IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SUSTAINABLE ENERGY, VOL. 3, NO.

2, APRIL 2012

295

Interactive Distributed Generation Interface

for Flexible Micro-Grid Operation in
Smart Distribution Systems
Alireza Kahrobaeian and Yasser Abdel-Rady I. Mohamed, Senior Member, IEEE

AbstractThis paper presents an interactive distributed generation (DG) interface for flexible micro-grid operation in the
smart distribution system environment. Under the smart grid
environment, DG units should be included in the system operational control framework, where they can be used to enhance
system reliability by providing backup generation in isolated
mode, and to provide ancillary services (e.g. voltage support and
reactive power control) in the grid-connected mode. To meet
these requirements, the proposed flexible interface utilizes a fixed
powervoltagecurrent cascaded control structure to minimize
control function switching and is equipped with robust internal
model control structure to maximize the disturbance rejection
performance within the DG interface. The proposed control
system facilitates flexible and robust DG operational characteristics such as 1) active/reactive power (PQ) or active power/voltage
(PV) bus operation in the grid-connected mode, 2) regulated
power control in autonomous micro-grid mode, 3) smooth transition between autonomous mode and PV or PQ grid connected
modes and vice versa, 4) reduced voltage distortion under heavily
nonlinear loading conditions, and 5) robust control performance
under islanding detection delays. Evaluation results are presented
to demonstrate the flexibility and effectiveness of the proposed
controller.
Index TermsDistributed generation (DG), flexible control,
micro-grids, smart distribution systems.

I. INTRODUCTION

LEXIBLE operation of distributed generation (DG) units

is a major objective in future smart power grids [1][4].
The majority of DG units are interfaced to grid/load via power
electronics converters. Current-controlled voltage-sourced
inverters (VSIs) are commonly used for grid connection [5].
Under the smart grid environment, DG units should be included in the system operational control framework, where
they can be used to enhance system reliability by providing
backup generation in isolated mode, and to provide ancillary
services (e.g. voltage support and reactive power control) in
the grid-connected mode. These operational control actions
are dynamic in nature as they depend on the load/generation
profile, demand-side management control, and overall network optimization controllers (e.g., grid reconfiguration and

Manuscript received May 27, 2011; revised September 19, 2011; accepted
November 05, 2011. Date of current version March 21, 2012.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G-2V4, Canada (e-mail:
[email protected]).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSTE.2011.2178045

supervisory control actions) [4]. To achieve this vision, the DG

interface should offer high flexibility and robustness in meeting
a wide range of control functions, such as seamless transfer
between grid-connected operation and islanded mode; seamless transfer between active/reactive power (PQ) and active
power/voltage (PV) modes of operation in the grid connected
mode; robustness against islanding detection delays; offering
minimal control-function switching during mode transition;
and maintaining a hierarchical control structure.
Several control system improvements have been made
to the hierarchical control structure to enhance the control
performance of DG units either in grid-connected or isolated
micro-grid systems [5][11]. However, subsequent to an islanding event, changing the controlling strategy from current to
voltage control, in a hierarchical control framework, may result
in serious voltage deviations especially when the islanding
detection is delayed [12]. Further, mode transition transients
will be imposed on the output voltage vector, where both the
magnitude of the output voltage and the power angle will be
subjected to disturbances. Few studies addressed the extended
nature of micro-grid operation during mode transition and
flexible operation. Seamless voltage transfer control between
grid-connected and isolated local-voltage-controlled modes
is reported in [13]. An indirect current control technique
is proposed in [12] to mitigate voltage transients in mode
transition. In [14], a direct control structure that mimics synchronous generator operation is proposed to provide seamless
transfer characteristics. These control schemes, however, do
not cope with the hierarchical control structure in modern
power converters. A nonlinear sliding-mode voltage controller
and adaptive power sharing controller are proposed in [15]
to achieve seamless mode transfer in micro-grids. These
controllers adopt complicated control structure. Further, the
robustness against islanding detection delays is not tested in
previously developed controllers. Therefore, there is a strong
need to develop a robust and flexible hierarchical control structure with simple linear control design that provides powerful
control platform for high-level controllers in the smart grid
environment. It is highly desirable to maintain the hierarchical
control structure as it is widely accepted in DG applications
due to the benefits of using current-controlled VSIs (e.g.,
controlled short-circuit current and reduced power coupling),
and its inherent ability to cope with hierarchical control and
communication standards in power electronic converters [6].
These features do not inherently exist in direct controllers that
mimic synchronous machine performance [14].

1949-3029/$31.00 2012 IEEE

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Fig. 1. Single line diagram of the micro-grid study system.

Motivated by the aforementioned difficulties, this paper

presents an interactive DG interface for flexible micro-grid
operation in smart distribution systems. The proposed control
scheme utilizes a fixed hierarchical powervoltagecurrent
control structure, which is used under different modes of operation. Therefore, only the magnitude of the reference voltage
vector is subjected to variation, which minimizes the internal
disturbances generated by switching a current-controlled interface to a voltage-controlled interface in conventional control
techniques. The voltage controller is robustly designed to
offer internal model control characteristics against random
disturbances associated with mode transfer and harmonic and
unbalanced voltage disturbances associated with DG operation under unbalanced voltages and nonlinear loads. Further,
the proposed controller offers robustness against islanding
detection delays due to the fixed control structure. Theoretical
analysis and evaluation results verify the effectiveness of the
proposed control scheme.
II. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
Fig. 1 shows the micro-grid system under study, which is
adapted from the IEEE 1559 standard for low voltage applications. The adopted study system represents a general low
voltage distribution system, where different types of loads
and different numbers of DG units can be considered to be
connected to the main feeder. The DG units can be employed
to work either parallel to the utility grid, or in isolated mode
to serve sensitive loads connected to the main feeder when
the main breaker (BR) is open. Without loss of generality,
the performance of the micro-grid system is studied under the
presence of two DG units, supplying general types of loads.
The load on the second feeder is an inductive load where a
2.5-KVAr power factor correction capacitor bank is also considered to be connected to the main feeder. The adopted load

model is in line with the IEEE 1547 test load used in DG applications [17]. The nonlinear load is a three-phase diode rectifier with an
load at the dc-side. The addition of the
diode rectifier helps in assessing the effectiveness of the proposed controller in rejecting voltage harmonics associated with
nonlinear loading, and rejecting load-DG-unit-grid interactions
at harmonic frequencies. Power circuit and control parameters
of DG units are given in the Appendix.
The schematic diagram of a single DG unit as the building
block of the sample micro-grid system is also shown in Fig. 1.
When the DG unit is connected to the grid, the voltage and frequency at the point of common coupling are dominantly dictated by the grid. However, in case of weak grids, the voltage is
prone to voltage sags and disturbances. In this case, the DG unit
can be controlled to support the grid voltage. Therefore, both
PQ and PV operational modes can be adopted in the grid-connected mode. Subsequent to an islanding event, DG units can
form an autonomous micro-grid system to enhance the reliability of sensitive loads. This flexible operation requires robust
control infrastructure, which is essential for system operators
and supervisory controllers in the smart grid environment.
In both grid-connected and isolated modes, the state space
presentation of the DG interface dynamics can be given in the
natural frame by

(1)
where and are the filter inductance and capacitance,
is the inverter output voltage,
is the inverter output current,
is the voltage at the point of common coupling,
and
is the network-side current. Note that
,
,
and
are 3 1 vectors representing phase quantities
corresponding to each phase, and the filter-inductor resistance

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297

the proposed design strategy, both external and internal disturbances can be eliminated or remarkably attenuated within the
DG interface. Moreover, the fixed control structure increases
the robustness of the control structure to islanding detection
delays. The voltage control is designed by considering an
augmented model that includes the
-filter active damping
and inner current control loop dynamics to ensure robustness
and coordinated control design. Theoretical analysis and design
procedure of the proposed control scheme are described in the
following sections.

Fig. 2. Block diagram representation of the state space equations.

B. Resonance Damping
is ignored. In order to decrease the number of differential equations and simplify system presentation, (1) can be rewritten in a
stationary
reference frame system by applying the following
to
transformation:

(2)
Using (2), the state space model of the system in the
is as follows:

frame

(3)
Fig. 2 depicts the block diagram representation of the differential equations derived in (3) where
models the exogenous disturbance caused by connecting the system to the utility
grid. The block diagram suggests that the output current (i.e.,
) can be regarded as an external disturbance caused by unknown load or grid behavior either in islanded or grid connected mode. Along with these exogenous disturbances, control
mode switching in conventional DG controllers (e.g., from current control to voltage control) generates internal disturbances
within the control structure.
III. PROPOSED CONTROL SCHEME

Applying an
filter at the output stage introduces a resonance peak to the frequency response of the system, which
can limit the achievable bandwidth of the current controller in
a multiloop hierarchical control approach. Besides, as the filter
and grid parameters change, the corresponding resonance frequency also shifts, resulting in potential harmonic excitations at
low-order harmonics affecting system stability. Therefore, converter resonance damping is essential to maintain stability and
facilitate high bandwidth current control design. Active resonance damping can be a viable option, particularly in DG applications where losses associated with passive damping can
reduce the generation efficiency. A simple and effective technique to actively damp
filter resonance is to introduce a
damping voltage that is proportional to the capacitor current.
The dynamic equations corresponding to the actively damped
system can be given as follows:

(4)
where
represents the current-dependent voltage source injected in series with the original inverter output voltage and
is the virtual damping coefficient.
With the active damping voltage modeled as a current-controlled voltage source, the open loop transfer function of the
system of Fig. 1 is driven as
(5)

A. Control Structure
As indicated in Fig. 2, external disturbances will be imposed
on the DG interface during mode transition and network/load
disturbances. On the other hand, internal disturbances will be
generated due to control function switching between different
modes in the conventional hierarchical control structure. To
overcome these issues and to achieve a flexible and robust
operation of DG units under the smart grid environment while
maintaining the hierarchical control structure, the proposed
control scheme, shown in Fig. 3, utilizes a fixed hierarchical
powervoltagecurrent control structure in both grid-connected
and isolated modes. This will minimize the undesired voltage
transients generated by switching from a current-controlled interface to a voltage-controlled interface in conventional control
techniques. Further, the proposed power controller works under
grid-connected and isolated micro-grid modes; this feature
provides a flexible interface for the DG unit to be used in
different operational modes with minimal switching. Due to

Fig. 4 shows the effect of introduced active damping on the

open loop system frequency characteristics. The resonance peak
can be completely damped, and accordingly high control bandwidth can be achieved. Based on the results provided in Fig. 4,
can provide the desired damping performance. It can be
noted that the introduced damping voltage is independent of the
resonance frequency resulting in a robust damping performance
under parameter variation.
C. Augmented Internal Model-Based Voltage Control
The main objective of the proposed voltage control scheme
is to maximize the disturbance rejection performance for wide
band of disturbances, and to meet the voltage tracking requirements. Towards this, a newly designed augmented internal
model control (IMC) structure is proposed to provide internal
model dynamics for harmonic, unbalanced, and random voltage
disturbances.

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Fig. 3. Proposed control scheme.

regarded as an open loop system where the feed-forward compensator should be designed to ensure close tracking performance. On the other hand, disturbance rejection can be achieved
via the feedback compensator design. Since the tracking and
disturbance rejection performances can be designed independently, the IMC control scheme can be considered as a two-degree-of-freedom controller.
The sensitivity function
and the complementary sensitivity function
, which represent tracking and disturbance
rejection capabilities of the system, respectively, can be driven
as follows:
Fig. 4. Open loop frequency response of the actively damped system at dif.
ferent values of

(6)

Fig. 5. Internal model control scheme.

Fig. 5 shows a general two degrees of freedom IMC structure

[16]. In Fig. 5,
represents a nominal model for the actual
plant of
, whereas
and
are feed-forward and
feedback compensators, respectively, and can be regarded as
the exogenous disturbance.
Under exact model matching (i.e.,
) and the
absence of system disturbances, the feedback signal, which is
influenced by the disturbance or any model uncertainties, would
be zero. In this case, the IMC structure, shown in Fig. 5, can be

and
such that
The design goal is then to propose
and
within a reasonably large range of frequencies of interest. This will assure both disturbance rejection and
tracking ability of the system. Assuming
and
, then the model following error
is zero and the
control scheme is reduced to an open loop one with
. In this case,
can provide a perfect
tracking performance. Stability constraints require
to be
minimum phase. Besides,
can be an improper transfer
function and cannot be realized practically. Therefore, a lowpass filter is used to yield a proper feed-forward compensator
(7)
where corresponds to the bandwidth of the filter, and is
an integer selected in such a way that
is a proper or
strictly proper function. The disturbance rejection is achieved
via
which produces a compensating input to cancel out
disturbances. To overcome the computational burden associated with frame transformations, the proposed controller is performed in Clarks
-frame. Proportional resonant controller

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299

with harmonic compensators (PRHC) are proposed to realize

(8)
Fig. 6. Augmented plant model including active damping and inner current
control loops.

In (8), the first term,

, is the proportional resonant
compensator with a proportional gain
, and resonant gain
, which is tuned at the fundamental angular frequency. The
second term,
, is the harmonic compensator, where
denotes the harmonic order to be compensated and
is the
corresponding resonant filter gain. In
and
,
is
the cutoff frequency, which is introduced to facilitate practical
implementation of resonant controllers under variation in the
fundamental angular frequency (e.g., under isolated micro-grid
operation). The PRHC provides high disturbance rejection
gains at the fundamental and selected harmonic frequencies of
the tracking error. Therefore, a wide range of disturbances can
be effectively rejected.
To cope with the hierarchical control structure, which inherently provides over-current protection, and enhances the dynamic performance of the system, the hierarchical design approach with the inductor inner current control loop should be
considered in the voltage control design stage. Therefore, the
inner current control and the proposed active damping dynamics
should also be augmented in the earlier model introduced in
Fig. 2. The augmented model with both current control and active damping dynamics is shown in Fig. 6, where and are
used as feedback signals, respectively. In order to achieve a simpler expression for the augmented model, the inductors resistance is ignored.
Due to the presence of the voltage controller in all modes of
operation, a simple proportional current controller
can be
adopted as shown in Fig. 6. Note that the reference current in
Fig. 6 is generated by the outer IMC-based voltage controller.
The augmented model can be simplified as shown in Fig. 7,
where
models the transfer function between
and
in the presence of the active damping loop.
The output/input transfer function in Fig. 7 can be given by

Fig. 7. Simplified block diagram of the augmented plant model.

Fig. 8. Hierarchical voltage control of the DG unit based on IMC scheme.

in (9) and the design approach introduced in (7),

can be
given by (10), shown at the bottom of the page, where subscript
denotes nominal model parameters.
It can be noted that the feed-forward compensator is both
stable and proper. The time constant dictates the tracking
bandwidth of the system. It can be also noted that mismatch
in system parameters can be considered as disturbances and it
will be attenuated by the feedback compensators. Therefore,
robustness against parameter variation and disturbances can
be yielded. The sensitivity transfer function of the proposed
system, which represents the frequency response of the
transfer function can be also obtained from Fig. 8 as follows:
(11)

(9)
Fig. 8 depicts the proposed IMC-based multiloop voltage control structure. Considering the output/input relation calculated

is the PRHC feedback compensator defined in (8).

where
Using the circuit and control system parameters of DG1, pro-

(10)

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Fig. 9. Frequency response for the (a) tracking and (b) disturbance rejection performances.

vided in the Appendix, the tracking and disturbance rejection

characteristics of the suggested controller are demonstrated in
Fig. 9(a) and (b), respectively. Fig. 9(a) implies that the proposed feed-forward compensator provides a very good tracking
performance, which ensures minimum voltage tracking error.
Fig. 9(b) shows how the proposed control structure can attenuate a wide range of random disturbances associated with the
output current (e.g., voltage disturbances associated with mode
transition). Further, due to the presence of the internal models
tuned at harmonic frequencies, the proposed controller provides
very high attenuation around the fundamental and selective harmonics (i.e., fifth, seventh, and eleventh).

Fig. 10. Three phase

-PLL with prenotch resonant filter.

D. Power Flow Control

The adopted hierarchical design approach provides flexible
operation of the DG unit in grid-connected mode. To minimize
the control switching actions between grid-connected and isolated modes, a single active power control structure is used in
both modes. The proposed active power controller, shown in
Fig. 3, consists of a slow integrator, which generates frequency
deviations
according to the power-frequency characteristics
presented in (12)
(12)
The above equation is very similar to the frequency-power
droop equation in autonomous micro-grid system [6] and, therefore, by adopting an appropriate slope coefficient (i.e., ) based
on a reasonably small frequency deviation range, the proposed
real power controller can be used both in grid connected and islanded modes. Even if it is required to have different slopes at
different modes, the control structure remains the same to minimize the generation of internal disturbances within the control
structure. As shown in Fig. 3, in the grid-connected mode, the
phase angle of the grid
is generated via a
three-phase
phase-locked loop (PLL). A resonant filter tuned at the fundamental grid frequency is used along with the PLL to make

Fig. 11. Synchronization controller.

it more robust in the presence of voltage harmonics or unbalances [21]. On the other hand, during islanded operation, the
processor internal clock is used to generate the aforementioned
signal while
is assumed to be
.
Considering the voltage and reactive power controller, the
voltage amplitude can be either set to 1.0 p.u. for PV-bus operation, or it can be adjusted through a reactive power controller for
PQ-bus operation. In the grid-connected mode, a proportional
integral (PI) controller is adopted to provide the magnitude of
the output voltage
. Therefore, the voltage control signal can
be generated as follows:
(13)

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301

Fig. 12. Dynamic response of the system to an active power command step change in grid connected mode and PQ operation. (a) Converter active power. (b)
Converter reactive power. (c) Output voltage magnitude. (d) Instantaneous phase-a output voltage.

where
are the proportional and integral gains, respectively,
is the reference reactive power, and is the actual
reactive power.
In islanded operation, however, a voltage droop function is
adopted to share the reactive power among different DG units.
Accordingly, the voltage magnitude is generated according to

micro-grid system employs two DG units, which can work parallel to the utility grid, or in isolated mode when the grid is not
available to serve sensitive loads.
The proposed flexible control structure, shown in Fig. 3,
makes it possible for the DG unit to support the grid in different scenarios. Different scenarios are tested. Key results are
presented as follows.

(14)
A. Grid-Connected Mode
where

is the reactive power droop gain.

E. PLL Configuration and Synchronization

Fig. 10 shows the configuration of the adopted prefiltered
three-phase -PLL for the synchronization purpose in the grid
connected mode [21]. This is a standard -PLL with a resonant
filter added to make it more robust in the presence of voltage
harmonics and unbalance.
The islanded operation is inevitable when there is a grid
failure or blackout; however, when the grid voltage is back
to its normal condition, a synchronization process is required
before transition to the grid connected mode. In order to bring
the output voltage angle to the grid angle, which is estimated
by the adopted PLL, a synchronization controller, shown in
Fig. 11, can be realized by applying small frequency deviations
in the voltage command to decrease the phase mismatching between the two voltages. The DG unit would connect to the grid
when the angle difference is sufficiently lower than a threshold
tolerance to ensure seamless connection with respect to the
phase angle.
IV. RESULTS
To evaluate the performance of the proposed control scheme,
the study system depicted in Fig. 1 is implemented for time domain simulation under the Matlab/Simulink environment. The

Fig. 12 shows the control performance under PQ-bus operation mode for one of the DG units. The inductive load and
the capacitor bank are activated in this scenario. The reactive
power command is set to zero, whereas the active power command experiences a step change from 5 to 10 kW at
s.
Fig. 12(a) and (b) shows the active and reactive powers generated by the unit. Close active power tracking performance is
yielded. On the other hand, the coupling between active and reactive power dynamics is minimal. Fig. 12(c) depicts how the
output voltage amplitude changes to maintain the unity power
factor condition while increasing the active power injection.
Voltage fluctuation in this mode is the natural result of the absence of voltage control at the point of common coupling. The
instantaneous phase- output voltage is shown in Fig. 12(d).
In addition to active power regulation, the DG unit can contribute to the voltage reliability at the point of common coupling
by allowing bus voltage control (i.e., PV mode). This mode can
be activated once voltage sags (e.g., due to upstream faults) are
detected. Under these conditions, the voltage control mode is activated to inject reactive power during the sag period to provide
fault-ride-through performance. Accordingly, the economic operation of the DG unit will not be compromised. On the other
hand, in long radial feeders and weak grids, existing DG units
can be used for continuous voltage support. Fig. 13 shows the
effectiveness of the proposed control strategy in terms of providing the DG unit with the fault-ride-through capability. The

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Fig. 13. Dynamic response of the system under 10% grid voltage sag under PV-bus operation. (a) Instantaneous
and feeder voltage in p.u. (c) Converter reactive power.

output voltage. (b) DG output voltage (blue)

Fig. 14. Dynamic response of the system when a nonlinear load is added in grid connected mode. (a) Phase- output voltage. (b) Phase- load current (c) PLL
output.

grid voltage encounters a 10% sag from

s to
s
due to an upstream fault in the main feeder. The load
is assumed to be the locally connected load. Fig. 13(a) shows
the phase- voltage during the voltage disturbance. Fig. 13(b)
shows the magnitude of the output voltage of the DG unit and
the main feeder. Fig. 13(c) shows the reactive power injected by
the unit during the fault period. Provided that there is enough reactive power rating, larger voltage sags can be mitigated by the
DG interface.
To test the disturbance rejection against loading transients
and harmonic loading, the nonlinear load is switched ON at
s. The controller response to the addition of the nonlinear load is shown in Fig. 14. Fig. 14(a) shows the output
voltage waveform of phase- , whereas Fig. 14(b) shows the
load current. The proposed controller acts fast enough to reject
the sudden loading disturbance yielding close voltage regulation at the local ac bus voltage. On the other hand, the harmonic
disturbance rejection ability of the proposed controller is obvious. In spite of the heavily distorted load current, the total
harmonic distortion (THD) of the phase- voltage is 0.67% and

0.81% before and after adding the nonlinear load, respectively.

The PLL output in the presence of harmonics is also shown in
Fig. 14(c). Note that the PLL output is robust even after adding
the rectifier load to the system. This is because of the resonant
filter which provides robust phase tracking in the presence of
harmonics.
These results confirm the high disturbance rejection performance of the proposed controller.
B. Isolated Mode
The transitional performance of the study system under the
proposed control scheme from grid connected to islanded mode
is evaluated by emulating an islanding event via opening the
breaker switch (BR) at the upstream feeder in Fig. 1. Initially,
the micro-grid system is connected to the grid and both DG
units are working in the PV-bus mode. The study system is
islanded at
s by opening the breaker BR. In this paper,
the smart distribution study system is assumed to be equipped
with a power line communication-based islanding detection
scheme [19], [20], where the islanding event is detected with

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303

Fig. 15. Dynamic response of the two-DG micro-grid system due to an islanding event with DG units acting as PV buses. (a) Instantaneous phase- grid voltage
with and without proposed controller. (b) RMS feeder voltage with proposed controller. (c), (d) Active and reactive converter powers of each DG unit.

Fig. 16. Dynamic response of the two-DG micro-grid system due to an islanding event with DG units acting as PQ buses. (a) Instantaneous phase- grid voltage
with and without proposed controller. (b) RMS feeder voltage with proposed controller. (c), (d) Active and reactive converter powers of each DG unit.

some communication delays after the upstream feeder breaker

goes open and this event is signaled to the supervisory control
unit shown in Fig. 3. The detection delay is assumed to be
20 ms; therefore, the islanding event is detected at
s.
Fig. 15 depicts the dynamic response of the system prior to
and after the islanding event. DG units utilize the same control
structure, which is applied for both grid connected and islanded
modes. Reactive power sharing is adopted in the isolated
mode. The load voltage waveform and magnitude are shown in
Fig. 15(a) and (b), respectively. In Fig. 15(a), the voltage response associated with the conventional method (i.e., switching
from current-controlled to voltage-controlled interface) is
also shown. As it can be seen, without applying the proposed
method, the system is experiencing much higher over voltages
due to the internal disturbance generated by switching from
current-controlled interface to a voltage-controlled one, and
thus implying the effectiveness of the adopted control scheme.

Fig. 15 confirms that the proposed controller is well capable

of maintaining the load voltage subsequent to an islanding
event. The dynamics responses of the active and reactive power
components for each DG unit are shown in Fig. 15(c) and (d),
where the initial active power generated by each DG is 5 kW,
dictated by the power controller in the grid connected mode.
However, subsequent to the islanding event, the generated active power is decreased in order to meet the load consumption
(i.e., 8.0 kW). The robustness of the proposed controller under
micro-grid operation is obvious.
For further performance evaluation, the micro-grid system is
connected to the grid and both DG units are working in the
PQ-bus mode (with unity power factor). The utility supply is
lost at
s. The islanding is detected after 20 ms by
the supervisory control unit at
s. Fig. 16 depicts the
dynamic response of the system prior and after the islanding
event. The load voltage waveform and magnitude are shown in

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Fig. 17. Dynamic response of the system when a nonlinear load is added in islanded mode. (a) Instantaneous phase- output voltage. (b) Phase- load current.
Instantaneous phase- grid current. (c), (d) Active and reactive converter powers for DG1. (e), (f) Active and reactive converter powers for DG2.

Fig. 18. Dynamic response of the two-DG micro-grid system when reconnecting to the utility as PQ buses. (a) Instantaneous phase- grid current. (b) Instantaneous phase- output voltage. (c), (d) Active and reactive converter powers for each DG unit.

Fig. 16(a) and (b), respectively. Close voltage control characteristics are yielded subsequent to the islanding event. Once again
the system response in the absence of the proposed scheme is
shown in Fig. 16(a), where the higher transient over-voltage is
obvious. The active and reactive power responses for DG units
are shown in Fig. 16(c) and (d), where the initial active power
generated by each DG is 6.0 kW at unity power factor. Subsequent to the islanding event, the generated active power decreases in order to meet the load demand.
Fig. 17 shows the load voltage and current responses of the
islanded system when the nonlinear load is added at
s.
Fig. 17(a) shows the load voltage, whereas Fig. 17(b) shows the
load current. It can be seen that the controller is well capable of

maintaining the output voltage quality despite the highly distorted current going through the load. The THD of the load
voltage is 2.7%. Fig. 17(c)(f) shows the active and reactive
power profiles of both DG units. Accurate power sharing performance is yielded even in the presence of harmonic loading,
which demands reactive power injection by both DG units.
Fig. 18 shows the grid current, the load voltage, and power
responses during a supply restoration scenario at
s.
Once the utility supply is restored, both DG units operate as a
PQ bus with unity power factor and with a power command of
3.0 kW for each unit. In spite of grid-current transients, the load
voltage is closely controlled to facilitate seamless restoration.
Similar to the micro-grid formation event, the proposed con-

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trol scheme yields seamless connection performance under the

supply restoration event by rejecting the generated disturbances
internally and externally within the control structure.
V. CONCLUSION
An interactive DG interface for flexible micro-grid operation in the smart distribution system environment has been
presented in this paper. The proposed control scheme utilizes
a fixed powervoltagecurrent cascaded control structure
with robust internal model voltage controller to maximize the
disturbance rejection performance within the DG interface,
and to minimize control function switching. The proposed
control scheme has a simple and linear control structure that
facilitates flexible DG operation in the grid-connected mode
and autonomous micro-grids, yields robust transition between
grid-connected and islanded modes either in PQ or PV operational modes, and provides robustness against islanding
detection delays due to the fixed control structure under different modes of operation. Therefore, the proposed control
scheme enhances the flexibility of micro-grid operation under
the dynamic nature of future smart distribution systems.
APPENDIX
The parameters of the test system shown in Fig. 1 and converter control parameters are given as follows:
DG1 and DG2:
mH,
,
F,
,
,
,
,
,
,
rad/W,
V/VAR,
,
,
rad/s,
rad/s,
switching frequency
kHz, PLL loop filter: proportional
gain: 50, integral gain: 100.
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Alireza Kahrobaeian received the B.Sc. and M.Sc.

degrees in electrical engineering from the University
of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, in 2007 and 2010, respectively. He is currently working toward the Ph.D.
degree at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB,
Canada.
His research interests include control and stability
analysis of micro-grids and smart grid systems.

Yasser Abdel-Rady I. Mohamed (M06SM11) was born in Cairo, Egypt, on

November 25, 1977. He received the B.Sc. (with honors) and M.Sc. degrees
in electrical engineering from Ain Shams University, Cairo, in 2000 and 2004,
respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada, in 2008.
He is currently with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Alberta, AB, Canada, as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include dynamics and controls of power converters; distributed and renewable generation; modeling, analysis and control of smart grids; and electric
machines and motor drives.
Dr. Mohamed is an Associate Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS. He is also a Guest Editor of the SPECIAL SECTION
ON DISTRIBUTED GENERATION AND MICRO-GRIDS, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS. His biography is listed in Marquis Whos Who in
the World.