence line shows the variation of an effect (reaction, shear and moment in beams, bar foree in a truss) caused by moving a unit load across the structure, An influence line is ‘member misfit used to determine the position of a moveable set of loads that [L.A = member length and cross-sectional aren ‘causes the maximum value of the effect. (c= coefficient of thermal expansion) member elastic modulus ving Concentrated Load Sets Ascidte dh eutaten eee eee Frame Deflection by Unit Load Method ‘The displacement of any point on a frame caused by external loads is found by applying a unit load at that point that ‘corresponds to the desired displacement: aa" pcp displacement at point of application ‘The absolute maximum moment produced in a beam by a set fof unit load (+ in direction of unit load) of "a moving loads oecuns when the resultant "R" of the load set and an adjacent load are equal distance from the centerline of the beam. In general, two possible fond set positions must be considered, one for each adjacent load, ‘m, = moment equation in member"? caused by the unit load moment equation in member *r" eaused by loads applied to frame jeam Stiffness and Mom r Beam Si id Moment Carryover 1h, = length of member "* Mg=Mal2 : moment of inertia of member ” If ether the real loads or the unit load cause no moment in @ Ma treme, het menor ean be omited rom he summation. a ana ae Member Fixed-nd Momonts (nagitudes) 46 ae 7 fea geeeee seen seaasae " HLT} truss Deletion by Unit Losd Method i ‘The displacement of tus joint eaused by extemal effets w (ts Inada, member tomperature change, nebo sist) i FEtgs PMs te found by apling uni fo atthe pen tht conespons the desieddiapacement Avon WHEE Ay placement at pont of epliation united (in ction of unt oad ) fi = force in member "i caused by unit load ab (tension) aan (AD), = change in length caused by external effect for increase in member length): 142. clvLencnesaIeSTRUCTURAL DESIGN Definitions (based on ASCE 7-05) ‘Allowable Stress Design: Method of ptoportioning structural ‘members such that stresses produced in them by nominal loads do not exceed specified allowable stresses. Dead Lond: Weights ofall materials used in a building, nclucting built-in partitions and fixed service equipment (permanent load"), Design Strength (GR,): The product of the nominal strength and a resistance factor. Environmental Loads: Loads resulting from acts of nature, stich as wind, snow, earthquake (each is a "transient Joad") Factored Load (AQ): "The product of the nominal load and a load factor. Limit State: A condition beyond which a structure or member ‘becomes unfit for service because itis wnsafe (strength limit state) or no longer performs its intended function (serviceability limit state). Live Loud: All loads resulting from the use and occupancy of ' building; docs not include construction ot other roof live loads, and environmental loads stich as caused by wind, ‘snow, earthquake, ete. (live loads are “transient loads"), Load Factor (): A factor that accounts for deviations of the actual load from the nominal load, or inaccuracies in the load models; also accounts forthe probability of two of more extreme transient loads being applied simultaneously Nominal Loads (Q,): The maximum actual loads expected in «building during its lif (also called "service losds"), The ragnitudes of toads, permanent and transient, computed using load models such as those found in ASCE 7. Nominal Strength (R,): The capacity of a structure or member to resist effects of loads, ‘The strength computed using theoretical models or by appropriate laboratory tests. Resistance Factor (@): A factor that accounts for deviation of the actual strength from the nominal strength due to variations in member or material properties and uncertainties in the nominal load model. Strength Design: A method of proportioning stcucral ‘membets such that the effects of factored loads on the member do not exceed the design strength of the member: Z{AO,) < OR,. Also called "Load Resistance Factor Design’ and "Ultimate Strength Design." Live Load Reduction The effect on a building member of nominal occupancy live Toads may often be reduced based on the loaded floor area ‘supported by the member, Atypical model used for computing reduced live load (as found in ASCE 7 and many building, codes) is: 15 a (025 + rez) 2 OAL peat = nominal live load given in ASCE 7 or ‘a building code Drei where Lyomins Ar = the cumulative floor tributary area supported by the member Rudy = son ofnfuenes supported by the Ku, = ratio of area of influence to the ‘tributary area supported by the member: Kj, =4 (ypical columns) K,,=2 (typical beams and girders) Load Combinations using Strength Design (LRFD, USD) Nominal loads used in following combinations: dead loads earthquake loads L. = live loads (floor) L, = live loads (roof) R = rain load s w = snow load wind load Load factors A: Py (dead load), 2 (live load), et. LASIR= largest of LS. R Lor 0.81" = larger of L, 0.8 Basic combinations 14D 12D + 1.61405 (L,/9/R) 1.2D + 1.6(L,,/9/R) + (Lor 0.897) 12D + L6H +L +05UL, (S/R) 12D+10E+L +025 09D+ Low 09D + 1.08 CL ENGNEERNG 143,REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ACT 318-05 US Customary units Definitions a =depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, in. = grogs area of column, in? 4, = area of tension reinforcement, in* A!) =area of compression reinforeemet A, = total area of longitudinal reinforeement, in? A, =area of shear reinforcement within a distances, in b- =width of compression face of member » by, = web width, in Bi, =ratio of depth of rectangular seas block, a, to depth to neutral axis, ¢ = effective compression flange width, in. =085 > 085 ~ o05{Z = distance fiom extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, in 4. = distance from extreme compression fier to centroid of honprestessed tension reinforcement, in. 4, = dstnce from extreme compression fiber to extreme tension steel, in. 5, modulus of elasticity = 330! /Fe.psi invoxtrome tension steel at nominal €, Set tensile st strength J, = compressive strength of conerete, psi Jf, ~ yield strength of steel reinforeenent, ps i, =T-bcam flange thickness in. M, = factored column moment, including slenderness effect, inl 1M, = nominal moment strength at section, intb (9, design moment strength at section, in 1M, = factored moment at section, in. P, nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity, Ib 4P,= design axial load strength at given eeeentricity, Ib P,, = factored axial force at section, Ib Pe sectional ratio of total reinforcement area to eros area of column =4,/4, 8 = spacing of shear ties measured along longitudinal axis of member, in jominal shear strength provided by concrete, Ib ‘nominal shear strength at section, Ib lesign shear strength at section, 1b 1ominal shear strength provided by reinforcement, tb V,, = factored shear force at section, Ib 144 clmeNGNEERNG ASTM STANDARD REINFORCING BARS 8 4 5 a6 7 #8 ® ao a as #8 o3ts 0.500 0.625 0.750 0375 1.000 1128 L270) Vato 1693 2287 on 020 031 oat 060 029 100 iar 1536 23s 4.00 90376 0.008 Loas 1502 oat 2.670 3.400 4303 5313 1650 13.60 LOAD FACTORS FOR REQUIRED STRENGTH, u- uv 14D 12D + 1.6L SELECTED ACI MOMENT COEFFICIENTS ‘Approximate moments in continuous beams of three or ‘more spans, provided: 1. Span Lengths approximately equal (length of longer adjacent span within 20% of shorter) Uniformly distributed loud 3. Live load not more than three times dead load M, = coetMicient * wy Ly? by Column factored toad per unit bes length clear span for positive moment; average adjacent clear spans for negative moment Spandrel beam | | OE Unrest ined +1 i A i End span Lai Interior spanUNIFIED DESIGN PROVISIONS BEAMS ~ FLEXURE: $M, > M, Internal Forces and Strains Ja comp. stain ope eseet],| el a Je, [Net tensilo strain & 9,003 bo 9.003 al For all beams If tensile stain: «= Br ¢ © 0.003(d~e) _ 0.003(6 4 Design toment strength: 0d wheres 0.9 [5 200005) © =0AR + 83, [0.004 < 6, < 0.005) Reinforcement inst As pax r= 0.004 @ M, inane A suo” larger or Acgi limits need not be applied if AL(provided)> 1.33 4 (oquited) aaa Singly-reinforced beams ee 20605. 0065> , >0.002 coord veslon” cole ee eae M=0sspeabea-& Doubly- reinforced beams f Compression see yeti — S au Ossie | 87,000 ayers ane f, _ \87,000- 7, _ . 4, If compression steel yields: Ay eee oe 0.85 £8, b (4 ) ogy = PL? (28) ar aaa tT : AAD 085 48 RESISTANCE FACTORS, 6 My [isa (e-$) + Ade | Tension controled sections (&,20.005): _@ =0.9 |_| Ieompression steel does aot yc (wo sleps: Compression controled sections (ey < 0.002}: reavened ‘Merners with spiral reinforcement @ =0.70 oY (1000-085) Ay Ay fy Members with ec enforcement $ =06s ee ¢ ‘Transition sections (0,002 < e, < 0.008) Members with spiral reinforcement ~0.57 + 67e, Members with tied reinforcement = 0.48 4 832, Shear and torsion 9 0.75 Bearing on concrete § =0.65 O85 f.'Bib COMI ENGINEERING 148BEAMS ~ FLEXURE: 94,2 M, (CONTINUED) red) Compression steel does not yield (continued) *) eafesAa-ay Doubly-reinforced beams (eonth 2. Compute : M,=085 60f¢ [a~ 6 é ‘T-beams ~ tension reinforcement in stem Effective flange wid: 1/4 span length b= byt 16 ly swanest {beam centerline spacing. Design moment strength: A Sy asi" Wea ae as b (4 eae My= O85 fl abe (d- a> ly A B88 LD el 0 85fe' (beds eeepc ts Reena: a= —— di - Albee) 0.85 fo'by dee h a 85,2 [hy Deby) (@ i deahd-S)) BEAMS ~ SHEAR: 6%, Bon width ses { 6 (rectangular teams) Nominal shear ten Va =Vet ¥, 2 bed ALA (ay nor exceed by dy Ze) Required and maximum-penitted stimup spacing, » ® ys 1, » Me: tet along 4 en shear equations: by (-beams) v. He No stirrups requised 2 ps req fs — Ve SA be dy So" Sater of soatlrot | od og wosimin fad 2 pennitied wo s=24" rhe on b> bbed Te Swale ot 148 crv ENGINEERING‘SHORT COLUMNS: Limits for main reinforcements: Ay = 4 0.01 ¢ py $ 008 Definition of a short column: KL ogg — 2M where: KL Trae lear eigit fcoln fasume k= 10) = 0.288 rectangular column, h is side length perpendicular to buckling axis (1.0. side length in the plane of buckling) 0.25h circular column, f= diameter M, ~ smaller end moment M, = larger end moment M, [positive if Mi, Ms cause single curvature negative if M, Ms cause reverse curvature Concentrically-londed short columns: Py My = Ma = 0 Kem Design column strength, spiral columns: OP,= 0.859 (085 14g ~ Au) + Au fil Design column strength, tied columns: ~ 0.65 P= 0.806 [0.85 f(z — Au) + Aa Short columns with end moments: M.= My ot My = Pye Use Load-moment sirength interaction diagram to: 1, Obtain @P, at applied moment My 2. Obiain §P, at eccentricity e 3, Select A, for Pry My LONG COLUMNS = Braved (non-sway) frames Definition of a long column: KL 4g 12M > M4 Pesce tae Critical loa pee Bie eines CL Lea where: BT = 0.25 Fly Concentrically-loaded long columns: enix = (0.6 0,034) minimum eocentricity My = Mz ~ Pucnm (postive curvature) Ls 2 M, oa fear ash, Use Load-moment strength interaction diagram to design/analyze column for Py, My Long columns with end moments: ‘M = smaller end moment Mz = larger end moment Use Load. moment strength interaction diagram to design/analyze column for Pe, My CVE ENGWEERING 40720 Interaction diagram fra :: pata . ° 1“ ae pia mes 08 oz os os oa 03 02 ot 09 10.00 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 0,25 0.90 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 Fe he Fede ~ WAP GRAPH Att Column strength interaction diagram for ectangular section with bars on end faces and ¥ (for instructional use only). 0.80 kon, Ata, David Darwin ond Cas W ala, Dag af Cone Sracte,Lth MeCrw, New York, 200, 448 crmtencneenns 055 0.60 0.65GRAPHAAS 20 7 Interaction diagram 19 fea ksi f= 60st — 18 y= 0.80 —7n ark Ww 16 16 14 13 12 10 08 oa o7 08 os os os 02 on Ee 00 H sat Soc aos 030 015 020 028 090 O35 O40 045 050 O55 O50 085 Pe Pe Tah > GAG Column strength interaction diagram for circular section y= 0.80 (for instructional use only), thos Arar David Darin and hates Dol, Daa Comme Stren, Lhe, MeGrav- Now Yor, 2004 CCMLENGWEERING 149TRUCTURES (AISC Manual, 13th Edition) LRED, I= 29,000 ksi Definitions (AISC Specifications): LED ‘Available strength: Product of the nominal strength and a resistance factor (same as "design strength” by ASCE 7) ‘Required strength: The controlling combination of the nominal Toads multiplied by load factors (same as critical factored load combination by ASCE 7) BEAMS. ‘Beam flexure strength of rolled compact sections, flexure about x-axis, F, = 50 ksi ‘Compact section criteria: AL bg ange: $6 < hy = he 40.3 Se Te For rolled sections, use tabulated values of Web: by 2p ty feet of lateral support on available moment capac Ly = sunbraced length of beam segment ° resistance Factor for bending = 0.90 Lye = length limits (My = FZ AISC Table 13-2 OM, = $0788, 125 Mp Ge fe ae = 3° TSH + 3M, + My FOE where Max = absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced segment ‘My “absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment. My = absolute value of moment at centerline of the unbraced segment. ‘Me = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the uunbraced segment 2M, = OM, yg by & les ag = clam, (mg - 6002 = = 6a, ~ aPC 4) $M Ly ly om = 46 fe comb) som 180. cIVLENONEERING where: distance between flange centroids =d-4 J.C, = torsion constants ( AISC Table 1-1 ) ‘See AISC Table 3-10 for $4, vs. curves ‘Shear —unstffened beams Ay= dy Rolled W-shapes for Fy $50 ksi: = $Y, = WO.5F,M,, Buil-up L-shaped beams for F, > SO ksi: 6 (0.6%), 47%, = (0.65 )4 220,000 q| wis ‘COLUMNS: Column effeetive length KL AISC Table C-C2.2 Approximate Values of Effective Length Factor, K AISC Figures C-C2.3 and C-C2.4~ Alignment Charts Column eapacity ~ available strength 9-09 OP OFA Slendemess ratio: X2 5 Mk ony 0s) a 25,910 AISC Table 4-22: Available Critical Stress (9) for Compression Members Available Force (@P,) in Axial ‘Compression, kips (F, = 50 ksi) AISC Table 4-1:BEAM-COLUMNS Sidesway-prevented, x-axis bending, transverse loading between supports (no moments at ends), ends pinned permitting rotation in plane of bending Pa g . FoR wo SDESHAY % L ba MOIRA ered srengts: P= Py M, = By My Gu = 1.0 or conditions stated above = WEL ey = EL, with respest wo bending axis TD ae - Strength limit state: so, 4 8M from Br hfesio he FE am? 3eR) * where: (2, = compression strength with respect fo weak axis (y-axis) (bM, = bending strength with respect to bending axis (x-axis) ‘TENSION MEMBERS Flat bars or angles, bolted or welded Definitions: Bolt diameter: 2d, = d+ W16" Gross width of member: b, Member thickness: Connection eccentricity Hole diamet Grosses: A, = by # (se tabulated areas for angles) (ga) Net area (parallel oles): Net area (staggered holes): Aa (bg 2h > Dae, I" ‘= longitudinal spacing of consecutive holes _g= transverse spacing between lines of holes Effective area (bolted members) fy = 1 0¢tet bas) A= Uy {go Seay Effective area (welded members): Flat bars or angles with transverse welds: U= 1.0 Flat bars of width "w", Tongituclinal welds of length only: .0(L.2 2) 87 Qw>L2 LSw) 15 (Sw > L> w) i v Angles with longi only U=1-¥L Limit states and available strengths: Yielding: = 090 9, = Fy Ay Fracture: gy = 075 0, = Pi Ay Block shears @ = 0.75 Up, = 1.0 (fat bars and angles) Ag, ~ 70s arca For shear Ay = netarea for shear Ay, ~ net area for tension 0.75 Fl tne + Uhs dn) sent (0751 SF ay + Cte] cuLencneenNs 15fBOLT STRENGTHS Definitions: 4, bolt diameter = end distance between center of bolt hole and back ‘edge of member (in direction of applied foree) 5 ~ spacing between centers of bolt holes (in direction of epplied force) ‘Bolt fension and shen available strengths (kips/bol): Standard size holes. Shear strengths ae single shear. Slip-eriticel connections are Class A faying surface. Available bolt strength, Or pour OUTST, [pestonarion{——3a@—— [78 "TENSION, Hips AS Bs 0 a0 ‘AMT 149 2035 265 SHEAR (BEARINGAYPE CONNECTION) ips ‘A325. 159) 216 23 ABIS-X 9 Ea 353 AT 735; os ia SHEAR (GUIP-CRITICAL CONNECTION, SLIPIS ‘ASERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE), kins masse [ts [202 ‘SHEAR (SLIP-CRITICAL CONNECTION, SLIPS ‘A STRENGTH LIMIT STATE), hips ‘aumsse_[_ 31 iB 7 For slip-crtical connections: Slip isa serviceability limit state if load reversals on bolted connection could cause localized failure of the connection (auch as by fatigue). Slip is strength limit state ifjoint distortion due to slip causes either structure instability or a significant inerease of external forces on structure, 452. cMLENGNEERING Bearing strength of connected member at bolt hole: ‘The bearing resistance of the connection shall be taken as the sum of the beating resistances of the individual bolts. ‘Available strength (kips/bolt/inch thickness): oy = bLALA, S d2.4d,F, > = 0.75 clear distance between edge of hole an edge of adjacent hole, or edge of tnetber, in divection of free le D, fen be bolt diameter Dy interior holes end hole hole diameter = bolt diameter + clearance 5 = centerto-center spacing of interior holes ‘Ly = end distance (center of end hole to end edge of member) ‘Available bearing strength, yt Bolt Boles kipsfbotfin, thickness * Fys ksi BOLT SIZE, in, {connecreD| MEMBER 3 18 1 27/3 eh, (MINIMUM PERMITTED) 38 620 9 m7 65 69.5, 817 938 8 783 513 ior 65 877. 102. 113 Te = 1%" 38 Ho m8 a75 65 494. 45. 42.0 = 2 8 783 799 Te 6 87. 39.6 85.9 *D,=D, + W16™t Table 1-1: W-Shapes Dimensions f and Properties 6 x |b. x lew We ‘wos [pepti] vied] Flange | Comet | Tore Prop. ‘Baia XX ie ¥ srape | A | at | tw [or [er | section [oul etn |-ee | ee2Fe | zee ae ia? [tm | min | an fovaul we | | m [im | mf [in® [om | im? [ine | wEmRT] zai] a7] oars] wwM| oaeel 7] se0 Zaza] THT] Oe TaN] 1] ose 77} Tal aT weixee | 192] 227] 0420| 7.04] o00] esr} 497] 1.75] 202] 171] acco] t5so) 121] 923] 150] aes] 1.98 warxss | 16a} 226) 095] x01] 00s] ea) si] tri] 254) 110] saro] soso] sta) 9] t3el a9 sas wens | ars} 212] 0489] 0.20] ora0] 60} 412] 210] 206] 302] rato] t000] 154] aq} 172} 705) 1.01 werxes | 200] 21.1] 0490] 027] oses| eos) 426] 2.17] 204] 220] e760] t4a0) 40] 8.60] 100) 64.7] 1.20 warxe2 | 1a} 21.0] o400| 924) 0616] 670} 480| 219] 204] 1.80) sacol 1000) 127] 4] 144) 575) 1.77 warxss | 162} 208] 027s] 222] 0822] x97} soo] x11] 203} 129] 4980] t140) sto] 840] tzo) aaa) 1.70 warxsr | 1671 21.1] 0405] 650] 0.60] s:04) 435] 1.89] 204] 177] s1e0] 1170) 111] 8.26] 129) 06) 1.95 warxso | 147] 2084 ano] 6: o:as] 6.10] 494] 1.04] 2n3] 124] 2sro) od] 945) a.) 11 430 waste | 14] 2064 0260] 8:4) 0430) e47) 636] 2.05] 202] oca] 3860] 955) es.o] a2a] t07) 37] 1.05 warxas | 130} 202] 0950] 6:0) o4sol 722} a6} 1.00] 202] a770] ato) aa] at.) 80s] os.) 202] 1.25 wrexrt | 20] 126] 0495] 754) osto] ars] 324} 209] e77] 340} azoo) 1170) 127] 750] 149) 603) 1.70 waexss | 1a] 24] oso) 70} 0760] 6.05) 357] 203] 175] 2731 azaol toro) 117] 740] 139) te} 1.00 wexso | 17.5) 182] oaso} 786) oes] os) 307] 202] 175] 217] seco! axa) to] 747] 129) sot) 1.00 wrexss | tea} 18.1] 0.980] 752] asso] sae} 41.4] 200] 175] 160} s4s0) sao] oa. rai] 112) aaa} 167 wexs0 | 147]. 180) o289] 7-0) 070] os7) asa 1.90] 174{ 1241 so4o) exo) ox.a} 738] 101) 40.1] 1.05 wrexas | 135] 101] 0260] eos) 00s] 601] asl 1.59] x75] 122] 1720) ria] 79) 725] so] 225) 129 waexto | 14} 179]0915] 6.0] 0826] 573) soa} 1.59] 174] onto] sa4o) ora] 69.4] 72%] real 194) t27 war | suf sf} a] on] 0] soe] ene] ar] aa ro] ca] 7 eae] o) ve] 200 Mor | ea] secfaco] seo} ane] co] san] ted er] aa] so] rn] oa or] soca] tn vnc | tr} sofas] ror] acc on] ara] tan] ao] af sr] cl ora | exe) aval rows | 3) secfese| oof ese] ata] taal aol nfo] sae 727 out tea] eal aor wow | tea] ssefoane| ra] ost eos ase] te] ssl ona] te] se] cro] Tag] ana] 1 woe | ts) solace] se osc] ea} ata] tas] aaa eo] ae eae ost) uo) ata ae woe | 2] seafoaso] ros} ore eat] 54] 204 sna) sa] sc] re] sfc va] aa a wow | ae] solace] to} are ear] are] zon] sc] soy sn] ra] ss er] re] | ae twat | sna sasfoars| 90] ose 209| sae] ara] soa] al eo] oo] oes] se] tal er] 2a Woe | 420] 19[esn] sac] oox] cr] saa] aaa] asa} af a] sr] a un ana] sr ae wow | tas] te[acc oof oan] ee] sae] aan] sa] tad st] ma se aa) sta) on wr2ea| zoo] seafaaro} cs} ore ce] aan] aa] srs] aa] ro] a] ses] 9] 26) 20s wv | as] tafacol tol oor se] zz] eat] ate] af cv] ar] ara esr] sn] me) sou Woe | se] tesla] zo] ovo seq] axe] se] ria) zu] sre] se] sof sao] seal te) 800 wens | a fee nono | any al nd on] | os] a) wae | tl desfoai] se ose es] ant) 279) tia) tal ate] ce] ral sao Tra) ase) a0 wraxso | 140] 122] 0370} 9.06] o6co| 6.31] 258] 225) 118) x71) 860] sei} e42| sal 719) sea] 130 vwiaxss | 124] 12fos9s} a.05] os75| 700] 206] 223, 11.5] 1.24 60] ste] 7.7] sts] 642) 500] 195 wiexi | 117] 119]0285} 0x] osis| 7.7] sx6| 221] 11.4] oso ta40) 907] sts sta) s7.o] aa] 196 woo | 176| 102] 0420) 10.1) oso) 7.41] 137| 206] ass] 245 26-0) sax] o5.7| 439] ra0] 6] 257 worst | 15a] ta1fosro} s04) ons .15) 212] 2.80] 94s] 14 2020] 300] e00| 497] oc) 103] 256 wiowa | t44| t00|0340} 100) asco] ea] 20,1] 204] a42| 1.04 2070] 272] 49) 435] 604) os] 254 wiors | 133| to] o.350] aa] o420| 647] 22.0] 227) a40| 1.61] 1200] 242] 4a] 432] sao] ssl 201 wioss | 115] sez|asts| roo! osso| 753] 250] 224 033) osre sea] 200] a2.t| 427] ao. 45o| 199 ‘spl tem Ste Cnaruotion Manan 18d, AI, 2005, OMILENGINEERING 153,Z AISC Table 3-2, x W Shapes - Selection by Z, on aa Zz Tame [ome] BF] GG Wx Pe | in’ _| kip-ft | kip-t_| kips | ft. ft. ips a 7 251 Wee [ss | 08 | 307 a] 557 | 248 Weer aes 8 676] 108 | aso ‘at Wieser —[—t30—|— ae | 07 [toa] a6] 28.1 92 Wo 00—[ tab — a5 | aoa | 88 | 7 225 Were tae ape aot toa arta 256 ee Be Ware a6 | ars oe 8s | 876} a ist Ware [9s | aero tas | 898] 82 BET a TT 175 wiexes—[ is] a1_[ 270 | rer} 09} aes 1 en ee a aT 187 ee ee ee eZ wae — | a0 | | as es | ee ate [oe P08 [258 [688 tar | ara] 807 | 168 wateis —| gor —| a8 ae | ao eo ee Wigs |p [sas a7] bs] 28 | edo | 198 Wisse; —| arava] pasta] 83 | 170 | 800] 182 nD Wieeee— [ase [see [at sat te | asa ee a wie —| Sort sae too | gs [as ist |r| 08 a Wines — [aga f aaa [os se8 | 88738 fart a Wigee [aes] 300 [iat [toa] 5s] te [86 | 167 ee ee ZZ Wee —[oe tees [ie] sas 88 | 282 aaa Wem [re [280 [vs | 880] 808 | 38s eet Wiexas | a0 [ara | ne | to sa] aa Wes [oe [oes |e | as | at | Wax? Tarp pes tea | 280 7a | are | eres a Wiese} vee [a8 ise faa on 887 | 8a wanxas —| aes —| ae st eta ee eZ Ve Wie — [ee teas fo] sar | 02 | 38 Tt Wiens —| ene arf as | ert per set are |e Wx 8 pf are 288 Se ee Wie — [oes tone 995971028 2d | 08 GMpx ~ SoM tM = 6u10-7F,), BE = ston So otal 1h AG t= tp 154 clVLENcWEEnING50 ksi TABLE 3-10 (CONTINUED) aT 0.90 W SHAPES a AVAILABLE MOMENT VS. UNBRACED LENGTH 450 Available Moment $ M, (foot-kips) a 2) UNBRACED LENGTH (0.5-ft INCREMENTS) Fer Ste Condon Mana 1 94 ASC, 2 COWILENGINEERING 155TABLE ¢-02.2 [APPROXIMATE VALUES OF EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR, K TmuonzDSareorcoMNS)| —@ | @ | @) SHOWN BY DASHED LINE, 1 \ L { ' THEORETICAL K VALUE 08 1 | 10 RECOWENDEDDESIGN VALUE WHEN IDEAL CONDITIONS] 0.65 0.80 12 10 2.10, 20 AREAPAROXMATED i encore re fe ROTATION FKED AND TRANSLATION FXED “F_RotaTiONFREE AND TRANSLATION FED {ROTATION FE AND TRANS! ATON FEE 1 ROTATION FREE AND TRANSLATION FREE FOR COLUMN ENDS SUPPORTED BY, BUT NOT RIGIDLY CONNECTED TO, A FOOTING OR FOUNDATION, GIS THEORETICALLY INFINITY BUT UNLESS DESIGNED AS A TRUE FRICTION.FREE PIN, MAY BE TAKEN AS 10 FOR PRACTICAL DESIGNS. IF THE COLUMN END IS RIGIDLY ATTACHED TO A PROPERLY DESIGNED FOOTING, G MAYBE TAKEN AS 10. SMALLER VALUES MAY BE USED IF JUSTIFIED BY ANALYSIS, AISC Figure C-C 3 Alignment chart, sidesway prevented AISC Figure C-C2.4 ligament chart, sidesway not prevented Sa 00 100-4 50 40 $0: 20) 00: K 10 Los 19 08 07 06 os. oa 02 02 oa 00 Se 000) ‘00. 3007 200: too-| oo $15 00 Fem Stl Cnn rs, 1, NI, S. 166 VL eNcnEEAWNGAISC Table 4-22 Available Critical Stress 6,F,, for Compression Members F,= 50 ksi $70.90 KE Fe KL oF. ca Fe KL Fer Ke Fe of isi fe ksi a isi 7 tei fe ksi 1 6.0 _| ai 358 | 81 | 7a | aa | after [872 2 450 | 42] 30.6 | 62 | 275 | 192 (152 [162 [8.61 3 450| 43] 90.3 | 83} 27.2 | 123 [149 | 163 [8.50 4 aig 4a aaa [8a | 289 [24 faa | 104840 5 a9 [45 {38.8 [85 | 265 [125 | ia [1658.30 8 449 [46 [388 | 86 | 26.2 [126 | 14.2 [165 | 8.20. T aaa | 47} 38.3] 67 | 25.9 [ 127 | 440 [167 | “6.10 8 44.8 48 38.0 88 25.5 128 13.8 168. 8.00 9 a47_[ 40 [a7] 89 {252 | 120 | “136 [160 | 7.89, jo [cat] 60 ars [90240 [ 180 | 3.4 [170 [782 [ag | 81372 | 9 ze 131 | 132 [at] 778 42 [oad 82369] oe | 32 | 13.0 ie 76a 13_[ a4] es 36,7] 93239 [aa | 428173 [7.56 ja [aad [ba [ a6 | 9a [236 [tea | 26 ia 746 15 [443 [58 [364] 95 [209 [196 |t24 [175 | 7.38 6] 442| 56} a88 | 98 [22.9 | 496 [122176 | 7.29) 7 | 4a a7 [368 | or | m6 | tar_| tao [tee [rt feo a9 6896.2 98 | 92.3 98 se 73. jo | 438] 80 | 349 | 99 | 20 [139 [14.7 | t79 [7.05 207 [437 60} 46 | 100 | 2.7140 [41.5 | 180] 0.97 i 343101 21.3_| tat tia | 481 [6.90 22 [-aaa [62] 40] 02 | 2.0 [aa 4.2 | 12 | 6.82 23 43.3 63 33.7 4103 20.7 143, 14.0 483. 6.75 24 | 43.4 64_[334_| toa | 20.4 “| 14a | t0.9 [184] 667 25 [430 [65 | 330 | 105 [201 [i [10.7185 | 6.60. 26] aan [66 | aa7 | 106 | t98 | tas_[ 106 1105 | 6.53 37 a37_| er | 2d | tor [tos | tar [10.8 | te7_| 646 35 _[ 425 [68 [92.1108 | 492 [4810.3 | 488 | 6.39. 29 [423] 69] 318 | 103 | tea [149 [10.2 | tao | 632 30. 42.4 70, 31.4 410 18.6. 150, 10.0. 490 6.26. a1 aig ft 314 | ai [133 | 161) 99t [ion [6.9 32 418 | 72} 308 | 112 [180 | 152 | “ore [192 | 6.13 33 416 [73 | 305 | 113 | 77] 183965 “[193_| 6.06 3g ata} 4 | 30.2” [tia [ara isa [9.63 T1941 6.00. 35_[7at2_| 75 | 298 115 4.1] 188240] 195 [5.94 36 [408 [76 | 205 | 116 | 168 | 185 [928 | 196 | 5.88, a7 [40.777 [92 |_| tes | 4579.17 t97 | 5.82 36] 405} 78 _|—2e8 [118 | 402 [| ~ts8_[ 9.05 | 498 | 5.76 39 [403 | 79 [285 | t19 | 16.0 [ 159 | a.94 | “1998.70 4040.0 | 80 | 2822-120 [15.7 | 1608.82 | 200 [5.65 Adapt rom Stel Construction Manual. 13 a, AISC, 2008. CNLENGNEERING 1571002 ‘081Y "Pe EN eRUEHT UoIDRUOD faHS WOH peIEEPY (cg vey sea 10. endo 4 seep UAE ae we = = =. ue es we er a oS el we [a wo [| a ss = | # va [ve mw lm | ow | oe | ae a = [_# oe | woz | ow | ome | om a ce wa |e mp fm | | @ | [uw] | & ale [|e [we [ae |e pn) m om = |e |= |] & a pu fe |e >e | |e |e as | |= |e | 2] é a ale Le pe pepe] [| | = | |= | me | me wz |e |e |e |e@e|e | a ie [ae eee fs pm fe] e [| | ww = | [mw | |= |» | § fos [we | a | we a : EJ a ov | ue se o os 8 z _ |e | | we |e 3 | we | E we) we | | oe ear PS om | ew | ww =] 3 a co see | we | @ |» | = [mw fm | | é ease ze me le pe fe to fo] = l= ls [es |e > > |e |e | |e |= |» | m |e | ov Tw |e | |e |e | w | @ | oe | o | os | = | m | me [ [8 |e pm pe |» | = | @ [= [om tw | ew fe @ |= |e [= | mw | = | | we | me a ej | a | wm | | | | | = w |e | | me | om |? =] pe ps > |e >e |e | «|e |e fm | ow | ow [ ow | = [| [= [= |» |» >s |s*s|s*),* )|s | |e | 7 bat zn ran a 060+ Tyan THN TN PH PRPS ee -sedeys sd uessarduog jes weg agEYEAY beeen sty ait 158 cL ENGNEERNGENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING For information about environmental engineering refer to the ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING section. HYDROLOGY NRCS (SCS) Rainfall-Runoff (p= 0.28" Pa ORs P =precipitation (inches), urve number. Rational Formula = CIA, where A= watershed area (acres), C= runoff coefticient, 1 rainfall intensity (in Au), and Q = peak discharge (ef), Darey’s law Q=-KAldh/ds), where = discharge rate (A%see or ms), .yctaulic head (ft or m), and = cross-sectional area of flow (for m*), Kaha) 4 = specific discharge or Darcy velocity yin = Kinley y= average seepage velocity @ K ~hydraulie conduetivity (flsee or m/s), h 4 4 n= effective porosity Unit hydrograph: The direct runoff hydrograph that would result from one unit of effective rainfall ‘cecurting uniformly in space and time over a unit period of time. ‘Transmissivity,T, is the product of hydraulic conductivity and thickness, 5, of the aquifer 127, Storauivity or storage coefficient, §, of an aguiferis the volume of water taken into or released from storage per ‘unit surface area per unit change in potentiometric (piezomettic) head. WELL DRAWDOWN: PERMEABLE SOIL" ‘BOTTOM OF AQUIFER where Q. =Mlow rate of water drawn from well (ef) kk ~ coefficient of permeability of soil (fps) hy =height of water surface above bottom of aquifer at perimeter of well (1) diy, = height of water surface above bottom of aquifer at distance r, from well centerline (A) = radius to water surface at perimeter of well, ie, radius of well (A) ry = radius to water surfice whose height is ly above bottom of aguiter (f) In = natural logarithm CONILENOWEERING 159Ratio of Minimum or of Peak-o-Average Dally Sewage Flaw SEWAGE FLOW RATIO CURVES ‘ : ; = 3 —beaod a = 2 Curve As Curve Boe i a+0P «f= cme BEd MiNiMyia FLOWS: 02. eau ry = T 2 4 S67 ASW 20 8040 G0 BD100 A040 000 T000 Population in Thousands (P) HYDRAULIC-ELEMENTS GRAPH FOR CIRCULAR SEWERS Values oft L and 2. 7 jjQ 1214 16 18 20 22 24 206 28 90 92 94 90 oot} | sf va wn opt 5 nf eonaant | > EE tndepenasn ot ; o| penitent of nf IH area Plone, ie OA 05 0S G7 08 09 10 14 72 19 Hydraulic Elements: ©. sand B yop ay Ry 1+ bes od Cate Seay ad Som Sie, sr Pelin Coo Frain and Atan Soto Ci Engen, 17 160 CR ENGINEERING‘Open-Channel Flow Specific Energy gia 20% Bn ade ty = aie + nwhare specific energy, discharge, velocity, depth of flow, cross-sectional area of flow, and kinetic energy correction factor, usally 1.0. sal Depth = that depth in a channe! af minimum specific energy Lut mince where Q and A are as defined above, g = seceleration due to gravity, and T = width of the water surface. For rectangular channels yy = eritical depth, q = unit discharge = O/B, B= channel width, and g = acceleration due to gravity. Froude Number = ratio of inertial forees to gravity forces ve velocity, and yy = bydraulie depth = A/T Specific Energy Diagram ae? Alternate depths: depths with the same specifie energy. Uniform flow: a flow condition where depth and velocity do not change along a channel, Manning's Equation = Kanye” Q = discharge (ft/sec or m/s), K_ = 1.486 for USCS units, 1.0 for ST units, A. = cross-sectional area of low (fo), hydraulic radius = 4/P(R or), veited pevimeter (tor m), slope of hydraulic sure (IVT or vn), and Manning's roughness coefficient. ‘Normal depth (uniform flow depth) on xs? Ani Weir Formulas Fiee discharge suppressed o=cLH™ Free discharge contracted O=CtL-0.2H VeNotch Q= CH, where Q = discharge (ef oF m/s), CC =3,33 for rectangular weir (USCS units), C= 1.84 for rectangular weir (S1 units, CC. =254 for 90° V-notch weir (USCS units) CC. =1.40 for 90° Vinotch weir (ST units), L H = weir length (form), and = head (depth of discharge over weit) for m. lias Equation V= kCRW'S'™, where C= roughness coefficient, ky = 0.849 for SI units, and 1,318 for USCS units, hhydeaulic radius (Norm), 5. ~ slope of energy grade line, fl (Pt or rin), and V- = velocity (f/see or mis) ‘Values of Hazen-Williams Coefficient C Pipe Material 7 Conerete (regardless of age) 130 Cast irom: New 130 Syrold 120 20 yr old 100 Welded steel, new 120 Wood stave (regardless of age) 120 Vitvtied clay 110 Riveted steel, new 110 Brick sewers 100 Asbestos-coment 140 Plastic 150 cIvILENONEERNG 161For additional fluids information, see the FLUID MECHANICS section. ‘TRANSPORTATION US. Customary Units leceleration rate (fsec") ‘A = absolute value of algebraic diference in grades (%) = superelevation (4) f= side fiction factor £G=percent grade divided by 100 (uphill grade "*") eight of driver's eyes above the roudway sure () = height of object above the roadway surface (M) = length of curve (A) pial transition length (ft) = radius of eurve (R) copping sight distance (0) = driver reaction time (se2) lesign speed (mph) ehiele approach speed (fps) vidth of intersection, curb-to-curb (A) length of vehicle (R) = length of yellow interval to nearest 0.1 sec (see) rr =fength of red clearance interval to nearest 0.1 see (ee) Stee qt oes Vehicle Signal Change Interval + Eero wal Stopping Sight Distance v s0((sts Lame 4 162 cvEeNcneenne‘Transportation Models ‘Sec INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING for optimization models and methods, including queueing theory. ‘Traffic Flow Relationships (q = kv) caraciry SPEED vc) VOLUME qisetyi) DENSITY k (veka) DENSITY k vein) SPEED ph) caeactry VOLUME veto) Vertical Curves: Sight Distance Related to Curve Length object beyond a sag vertical curve) Sek Crest Vertical Curve a oF: General equatio oon +E 7 Standard Criteria 2 hy = 3.50 fhand fy = 2.0 elas L = 2g - 2158 2,158 a ‘Sag Verical Curve ca (based on standard headlight We criteria) ‘Sag Vertical Curve (based on riding comfort) L Sag Vertical Curve or eeeseercels cee 800 (ht (based on adequate sight distance L iy ro a5 - $2%(c Atle) Andean overs’ stmt o see ay soo(e~o%) re feet ‘C= vertical clearance for overhead structure (overpass) located within 200 of the midpoint of the curve Horizontal Curves Side friction factor (based on superelevation) fa ooter fa f ISR 3.asv? RC C= rate of increase of lateral acceleration {use 1 fvsec" unless otherwise stated] Sight Distance (to see around obstruction) S88) 2 a [1 ~ coe (2S ae [ ( R HSO = Horizontal sight line offset ‘IVILENGWEERNG 163Horizontal Curve Formulas D_ = Degree of Curve, Are Definition PC. = Point of Curve (also called BC) PT = Point of Tangent (also called EC) PI =Point of Intersection T= Intersection Angle (also called A) Angle Between Two Tangents L =Length of Curve, from PC to PT T= Tangent Distance B= External Distance R =Radius LC =Length of Long Chota Length of Middle Ordinate ¢ = Length of Sub-Chord d= Angle of Sub-Chord T= Curve Length for Sub-Choré c M 5729.88 R D Le Fain(772) T= Ruan( 1/2) 2Rsin(a/2) (fs) tet | Deficetion angle per 100 feet of arc length equals D/2 164 cn ENGWEERING Pr LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES + hebiude Departure + Departure | meHighway Pavement Design TO Structural Number Equation SN AyD y + eaDz +. dD where SN = structural number for the pevement a, layer coefficient and D; = thickness of layer (inches). Gross Axle Load Gross Axle Load Load Equivalency, ator Tar kN 2 ib Single ‘Tandem: AN ib Single ‘Tandem kas | ae A |B 445 1,000 0.00002 187.0 42,000 25.64 “251 wo | 20m | omor iss | stano | stan | 300 | ms | 400 | sons woo | aso | seo | ar zias | sino | a0030 ims | aso | ara | ass vet | sano | aonoe 38} ano | ase | aur ss | seo | 003 waa] moo | sist | axe us | scot | cos | ome | ania | somo 2a ssa | rao | ous | cow | aaa | sion oe a3 | isto | oa | eon | as | sso oon cer | isimo | oan | aowo | 80 | sono al na | temo | os | oona | asso | seam vas ao [temo [14m | “oor | ~ acto | ~ soo 29 wo | zou | is: | aime | arse | somo oat sis | zaao | aie | ou | aes | sico taza woos | zo | 30s | eae | ama | esa 1295 1112 | — 25,000 353 0.308 293.5 66,000 13.73 tise | 2am | a | oat | as | como i338 tas | som | 339 | os | ans | m0 rn i333 | sno | ear | oss | 200 | r200 198 as | szom | aan | ossr | aso | 24000 nat tsa | som | ste | ans "5000 zat iss | ssom | ia | tas | ano | tooo 26s ro | som | iam | tae | sara | roo aan reso | som | ian | im | asoo | somo 2199 tres | aeoor | aas | 20s [_ _ Note: kN converted to fb are within @.1 percent of Ib shown, 165 cvLENGNEERNGSuperpave PERFORMANCE-GRADED (PG) BINDER GRADING SYSTEM FeRronMacE a0 Pow row P06 “ee [8-2 [ee 8 eS a [a (NEUE ORF WAI PREVENT = Dscn TEMPERATURE,“ TiseM noes ee Pea Pep [a oe as oe fe enero, °c "LAG PONT TER Ta WON Bo wscosincastu nee » “s Wasnt 3s, este one sea, 8 # e ‘nb HRI 300K TESTTEUPERATUEE @ atin, ROLLNG THN FLIMOEX(TA0)CR TANFL OVEN) RESIE ‘yac sca, 2 « ow ‘Sn, NIM, 22080 TESTTESP @ Oat * ‘PRESSURE AGING VEEL AEROUE 1) PaO TeWERATURE, © 5 ‘« ones SHEAR 1 ‘Sin, WARD 800588 as| a] w]e) x) 0] 7] a) 2] fof fo | a far fw TESTTEMP Q 0eti."¢ PAYS BEND ePoRT ‘once ners, 1P it “Hac 0 ILE MU 208 ace est Teg We." reer eGo Test atte TRAN wey 19% | 9 | 4g | aa) se | 20) 0] 6 | -5 | ota] ta] a0) an | 2 | 2 TEST TEI @ Leia Fada ghey Adnistoa Rept FHWA SA6645,"Beskgruntl Saupe ask Mitre Des aA No 18 CML ENGINEERING 167‘SUPERPAVE MIXTURE DESIGN: AGGREGATE AND GRADATION REQUIREMENTS CENT PASS CTE TOOMTROL PONTE] TRE RENTON SRD [MARI BESO SZC SRRMEDEG el fos [es [0 [eS gpsro | HOM AA SE Sa vee 9a Toe setae mn. [ MAXIMUM SIZE (mn) 425 [190 [250 [375 [50.0 wD iG 37.5, 100 90-100. ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS A [oo FRERESSTOEEOINERPMLTRATO WIM T-E-TD 19.0 400, 90-100 | SHORT-TERM OVEN AGING AT 135°C, br. a saan TER STRAT TAN TS a ts oats EEE (REO ONES i epee pea a] eee te ben tee et [ats] commseacoreanre | eneaccreoare [SAN | cay ‘SINGLE AXLE ANGULARITY ANGULARITY, PARTICLES | CONTENT Sus ce | DEST RRON SvaRGE—|-DEPTROSUREROE || _ 9 Fae Saves [aia | =rarmn | Wem | ecotenr ah we e : ~ ee Siete a a Sn aero} at on ‘COARSE AGGREGATE ANGULARITY: "85180" MEANS THAT 85% OF THE COARSE AGGREGATE HAS A MINIMUM OF ONE FRACTURED FACE AND 80% HS TWO FRACTURED FACES, FINE AGGREGATE ANGULARTY: CRITERIAARE PRESENTED AS THE MINIMUM PERCENT AIR VOIDS IN LOGSELY-COMPACTED FINE AGGREGATE FLATNESS AND ELONGATED PARTICLES: ORITERIAARE PRESENTEO AS A MAXINUM PERCENT BY WEIGHT OF FLAT AND ELONGATED PARTICLES, CCLAY CONTENT: CLAY CONTENT IS EXPRESSED AS APERCENTAGE OF LOCAL SEDIMENT HEIGHT INA SEDIMENTATION TEST. MAXIMUM SIZE: ONE SIEVE LARGER THAN THE NOMINAL MAXIMUM SIZE. [NOMINAL MAXBIUM SIZE: ONE SIEVE SIZE LARGER THAT THE FIRST SIEVE TO RETAIN MORE THAN 10% OF THE AGGREGATE, ‘SUPERPAVE MIXTURE DESIGN: COMPACTION REQUIREMENTS: VFA REQUIREMENTS ‘SUBERPAVE GYRATORY COMPACTION EFFORT @AGAR VOIDS TRAFRC, "AVERAGE DESIGN HIGH AIR TEMPERATURE TRarric, | DESIGN MILLION 230 39° 40°C aie 42°C = a MILLION |” Vex ESALS [Wa [Naw [Neo [Wa [ New [ Waar | Nin {Wes [Was Neu [Naw] | ESAS | _(%) og (7 | es [ioe [ or [om |e tr [re [i fr [2 [er] | <0s [70-60 a <1 [05-78 <3 1 | a6 [tee [8 [95 [iso [ae | t00 [tse |e | 0s [67 <3_[ 65-78 EO 6 c D D D Nowe ‘Surfce win peed measured at 10 m above the ground b. CCorespondst lee sine day with sun hight than 60” above de horizon, CCoresponds 4 8 sumer day with few broken cloud, 0° cew day ith sun 35-60" above the hora 4. Conespond to fl teroon, oracle amimer dy, or lear soma day wid the sun 15-359, 2 Cloutiness i dined sth action of sky covered by the elds f PorA-B,B-C,orC-D eondidon, average te vale obtained foreach 4 Am Very westale D=Newal B= Moderately usable = Siipiy stable (C= slighty unstable Fssuable earls of wit ped, Cass D should be assuned fr overcast conitons, iy o night. $70 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGHEERINGBt Bo? 23 é ae g: z 10 o rr cr eT) DISTANCE DOWNWIND, x, METERS VERTICAL STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF A PLUME a | METERS. w ©, STANDARD DEVIATION, 0 eee eee ge Se Oe DISTANCE DOWNWIND, x, METERS HORIZONTAL STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF A PLUME A~ EXTREMELY UNSTABLE B~ MODERATELY UNSTABLE. (G~SLIGHTLY UNSTABLE O-NEUTRAL E- SLIGHTLY STABLE F-MODERATELY STABLE ‘Ter, B2, “Workbook of Ntmaers Digaslen Estimates, US Departent of Hanh, Basen. and Wels, Weirton, DC 1970 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 171‘AW BOREMELY UNSTABLE - ‘A NODERATELY UNSTABLE (C= SUGHTUY UNSTABLE = NEUTRAL SLIGHTLY STABLE F CMODERATELY STABLE NOTE: Effective stack height shown on curves numerically. (2) sna = 9b Uhl) H = effective stack height, stack height + plume ise, m ‘Values of Curve-Fit Constants for Estimating (Ci/Q) as from H7 as a Funetion of Atmospheric Stability ’ Constants Stabili a 6 é aaa a =10563——2.7153——O.1261 0 B -1.8060 2.1912 0.0389 ° c “19748 -1,9980 ° 0 D 25302-15610 -0.0934 ° B 14496-25910 0.2181 0.0343 F 1.0488 3.2052 097T_———-0.0765 ‘Rasa om Ranchous, RIP, 1976 1 rent 0.4 "Watke Arnie Dien Esa abn Die Mag abe Levin Ping RE Mes 1 ‘172. ENVIRONMENTALENMEERINGCyclone Cyclone Collection (Particle Removal) Efficiency, n= —— _,, where 1+ (de/ey) d,,7 diameter of particle collected with 50% efficiency, liameter of particle of interest, and leet for Pa Su where 2K NY (Oy — be)| = diameter of particle that is collected with 50% efficiency (m), dye = fractional particle collection efficiency. fh = dynamic viscosity of gas (kp/mes), W ~ inlet width of cyclone (rm), ’ ‘iB POLLUTION CONTROL NV, = numberof effective tums gas makes in eyelone, ¥;, = inlet velocity into eyetone (mis), Coae elem 9, = density of particte (ktm), and aa Py = density of gas (kg/m). Fer to - =| a + 41h S ~O e ie ik 3 10 ecewmowvew i fy an 1 7 Pd Pate Size Ratio N, =number of effective turns gas makes in cyclone, HF = inlet height of cyclone (m), Ly, = length of body cyclone (m), and Lz, = length of cone of eyelone (m). ’ Cyclone Ratio of Dimensions to Body Diameter nsion High Efficiency Conventional High Throughput Tolet height, 77 044 0.50 0.80 Inlet width, 7 o2t 0.25 035 Body length, Ly 1.40 115 1.70 Cone length, L, 250 2.00 2.00 Vortex finder length, $ 0.30 0.60 085 Gas exit diameter, D, 0.40 0.50 0.5 Dust outlet diameter, Dy 0.40 049 0.40 1 Atencio in: At at Ct Dench De, Pg M1, ‘ENVIRONMENTAL ENGNEERNG 173Baghouse Ain-to-Cloth Ratio for Baghouses ‘Shaker/Woven Reverse Pulse AirWoven JeuFelt Dust fm(minem?)]_—__ fin (mine?) os 24 asbestos 09 30 bauxite 08 24 carbon black os 15 coal! 08 24 cocoa 08 31 clay os 27 cement 06 24 cosmeties os 30 ‘enamel frit 08 27 feeds, grain 11 43 feldspar 07 27 fextilizer 09 24 flour 09 37 fly ash 08 15 graphite 06 15 gypsum 06 3.0 iron ore 09 34 iron oxide 08, 21 iron sulfate 06 18 lead oxide 06 18 leather dust 11 37 lime 08 30 limestone 08 24 mica 08 27 paint pigments 08 20 paper Ld 3.0 plastics 08 21 quartz 09 27 rock dust 09 27 sond 08 3.0 sawdust (Wood) Ml 37 silica 08 2A slate Ll 37 soap detergents 06 13 spices 08 starch 09 sugor 06 tale 08 tobacco La ine oxide 0.6 US 6° ON Ces Nl tha, SADT FOOD OHS ny ‘74 ENVIRONMENTAL ENORIEERING Electrostatic Precipitator Efficieney Deutseh-Anderson equation: yal where ‘y= fiuctional collection efficiency = terminal drift velocity A = {otal collection area Q = volumetric gas flow rate Note that any consistent set of units ean be used for W, A, and Q (for example, fmin, f?, and {P/min). Incinerati pre = Ua = Hes 100% where DRE = destruction and removal efficiency (%) nas feed rate ofa particular POHC (kg/h or Ibyh) mass emission rate of the same POHC (egih or Ib/h) Co, 4 ffs Corer COM re CO, =Volume concentration (dry) of CO, (parts per million, volume, ppm,) CO = volume concentration (dry) of CO (ppm,) CE = combustion efficiency POHC = principal organic hazarous contaminantFATE AND TRANSPORT. icrobial Kinetics ROD Bxsition yn lle) where kk, ~ deoxygenation rate constant (base , days) 1 =ultimate BOD (mg/L) 1 time (days) yy =the amount of BOD exerted at time £ (mg/L) ‘Stream Modbaling: Streeter Phelps D = A [exp(—he) ~ exp(—he)] + Drexr(—et) DO=D0,.-D where D_ = dissolved oxygen defiit (mg/L) DO = dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L) Dy itil dissolved oxygen deficit in mixing zone (opt) DO, = saturated dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L) = dooxygenstion ate constant, base e (days) ky = teaeration rate constant, base e (days) by al BOD ultimate in mixing zone (mg/L) ime (ays) ime which eorvesponds with minimum dissolved oxygen (days) Monod Kineties=Substrate Limited Growth Contingous flow systems where growth is limited by one substrate (chemostat): Vhs rs Vow FH ~ Me Mulpic Limiting Substrates pe bell) bo ()]---(S0)] where 1 = Kt Non-steedy State Continuous Flow = Dig + (= by — DJ Steady State Continuous Flow b= Dwith hy << pp Product produetion at steady state, single substrate limiting, X= Tush Ss ~ 5) kg. ~ microbial death rate or endogenous decay rate constant (time!) = maximum growth rate eonstant (time!) KX, =saturation constant or half-velocity constant [-concentration a Ugg /2 -oncentation of substrate in solution (mnass/unit volume) Y =yield coefficient [(mass/L product)/(mass/L food used) JL = specific growth rate (ime) = maximum specific growth rate (time ")= Thy Haws 4 Monod growth rate constant as a fatetion of limiting food concentration. 5 5 a a LIMITING EUOD CONCENTRATION, s (ag) 2, = product (mg/L) ¥, = volume (12) D_— =dilution rate (flow f/reactor volume ¥,3 hr") f= flow rate (Uhr) H, = growth rate with one or multipte limiting substrates (hr) S,=substrate i concentration (mass/unit volume) ‘Sy = initial substrate concentration (mase/unit volume) Ys ~ produet yield per unit of substrate (mass/mass) Pp _~produet concentration (mass/unit volume) x, =cell concentration (mass/unit volume) iy = initial cell concentration (massfunit volume) ¢ = time (time) EAVIRONVENTALENGEERING 175Partition Coefficients Bioconcentrstion Factor BCI ‘The amount of a chemical fo accumulate in aquatic organisms. BOF where Cygg= equilibrium concentration in organist (mg/kg oF ppm) C= concentration in water (ppm) Octanol-Water Patton Coeficin ‘The ati of chemicals concentration inthe octanol paseo its concentration inthe aqueous phase ofa two-phase otanol: ver stem, KO, where C, = concentation of chemical in octana phase (np oral) concentration of chemical in aqueous phase (mit opel) + Steady-State Reactor Parameters Organic Carbon Pautition Cocfiicient K,. Kye Coat! Carer where yy ~ concentration of chemical in organic carbon ‘component of sail (ug adsorbed/kg organic C, or ppb) Cree = concenttation of chemical in water (ppb or Herke) Retardation Factor R + pIMKy where p= bulk density a = porosity K, = distribution coefficient ‘Soil Water Pattion Cootficient Ky. K, K, IC where x ‘oncentration of chemical in soil (ppb or j1g/kg) C= concentration of chemical in water (ppb or jtg/kg) Kay Kechee fe > fraction of organic carbon in the soil (dimensionless) ‘Comparison of Steady-State Retention Times (6) for Decay Resetions of Diffevent Order” uations for Mean Reteion Tes @) Retedon Over ‘ dea Batch Teal Pg Flow Teal CFR Zero ke Co, (Co-G) ri r Fit 4c t (cafe) (Caf04)-1 k ie k ‘Second ke qe (Ca/C,)-1 (CofGy)-1 ke, *G, “tc °C, = initial eonceateation or bafluent conesnération; inal coudltion or efMvent concentration. a Trp Sad Ste Promos for Dos) Ronen of iron Ov Tyaatonser reaction Over : Tass Bary Wal Pig Fw — Wea MFR Zero? t= Clk ke Cooke Cy ke Co ko ben Q First, kc Colexp)]—Cyfexp(-k6)) ris Second Kc C, C, ie re ora 7 “C.= ial concent ox inlet congsnain; = il condo tet concent, Tine anti r r ilbats oct ony 176. ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERINGLANDFILL, Break-Through Time for Leachate to Penetrate a Clay Liner reakthrough time (yr) jekness of clay liner (8) porosity = hydraulic cond hk hydraulic head (8) ity (vy) ‘Typical porosity values for clays with w coefficient of permeability in the range of 10to 10 Semis vary from 0.1 003, Effect of Overburden = pe. SW, = 8+ Pag Specific weight ofthe waste material at pressure _p (lb/ye) (typical 1,750 to 2,150) SIV, initial compacted specific weight of waste (Ub/ye?) (ypieal 1,000) ‘p= overburden pressure (b/in?) a empirical constant (rin?) $1 constant (y4?/lb) Da** (Cage ~ Con) je where Ny = 08 flux of compound A, fyfem tb « mot a) = concentration of compound 4 atthe surface ofthe andl cover, em (Ib « mol/t?) = concentration of compound 4 at the bottom ofthe lnadfill cover, fem? (Ib + mol/A) L__ = depth ofthe landall cover, an (1) Typical values for the coefficient of difusion for wnethane and carbon dioxide are 0.20 ems (18.6 #7#a) and 0.13 ers (12.1 fd), respectively. D__ = diffusion coefficient, ns (8d) Tx = BAseflled porosity, emforn? (PA?) n= porosity, em?/emn (YA) Soil Landfill Cover Water Balance ASjo= P- R~-ET~PER,, where AS,c change in the amount of water held in storage in a unit volume of landfill cover (ia,) P mount of precipitation per unit area (in,) R mount of runoff’ per unit area (in.) BT sount of Water lost through evapotranspiration per ‘unit area in.) PER, = amount of water percolating through the wait area of landiill eover into compacted solid waste (in.) NOISE POLLUTION SPL (dB) ~10 log (P2/P3) SPlygy = 10 Logg 310%" Point Source Attenuation SPL (dB) = 10 logiy(r/t, Line Source Attenuation A SPL (AB) = 10 logyg(ry/r,) where SPL (dB) = sound pressure level, measured in decibels Pp = sound pressure (Pa) Py = reference sound pressure (2 x 10-*Pa) SPLie sum of multiple sources A SPL. (4B) = change in sound pressure level with distance, ‘measured in decibels % = distance from source to receptor al point 1 distance from source to receptor at point 2 POPULATION MODELING Population Projection Equations Linear Projection = Algebraic Projection P,=Pyt kat where P, = population at time t Py = population at time zero k= growth rate At = clapsed time in years relative to time zero Log Growth = Exponential Growth = Geometric Grow! Pa Pe In P= In Py RAL where P, = population at time ¢ P) = population at time zero & = growth rate Ar = elapsed time in yeats relative to time zero eWRONWENTAL ENGHEERNG 177RADIATION Effective Half-Life Biffective half-life, cis biological halflife. dit w the combined radioactive and where 4, = radioactive half-life 4, = biological halflife Half-Life N= Nye 20 where Ny. =original number of atoms or caries JN =final number oP atoms or cuties 1 time = halle lox at distance 2 = (Piux at distance 1) (n/n? ‘The half-life ofa biologically degraded contaminant assuming 4 first-order rate constant is given by: = 9.693 ae k sate constant (time) tq = half-life time) SAMPLING AND MONITORING Ionizing Radiation Equations Daughter Product Activity lecay constants (tiene) initial activity (cuties) of parent nuclei © time Daughter Product Maximum Activity Time Indy = indy -hy Inverse Square Law 4. Bay ‘whore J. = Radiation intensity at locations land 2 LR, .= Distance from the source at locations | and 2 Data Quality Objectives (DQO) for Sampling Soils and Solids Confidence ‘Minimum Detectable Retative Investigation Type __| Level (Ia) (%) |_Power (1-8) (4) Difference (%) Preliminary sito investigation 70-80 90-95 10-30) Emergency clean-up 80-90 90-95; 10-20 Planned removal and remedial response operations aad fee Wee [BPA Bocuent"“EPA/GOE 899086" Sol Sampling Quay Accrece User's Ge, Capes 7. Confidence eve: I~ (Probabiliy of Type era) = 1 a ~ ie probabiiy of rot making 2 Type ron Power I~ (Probability ofa Type Ieron)= If probability of mot making 2 Type eee (100* sy coefficient of variation standard deviation of sarople sample average 429 Mininnum Detectable Relative Difference = Relative increase over background [100 (j,—ju)/tu) to be detectable with 9 probability (IB) 178 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING‘Number of samples required in a one-sided one-sample test to achieve a minimum detectable relative difference at confidence Tevel (1-«) and power (1-p) Coefficient of Variat 15 5 35 Confidence Minisnun Detectable Relative Difference Power Level e) % %) 3 10 20, 30. 40 35 as 32 7 5 95 99 26 & 5 3 90 8 2 6 3 3 80, ST 15. 4 2 2 30 39 i20 2 6 3 95 9 2 Hf 4 3 90 60 16 3 3 2 80 al i 3 2 1 w 8 oF 26 9 6 5 95 38 6 5 3 3 90 2 u 4 2 2 80 26 1 2 2 1 9% 8 Sor eee Oa zee 28 14 5 95 m 6 9 9 6 90 216 31S 7 5 frst WD FLEES SPP AD HERE IRSLeUD eceeee 30 99 309 as 2 8 95 m nm 9 9 6 90 166 aoeacnia 6 4 80 Ld 29 8 4 3 w 99 2s 69 io 7 95 156 He 6 4 90 uid 20 8 4 3 80 R 19 5 3 2 3 99 715196 es areces 95 320 M38 (geEeIO: %0 a 6B B 8 20 304, eapeceedeon 9 6 90 99 oes a 13 95 a8 14 8 9 2 4 10 6 0222 3S 1 4 0 39 ass Tree 95 305 7% 10 7 0 22 318 7 5 80 140 3610 3 3 ENVIRONMENTAL ENONEERING 179RISK ASSESSMENT/TOXICOLOGY For information about chemical process safety, refer to the CHEMICAL ENGINEERING section. Dose-Response Curves ‘The dose-response curve relates foxie response (ie., percentage of test population exhibiting a specified symptom or dying) to the logarithm of the dosage [ice,, mg/Ckgeday) ingested]. A typical dose-response curve is, shown below. a ‘oxtcanr TONIC RESPONSE (PERCENT) s De De Logan OF THE Dose Cy Median lethal concentration in air that, based laboratory tests, expected to kill 50% of a group of test animals when administered as a single exposure over one ot four hours, Dg Median lethal single dose, based on laboratory tests, expected to kill 50% of group of test animals, usually by oral or skin exposure, Similar definitions exist for LC, and LD, where the corresponding percentages are 10%, ‘Comparative Acutely Lethal Doses ‘etual Ranking LDsp (mg/kg) Toxie Chemical No. i 15,000 PCBs 2 10,000 Alcohol (ethanol) 3 4,000 ‘Tablo salt—sodium chloride 4 1,900 torent 5 1,375 Malathion—pestcide 6 900 Morpline 7 150 Phenobarbital sedative 8 1a ‘Tylenol (acetaminophen) ° 2 Steyelnine—a at poison 10 1 Nicotine n os ‘Curare—an arrow poison 2 0.001 23,1,8-TCDD (dioxin) B 0.00001 ‘Botulinum toxin (food poison) 180 ENVRONMENTALENGINEERING Sequential absosption-disposition-interaction of Foreign compounds with humans and animals. 4 suinanation ‘Selected Chemical Interaction Effects ee Relative toxicity | ae Erteet | voutetieay: | PANE ‘Additive 2 ‘Organophosphate ponies Syaargile | 2+5=20 | Cigar aking ae Anogoniaie [6+ 6-8 Toluene F aa tale seat tans. ta 4 Res rp Tay: noi a pain eed Way wnHazard Assessment ‘The fire/hazard diamond below summarizes common hazard data available on the MSDS and is frequently shown ‘on chemical labels. ® Position A Hazard (Blue) ry combustible hazard azardous 3 =exireme danger 4= deadly Position B ~ Flanmabiity (Red) 1 = will ignite if preheated 2.=will ignite if moderately heated 3 ~will ignite at most ambient temperature 4 burns readily at ambient conditions Position C— Reactivity (Yellow) 0=stable and not reactive with water instable if heated olent chemical change 3= shock short may detonate A= may detonate Position D ~ (White) ALKALI = alkali OXY = oxidizer ACID= acid Cor Ww = corrosive se no water % 7 = radiation hazard Flammable Describes any soli, liquid, vapor, or gas that will ignite easily ‘and bura rapidly, A flammable liquid is defined by NFPA and DOT as a liquid witha flash point below 100°F (38°C). Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) ‘The MSDS indicates chemical source, composition, hazards and health effects, first aid, frecighting precautions, accidental-release measures, handling and storage, exposure controls and personal protection, physical and chemical properties, stability and reactivity, toxicological information, ecological hazards, disposal, transport, and other regulatory information, “The MSDS forms forall chemical compounds brought on site should be filed by a designated site safety officer, The MSDS form is provided by the supplier or must be developed when new chemicals are synthesized. Exposure Limits for Selected C TV Aliowabie workpiace pounds Exposure Level (mgyan'y Chemica (use) eee oF Todine 2 5 Aspisin 3 10 Vegetable ol mists (cooking oi) |,1.2-Trichloroethane by cd (oivenidegreaser) Perchloroethylene i a {dry-cleaning fuid) 6 110 Toluene (organic solvent) ‘Trichloroatylene a bad (solvenuiiegreaser) ‘Teteabydrofuran ie a (organic solvent) 9 890 Gasoline (uel) 10 1,590 Naphthe (rubber solvent) i a 1,1,1-Triehlorosthane Goiveatidepreaser) ‘Apron Cols of Gasolina yee ACG) 196d Wis, PL. 2 Ses ns Reber Pop aay Boment anf he! ‘pts Dey Wy Now ae 208 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 181sastvbamia nouvwana9 [7] twronnn ing snocuvee 38 Ai “TRINA OIKOL 40 NOUWZTHEMIOS a s NouenEAUOd NOSIS |S NouWaaNa5 svo TBWWIV 30 NOUPENID SYD NOL 19 8¥9 THNWIVIENON 8 SnoNoONN =D Bd NOUWAIENSS ISH 005 ‘SEONENEESNOS LUVHO ALITIBLIVdNOD aLsvM snoguYZvH 182 ENVIRONWENTAL ENSRIEERINGRisk Risk characterization estimates the probability of adverse incidence oocuring under conditions identified during ‘exposure assessment. Carelnogen For carcinogens, the added risk of cancer is calculated as, follows: Risk = dose x toxicity = CDI x CSF CDI= Chronic Daily Intake CSP= Cancer Slope Factor, Slope of the dose-response ccurve for carcinogenic materials. reoran can ‘Nonearcinogens soon Dose is expressed mass of chemical Dod weight » exposure time NOAEL =No Observable Adverse Effect Level. The dose below which there are no harmful effects. For nonearcinogens, a hazard index (i) is calculated as follows: HI ~ chronic daily intake/®/D Reference Dose Roference dose (R/D) is determined from the Nonearcinogenie Dose-Response Curve Using NOAEL. = NOEL ve eee OR and SHD » hyp * W = MOABE,* W ware SHD. = sate numan dose (mg/d) NOABL =thrsbol dose per test ail (meg) from he dso pons curve ee reality ofthe anil est ata W =the weight of the adult male (typically 70 ka) UVRONWENTAL ENGNEERNG 183Exposure Residential Pxposure Equations for Various Pathways Ingestion in drinking water CDI (CWURYEEXED) BW)AT) Ingestion while swimming cr= (CHXCl (aWyAT) Dermal contact with wator AD = (CWNSAMPCKETIEENEDUCH (BWYAT) Ingestion of chemicals in soil CDT= (CS\ARYCEMEDIEEWED! GWA Dermal contact with sol AD = (CS\CPYSAMAFYABSVEFKED) BWYAT) Inhalation of airborne (vapor phase) chemicals” DI = CAMIRMETIEEYED) @BWYAT) Ingestion of contaminate fits, vegetables, fish and shellfish cI= (CRARYEDIEFYED) @Wyany where ABS ~ absorption factor for soil eontaminant (untles) AD_ = absorbed dose (mg/{kgeday)) AP. =soil-to-skin adherence factor (mg/m?) AT. “averaging time (days) BW =body weight (kg) CA. = contaminant concentration in air (mg/m) CDI © chronic day intake (mgtkgrday]) CF = volumetric conversion factor for water 1L/1,000 em? = conversion factor for soil = 10-* kg/mg CR = contact rae (Lin) CS. = chemical concentration in sol (mg/kg) CW = chemical concentration in water (mg/L) ED. = exposure duration (years) EP ~ exposure frogueney (days/yr or events/yeat) ET = exposure time (hriday or hifevent) FI ~ fiaction ingested (unitless) IR. = ingestion rate (Liday or me soilday or kg/tnea!) inhalation rate (an'Znr) PC. = chemical-specifie dermal permeability constant (om) SA. = skin surface area available for contact (cm?) ik Auseament Gutdence for Superfund. Noa, Han Heath Brolaion Mama (gat A). US. Environments Protection Agency, EA/S4/1-85/02, 1889, "For some workplace applications of inhalation exposure, he form ofthe equation becomes: Donne = CXR a where Dasage =me substance per kg boy weight = faction of chemical absorbed by the lungs (assume 1.0 unless otherwise specified) BR breathing rate of the individual (1.47 mf for 2 hr o 0.58 anh for 6h; varies some with size of individual) © =eoneentrtion ofthe substance inthe ae (mn) BW ~boxy weight (kg, usually 70 for men and 6 kg for women 1 time (usualy taken as 8 br in these caleulstions) Besed oe animal dat, one may se dhe above relations fo cleat she safe ar concentration ithe safe human dese (SID ‘sing the Fllowing relationship ‘sip eon 184 ENVROUMENTALENGIEERINGIntake Rates EPA Recomended Values for Bstimating Intake Parameter Average body weight, adult Average body weight, child” 0-15 years 15-5 yours 5-12 years Amount of water ingested, adult Amount of water ingested, child Amount of air breathed, adult Amount of air breathed, child ‘Amount of fish consumed, adult Contact rate, swimming Inhatation rates andule (6-he day) adult 2-hr day) child ‘Skin surface available, adult male ‘Skin surface available, adult female ‘Skin surface available, child 3-6 years (average for male and female) {6-9 yeurs (average for male and female) 19-12 yeurs (average for mile and femiale) 12-15 years (average for male and female) 15-18 years (female) 15-18 years (male) Soil ingestion rate, children 1-6 years Soil ingestion rate, persons > 6 years Skin adherence factor, potting soll to hands Skin adherence factor, kaon clay to hands Exposure duration Lifetime (carcinogens, for non-carcinogens use actual exposure duration) At one residence, 90th percentile National medien ‘Averaging time [Exposure frequency (BF) ‘Swimming Eating fish and shellfish Exposure time (ET) Shower, 9th pereeatite Shower, $Otn percentile ‘Standard Val Okg 10kg lake 268 2Udey 1 Ldsy 20 miday Smiday 65 eday 50 mde 0.98 «nar LAT hr 0.46 m'”nr 1.94 m! 1.69 mt 0.720 0.925 mi? 16 me 1.49 m? 1,60 m? 1.75 200 mg/day 100 me/day 1.45 mgiem? 2.77 mpjem? ‘oyears 30 years 5 years (EDX365 days/yeas) 7 éayslyear 48 dayséyear 12min min “ams eregary iken cnr Copelan, TA, Mi Holton, I Ota, cal, “sea roabliatis mods to derstand te conser Calis sppossh to sstsng health spo yi comaminot” sara afk lead Waste agement Azecain v8 p 1395-1413, 194 ‘idk dscament Oldene fr SuperfndNo , Hunan Health Hocus Manoa (gr A) U.S, vironmental Proton Ageae, EPA. 8002, 1989, ENVRONMENTALENGNEERING 185,WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND. ‘TECHNOLOGIES Activated Sludge 8.¥(S - 8) (1 + 8.) ‘Steady State Mass Balance around Secondary Clarifier: y+ WK" OX 4 Oey t Dory ol) ae + OR, (100) ‘br(% solids) X, Solids residence time Sludge volume/day: Q, = _ Shudge volume after seing (ml./.)* 1,000 Bae MESS (mg/L) he orobial death ratio; kinetie constant; day”; typical range 0.10.01, typical domestic wastewater value = 0.05 day" S$, “effluent BOD or COD concentration (kg/m) lucnt BOD or COD concentration (kg/m?) jiomass concentration in aeration tank (MLSS or MLYSS gin?) ¥ = yield coefficient (kg biomass/kg BOD or COD consumed); range 0.41.2 © =hydrautic residence time = Holl Solids loading rate=Q-X1A For activated sindge secondary clarifier @= Qy+ Og Organic loading rate (volumetric) = QyS, (Vo! Organic loading rate (F:M) = Q,S/(VO1 X,) ‘Organic loading rate (surface area) ~ QySy/4y , = density of solids (kg/m) A- = surface area of unit “Ay, = surface area of media in fixed-flm reactor Ay -M_ = sludge produetion rate (dry weight basis) Q, = influent flow rate Q, = effluent flow rate 0, = waste sludge flow rate p,=wet sludge density R= recycle ratio = Oy/Oy Dy = recycle low rate= Oph X, ~efffuent suspended solids concentration X,, = waste sludge suspended solids concentration = cross-sectional area of channel Vo! = aeration basin volume Q = flow rate DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL PARAMUTERS FOR ACTIVATED-SLUDGE ‘TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER Hydraulic ined liquor suena ee fa eae “idee” “neem EI gy gna, At td ype of rcs THidenre iy tase ids ‘allo sauce giteiowy eM Tdarkgoaissy 2RODIn) aeaion —GuiSS, guy Teme fee BEDS od) San © (0,8) mel ‘apmedacation 1S SOD a306 CR 1003S Conventions His 02a 03-06 RNS OFS PF BUS ASD Separation Tis Oka od 5—Dopensm aaa PF B95 45-90 Compleelymined ols, O2-0 os20 © -$—Soo-enan nas-.0 CM BSB 45-90 Cont sabliznion 1S 0206 toa 025-10 +590 Cont asin 05-10 1000-3000 Pe aso Subizaton basin 26. aice-iooo0 rr Highcacalion 1S ats Leis 05-20 4000-000) aso CM 590s Fs onyasa em oat ied 3 6000-4000 025-05 CM BSS Yad egs-0ls _oe-o40 see _Soo-so00 075-150 CM __35-90___so-5 SPF = pg low, CM complsely wie Bin Tn Dn oR ey Maw 9) a oe a WS arpa are, Mam MI Hh 186 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING+ Aerobie Digestion Design eriteria for aerobic digesters* « Anaerobic Digestion Design parameters for anseroble digesters iam va ier Stnlirhie —_ Wighte Sol resides tne, d 30-50 10-20 Hyde ison ine 7G ct ne ‘Volatile sotids loading, kg/m/d 05-16 16-64 ‘Waste sean ste onty Activ tig om pln thou primacy sein may ha was sated or ling te he” Sls atin. ool so Cayenne 0 sai ye cali! a Die pry sides sas gy regent rw Meclnl set, /D &? onise iat ing 00 is 0-40 Die cnyeneldnBim- a eu volieeepende i 0-50 * aap ya on lr Palin Corel Pert Se ‘Shane Mal of Pace FD, 1S “Dnt de soa bo ets To operating tempers Blow 20°C «Sir oto tne ae we ear se soe “amma rece dig caenscees idan eked oe ream “n0.0+70,-9 360, #940 +8" es Wn 018s tent sh saa Taye? iti 006) ~ ein essere Tank Volume Vol 2 LAX + FS) Ha(keR + 1/8.) where Vol = volume of aerobic digester (®) fluent average flowrate to digester (1/4) LX, = influent suspended solids (mg/L) F = fraction of the influent BOD; consisting of raw primary sludge (expressed asa decimal) S, = inffuent BOD, (mg/L) X,_ = digester suspended solids (me/.) action-rate constant (&") olatile fraction of digester suspended solids (expressed as a decimal) ids residence time (sludge age) (4) ‘VOLATILE SOLIDS REDUCTION.% s t L (0200 40) 00 060 Tan Tato Teco TOP 0 “TEMPERATURE exSLUDOR NOK DAYS ‘SPENSER gu EMRE AND DgeSTEN DCE Ace Digesed solids concentration, % 4-6 46 Nosh coteminfon 0 3650 A888 GrepottnnngVSSaied) 05-055 06-065 ete ent & ‘ ‘Standard Rate weactr Volume = PL Val, vot, High Rate Fisteuge Reactor Volume = Volé, Second Sige Rector Vohme = ZL VO you, wee Ta raw sae input oun) ligested sludge accumulation (volume/day) 1. time rent ina tigh-ae digester = in tnt nd thekt na stds digester met thicken na highate ist ~ stg ne ! Biotower EixedFilm Equation without Reeycle ole ele Fixed r Equation ings le (eR) = Role where S, = effluent BOD, (mg/L) Sj, = influent BOD, (mg/L) R =recyele tatio= Qy/Qy Og ~ recycle flow rate D_ =4epth of biotower media (m) hydraulic Hoading (n/n? » min) = (Qy* ROA (with recycle) = (reatability constant; functions of wastewater and medium (min~; range 0.01-0.1; for municipal ‘wastewater and modular plastic media 0.06 min” @2c Ip = hl L035)" n= coefficient relating to media characteristics; modular plastic, n= 0.5 + Mgt iar an Pa Die + Rap os gear ey Mt ea, ENVRONWENTALENGNEERNG 187,Facultative Pond BOD Loading ‘Mass (Ib/day) = Flow (MGD) x Concentration (mg/L) x 8.34(lbiMGaby{me/L) ‘otal System < 35 pounds BOD,facrelay Minimam=3 ponds Depth =3-8 ft Minimum ¢~ 90-120 days WATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES Activated Carbon Adsorption Freundlich Isotherm Eaxeka mass of solute adsorbed mass of adsorbent mass ratio ofthe solid phase—that i, the mass of xdsorbed solute per mass of adsorbent CC, ~equilibriam concentration of solute, mess/volume -xperimental constants Lead For Ingi= Ling, + nk For linear isotherm, = 1 Langmy m = AKG, me XP TERE ‘mass of adsorbed solute required to saturate completely a unit mass of adsorbent experimental constant Linearized Form aol, td Hep Peeeae nome eHAUSTION egy ee ee Peau, i ¢ mat Cue | BREAKTHROUGH 0050 | ————— Va ia Va THROUCHPUTVOLUMEV-© Vy 188 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING where On ty =Vyp-Vo foo Zz, ~ depth of sorption zone Z =Total carbon depth oe ¥, = total volume treated at exhaustion (C= 0.95 C,) ¥ = total volume at breakthrough id (C=C, 0.05 C,) — ") concentration of contaminant in influent Air Stripping P, = HC, P, = pattial pressure of component i, atm H = Henry's Law constant, alm-m'/kiol CC, =concentration of component iin solvent, kmol/ar? (y,c9) (2p-Aue) woe a ire (y,Cua) ware outer TH+ ARINLETS (LOWER) (Oy Aal Aggy = Cy yy + Cig On Cin Oy = Oy HE Q4l Oy) where Acq, = concentration in the effluent air (kmol/ni?) Qpy ~ water flow rate (m/s) Q,, =air flow rate (m*/s) A, = concentration of contaminant in air (kmot/m*) Cyy:= concentration of contaminants in effluent water (kmol/n?) ‘concentration of contaminants in influent water (kmol/m?) ‘Stripper Packing Height = Z Z=HTUXNTU Assuming rapid equilibrium: wru (a 1) Seles 9 + ‘| G,where NTU = numberof transfer units HH = Henry's Law constant “HIRT dimensionless Henry's Law constant temperature in units eonsstent with R universal gas constant, atm + m?/(kmol * K) Ry =stripping factor H"(Q/0,) ‘concentration in the influent water (kmol/m*) Coy = concentration in the effluent water (kmol/m*) “Typlea Primary Clarifier Efeleney Percent Removat Overtones Ta T0800, 0 apa) (eri) Gp) Cea Meo “ao? aug dad cov) vd) td) s ied A cc) Bo, | 30% 3% mm Design Data for Clarifies for Activated Sludge Systems =_4 Wwerflow rab ond iy HTU = Height of Transer Unis = 5 ‘Overfow ae teniea [Ha ne keno where 1 sa tiguid motne londing rate mole) THe oFTeament | verge [Pek | Avewee | Feok My = molar density of water Seta owns (55.6 kmolin!) «3.47 tbmowt? eae ‘K,q =overall transfer rate constant (s"') extended worntion) 16-32 | 40-48 | 30-60 | 90 | 35-5 Selig allowing Clarifier cnendedacron | ete | aes | 1o-so | ro | 35-5 Overflow rate = Hydraulic loading rate= Vo QAswine “td tem Went RS ne 36) Weir overflow rate = WOR = QWeir Length Horizontal velocity = Approach velocity = Vj, = DA crarsscion= OIA, Hydraulic residence time = Poll = 8 where Q =flow rate Aq = eross-sectional area A ~surface area, plan view Vol = tank volume Design Criteria for Sedimentation Basins ~“Type of Basti. Overflow Rate (gpd/ft?) ‘Hydraulic Residence Time (hr) Water Treatment Prosedimentation 300-500 4 Clarification following coagulation and Noceutation 1. Aum coagulation 350-350 a8 2. Ferrie congulation 550-100 +8 3. Upflow clarifiers a. Ground water 1,500-2,200 1 . Surface water 1900-1500 4 Clatficaton following lime-soda softening 1. Conventional 350-1,000, ae 2, Upfiow elaifors a. Ground water 1,000-2,500 1 , Surface water 1,900-1,800 4 Wastewater Treatment Primary clatfiers .600-1,200 2 Fixed film reactors 1. Intermediate sn final elarifers 400-800 2 ‘Activated sludge 800-1,200 2 CChetnival precipitation 800-1,200 2 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 189‘WeirLoadings ‘Water Tieatment—weir overflow rates should not exceed 20,000 gpdl't 2, Wastewater Treatment a, Flow <1 MGD: weir overflow rates should not ‘exceed 10,000 gpartt b, Flow > 1 MGD: weir overflow rates should not exceed 15,000 gpdift Horizontal Velocities 1. Water Treatment—horizontal velocities should not exceed 0.5 fpm 2, Wastewater Treatment—no specific requirements (use the same eriteria as for water) Dimensions. 1, Rectangular tanks a, Length: Width ratio= 3h to Sil 'b. _Basin width is determined by the serapes width (or multiples of the seraper width) © Bottom slope is set at 1% 4d. Minimuin depth is 10 ft 2, Circular Tanks a, Diameters up to 200 ft b. Diameters must match the dimensions ofthe sludge seraping mechanisin ‘c, Botfom slope is less than 8% 4. Minimum depth is 10 ft Length:Width Ratio Clarifier 3:1 5:1 Filter bay 1.2:1 to 15:1 Chlorine contact chamber 20:1 to 50:1 Electrodialysis, In Cells, the Required Current Is: I= (FONIn) x (EE) where T= current (amperes) F = Poraday’s constant = 96,487 C/g-equivalent = flow rate (Lis) LN = normality of sotution (g-equivalent/L) n= number of cells between electrodes B, = removal efficiency (fraction) E,~ current efficiency (fraction) Voltage E-IR where E = voltage requirement (volts) = resistance through the unit (ohms) Required Power P= PR (watts) 190 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Filtration Equations Effective size = dy Uniformity coefficient = djy/dy d, = diameter of particle class for which 2% of sample is less than (units meters or feet) Head Loss Throngh Clean Bed Rose Equation Monosized Media Maltisized Media 1.067(%) Cp y, = :OOUUIE Sa end recta 4 Carmen-Kozeny Equation Monosized Media Malhisized Media fill aye = Ha i 5 Sip Ted, eect ceca J" = friction factor = 150(4 74) + 1.75 where Ji, =head loss through the cleaner bed (rn of HO) L_ = depth of filter media (m) 1) = porosity of bed = void volume/total volume V, = filtration rato = empty bed approach velocity Wgpas(0¥9) g = gravitational acceleration (nv/s") He yal mane = dy d, d= diameter of filter media particles; arithmetic average of adjacent sereen openings (m); i= filter media (and, anthracite, garnet); j= filter media particle size Xp mass fraction of media retained between adjacent {7 > friction factors for each media fraction Cp drag coefficient as defined in settling velocity equations Bed Expansion ‘Monosized Multisized where depth of fluidized filter media (m) backwash velocity (05), Ayu terminal seting velocity aye porosity of fluidized bed , * initial bed depth tiled porosity 1, =iLime-Soda Softening Equations Rapid Mix and Floceulator Design 50 mg/L 88 CaCO, equivalent = 1 medi oot fapes tt fea 1. Carbon dioxide removal or a CO, + Ca(OH), 9 CaCOY9) + 11,0 Gi= 108-108 2. Calcium carbonate hardness removal where €a (FICO,)y+ Ca(OH), > 2CaCO,68) + 2H,0 G = mixing intensity = oot mean square velocity gradient 3. Calum non-carbonate hardness removal P =power ‘CaSO, + Na,CO,— CaCO,(s) + 2Na"+S0,7 Vol = volume 4, Magnesiutn eaxbonate harness removal = bulk viscosity Mg(HICO,), + 2Ca(OH), > 2CaCO,(s) + 7. specitie weight of water Mg(OH),9) + 21,0 71, =head Joss in mixing zone 5. Magnesium non-carbonate hardness removal 1 time in mining zone MgSO, + Ca(OH), + Na,C0, > CaCO) + Mg(OHD,(9)+2Na" +802- Reel and Paddle 6. Destruction of excess alkalinity CoAro Vp 2HCO, + Ca(OH), -> CaCO,(s) + COP+ 24,0 “3 1. Recarbonition where CaP" + 201 + CO, > CaCO,(8) +H,0 Cy =drag coofficicnt = 1.8 for flat blade with a L:W > 20:1 4, ~otea of blade (m?) perpendicular to the direction of Molecular | motecuir Fy g—#—|. equivalent travel through the water Formulas | Weight | #Pawv De] “Weignc |p, =density of 1,0 (hy/’) en 2 300 V,, = relative velocity of paddle (asee) , 440 2 20 Vinye= Vp slip coafficient Ca(OH), 744 2 37 slip coefficient = 0.5 -0.75 CaCO, 100.1 z 300 CaHCOs), | 162.1 2 aut ‘Turbulent Flow Impeller Mixer caso, 136.1 2 68.1 = KON" ce 40.1 2 20.0 Sees w 10 1 Lo isd ae ci : ata ‘= impeller constant (se table) Maqicon | 1463 2 aa n= rotational speed (rev/see) ae ay 5 a D, = impeller diemeter (tn) ee ae fs is ‘alues of the Impeller Constant Kr Me™ 243 2 122 (Assume Turbulent Flow) Net 23.0 1 20 ‘Type of Impeller Kr NaCOs 1060 2 53.0 Propeller, pitch of 1, 3 blades 0.32 OH 170 1 170 Propeller, pitch of 2, 3 blades 1.00 Sor 96.1 2 48.0 Turbine, 6 flat blades, vaned dise 630 ‘Turbine, 6 curved bledes 480 an turbine, 6 blades at 45° 1.65 Shrouded turbine, 6 curved blades 1.08 Shrouded turbine, with stator, no battles 1.12 ‘Nae: Constr sass bald wks having four balls atte ek Sal witha with egal to 10% of ota diameter Regine with persion fora dail & Engineering Chen, “Mixing of Ligue in Chon Processing". Haney Rusa, 1952, 4m. 12op- 7936, Anica Chemleal Soi. evvRONMENTALENGHEERING 191Reverse Osmosis ions of Electrol n= var where & = osmotic pressure, Pa © = osmotic coefficient y= nuraber of fons formed from one molecule of electrolyte n= number of moles of electrolyte Vol ~ specific volume of solvent, m*/kamol R_ =universal gas constant, Pa + m'/(kmol + K) 1 = absolute temperature, K ‘aconmmuousstow AeVERSE Osos UNIT Salt jh the Memt I= (D,Re/ MMC Cos) t flux through the membrane [kmol/(m?« s)] fTusivity of the solute in the membrane (m?/5) solute distribution coefficient (dimensionless) C. =coneentration (kmol/m') AZ = membrane thickness (rm) I> Ky (Cam Cou) Kp = membrane solute mass transfer coefficient = PRA (L/tm/s) y= Wy (OP An) where Jj. ™ water flux through the membrane (kmeU(n? +s)] Wp = cvediicient of water permeation, a characteristic of the particular membrane [kmol/(m? +s + Pa)] AP = pressure differential across membrane = P,,~ Pay Pa) ‘n= osmioti pressure differential across membrane Kig Tau (P2) 492. EWMRONMENTAL ENGINEERING Settling Equations General Spherical [a73g{pr - ps)d Coer Cy=24/Re (Laminar; Re < 1.0) = 24/Re + 3/(Re)!” + 0.34 (Tran 4(Turbulent; Re 2 10°) Re = Reynolds number tad where 2 = erovtaional constant pad p, = density of particle nd Mud respectively a later oF sphere Cy = spherical dag coefficient H—-=bulk viscosity of liquid ~ absolute viscosity V, terminal settling velocity es’ Law y= Slee = ede? eo Si Approach velocity = horizontal velocity = Q/A, iydraulie loading rate = Q/A Hydraulic residence time = YollQ = 0 where Q =flow rate 4 4. = surface are, plan view Vol = tank volume = cross-sectional area Ultrafitration eP SAP cera where © =membrane porosity y= membrane pore size AP =net transmembrane pressure 1 = viscosity 3 = membrane thickness J, ~ volumetric fax (ns)ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING UNITS ‘The basie electricel units are coulombs for charge, volts for voltage, amperes for current, and ohms for resistance and impedance, ELECTROSTATICS, 20, “arer?* ana, where F,, =the force on charge 2 due to change 1, Q, =the ith point charge, r= the distance between charges | and 2, ,,, = Unit vector directed from 1 to 2, and 2 =the permittivity of the medium, For fee space or sir £=£)= 8.85 x 10"? faradsimeter Eleetrostatte Fields Electric field intensity E (voltsimeter) at point 2 due to a point charge Q, at point is Ba Gfaee For a line charg of density p, coulombimeter on the z-axis, the radial electric eld is : ” shutf ne Oe Z For shoot charge of density, epul6imb/mete?in the xy ane “h,. @ , tees Gauss" law states thatthe integral of the electric flux density D'=eF over a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed or Dore = {HEE + aS ‘The force on a point charge @ in an electric field with intensity Eis F=QE. ‘The work done by an external agent in moving a charge Q in fan electric field from point p, to point p, is ‘The energy stored Win an electric field Fis He = (1/2) fffpelBPay W.-Ea4 e-Q@AV = Fa Voltage The potential difference V between two points is the work per unit charge required to move the charge between the points For two parallel plates with potential difference V, separated by distance d, the strength of the F field between the plates is pat Eq Airc fom the+ plate tthe ~ plate q: 3 Carrent a lectrie current (through a sures dfined asthe rat of change anspor trough that sutace or = dal which sa funtion of ine ¢ sine (9 denotes instantaneous charge ‘Acconstant current i is written 2s J, and the vector current density in amperes/in is defined as J. fc Ti ori Magnetic Fields Ford cureatcanyng wire onthe axis D2 “ = Ba! ytere Hes tem =the magnetic ld strength amperesinete), B_ ~tho magnetic fux density (tesla), ‘a, the unit vector in positive 6 direetion in eylindrical coordinates, 7 =the current, and ke =the permeability of the medium, Por air: w= y,= 4nx 107 Hin Force on a current carrying conductor in @ uniform magnetic field is = 1.x B, where L._ =the lengin veeiorofa conductor. The energy stored Mia a magnetic eld Hs my = (42) atv Induced Voltage Faraday’s Lav states for a coil of N turns enclosing flux $: LN dipfat, where =the induced vltge, and {=the avemge x (bets) enclosed by cach tun, end fia L ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGNEERINS 193tod heb Vig ty p,and Resistivity Fora conductor of length L, electrical resi cross-sectional aree 4, the resistance is RAL For metallic conductors, the resistivity and resistance vary linearly with changes in temperature according to the following relationships = pall + al — B)hand R= Rll + a(7— %)h where pis resistivity at Ty, Ry is the resistance at Ty, and ‘Lis the temperature coefficient Ohin's Law: V= IR; (0) = 1B Resistors in Series and Parallel For series connections, the curr tors isthe same. ‘and the equivalent resistance for n resistors in series is RER ARH AR, For patallel connections of resistors, the voltage drop across ac resistors the same and th equivalent resistance for n ~fasistors fa paralleris Rpm MAUR, + UR... + UR) For two resistors and Rn parallel RR, Rae Power Absorbed by a Resistive Element Wak Poviak=FR Kirchhoft's Laws Kirchhoff’ voltage law for a closed path is expressed by EVs E Vaope Kirchhofi’s current law fora closed surface is Elg= Elgg SOURCE EQUIVA For an arbitrary circuit SOURCES ‘AND RESISTORS. oe e RC. Le Re 194 ELECTRICAL avo COMPUTER ENGINEERING Fan ao Ley Ua hy boa i a, | ee 7 Ue + ‘The Thévenin equivalent P r(* Faas alt 7 0» ‘The open circuit vollage V,.i8 V,~ Fy andthe shor citeuit current is f, from a to 6. ‘The Norton equivalent circuit is io Oo where J, and R,, are defined above. A load resistor R, connected across terminals « and b willl draw maximum power when R, * Ruy CAPACITORS AND INDUCTORS eo Lo ele ToT “The charge gol and voltage ve () relationship fora capacitor Cin farads is dlr gel =Creld Apuallel plate capecitorof area A with plates separated a distnce d by an insulator with a permitivity hes @ capacitance A @ ‘The current-voltage relationships for a capacitor are te 28°) and ig() = C (dhe) VWs yore vl ees ait pace cape er given by Energy = Cv2/2=422C* gevel2 Kanp r ‘Teovshons Wc it vel) = ve0) + & fielerer ale | 20 Z‘The inductance L of a col with N tums is L=Nbli, and using Faraday’s law, the voltage-current relations for an induetor are v4 = Lf) (0) = (0) + 4 fy (ede, where inductor voltage, 4 = inductance (henrys), and i,, = inductor current (amperes) ‘The energy stored in an inductor is expressed in joules and given by Boergy = Li,/2 Capacitors and Inductors in Parallel and Series Capacitors in Parallel Ct Cyt nt Gy Capacitors in Series a S"YGFYG+. +7G Inductors in Parallel 1 that. #1 Inductors in Series Ly Litt Ly AC CIRCUITS For a sinusoidal voltage or current of frequency f (Hz) and period T (seconds), fo UT= abn), where he angular frequency in radiansis, Average Value Por a periodic waveform (either voltage or current) with period 7, oe = (7) falar ‘The average value ofa full-wave retiied sinusoid is Kiyo OX) and balf this for half-wave rectification, where x anc the peak amplitude of the sinusoid, Effective or RMS Values For @ periodic waveforin with period 7, the ms or effective value is 2 Xo = Xone [evry feat For a sinusoidal waveform and full-wave rectified sine wave, Kar = Kina = Sac 12 For a half-wave rectified sine wave, Keay™ Ke Kel For a periodic signal, Sim = [e+ BH where Xi the de component of x() is the mms value of the mth harmonic Sine-Cosine Relations cos() = sin(wr + 2/2) =—sin(wr — x/2) sin(o) 03(4uf — m/2) =~ cost + x/2) Phasor Transforms of Sinusoids P[Faet08(0! + $)] = Fras Zb = V Plover + 8)]= F289 = 1 For a cient element, the impedance is defined a the ratio of phasor voltage to phtsorcucent. =va Fora Resist, Zn = Fora Capasiton, Bo = her = 8 For an Inductor, 7,.= joh= JX, where ‘Xe and X; are the capacitive and induotive reaetances respectively defined as 1 : Noam aby and X, = of Impedances in series combine additively while those in parallel combine according to the reciprocal rule just asin the case of resistors, ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGWEERNG 195ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS Complex nuinbers may be designated in rectangular form ot polar forma, In rectangular form, « complex number is writen jn teems ofits real and imaginary components, +44, where = the real component, imaginary component, and 6 20, where b=csin, Complex numbers can be added and subtracted in rectangular form. 1f 22a, jb, =e, (eos ®+jsin 8) =o, 2 8,and z= aptly =2y(008 09+ Ji0 0) = 6,2 0p then aya" (a+ apts (b, + ,) and aya) +) QB) While complex numbers ean be mulipied or divided in seotangular for, itis more convenient to perform these operations in polar form, 4x (GXe) 20,40, 22,7 (0,163) £0,~0, ‘The complex conjugate of @ complex number z,~ (a, +Jb,) is defined a8 2,° = @,—j5,). The produet ofa complex number and its complex conjugate is 2" =a)? RCAND RL TRANSIENTS: ca 12 Oye (A) = ve lO #4 LL = eC) i) = {(V - veloeRfee"” vei) = (OR =[7 = vole 496 ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING eee Moe te G LQ AO ~ 12 GH) = KTM + Re wal) = HOR = 1O)RE RI 4 A — eh) (0) = D{dife) =~ HORE! + Yor where »(0) and i(0) denote the initial conditions and the porameters RC and L/P are termed the respective circuit time constants, RESONANCE ‘The radian resonant frequency for both parallel and series resonance situations is o= Z)qe = Pwhtad/s) Series Resonance ot ae 2 Ratoni, 0= weer BW = «4/Q(rad/s) Parallel Resonance 1 toh = aye and Z = Ral sesonance. " R 0 = wk = he BW = «/0 (rad/s)TWO-PORT PARAMETERS: A two-port network consists of two input and two output terminals as shown, 4 & h ‘TwoPort % a Network _Atwo-port network may be represented by an equivalent circu using a set of two-port parameters. Three commonly used sets ‘of parameters are impedance, admittance, and hybrid parameters. The following table deseribes the equations used for each of these sets of parameters ‘Parameter Type Kquations ~ Definitions Impedance (2) Veal tals Ky K AB yo Aap yo 20> Viewty teal : 2 Admnitiance (9) Nahe t Ia dr z tI * Va Hybrid Vi = byl, thighs L b iybrid (1) a igh, th, ng FAyo hea Fle Ty = bad +h 4 AC POWER For resistors, 6 = 0, so the real power is ‘Complex Power P Vig Ing Veg =P Real pawer P (watts) is defined by ol P= (AW gx Lenax 008 8 Balanced Three-Phase (3-9) Systems = Foe eg 608 8 “The 3+ line-phase relations are where 0 the angle measured from V to LIFT Heads (lags) or g det : Y, then the power factor (pf), =" a aN =/i% . tp = AN pf.= cos 0 L=J3lp hatp is said to be a lending (lagging) pf. Reactive power Q (vars) is defined by IV gal Si Fe S08 Complex power § (voll-amperes) is defined by S=VEE=P+j0, ‘where Tis the complex conjugate ofthe phasor current. SH oo vtsin® A P- Ficas® Complex Power Triangle (Inductive Load) where subscripts L and ? denote line and phase respectively. Abalanced 3-9 delta-connected load impedance can be ‘converted to an equivalent wye-connected load impedance using the following relationship Ly = Bly ‘The following formulas can be used to determine 3-@ power for balanced systems S=P+jO Isl= 3% = A¥ih S = 3Vple = /3VJ, (cos Or + sin Oe) For balanced 3-4 wye- and delta-connected loads SLECTRICAL AND COMPUTERENGINEERING 197Ae = Cama» TH PS where S$ =total 3-p complex power (VA) Isl = total 3-4 apparent power (VA) P = total 349 real power (W) total 3-9 reactive power (var) 0, = power factor angle of exch phase ¥,,=rms value of the line-to-line voltage Vj =rms value of the line-to-neutral voltage J, = rms value of the line current Jp =nms value of the phase current For a 3- wye-connected source of load with line-to-neutral voltages Vn = Fp 0" Vin = Fo £-120" Ven = VeZ 120" “The corresponding lne-to-ine voltages are Van = /3%9£30° Vie = V3 1p 2-90" Von = A3Yo £150" ‘Transformers (Ideal) Ip Is oo aa » M3 ‘Turns Ratio a= N/m o- lhl 7 The impedance seen a the inpat is Dyn Ly ‘The slip for an induction motor is the votationa spud Gf 198 ELECTRICAL ano COMPUTER ENGINEERING DC Machines ‘The armatne circuit of a de machine is approximated by a series connection of the armature resistance , the armature induetance Z., and a dependent voltage source of value ¥,=K,nd volts, where vonstant depending on the design, arinature speed in spm, and we magnetic flux generated by the field K, ¢ the field cireuit is approximated by the fleld resistance R, in series with the field inductance Z,, Negleeting saturation, the ‘magnetic flux generated by the field current J, is G= Kyl, webers ‘The mechanical power generated by the armature is Pya Vf, walls where J, isthe armature current. The mechanical torque produced is (C0/2mK 1, newlon-meters, ELECTROMAGNETIC DYNAMIC FIELDS ‘The integral and point form of Maxwell's equations are fledt = [f(oB/a1) as PW + dt = ge + fh (@D/21) a8 ff,D+a8= [fed fi,Be dS =0 V xB =~2B/a1 VxH=J+40D/ar VeD=p V-B=0 ‘The sinusoidal wave equation in E for an isotropic homogeneous medium is given by VEX-ofpee ‘The EM energy low of a volume V enclosed by the surface S, ccan be expressed in terms of Poynting’s Theorem $f, (BX) aS = fff, Bay + D{yplesia + wr) av) ‘where the left-side term represents the energy flow per unit {ime or power flow into the volume Y, whereas the J*F represents the loss in Vand the last term represenis the rate of change of the energy stored in the E and H fields. 0 (G)”LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINES ‘The wavelength, A, ofa sinusoidal signal is defined as the distance the signal will travel in one period. By: aoe ‘where U's the velocity of propagation and is the frequency of the sinusoid The characteristic impedance, Z,, of a transmission line is the input impedance of an infinite length of the line and is given by 2, = (ETE where Land Care th ‘capacitance of the line, per unil length inductance and ‘The reflection coefficient atthe load is defined as Z,~2y “EFT, and the standing wave ratio SWR is = 140) een = Propagation constan For sinusoidal voltages and currents ‘Voltage across the transmission line: Vid =V "e+ Ve Current along the transmission line: Way = Tes oe where I" V 7/2, and I-=-V 7g Input impedance at d ees +jZotan(Ba) Bald = Bor jty.anlfd) FOURIER SERIES Byery periodic fumetion f() which has the period 1'= 2r/eo nd has certain continuity conditions can be represented by @ series plus @ constant SO = a+ 3 [escos(no) + bgsin(nea!)) “The above holds if has a continuous derivative /() for all Itshould be noted that the various sinusoids present in the series are orthogonal on the interval O to Tand as a result the coefficients are given by a= (/T)f Kae a, = (2/7 )f7 A tdeos( nay at by = (2/7) fT AC¢)sin( nox) 12... n= 12, The constants a, and b,are the Fourier coefficients of () for the interval 6 to 7 and the comesponding series is called the Fourier series of ft) over the same interval ‘The integrals have the same value when evaluated over any interval of fength 7. Ifa Fourier series representing a periodic function is trumeated after term n= N the mean square value Fy of the truncated series is given by the Parseval relation. This relation says that the mean-square value is the sum of the mean-square values of the Fourier components, or rR 8 + (1/2) od + 08) and the RMS value is then defined to be the squate root of this quantity or Fy. ‘Thee useful and common Fourier series forms are defined in terms of the following graphs (with « Given: \ - + at z thea in HE" (4K /n)eos( oy!) faa [ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGMIEERNG 199Given: 10 (ANZA. te t | 22 & sin(nat/T) 1it= BE 4 BES Say cotton) _ hee sin(ons/7) 10°F 2 ancy Given then IO aut) + (24/7) 5 008 (mot) f= (A(T) Bere" 200 ELECTRICAL AND CONPUTER ENGINEERING LAPLACE TRANSFORMS ‘The unilateral Laplace transform pair Fls)= ee SO) =e Lo Fiera ey represents a powerful tool forthe transient and frequency response of linear time invariant systems, Some useful Laplace transform pairs are: LO ie FO) (0, Impulse at 1=0 i (0, Step at=0 Us ‘u(O}, Ramp at 1=0 us en Ms +a) we s+ ay Bet a +B] (Fats taf +61 (1is)F(S) A()X(S) Se-Due~) eV FG) limit) limits) VT tnt st) tart) IV [Note: The last owo transforms represent the Final Value ‘Theorem (F.V.T,) and Initiel Value Theorem (1LV.T.) respectively, It is assumed thatthe limits exist.) DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS Difference equations are used to model diserete systems, Systems winich can be deseribed by difference equations include eompater program variables iteratively evaluated in 48 loop, sequential circuits, cash flows, recursive processes, systems with time-delay components, ete. Any system whose input x() and output y( are defined only at the equally spaced intervals © A7’can be described by a difference equation. First-Order Linear Difference Equation A first-order difference equation SHE yl = 3100)Second-Order Linear Difference Equation ‘Asecond-order difference equat HEL + ash 1) + ayy ~ 2] =f) Transforms ‘The transform definition is Egle ed Fe ‘The inverse transform is given by the contour integral Lg ple)et-! MO = hy fp Pete and it represents a powerful ool for solving linear shit invariant difference equations, A limited unilateral list of transform pairs follows: SEL fH), Impulse at k= 0 1 ufA], Step at k= 0 ua-z') ef va-pr') vk} 2'¥@) +41) th-2) ZY) + 2) + Det vet -2x(0) y+] 2¥@)-F (0-91) ExT HEX) uit] Fle) Aime f[e] [Note: The last two transform pairs represent the Initial ‘Value Theorem (L.V.T,) and the Final Value Theorem (F-V.T.) respectively.) CONVOLUTION Continnous-time convolution: v0) = xl) + (0 Loxtoplt = dat Diserete-time convolution: An) = slide yal = | Ealalyla ~ a] DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING ‘A diserote-time, linear, time-invariant (OTLTH) system with a single input x(n] and a single output y[n} ean be described by a linear difference equation with constant coefficients of the form plo) + apt — 1= Zabel fall initial conditions are zero, taking a z-transform yields a transfer function ba" H(z) =H = 28 + pe xz) ‘Two common diserete inputs are the unit-step function uf] and the unit impulse function 8{}, where adel ={? Soh an atrl={9 taal ‘The impulse response hf] is the response ofa diserete-time system to xfnl = [i A finite impulse response (FIR) filter is one in which the impulse response ha] is limited to a finite number of points Hnl= ala = ‘The corresponding transfer function is given by H= Bae where isthe order of the filter. An infinite impulse response ({IR) filter is one in which the impulse response f{ has an infinite number of points: All = Zaaln— a ELECTRICAL AND CONPUTERENGIEERNS 201COMMUNICATION THEORY AND CONCEPTS: Fourier Transform Pairs ‘The following concepts and definitions are useful for communications systems analysis, a wo é 1 a) ‘Functions HT : Tait step, : : ult) oy (0) BUM ae Rectangular Ter) ‘sinc (@/) pulse, t nis) mM | sine a1) Says) 1 0 pred 2 Agia) sino! (¢/) Triangular pulse, T tle ast emu a> Gls) aure| Peal Wash © ay 7" ° aden i u(t) Peer tea Sine, : 5 teat) way sine(a) sing(at) = a 7 ie eee eee Unit impulse, aa a Fenny 10+ }B(DAI= HC ay | Loaweunodmats 4 Fea for every x(f) defined and e continuous at = fy. This is 7 equivatent e05(2nfot+ 0) BeMaU- he M3 AD) [Saeco x069 sani) | eM fr eM al = ie ‘The Convolution Integeal S81) LEH) Lene x(0) + h(t) = (22x) ile = Md = = : = ds x(a) = [2H xle — ad In particular, x(O*8LE— fg) = att) “The Fourler Transform and its Taverse Xf) = Coxe PM x = LEX Near ‘We say that x(9) and XY) for a Fourier ansform pat x0 OMD 202 ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGNEERINGFourier Transform Theorems Linearity ax(t)+ by) aX(fy+or(f) 1 y(t ale chan a qal£ casts | awn | ate) ‘Time reversal act) XN Duality xO ach ‘Time shift xf) xe re Frequency shit | (yest XU fo) i yh) Modulation a({)oos2nfol UA) ‘Miltiplication OHO XT) Convolution a" VO XN Ax Dileresaion SO | nena a Lx t Sif Antograton Ji x00. x08) Frequency Response and Impulse Response ‘The frequency response H{f} ofa system with input x(2) and output 10 is given by n=O Tisgve Wf) = H(A) The response it) ofa linear time-invariant system to & Lunitimpulse input 8() is called the impute response of the system, The response y(0) of the syste to any input (is the ‘convolition ofthe input (with the impulse response fi): yO = x0 + ld = [2 xa = Nd = Mi» xl) = [22H — Add “Therefore, the impulse response f(0) and frequentey response H() form a Fourier transform pair: ig 2 HY) Parseval’s Theorem ‘The total energy in an energy signal (Finite energy) x() is given by B= [iclola = (2) tar Parseval’s Theorem for Fourier Series {As described in the following section, aperiodic signal x(0) ‘with period 7, and fundamental frequency /,= 1/7, = ea/2x ‘can be represented by a complex-exponential Fourier series xi)= Rete “The avernge power in the de component and the fist A harmonics is. Pn SP ae = ab 4 2°5 P ‘The total average power in the periodie signal x(0) is given by Parseval'y theorem: teeta Pag *h@lar ‘AM (Amplitude Modulation) xa) = ALA + m(dJoos(2m02) = A,[ + am, ()]cos(2ngt) ‘The modulation index is ¢, and the normnalized message is, mo) taxi] ing ‘The efficieney nis the percent of the total transmitted power, ‘that contains the message. a mit) > 1 Ee atts mo ete where the mean-squared value or normalized average power in m,(@) is 4) >= im FFI Oh ig (0) >= Lion aoe Lota) dt IfM(f) =0 for |f| > FF, then the bandwidth of x,,(¢) is 207. ‘AM signals can be demodulated with an envelope detector or a synchronous demodulator, [ELECTRICALAND COMPUTERENGINEERNG 203,DSB (Double-Sideband Modulation) Xgl = Acn(o0s (27.1) IE M()=0 for f|> 1, then the bandwidth of m(0) is W and the brandvidth of ss) ie 27, DSB signals must be demodulated with a synchronous demodulator. A Costas loop is often used. ‘SSB (Single-Sideband Modulation) Lower Sideband: sual — Kio(f) = Xoo LY] Upper Sideband seul — Ken f= aul) ~ iia In citer cose, i ))=0 for > , then te bandwith of {gt} OF Of Xuma) is W. SSB signals ean be demodulated Ta ynchronnus demodulator or by caer renaeion and envelope detection, Angle Modula mg 0 = Agcos[ ni + (0 ‘The phase deviation 42) is a function of the message m(i). ‘The instantaneous phase (0 = Inet + (0) radians ‘The instantaneous frequeney is 00 = Fao = nb + F400 radiansis ‘The frequency deviation is Awl) d pot) radians!s PM (Phase Modulation) ‘The phase deviation is (0) = komt) radians 204 ELECTRICAL ANO COMPUTER ENGNVEERNS FM (Frequeney Modulation) ‘The phase deviation is b= hy fim(@eB radians. “The frequencydevition ratio is _ amaxlm(o] oR ‘where His the message bandwidth. ID (narrowband FM), the 98% power band We ID 1, (wideband FM) the 98% power bandwidth 2 is given by Carson rate: (0+ ‘The complete bandwidth of an angle-modulated signal is infinite {A discriminator or a phase-lock loop can demodulate angle- modulated signals, Sampled Messages ‘Atonpass message n() can be exaily reconstructed fom tniforly spaced samples taken at a sampling frequency of f-M, f, 2 2W where MY) = 0 for f > ‘The frequency 2H is called the Nyquist frequency. Sampled messages are typically transmitted by some form of pulse modulation, The minimum bandwidth B required for transmission of the modulated message is inversely proportional (o the pulse length « 1 ped Frequently for approximate analysis 1 Boor is used as the minimum bandwidth of « pulse of length +.Ideal Ise Sampling. aCe — nt) = agli) = ml) ange X(N) = MU) + DBS Me) =£, 3" Myr) ‘The message (0) can be recovered from xg (0) with an ideal lowpass filter of bandwidth PAM (Pulse-Am Natural Samp AA PAM signal can be generated by mulipyinga messge by a pute train with pulses having duration «and period T= Mh afd = m0" $25] =" "aco {ude Modulation) * sine (kes) MUL — kt) An(D)=% ‘The message m(#) can be recovered from x4(/) with an ideal lowpass filter of bandwidth F. PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation) PCM is formed by sampling a message m() and digitizing the sample values with an A/D converter Foran n-bit bi length, transmission ofa pulse-code-modulated lowpass iessage m(), with 2) = 0 for > WF, requis he transi least 2n¥7 binary pulses per second A binary word of length bis ean repressht g quantization levels: ant ‘The minimum bandwidth required to transmit the PCM message will be Be nl =2H loa 4 ELECTRICAL ANO COMPUTER ENGNEERNG 205ANALOG FILTER CIRCUITS ‘Analog filters are used fo separate signals with different frequency content. The following circuits represent simple analog filters used in communications and signal processing. First-Order Low-Pass Filters First-Order High-Pass Filters 13 jo)| |e(e}l 0 a o Sapa Ino, |= eo jo.) =L ae I | “i (0 {1tGio.|= FNC) Frequency Response Frequency Response w va RsC Hey= YBa. RE COV Ry Tra RC gh, BO Re Teeth BRR one Lh fp, _sh/Rp Ah Be RR eneE: 208 ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERINGBand-Pass Filters Band-Reject Filters [HQ] Oop oy © L [HGo,)|=|AVe,)] oye.) 3-dB Bandwidth = BW = @, -o, Frequeney Response HC) 0,0 oy © |nGo,)\=[nUou)|= [glint 3B Bandwidth © BW oy ~oy, Frequency Response a: «@) ” n= =, NRE Peale ve ve peu ng-2-%. Pete ye Bie aereael WO Ry Peale HEG aes 0" Te oo : Rem y+ Ry InGog|-— 2 —=82 p=. Me FRR Ree [HO Ry Reae a i: + 4 R iM BY, L = Hai pace sect 2 errr neyo Yin fe, Pc ou LC R 2 o& py-8 Bs L Vi oer RLY EC ELECTRICAL ANO GOMPUTERENGINEERING 207Phase-Lead Filter Phase-Lag Filter loglHGoy, log|H(jo), ae R+R, "RC y= Yor, ean Is ~arcan a IHC Joq,)} HU) max {ZH(j,,)}=¢, oa RC OF yy R, A OF y Vp _ Lt skye VF ERC Lisfey 1+ sfoy H(s)= 1 1 oe EE RE Vor min ZAG0W))= be 03 eee Rea RAR, 208 ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERINGOPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS. Ideal »o—f =A 99) > ut vy— v2) : 7 where no i Ais large & 10%), and ¥,— vis small enough so as not to saturate the amplifier. FPor the ideal operational amplifier, assume that the input ccurrents are zero and that the gain 4 i infinite so when ‘operating linearly v,— v0. For the two-sourve configuration with an ideal operational amplifier, Fins (in If y,= 0, we have a non-inverting amplifier with n= (eB | we have en inverting amplifier with SOLID-STATE ELECTRONICS AND DEVICES Conductivity of a semiconductor material = 4 (ni, + ph, where , electron mobility, i, =hole mobility, n= electron concentration, hole concentration, and 4g. = charge on an electron (1.6 x 10°C), Doped material: p-type material; 7, My retype material n,~ Ny Cartier concentrations at equi (30) =n, where 1, intrinsic concentration. Built potential ost potent Hy MM g m 1) ofa p-n junction ‘Thermal voltage =F = 0.026v a1 3008 .ceeptor concentration, 1N,,= donor concentration, T= temperature (K), and =Boltemann’s Constant = 1.38 x 107K Capacitance ofsbrupt p= 1 junction diode CW) = G/ T= VM, where: mnction capacitance at =O, V = potential of anode with respect to cathode, and Vig junction contact potential, Resistance ofa diffused layer is R= RLM), where: R, = sheet resistance ~ pid in ols per square p =resistivity, d = thickness, L = length of diffusion, and W =-width of diffusion. ‘TABULATED CHARACTERISTICS FOR: Diodes Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJ) N-Channel JFET and MOSFETs Enhancement MOSFETs ‘are on the following pages. ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGWEERING 209DIODES Plecewise-Linear Device and Schematic Tae eee eee ‘Mathematical Symbol Relationship Py teliashie 1-¥ Relationship : b» ‘io Shockley Equation Gunetion Diode) : ie t,fecot—1] = yo | ts “ where ol —o (osw02V | J,=saturation eurrent A +m -C Vp ~ breakdown voltage ‘= emission eoetficient, typically 1 for Si (Zener Diode) + wp (050.0 Vz = Zee voltage Same as above, NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Sul Mathematical Targe-Signal (DC). [aw-Frequeney Small Sigual (AC) ‘Schematic Symbol Relationships Equivalent Circuit Equivalent Cireuit Active Region: Low Frequeney: tsenierpanton fren S| n/p c lela tle cles jtin ean ies | me ic =Bie CP he fic |e =e a a =B(G+1) ‘s ip 7 ig. = Igeltsttr) oo ie | ds emiver stration CMT Tie | ote ‘current B Top de cllecior current athe Opin, O Yr =thetmal voltage 1 ey se ‘Saturation Region: en-Temitor — | asa terrsmioanpeare | th tons ran Bad vain eave meee 8 fe enon ee ete BOI Vo sat : Caio Revion soneas rr ames orn wit caret [S58 nto res ind t Section etn c J be | sunset { PNP Transistor Same as NPN with eee dvetons| ‘and voltage polaris reversed 210 ELECTRICAL ANO COMPUTER ENGHEEAINSN-Channel Junction Field Effect Transistors QFETS) and Depletion MOSFETs (Low and Medium Frequency) ‘Schematic Symbol ii Clreult ‘Small-Signal (AC) Equival [N-CHANNELJFET D H \N-CHANNEL DEPLETION MOSFET (NMOS) h, 8 SIMPLIFIED SYMBOL > I. z ‘Diode Region: vos Vo aud Voo> Yo i= (Coss/¥I2vas (Yas~ ¥_)~ vos | Saturation Region: vgs> Vp and voo= Vp ip Ioss(1~ Vos!) where Toss =denin current with veg 0 in the saturation region) ve sonduetivity factor, and ¥, = pinch-off voltage 2lossto_ in saturation region P-CHANNEL DEPLETION MOSFET (PMOS) is : SIMPLIFIED SYMBOL, t fe $ so co Same as for N-Channel with current directions and voltage polarities reversed ‘Same as for N-Channel. ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTERENGINEERING 211Enhancement MOSFET (Low and Medium Frequeney) ‘Sehematic Symbol ‘Mathematical Relationships ‘Small-Signal (AC) Equivalent Cireuit_ AG a co-| SIAPLIFIED SYMBOL wowapnuenanceusnr | CuOfF Region: vos< 7 nostro) fig=O i jode Region: vas> ¥, and vgo> Vs ah jn K [evos(vas- ¥~vos} co| ion 7 Saturation Ragloy: vos Vs and yon < Vr le ip =K (Vos~ Fi) g ‘whore Ke conductivity factor threshold voltage v= Je 2KCs~ 1) in saturation region ‘MOSFET @2M05) oof t, 2 s SINPLIPIED SYMBOL 2 t / J ts 8 P-CHANNELENTIANCEMENT ‘Samo as for N-channel with current directions ‘and voltage polarities reversed. ‘Same as for N-channel, 212. ELECTRICALANO COMPUTER ENGINEERINGNUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES ‘An unsigned number of base-r has a decimal equivalent D defined by d= Set + Sor where a, = the (+ 1) digit tothe left of the radix point and ca, ~ the ith digit to the right of the radix point. Binary Number System In digital computers, the base-2, or binary, number system is ‘normally used, Thus the decimal equivalent, D, ofa binary number is given by Deatta al. ! Fagta, Since this number system is so widely used in the design of digital systems, we use a shor'-hand notation for some powers of twor 2!9= 1,024 is abbreviated "K" or “kilo” 229 1,048,576 is abbreviated “M" or “mega” Signed numbers of base-r are often represented by the radix ‘complement operation. If Mis an N-digit value of base-r, the radix complement (44) is defined by RW) = 4M ‘The 2's complement of an N-bit binary integer ean be written 2's Complement (Mf) =2"— ‘This operation is equivalent to taking the 1's complement {inverting each bit of M4) and adding one, ‘The following table contains equivalent codes for a four-bit binary value, {finay [Desi] (2gi| Ocal | Hed | Gray I Base-2 | Base-10 Base-16 Base-8 ‘Code | Code [v0 [0 [ 0 | o | o | ccc oor | 1] a | a] t | ooo wo} 2] 2 | 2 | 2 | on won| 2] 3 | 3 J 3 | ooo oo | 4) 4 | a] a | ono om | os) s | os fos | om oo | 6) 6 | 6 | 6 | oi on | 7 7 7 He 0100 woo} 8 | 8 | wo | 8 | 1100 wor | 9 | 9 fu | oo | uot wo} w | a | nn wu) u |B | 0 tio | 2 | c | 1010 orf 0 | vo | as 101 mo] |B | 1001 uo |r jo 1000 LOGIC OPERATIONS AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA ‘Three basic logic operations are the "AND (.)," “OR (#)," and “Bxclusive-OR ©” functions, The definition of each function, its logic symbol, and its Boolesn expression are given in the following table. Inputs AB 00 ot 10 uu As commonly used, 4 AND B is often written 4B or 4eB. ‘The not operator inverts the sense of binary value 1,139) NOT OPERATOR inp [Output a Cod ° Hi t ° DeMorgan’s Theorems first theorem: A+ B= A+B second theorem: A +] "These theorems define the NAND gate and the NOR gate, Logic symbols for these gates are shown below. 4 NOR Gates: 4¥B = 408 NCEE deere NOR Yo NOR F a ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGWEERNG 213,FLIP-FLOPS A lip-op isa device whose outpt canbe placed in one of two states, Oo 1. The lip-lop output is synehronized with a clock (CLK) signal. Q, represents the value ofthe fip= flop output before CLK is applied, and Q,. represents the output after CLK has been applied. Three basic flip-flops are desaribed below. RS Flip-Flop JK Flip-Flop D Flip-Flop L. fr gh+ —/p o}-~ —youK --| crx hr 1K 8 ie} SR] Quer IK) aes 7 70,0 change ||00|0, 00 change |[0 | 0 ojo Jorja yipa to} to} | 11 [invalid 11]9, rogele {Composite Flip-Flop State Transition @lo,|s |e] 7]« ip o{|of!ofx }o |x |e oft pefoa pod fox fa r{o}ol]a]x« ft jo ria} x}o]x« | oft Switching Function Terminology ‘Minterm, m,~ A product term which contains an ovcurrence of every variable in the function, Maxterm, M,~ A sum term which contains an occurrence of every variable in the function, Implicant — A Boolean algebra term, either in sum or product form, which contains one or tore minterms or maxterms of a function, Prime Implicant— An implicant which is not entirely contained in any other implicant, Essential Prime Implicant ~ A prime implicant which contains a mintetm of maxterm Which is not contained in any other prime implicant. ‘244 ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING ‘A Timetion ean be described as a sum of minterms nsing the notation F(ABCD) nth, i} =mytm, Fm, ‘A function can be deseribed as a product of maxterms using the notation G(ABCD)=TIM(h i,j.) ie Mo M,e {A function represented as a sum of mintenns only is said to be in canonical sum of products (SOP) form. A fonction represented as a product of maxterms only is said to be in canonical product of swms (POS) form, A function in ceanonical SOP form is often represented as a minderm list ‘while @ function in eanonical POS form is often represented as ‘amaxterm list A Karnaugh Map (K-Map) isa graphical technique used to represent a truth able, Each square in the K-Map represents ‘one minterm, and the squares of the K-Map are arranged so that the adjacent squares differ by a change in exactly cone variable, A four-varisble K-Map with its corresponding minterms is shown below. K-Maps are used to simplify switching functions by visually identifying all essential prime implicants. Four-variable Karnaugh Map D AB 00 1 uu 10 oo | m m | ms my o my mis my my _| u me | ms [ms | mae 10 me m [| om | mo |( INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING LINEAR PROGRAMMING The general linear programming (LP) problem is Maximize Zeynep. Fey Subject to: aps Fahy ot ayy by ky aka on ay ba Ak * Bak * oo * Makin S Pig Sine heZ0 ‘An LP problem is frequently reformulated by inserting non- negative slack and surplus variables, Although these variables usually have zero costs (depending on the application), they cant have non-zero cost coefficients in the objective function, A slack variable is used with "less than inequality and transforms it into an equality. For example, the inequality Si, + 3x,-+ 2x, 5 could be changed to 51, + 3x, + 215 5 =5 if's, were chosen as a slack variable. The inequality 3x, Fx, — 4,2 10 might be transformed into By, bx, 4x,—s,= 10 by the addition of the surplus variable +5», Computer printouts of the results of processing an LP usually include values for ail slack and surplus variables, the ‘dual prices, and the reduced costs for each variable Dual Linear Program Associated with the above linear programming problem is another problem called the dual linear programming problem. If we take the previous problem and call it the primal problem, then in matrix form the primal and dual problems are respectively: Primal Dual Maximize Z=ex Minimize "= yb Subject to: Ax € x20 ye Tcis assumed that if is @ matrix of size [mn x a}, then y is [1 x] vector, ig [1 x ni vector, b is an [ri x 1] vector, and xis an [nx 1] vector, Network Optimizati ‘Assume we have a graph GON, 4) with a finite set of nodes N and a finite set of ares 4, Furthermore, let N= (1,2). 5b 1x,7 flow from node / to node j ¢q=c0st per unit flow from i tof y= capacity of are (i,j) 4, = net flow generated at node J We wish to minimize the total cost of sending the available supply through the network to satisfy the given demand. The ‘minimal cost flow model is formulated as follows Minimize Z subject to Say — $y = blo ech node iW and 0S ny $ mp foreach ave (i, ied ‘The constraints on the nodes represent a conservation of flow relationship. The first summation represents total low out of node i, and the second summation represents total flow into rode / The net difference generated at node jis equal to &, Many models, such as shortest-path, maximal-low,assi ‘and transportation madels can be reformulated as minirnal- cost network flow models, STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL Average and Range Charts ” a Dy De 2 [1.880 0 3268 3 | vo ° 2574 4 | ons 0 2.282 s | osm ° 24 6 | 083. oO 2.004 7 | oss 0.076 924 s | 0373 0.136 1864 9} 0337 O84 1816 10 |_ 0308 0223, Lat in individual observation n= tho sample size of a group ke =the number of groups ange) the difference between the largest and smallest observations in a sample of size n. ya Kedah ype Mie Wit 4 Fe % pa Bibb Re “The R Chart formulas are y= Ul = DR Clg = Dik “The Chart formulas are Cly = UCly = P+ AR LCLy =¥ - AR INOUSTRALENGINEERING 215Standard Deviation Charts ” A By By 2 | 2059 v 3267 3] 19s4 0 2.568 4] 1628 0 2.266 5 1427 o 2.089 6 | 1287 0.030 1970 7 | 1182 0.119 182 3 | 1.099 oss rals 9 | 1.032 0.239 1.761 10 | 0975 0.284 L716 UChy = + 4S Cly =¥ LCby = ¥- AS UCIs = BS Clg = LCls = BS Approximations The following table and equations may be used to generate initial approximations of the items indicated, ca |e 4, a 2 0.7979 1.128" 0.853 3 0.8862 1,693 0.888 { 4 0.9213 2.059 0.880 5 | 09400 | 2326 | 0.864 6 | o9sis | 2534 | os 7 | ossoa | 2704 | osx 8 | os6s0 | 2847 | 0820 9 | 09693 | 297 | oso so| 0927 | 307 | 0797 oi = cj, where an estimate of o, oq = an estimate of the standard deviation of the ranges of the samples, and ag = an estimate of the standard deviation of the standard deviations of the samples. 216 INOUSTRIAL ENGINEERING “Tests for Out of Control 1. single point falls outside the (three sigma) contro Limits. 2. Two out of three successive points fll on the same side of and moze than two sigma units from the centerline. 3, Foxt out of five successive points fall onthe same side of and more than one sigma unit from the center line 4, Eight sucessive points fll on the same side ofthe center Tine. PROCESS CAPABILITY Actual Capability = LSE USL = aoe POR, = Cop = min| Potential Capability (ie., Centered Process) USL — LSL PCR USL = LSE, where and o are the process mean and standard deviation, respectively, and LSL and USL are the lower and upper specification limits, respectively, QUEUEING MODELS Definitions, P, = probability of » units in system, expected number of units in the system, expected number of units in the queue, expected waiting time in system, expected waiting tinie in queue, mean arrival rate (constant), coffective arrival rate, = mean service rate (constant, ~ server uilization factor, and yunnber of servers. Kendall notation for describing a queueing system: AIBIsiM 4 the arrival process, = the service time distribution, =the number of servers, and -M = the total number of customers including those in service. Fundamental Relationships =a La Mh, ew, the p= Msp)Single Server Models (s = 1) Poisson Input-—Exponential Service Time: M= 09 ip) =Mu=2) 1, = Wily 9] W = Vw py) Mar) We WW Mig (29) Finite queue: M 1) Poisson Input—Exponential Service ‘Times A (2 i ge “ fat + ata] altye To Biot! al(l — oF = (Musi O30in. | V<30iin. | V>30in, 02 O85 0.95 1,00 0s O81 092 0.97 I 075 0.88 094 2 0.65 084 091 3 055 0.79 088 a 0.45 on O84 3 035 0.60 0:80 6 027 0.50 0.75 7 O22 0.42 0.70 g ous 035 0.60 9 ois 030 052 i0 O13 036 0.45 TT 0.23 oal 12 021 037 iB 0,00 034 4 oar 5 028 220. NOUSTRIAL ENGNEERINGCoupling Multiplier (CM) Table (Function of Coupling of Hands to Load) Container Loose Pari /Inreg, Object Optimal Design Not Comfort Grip. ‘Not ‘Opt. Handles ‘Not POOR GOOD or Cut-outs GooD Flex Fingers 90 Degrees Not FAIR POOR Coupling V<30in, of 73cm ‘V=30 in. or 75 em GOOD, 1.00 FAIR 0.95 POOR C30 Biomechanics of the Human Body Basie Equations HAE=0 H,*F, HAW P=0 Tre Tras * Tre O Tie Tipe Trya=8 Tay * Pry © ‘The cotcient of ition andthe ange «at which the oor i inlined determine the equations a he fot Pew, With the slope angle o R=afosa Of course, when motion must be considered, dynamic conditions come into play according to Newton's Secon Law: Force transmitted with the hands is eounteraeted at the foot. Further, the body must also react with internal forces at all points between the hand and the foot INDUSTRIAL ENGNEERIG 221PERMISSIBLE NOISE EXPOSURE (OSHA) Noise dose (D) should not exceed 100%, mx ES D = 100% XE where C, = time spent at specified sound pressure level, SPL, (hours) 7, = time permitted at SPL (hours) BG~ ¥ (hours) (sam For 80 100%, noise abatement required, 1£50% ye (oy nip r(-pyp Mutinomial | 08d Spo ™, m,(l-p) Uniform Ab-a) (at by2. (o-a}'N2 Mb Gamnma Tay) oor 0 @ ap? Exponential B e a fof (4) _ pe (Ot Weibu prile+1ya} | 9% Fee} ne | Normal H of (=a) if aSxSm| eae H(o)=] @-aln=<) atb+m — | a? sb? +m? ~ab—an—bm 26-3) if m Zu He pi- m= 7 Hy wtY eae He wit Ay wes7 fo bu Hy -e=7 FW? oe ‘Table B, Tests on means of normal distribution—variance unknown. Fhypothesi Test Stat Criteria for Rejection Ay. B= Bo. Hint bo It > tat Hes Wo Heh < Ho aan NP be. Ae Variances Sp ft) ltl > tere equal ite vem ta -2 Rey My wem amy fore ft Ay pie <7 ‘Variances jak 4 2 bering ‘unequal ny ty a nt >be Git i = Tn Table B,§= (om = DS? * On DSFY 226 WOUSTRIAL ENGNEERING‘Table C. Tests on variances of normal distribution with unknown mean, Test Statistic Criteria for Rejection Hypothesis or We? Rat. pt) BP ane He Bari Fo? Papa. Fa Fanon Hg. 07 = 02 Hyon > 7 Fa? Fay nctityt ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS SITTING HEIGAT (ERECT) SITTING HEIGHT (NORMAL) ‘THIGH CLEARANCE ELBOW-TO-ELBOW HEIGHT | BREADTH t KNEE HEIGHT ELBOW REST SEAT BREADTH HEIGHT ae aa purtock | BUTTOCK POPLITEAL, POPE KNEE LENGTH POPLITEAL, HEIGHT (avr sanDens avo meconnic, una tactOKS IN DESIGN, MCORAW BILL 957 INOUSTRIAL ENGHIEERING oar{ U.S. Civilian Body Dimensions, Female/Male, for Ages 20 to 60 Years - 7 (Centimeters) (See Anthropometric Percentiles, ‘Measurements Figure), sth ‘sth sth Std. Dev, WEIGHTS: Stature (height) 149.5 / 161.8 160.5 / 173.6 s7i3/ 1848 56769 Eye eight 1383/1511 148,91 1624 1593/1727 54766 Shoulder (seromion) height 1214/1323 BLL 1428 141.97 1524 61/61 bow height 93.6 100.0 1o12/ 109.9 1088/1190 46/58 Kauckle height 613/08 2/784 759/804 35/32 Hight, sitting (ores) 78.6842 85.0/ 906 90.7196. 35/37 Bye height, sting 615126 733/786 785/844 33/36 ‘Shoulder height, 492527 55.7594 617/658 38/40 Elbow rest height siting 181/190 3/23 281/294 29/30 Kce height sitting 452/493 49.8) 54.3 $4.5159.3 27/29 Popltea height, sitting 355/392 39.8442 M4 3/488 26/28 Thigh clerance height losis 137/14 WaS/tTT ter DEPTHS: Chest dest 214/214 242/242 297/276 25/19 Ebow-fingertip distance BSAA 42.1 /419 460/514 22/22 uttock-hce length, siting S18 1540 569/594 625/642 31/30 ‘Butiock-poplteal eng, siting 430/442, 48.1 /49.5 535/548 31/30 Forward seach, funetional 64.0763 710/825 7807883 45150 BREADTHS. tbow-to-lbow bresdth 315/350 BRA L417 49.1506 5alas ‘Seat (hip) breadth, siting 312/308 364/358 4.714006 3/28 HEAD DIMENSIONS Head breadth 136/444 14.541 15.82 15.8) 164 057/059 Head cirenmference 523/538 5491568. $1.21593 1.63 1.68 ntespopiltary distance SASS $83 16.20 65/68 0470.39 HAND DIMENSIONS Hund length 16a s 116 17.98 /19.05 19.8/20.6, 1.04093 Breadth, metacarpal 10/82 7.66 8.88 84/98 casos? ciscumference, metacarpal 169/199, 18.36/21.55 199/235 089 / 1.09 Thickness, metacarpal Ht 25/24 2.77/2.16 3/3 018/021 Digit | ‘Breadth, intenpalangen! 1324 1,98 /2.29 22s 0.12/03 Crete length 47154 5.96 / 5.88 6.166 044 (045 Digit? ‘Buea, distal joint ania LSS / 1.85 1720 400.2 Crofeeip length 668 638/752 THIR2 052/046 Dixie 3 ‘Broedty isaljint lara 153/185 17/20 0109 1012 (Crotetip begin 70/78 TITBSS 8.7195 051/051 Digit Breodth, distal int 13/16 142/170 \sr19 9.09 /0.11 Crotehtip feng 05/76 129/798 82/89 053/047 Digit 5 Breadth, distal joint waa 132/187 Iss .0990,12 Crotentip length 48154 544/608 6.21699 0.047 FOOT DIMENSIONS Foot font 223/48 241/26 262/290 119 /1.28 Foot breadth R190 8.84/9.19 9.7) 107 050/033 Lateral malleolus height 58/62 6.78/73, 78/80 959/054 Weieht kw) 46215632 B11 TAO 899/97. 138/126 228 MOUSTRIAL ENCNEERINGERGONOMICS—HEARING ‘The average shifts with age of the threshold of hearing for pure tones of persons with “normal” hearing, using a 25-year-old ‘group as a reference group. ° ° ~—S SJ © ® Soi id rae Be 3 i B fe oo Bw Z ‘2000 5 =r a oo: : pe ie = ge Mo é ‘e209 E 00) Ew eo porto @ Wom pa 5 Mee “00 5 a « =| fe 2 3 40 60 60 70 OO id 2 0 40 6 0 7 ao ‘Ago, years ‘Age, years ‘Equivalent sound-level contours used in determining the A-weighted sound level on the basis of an octave-band analysis, The curve at the point ofthe highest penetration of the noise spectrum refleets the A-weighted sound level 3 0 125 Z oS 8 zg i /}00 8 : If 80 ss g 3 * : 15 es) B00 00 2000" ~4000—_—4000 Band center frequency, hertz IOUSTRALENGNEERING 229Estimated average trend curves for net hearing loss at 1,000, 2,000, and 4,000 Iz after continuous exposut to steady noise. Data are corrected for age, but not for temporiry threshold shift. Dotted portions of curves represent extrapolation from available data. 5 Tr # aa ea } : g a ee ie ga FEE [ BE ofits 4 3 “[eearases £3.41 s @ Bs ft 4 eae ¥ 3 8 88 e Ese : | Fal pawelentgienen By SPs vs 3 z as! Peete : I it a ) 5 ces © : HPP el Exposure tim, yeers & ssh ced gets copa A al © Exposure time, years: ‘Tentative upper limit of effective temperature (BT) for unimpaired mental performance as related to exposure times data are ‘based on an analysis of 15 studies. Comparative curves of tolerable and marginal physiological limits are also given. Aaongtere condos y t0 Marginal physiological timit 484 #0 dno 4 5 “oierable physiological iit 5 3 jo | a Upper limit for: - a Aes sal BeeSorce Het 060 120 180 240 900 960 Exposure time, minutes [Effective temperature (ET) isthe dry bulb temperature at $0% relative humidity, which results in the eame physiological effect as tive present conditions. 230 INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERINGMECHANICAL ENGINEERING MECHANICAL DESIGN AND ANALYSIS Stress Analysis See MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section. Fallure Theortes ‘See MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section and the MATERIALS SCIENCE section. Deformation and Stiffness ‘See MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section Components. ‘Square Thread Power Screws: The torque required to raise, Ty oF 0 lower, T, a load is given by Fely|1-+ tidy) , Faye 1 = F(t) 7 aly nisdy — 1 1 ea) 4, = wean collar diameter, d= mean thread diametes, 1 = lead, F =load, = coefficient of fition for thread, and 1 = coefficient of frietion for collar. ‘The efficiency of a power screw may be expressed as y= FUQRT Mechanical Springs Helical Linear Springs: The shear stress in a helial linear spring is Ft eS, where vo K SER, where xd 4 = wire diameter, F = applied foree, D = mean spring diameter K,=QC# 1/20), and C = Dia. “The deflection and for are relate by f= where the spring rae (spring constant) is given by per ww rere G's the sear mocks of elasticity and Wis the number of active coils. Se Table of Material Properics athe end of the MIECHANICS OF MATERIALS section for values of G. ‘Spring Material: The minimum tensile strength of common spring steels may be determined from. Sy=Ale" where S,, is the tensile strength in MPa, cis the wire diameter in millimeters, and A and m are listed in the following table: Material [ASTM [im A Music wire ans | 0.163 | 2060 Oil-tempered wire | A229 | 0.193 | 1610 Hond-drawn wire) A227 | 0.201 | 1510 Chrome vanadium | A232 | 0.155 | 1790 Chrome silicon dor | 0091 | 1960 Maximum allowable torsional stress for static applications. may be approximated as 5, == 0.455, cold-drawn carbon steel (A227, A228, A229) = t= 0.505, hardened and tempered carbon and low-alloy steels (A232, A401) Compression Spring Dimensions em. Ground End coils, Ne 0 a T Solid length, £, | d(Ni+1) dN, | Pitch, p (y—dyN Lol +L) term | Monee | Greund Total coils, M, N+2 N42 | Peetett, | aves | pw2d Pitch, p (Lo-3dyN (Io-2dVvN- Helical Torsion Springs:"The bending stres is given as K,(3201(ne?)] where is the applied load and ris the radius from the center ofthe colt the loa K,= correction factor =4C-C-I)/ae(C-1)] ed c MECHANICAL ENGWEERING 231‘The deflection 0 and moment Fare related by Pr=@ where the spring rate & is given by = GE k= Sow whore bas units of Nemvad and 8 is in redians. Spring Material: The strength of te spring wire may be found as showin in the section on linear springs. The allowable stress is then given by §, = 6=0.785,, cold-drawa carbon stel (A227, A228, A229) §, = 9=0.875,, hardened and tempered carbon and low-alloy’steel (A232, A401) Ball/Roller Bearing Sclectio ‘The minimum required basic foad rating (load for which 90% of the bearings from a given population will survive 1 million revolutions) is given by C= PLM, where C= smininum required basic load rating, P_ =design radial load, L design life (in millions of revotutions), and = 3 for ball bearings, 10/3 for roller bearings, ‘When a ball bearing is subjected to both radial and axial loads, an equivalent radial load must be used in the equation above. ‘The equivalent radial load is P= XVF, + YF, where P,,= equivalent radial load, F, applied constant radial load, and 7, =applied constant axial (thrust) load, For radial contact, deep-groove ball bearings: V = 1 ifinner ring rotating, 1.2 if outer ring rotating, WR AVE) > e, (Gy basie static load rating from bearing catelog, IK AVR,) Se, X= Land Y= 0. 282 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Intermediate- and cength Columns The slondemness ratio of a column is 5, /k, where Fis the length of the column and és the radius of gyration. The radius of gyration of a column cross-section is, k= /77A where 1 {s the area moment of inertia and A is the cross-sectional area of the column. A column is considered to be intermediate if its slenderness ratio is less than or equal to (S,),, where and E = Young's modulus of respective member, and ‘5, = yield strength of the column material, For intermediate coluns, the critical led is 1 i yea EV] P,, = critical buckling load, ross-seetional area ofthe column, eld strength ofthe column matecial, E. ~ Young's modulus of respective member, and Jenderness ratio For long colunans, the critical load is Py = Ed where the variables are as defined above. For both intermediate and long coluinns, the effective column length depends on the end conditions. The AISC recommended values forthe effective lengths of columns are, for: rounded-rounded or pinned-pinned ends, fay fixed-ftee, [yy 2.1; fixed-pinned, y= 0.80; fixed-fixed, y= 0.65). The effective column length should be used when calculating the slenderness rato, Power Transmission Shafts and Axles Static Loading: The raaximum shear stress and the von Mises stress may be ealcufated in terms ofthe loads from sans ra? + tsr¥]", x Hae 2 pif? of = Alm + Fa? + ase where ‘Mf = the bending moment, F = the axial losd, T = the torque, end d= the diameterFatigue Loading: Using the maximum-shear-stress theory combined with the Soderberg line for fatigue, the diameter and safety factor are related by yg Bed (% i ae where d =diameter, nv =safety factor, 1M, ~lernating moment, 1M,,=meun moment, 1, ig tora, 7, = mean ton, S, = fatigue limit, ‘Sy = yield strength, K, fatigue strength reduetion factor, and ~ fatigue strength reduction factor for sheer, = alterati Joining ‘Threaded Fasteners: The load carried by a bolt in a threaded ‘connection is given by RCP HF, F< while the fond carried by the members is Fy=(I-QP-F, FSO, where CC. = joint coetficient, Kill by) F, = total bolt load, F, =bolt preload, = jotal material load, P= externally applied load, kr, = the effective stiffness ofthe bolt or fastener in the grip, and k,, ~ the effective stiffness of the members in the grip. Bolt stiffness may be caleulated from = Ae 8 dat al A,= major-diometer area, A, > lensile-stess area, E = modulus of elasticity, 1, = length of unthreaded shank, and 1, = length of threaded shank contained within the grip. where fall members within the grip are of the same material, -mentber stffaess may be obtained from k= ABA, where 4 = bolt diameter, E = modiulus of elasticity of members, and 1 = grip length. Coefficients 4 and b are given in the table below for various {joint member materials. Material A 6 Steel 0.78715 0.62873, ‘Aluminum 0.79670 0.63816 Copper 0.79568 0.63555, ‘Gray east iron 0.77871 0.61616 “The approximate tightening torque required for a piven preload F,and for a steel bolt in a steel member is given by T=0.2 Fa. ‘Threaded Fasteners ~ Design Factors: The bolt load factor is y= GA FVICP ‘The factor of safety guarding against joint separation is n= FPO) ‘Threaded Fasteners — Fatigue Loading: If the extemally ‘applied load varies between zero and P, the alternating stress is 9,=CPI2A) ‘and the mean stress is 6,,=6,+ Fy/Ay Bolt joints Le Sia F Cn FASTENER W san Failure by pure shear, (a) = Fd, where P= shea oa, and aoe (b) MenBiER RUPTURE Failure by rupture, (0) 0= FIA, where F=load and 4 = noi cross-sectional area of thinnest member. {o) MEMBER OR FASTENER CRUSHING ECHANCAL ENOWEERNG 233Failure hy crushing of rivet or meniber, (©) FIA, where F= load and A= projected area of a single rivet, (@) FASTENER GROUPS Fastener groups in shear, (A) The location of the centroid of fastener group with respect to any convenient coordinate frame is Ban =, where Ba 1 = total number of fasteners, the index number ofa particular fastener, cross-sectional area of the ith fastener, ; = s-coordinate of the center of the ith fastener, and 1y, =»-coordinate of the center of the ith fastener, ‘The total shear force on a fastener isthe vector sun of the force due to direct shear P and the force due (o the mament M acting on the group at its cent The magnitude ofthe direct shear force due to Pi lad = 4 ‘This force acts in the same direction as P. ‘The magnitude of the shear force due to Mis My lal ea This force acts perpendicular toa fine drawn from the group ‘controid to the center of a particular fastener, Its sense is such that its moment is in the same direction (CW or CCW) as M. 204 MECHANICAL ENOWEERING ‘Press/Shrink Fits ‘The interface pressure induced by a press/shrink fit is ‘where the subseripts / and 9 stend for the inner and outer member, respectively, and p= inside pressure on the outer member and outside pressure con the inner member, 8 =the diametral interference, + = nominal interference radius, ide radius of inner member, tside radius of onter member, foung's modulus of respective member, and » = Poisson's ratio of respective member. See the MECHANICS OF MATERIALS section on. thiok-wall cylinders for che stresses atthe interface. ‘The mavimon forguie that ean be transmitted by a press fit joint is approximately T= 2nAypl, where rand p are defined above, T= torque capacity of the joint, 11 =coefficfent of friction at the interface, and 1 = length of hub engagementMANUFACTURABILITY and Fits ‘The designer is free to adopt any geometry of fit for shafts ‘end holes that will ensure intended function. Over time, sufficient experience with common situations bas resulted in the development of a standard. The metric version of the standard is newer and will be presented. The standard specifies that uppercase lettors always refer to the hole, while lowercase letters always refer to the shatt by Gg |< ——*] pesca Definitions Basie Size or nominal size, D ot d, isthe size to which the limits or deviations are applied. It is the same for both components, Deviation is the algebraic difference between the actual size and the corresponding basie size. Upper Deviation, 8, is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit snd the corresponding basi size. Lower Deviation, Bis the algebraic difference between the minimum limit and the corresponding basic size, Fundamental Deviation, pis the upper or lower deviation, depending on which is smaller. ‘lerance, Np oF Ag is the difference between the maxinnum ‘and minimum size limits of a part Iniernattonal tolerance (IT) grade numbers designate groups of tolerances such thatthe tolerance for a particular IT aumber will have the same relative accuracy for a basic size, Hole basis represents a system of fits corresponding to a basic hole size. The fundamental deviation is H. ‘Some Preferred Fits Free naming fiz vot used where | 19/9 securweyisossetial but good for large temperature variations, high running spoods, ce heavy journal lads Clearance Siding fir wine parts ace not intended | HT/g6 trun freely but must move and tum freely and locate accurately Locational ft: provides saug ft for] H7Hh6 location of stationary parts but ean be fively assembled ang disassembled, Locatlona transition fits for accurate | 171k6 Jocation, a compromise between clearance and interference, “Transition Interference | Location merference fi: for parts | H7/p6 requiring rigidity and alignment with prime accuracy oflocation but without special bore pressure requirements Median drive fit: for ordinary steel | H7I86 puts or shrink fits on light sections ‘The tightest ft usable on cast iron. Locational transition fi for wccurate | Hab location, a compromise between clearance and interference For the hole Da Da For shaft with clearance fits, g, or dan = d+ Bp an For a shaft with transition or interference fits kp, s, or yin = 4 * Bp tags = Fain * Aer where D = basic size of hole d= basic size of shaft upper deviation lower deviation fundamental deviation tolerance grade for hole ‘Ay = tolerance grade for shaft Ape ‘The shaft tolerance is defined as Ay =[8, — 61 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 235International Tolerance (IT) Grades Lower limit < Basic Size ¢ Upper Limit All values in’ mm re “Tleranoe Grade, (ap or) 16, id 17 os 0.006 0.010 0.025 3 0.008 0.012 (0.030 610 0.009 015 0.036 1018 oot 0018 0.083 130 ‘O15 oz 0.052 30-50 0.016 0.025 0.062 iv Prd Mee in a i AST ITS Lower limit < Basie Size s Upper Limit All values in mm a Beane (HE ‘Lower Deviation Letter, (6) ote [*}e*[epl[*]s 73 [00m |-o002 | 0 | 0 | -0.006 [v0014 | 0018 36 [0030 © | #0007 | +0012 | 10.009 | 0.023 610 [-n080 © | #0.001 | voors | +0023 | +0028 10-14 | -0.095 (© | 20001 | soos | +0028 | 20033 Wants | 0.080 © [0.001 | +0018 | 40.028 | 40033 18-24 | 0.065 (0 | ¥0.002 | +9.022 | +o.035 | s0041 24-30 | 0.065) © | 10.002 | ¥o.022 | v0.35 | 40.088 30-40 | 0.080 ‘| 10.002 | +0026 | ¥0.043 | 40.060 ‘40-50 | -0.080|~0.009| 0 | +0.002 | +9.026 [ ¥0.003 | +0070 Sow: Pfr ti in Pi, NG 842-197 Asan example, 34H7/s6 denotes a basic size of D= d= 34 mm , an IT class of 7 for the hole, and an IT class of 6 and an "sft class for the sha ‘Maximum Material Condition (MMC) ‘The maximum material condition defines the dimension of @ 1 such that the part weighs the most. The MMC of a shaft i at the maximum size of the tolerance while the MMC of a hole is at the minimum size of the tolerance. Least Material Condition (LMC) ‘The least material condition or minimum material condition defines the dimensions of a part such thatthe part weighs the least, The LMC of a shaft is the minimum size of the tolerance while the LMC of a hole is at the maximum size of the tolerance. 296 MECHANICAL ENOEERING KINEMATICS, DYNAMICS, AND VIBRATIONS, Kinematics of Mechanisms Four: ‘The four-bar linkage shown above consists of a reference (asually grounded) link (1), crank (input) fink (2), a eoupler Tink (3), and an output link (4), Links 2 and 4 rotate about the fixed pivots O,and Oy respectively. Link 3 i joined to link 2 atthe moving pivot 4 and to link 4at the moving pivot B. The lengths of links 2, 3,4, end 1 area, b,c, and d, respectively. “Taking link 1 (ground) as the reference (Y-axis), the angles that links 2, 3, and 4 make with the axis ae 6,83, and 0, respectively I is possible to assemble a four-bar differont configurations for a given position of th (Q). These are known as the “open” and “crossed” cireuits, positions or Position Analysis. Given a, b,c, and d, and 0, ao (BMC ayy = 2c = TC) where d = cos 0; ~K,—K00s Oy Ky B=—2sin 0, C= Ky-(K,+1) 008 0+ Ky and K=4K Peed In the equation for 0,, using the minus sign in front ofthe radical yields the open solution. Using the pls sign yields the crossed solution, aa =F) 0,4 = 2areten{ ERLE where D'=cos K+ K,cos Oy Ky E=-2sin0 P= K,+ (Ky 1) 009 0+ Ks, and Rad netot ae at In the equation for 0, using the minus sign in front of the ical yields the open solution. Using the plus sign yields the t Ma<1 NORMAL SHOCK, ‘The following equations relate downstream flow conditions to upstream flow conditions for a normal shock wave. oe { (= May + 2 Mo = [3p Mal— (kD % ty «te pmaal2kMat — (=D Bast me] aM Fe pike mat - (e- 0] ma _% (e+ Mat "Te Map +2 ale Fluid Machines (Compressible) ‘Comprassars Compressors consume power to add energy tothe working fluid. This energy addition sults in an inerease in uid pressure (head), wer (COMPRESSOR — —~ ext For an adiabatic compressor with APE =0 and negligible AKE: W, ‘n(h, ~ i) For an ideal gas with constant specific heats: Hany = they Te — Ti) Per unit mass: Compressor Isentropic Eiiciency Fea where, Ww, = aetual compressor work per unit mass sentropic compressor work per unit mass, isontropic exit temperature (see THERMODYNAMICS section) For a compressor where AK is included: HECHANICALENGINEERING 245,Adiabatic Compression: Wine g AB |B) Weong = aid or gus power (W) P, = inlet or suction pressure (N/m?) P, = exit or discharge pressure (Nim?) P, - = inlet gas density (kg/m?) Isothermal Compression May = FROM) Hayy Py Pe 7,88 defined for adiabatic compression R= universal gas constant 7, = inlet temperature of gas (K) M = molecular weight of gas (ke/kmol) ‘Turbines produce power by extracting energy from a working fluid, The energy loss shows up as a decrease in fuid pressure head), INET TURBINE Woa and negligible AKE: Per unit mass: Wane = Gp — Te) ‘Turbine Isenttopie Efiiency: tote For a turbine where AKE is included: 248 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Operating Characteristics See Performance of Components above. LityDrag See FLUID MECHANICS section, Tmpulse/Momentum See FLUID MECHANICS section, HEAT TRANSFER Conduction ‘See HEAT TRANSFER and TRANSPORT PHENOMENA sections. Convection See HEAT TRANSFER section. Radiatio See HEAT TRANSFER section. Composite Walls and Insulation See HEAT TRANSFER section. ‘Transient and Periodic Processes ‘See HEAT TRANSFER section Heat Exchangers ‘See HEAT TRANSFER section Boiling and Condensation Heat Transfer See HEAT TRANSFER section. REFRIGERATION AND HVAC Cycles Reftigeration and HVAC ‘Two-Stage Cyele On 3 —J conomnisea | conenesson Was 4 1 EAT exGIANGER 7 6 t ‘couPresson War ‘BAPORATOR ate 8 fo.‘The following equations are valid if the mass flows are the same in each stage. ree ase COP = + Has ig = by Tah the Te _ hh Olas = FH) = Uy = BY h—-hy a COP = Ta) =Uis— ae n= hy ©" Bris hoht hah See also THERMODYNAMICS section. eating nd Cooling Loads sigs Bs Oe f HEAT’ fe exdilecn [—]2 3 Rane crowenesson oan tye ati By Ba fae wafpebr Be beg, 1 Q =heat transfer rate, |__frogager Daan e a R= thermal resistance. Qn Overall heat transfer coefficient = U_ UR Q=VA(E-T,) Cooling Load Q=UA(CLTD), where CLTD = effective temperature difference. CLTD depends on solar heating rate, wall or roof orientation, color, and time of day. MECHANICALENGINEERING 247Infiltcation ‘Air change method Pal pVitgc 0 = SS — Thwhere p, =airdensity, air specific heat, ¥ =room volume, ic = numnber of air changes per hour, T, = indoor temperature, and T,, outdoor temperature. ‘Crack method Q=12CL(~ 2) Sce also HEAT TRANSFER section. Psychrometric Charts ‘Sce THERMODYNAMICS section. Coefficient of Performance (COP) ‘See section above and THERMODYNAMICS se ‘Components ‘See THERMODYNAMICS section and above sections 248 MECHANICAL ENGINEERINGA ‘absoluto dynamic viscosity 62 absorption (packed columns) 130 accelerated cast recovery system (ACRS) 115 AC circuits 195 acids and bases 100 AC machines [98 AC power 197 activated carbon adsorption 188 rivated sludge 186 yelic hydrocarbons 123 ibatic humidification (evaporative cooling) 240 adiabatic mixing 240 adiabatic process 77 adsorption, getivated carbon 188, rerobic digestion 187 serodynamics 64 airfoil theory 64 air poltution 170 air reliigeration cycle 247 air stripping 188 alcohols 123 aldehydes 123 ‘AM (amplitude modulation) 203 amorphous materials and glasses 107 ‘anaerobic digestion 187 analog filter circuits 206 analog-to-digital conversion 110 ‘analysis of variance (ANOVA) 218, 219 angle modulation 204 ‘angular momentum or moment of momentum 56 anode reaction (oxidation) of & typical metal 104 ANOVA table 224 tuthropometsic measurements 27 Archimedes principle 63 ‘rea formulas 28 avithmetie progression 25 ASTM grain size 196 atmospheric dispersion modeling (Gaussian) 170 atmospheric stability under various conditons 170 atomic bonding 104 average values 195 ‘Avogadro's number 100 axles 232 B bbaghouse 174 balanced three-phase systems 197 balancing of rotating and reciprocating equipment 238 ball/oller bearing selection 232 band-pass ters 207 band-roject filters 207 hasie eyeles 75 batoh reactor, constant T and V 126 batch reactor, general 127 Bayes theorem 41 beam-columns 151 INDEX beams 36, 150 deftection formulas 39 defection of beans 37 shearing force and bending moment sign conventions 36 stiffaess and moment cartyover 142 stresses in beams 37, bel friction 50 benefit-cost analysis 115 Bernoulli equation 65 binary number system 213, binary phase diagrams 76, 108 iroa-iron earbide phase diagram 108 fever rule 108 binomial distribution 42 biochemical pathways 93, 170 bioconcenteation factor 176 biology 91 biomechanics ofthe human bexdy 221 bioprocessing 98 biotower 187 bipolar junet black body 88 blades 66 BoD 175 boilers, condensers, evaporators 75 bolt stiffness 233, bolt srength 152 ponds, value and yield 115. book value 115 Boolean algebra 213 brake power 242 brake thermal efficiency 242 Brayton cycle 243 break-even analysis 114 brittle materials 35 stress concentration of 105 Buckingham's theorem 69 buoyancy 63 Cc caleulus 25 ‘capacitors and inductors 194 capillaity 62 capillary rise 62 capitalized costs 115 ‘carboxylic acids 123, mogens 183 Carmen-Kozeny equation 190 cathode reactions (reduction) 104 ccllular biology 91 ‘composition data for biomass and selected organic compounds 99 primary subdivisions of biological organisms 91 stoichiometry of selected biological systems 96 ‘center of buoyancy 63 center of pressure 63 centroids and moments of inertia 29 ‘centroids of masses, areas, lengths, and volumes 49 ransistor (BJT) 210 29‘chemical enginesring 123 chemical interaction effects on toxicity 180 ‘chemical process safety 132 chemical reaction onginecring 126 chemical thermodynamics 125 ‘chemical reaction equilibriars 125 reactive systems 125 vapor-liquid equilibrium 125 mistry 100 circular sector 28, civil engineering 134 Clapeyron equation 76 clarifier 186, 189, 190 ‘Clausius-Clapeyron Equation 76 ‘Clausius' statement of second law 76 celosedl-system availablity 77 ‘elosed thermodynamic system 74 coefficient of contraction 68 ccoeffigient of performance (COP) 75, 247, 248 cold working 104 columns 37, 150, 151, 156 columns, iztermediate- and fone-length 232 combustion and combustion products 244 ‘combustion process 76 ‘communication modulation types 203 ‘communication theory and concepts 202, ‘complex numbers 23, 196 definition 23, 164 ules identity 23 polar coordinates 23. roots 23 ‘complex power 197 composite materials 106 composite plane wall 84 ‘composition data for biomass and selected organic compounds 99 compressible flow 244 ‘compression ratio 242 ‘compression spring dimensions 231 compressors 245 computer engineering 193 computer spreadsheets 109 ‘concentrations of vaporized liquids 133, concrete 106 ‘concurrent foroes 50 ‘condensation of « pure vapor 87 conduction 84 confidence interval 44 cone sections 21 constants, fundamental 19 continuity equation 63 continuous-stired tank reactor (CSTR) 127 control systems 111 convection 84, 86, 87, 128 conversion factors 20 convolution 201 convolution integral 202 ‘cooling and dehumidification 239 cooling lond 247 ccoreosion 104 250 ‘corrosion resetions 103, ‘cost-benefit analysis 115 ‘cost estimation 131 ‘Coulomb-Mohe theory 35 CPM precedence relationships 169 creep 105, critical path method (CPM) 223 critical value of stress intensity 105 critical values ofthe fdistibution 47 critical values of %? distribution 48 CSE, cancer slope factor 183, ‘comlative distribution funetions 41 ‘curl 24 ccarrent 193 ccorvature in rectangular coordinates 26 curvature of any cycles 241, 246 cyeles and processes 241 ceyelone 173 cylindrical pressure vessel 33 D ‘damped! natural frequency 112 damped resonant Frequency 112 Darcy's law 159 arey-Weishach equation 65 data quality objectives (DQO) for sampling and solids 178 deflection of beams 37 deflectors and blades 66 DeMorgan's theorems 213, density 62 depreciation 115 derivative 25 lesivatives and indefinite imtegrals 27 ddowerminants 24 dew-point 75 difference equations 31, 200 differential enloulus 25 {ests for maximum, minimum, point of inflection 25, differential equations 30, 32 diffusers 14 diffusion 104, 128 digital signal processing 201 dimensional homogeneity and dimensional analysis 69 dimensionless group equation (Sherwood) 128 diodes 210 sispession 40 displacement volume 242 distillation 128, 129 disionion-energy theory 35 divergence 24 dose-response curves 180 ‘drag coefficient 64, 190, 191, 192 drag coefficients for spheres, disks, and cylinders 72 drag force 64 DSB (double-sideband modulation) 204 «dual linear program 215 ductile materials Dupuit's formal 159dynamic response 239 dynamics 54

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