Unit 5

Direct & Indirect

testing. Cloze &
Multiple-Choice Tests.
Advantages &
Disadvantages

DIRECT VS. INDIRECT TESTING

Unit 5

Direct test items

o A test item is direct when the learners response
involves actually performing the communicative
skill or lg recognition/production task that is
being assessed.
o Direct testing is commonly associated with the
productive skills. Why? Bc in assessing the
productive skills theres an observable output
(speech/writing by the student) that can be
heard/seen.
o Thus, in a direct test of speaking, the learner would
actually speak in the L2 with a communicative
purpose.
What would a direct test of writing involve?
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DIRECT VS. INDIRECT TESTING

Unit 5

Indirect test items

o Indirect test items try to measure student
knowledge & ability by getting at what lies beneath
their receptive & productive skills.
o The design of procedures designed to tap into the
enabling skills underpinning the macro skills results in
indirect assessment devices of the skill in question.
o Thus, if we believe that grammatical knowledge
contributes to writing ability, then a grammar test may
be used as an indirect test of writing.
E.g.: Structure & Written Expression section of the
TOEFL.
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DIRECT VS. INDIRECT TESTING

Unit 5

Likewise, bc pronunciation is thought to be a

component of speaking, phonemic distinction tasks
can be interpreted as indirect tests of speaking.

PROBLEMS WITH INDIRECT TESTING

1. Can a very indirect test really provide valid
assessment of the skill it intends to measure?
$ Does it mean that bc someone is good at selecting
the right answer on m-c grammar items they are
also effective writers?
$ Does it mean that bc someone correctly
distinguishes bt ship & sheep on a phonemic
distinction test they will also be able to carry on a
conversation effectively?
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Unit 5

DIRECT VS. INDIRECT TESTING

2. Negative washback.
washback E.g.: if learners spend time
studying bits of decontextualized grammar in
preparation for an indirect test of writing, they may
spend less time actually writing in the L2.
Summary
While direct test items try to be/include as much
like realreal-lg use as possible, indirect items try to find
out about student lg knowledge thru more
controlled items, such as m-c qs or grammar
transformation items. These tend to be quicker to
design & easier to grade. They also produce greater
scorer reliability.

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Unit 5

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Indirect test item types (1)

Multiple choice questions (MCQs)

The journalist was _____ by enemy fire as he tried to send a
story by radio.
a wronged

b wounded

c injured

d damaged

MCQs have been considered ideal test instruments for

measuring students knowledge of grammar &
vocabulary, mainly bc they are easy to score and,
with the use of computer technology, the answers can
be read by machines, not people, with the consequent
elimination of scorer error (thus, with increased
rater reliability).
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Unit 5

PROBLEMS WITH MCQs:

1. MC tests are difficult to construct, and timeconsuming.
2. MC tests dont lend themselves to the testing of
lg as communication, mainly bc choosing the right
answer out of 4 or 5 possibilities has little to do with
how lg is used in real life, nor do the processes
involved in that selection. In real-life situations,
appropriate responses to different stimuli are produced
rather than selected from several options.
However, as long as it is remembered that MCQs test
knowledge of grammar, vocab, etc. rather than the
ability to use lg, MCQs can be useful in different
teaching & testing situations.
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Unit 5

Features of MCQs:
1. Number of alternatives
The ideal # of alternatives is 5. A larger #, e.g. 7,
would obviously reduce the chance element, but it
would be extremely difficult if not impossible to
construct as many as seven good options for each
item. Most classroom tests use 4 options, not 5,
precisely bc of this difficulty.
2. Areas to be measured & number of items to be
included
- Bf starting the construction of any given test, the
test-developer must decide on a) the areas that the
test is going to measure with MCQs and b) the
number of items that are going to be included in
the test.
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Unit 5

- The MC test must be long enough to provide evidence

of the t-ts performance & short enough to be
practicable.
An excessively long test is undesirable bc, apart from
being more difficult to administer, it would cause
mental strain & tension among t-ts.
Generally, the # of items will depend on the level of
difficulty, the nature of the areas being tested, and the
purpose of the test. Usually, the teachers
experience will determine the length of a test for
classroom use.
3. Context
- Both linguistic & situational contexts are essential in
using lg,
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Unit 5

& therefore test-developers should make sure they

dont build tests that consist entirely of a series of
decontextualized items, since that could lead the
students to thinking that lg is learnt & used free of any
context.
- Isolated sentences in a MC test add to the artificiality
of the test situation & create ambiguity and confusion
on the part of the t-t.
- Awareness of the use of lg in an appropriate &
meaningful way so essential in communication
becomes irrelevant in the test. That is, all you are
trying to teach your students in class becomes blurred
by giving them decontextualized items in an exam.

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Unit 5

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

4. Components of MCQs
1. The stem
The journalist was _____ by enemy fire as he tried to send a
story by radio.

2. The responses (also alternatives/options)

a wronged

b wounded

c injured

d damaged

One option is the answer/

answer/correct option/
option/key,
key while
the others are called distractors,
distractors bc their function is
to distract most poor students (i.e. those who do not
know the answer) away from the correct option.
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

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Unit 5

5. Principles of MC test construction

1. Each MC item should have only 1 answer. This
answer must be ABSOLUTELY CORRECT unless the
instruction says choose the best option.
2. Only 1 feature at a time should be tested, since its
less confusing for the t-t & helps reinforce a
particular teaching point (the one that is measured).
Normally, nobody tests grammar & vocabulary at
the same time, but sometimes word order and
sequence of tenses are tested simultaneously.
These are impure mc items:
I never knew where _____.
a had the boys gone
b the boys have gone
c have the boys gone
d the boys had gone
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Unit 5

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

3. Each option should be grammatically correct

when placed in the stem, except of course in the
case of specific grammar test items. Whats the
problem with the following item?
Someone who designs houses is a _____.
a designer
b builder
c architect

d plumber

This can be corrected in at least 2 ways? How?

Stems ending in preps can also
present some difficulties. In the
following reading comprehension
item, one option can be immediately
ruled out. Which one?
John soon returned to _____.
a work
b the prison

c home

d school

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

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Unit 5

4. All mc items should be at a level appropriate to the

testees proficiency level. The context should be
at a lower level than the actual problem which
the item is testing.
E.g.: A grammar test item should not contain other
grammatical features as difficult as the area being
tested.
E.g.: A vocabulary item should not contain more
difficult semantic features in the stem than the area
being tested.
5. MCQ should be as brief and as clear as possible
(though it is desirable to provide short contexts for
grammar items).
6. Its a good idea to put items in rough order of
increasing difficulty.
difficulty Its important to have a
couple of simple items to lead in the t-ts, especially
if students are unfamiliar with MC tests.
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Unit 5

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

6. Characteristics & functions of item components

(stem/options)
THE STEM
Purpose: to present the problem clearly & concisely.
$ The student should get from the stem a general idea
of the problem and the answer required.
$ The stem should not contain extraneous information
or irrelevant clues which confuses the problem being
tested. Unless students understand the problem being
tested, theres no way of knowing whether or not they
could have handled the problem correctly.

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Unit 5

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Form:
a) an incomplete statement
b) a complete statement
c) a question
He accused me of _____ lies.
a speaking
b saying

c telling

d talking

Everything we wanted was to hand.

a under control
b within reach
c well cared for
d being prepared for
According to the writer, what did Tom immediately do?
a He ran home.
b He met Bob.
c He began to shout. d He phoned the police

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Unit 5

Contents: A MCQ should contain those words or

phrases which would otherwise have to be repeated in
each option
The word astronauts is used in the passage to refer to
a travelers in an ocean liner.
b travelers in a space-ship.
c travelers in a submarine.
d travelers in a balloon.

The stem should be rewritten so that it reads:

The word astronauts is used in the passage to refer to
travelers in
a an ocean liner.
b a space-ship.
c a submarine.
d a balloon.
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

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Unit 5

The same principle applies to grammar items. The

item
I enjoy _____ the children playing in the park.
a looking to
b looking about
c looking at
d looking on

should be rewritten like this:

I enjoy looking _____ the children playing in the park.
a to
b about
c at
d on

The first of these 2 items would be correct only if one

of the errors made by the students in their free written
work is the omission of the preposition after look (a
common error), i.e. if its clear they dont know that a
preposition is necessary after this verb.
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Unit 5

THE CORRECT ANSWER

$ There should be no doubt as to the correct
answer. Thus, each item should be checked by
another person.
person
$ The correct answer should be of approximately
the same length as the distractors,
distractors especially in
vocab. tests & tests of reading & listening
comprehension. So, avoid tendency to make
correct answer longer than distractors simply
bc its necessary to qualify a statement or word to
make it absolutely correct. Heres an example of
such giveaway item:
He began to choke while he was eating the fish.
a die
b cough and vomit
c grow very angry
d be unable to breathe because of something in the windpipe
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

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Unit 5

THE DISTRACTORS
$ Each distractor should be reasonably attractive &
plausible.
plausible It should appear correct to the student
whos unsure of the right option.
$ Items should be constructed in such a way that
students get the correct answer by direct selection,
not by elimination of obviously incorrect options.
E.g.:
The present tax reforms have benefited _____ poor.
a that
b the
ca
d an

$ In general, distractors should be grammatically correct

when standing by themselves. Otherwise, testees
would be exposed to incorrect forms.

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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Unit 5

$ In all grammar items, however, its only the wrong

choice, and its implied insertion in the stem, which
makes a pattern ungrammatical. In the previous item,
option a) is grammatically correct on its own, but it
becomes incorrect when inserted into the stem.
$ Plausible distractors should be based on a)
mistakes in the students own written work, b) their
answers in previous tests, c) the teachers experience &,
d) a contrastive analysis bt students L1 and the L2.
$ Distractors should not be too difficult nor demand
higher proficiency than the correct option. If they
do, they will only succeed in distracting the good
student, who will think that they correct answer is too
easy (and a trap).
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

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Unit 5

7. Writing the test

The testees will be required to perform any of the
following tasks:
1. Write out the correct option in full in the blank:
He may not come, but well get ready in case he _____.
a will
b does
c is
d may

2. Write only the letter of the correct option in the blank

or in a box:
He may not come, but well get ready in case he _____.
a will
b does
c is
d may

3. Put a tick or a cross at the side of the correct option

or in a separate box:
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Unit 5

He may not come, but well get ready in case he _____.

a will

A.

b does

B.

c is

C.

d may

D.

4. Underline the correct option:

He may not come, but well get ready in case he _____.
a will
b does
c is
d may

5. Put a circle around the letter as the side of the correct

option:
He may not come, but well get ready in case he _____.
a will
b does
c is
d may
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

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Unit 5

Indirect test item types (2)

Cloze tests
In its purest form, a cloze consists of the deletion of
every nth word in a text (somewhere bt every fifth
or tenth word). Bc the procedure is random, it
avoids test designer failings.
Example of cloze fragment:
They sat on a bench attached 1 _____ a picnic table. Below
them they 2 _____ see the river gurgling between overgrown
3 _____. The sky was diamond blue, with 4 _____ white
clouds dancing in the freshening 5 _____. They could hear
the call of 6 _____ and the buzzing of countless insects. 7
_____ were completely alone.

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THE CLOZE PROCEDURE

Unit 5

Bc of the randomness of the deleted words, anything

may be tested within a singles cloze text: grammar,
collocation, fixed phrases, reading comprehension
Which makes it, at least on the face of it, the perfect
testing instrument.
PROBLEMS WITH THE CLOZE-PROCEDURE
However,
- the score obtained by the student depends on the
particular words that have been deleted,
deleted rather than
on their general knowledge of the L2
- some items are more difficult to supply than others
- in some cases, there may be several possible
answers
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THE CLOZE PROCEDURE

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Unit 5

In spite of these reliability problems, supplying the

correct word for a blank does imply
- an understanding of context &
- a knowledge of that word and how it functions,
which makes the cloze technique a very useful
technique to use in lg tests.
CLOZE OR FILL-IN-THE-BLANKS?
Cloze tests look similar to completion or blank-filling
tests (b-f ts), but they are different. In b-f ts, the
words for deletion are selected subjectively
(consisting largely of structural words in grammar tests
& key content words in vocab. or reading tests).
In cloze tests, however, the words are deleted
systematically.
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THE CLOZE PROCEDURE

Unit 5

CLOZE CONSTRUCTION
Once the text has been chosen, the construction of the
cloze is purely mechanical:
- every nth word is deleted;
- deletion interval: commonly bt every 5th & every
10th word. BUT, if every 7th word has been deleted in
the first few sentences, that is the interval that should
be used for the rest of the text.
- 5th, 6th, and 7th word intervals are the preferred,
mainly bc a shorter interval would make it very hard
for the student to just understand the text, since there
would not be enough context.

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THE CLOZE PROCEDURE

27

Unit 5

If, on the other hand, every 10th or 12th word is

deleted, it would be necessary to have a very long text.
E.g.1: 40 deletions every 7th word $ 280 to 300-word
text.
E.g.2: 40 deletions every 12th word $ 480 to 500word text.
CLOZE TEST SCORING
1. Exact word method: students get credit for a
correct answer if and only if the word they write in
any given blank is the exact word deleted from the
original text. This is approach is quick and, therefore,
very practical, and also highly reliable.
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THE CLOZE PROCEDURE

Unit 5

PROBLEM: the exact word scoring method may be too

rigid i.e. it does not reward creativity on the part of
the test-taker.
2. Acceptable word method: any response that (a)
is grammatically correct & (b) makes good sense in
the context is given full credit as an acceptable
answer. This method may promote positive washback,
since it could encourage learners to use their
pragmatic expectancy grammars creatively.
PROBLEM 1: it may slow down the scoring
process,
process specially if you have a large # of students.
PROBLEM 2: it could affect scoring reliability if
scorers dont agree about the acceptability of some of
the words supplied by the students.
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THE CLOZE PROCEDURE

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Unit 5

LEVEL OF TEXT DIFFICULTY

The level of difficulty of the text is very important: if
the text is already difficult to read without blanks,
imagine how difficult it would be once the blanks are
inserted!
The difficulty level of the text is affected by as
many as the following variables:
-text length;
-amount of time allowed to complete the task;
-learner familiarity with vocab & syntax of the
passage;
-length & complexity of the sentences in the passage;
-learner familiarity with topic & with discourse genre of
text (content & formal schemata)
-blank interval (every 5ht word vs every 9th word, for
instance)
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THE CLOZE PROCEDURE

Unit 5

MUTILATION
Once youve selected/written the text, you have to
decide on the interval at which you will be eliminating or
mutilating words. Basically, there are 2 ways to
mutilate a text:
a) rational deletion (or selected deletion.): test
developer deletes words on the basis of some rational
decision. E.g.: to test students knowledge of verb
tenses, delete only verbs. (Some writers say this is not
really a cloze test, but a completion test).
b) fixed ratio or nth word deletion: regardless of its part
of speech or the semantic load it bears within the text,
every nth word is omitted. [b) more difficult than a) for
the student]

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THE C-TEST

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Unit 5

Indirect test item types (3)

C-Test
This is a variation on the cloze test, in which the
students read a brief paragraph in the L2. The first
two sentences are left intact. There_ _ _ _ _, every
ot_ _ _ word i_ printed int_ _ _, but f_ _ each alte_ _
_ _ _ word, on_ _ the fi_ _ _ half o_ the wo_ _ is wri_
_ _, and t_ _ second ha_ _ is indi_ _ _ _ _ by a bl_ _
_ space repres_ _ _ _ _ _ each let_ _ _. T_ _
students abi_ _ _ _ to fi_ _ in t_ _ blank spa_ _ is
tho_ _ _ _ to b_ a mea_ _ _ _ of th_ _ _ language
profi_ _ _ _ _ _.

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THE C-TEST

Unit 5

Indirect test item types (3)

C-Test
This is a variation on the cloze test, in which the
students read a brief paragraph in the L2. The first two
sentences are left intact. Thereafter, every other word
is printed intact, but for each alternate word, only the
first half of the word is written, and the second half is
indicated by a blank space representing each letter.
The students ability to fill in the blank space is
thought to be a measure of their language proficiency.

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THE C-TEST

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Unit 5

$ This approach to text mutilation is called the rule of

two i.e. starting with the 2nd sentence of the text, the
2nd half of every 2nd word is deleted. In words having an
odd # of letters, there are more blanks given than letters
(e.g., thought is represented as tho_ _ _ _), but this
pattern can be altered to suit the needs of particular
groups of students.
$ Its been proved that C-tests can also be excellent
teaching devices (apart from testing techniques) bc
they provoke creative reasoning among the students,
especially if they do it in pairs or groups: student lg use
focuses on the lg as content (thats not enough letters
for example, they might say, or we need an adjective
here, etc.).

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THE C-TEST

Unit 5

Indirect test item types (4)

Transformation items (T. i.)

Finish each of the following sentences in such a way that it is
as similar as possible in meaning to the sentence printed
before it.

T. i. = rewriting sentences in a slight different

form, retaining meaning of original sentence. The
next item tests knowledge of verb & clause patterns
triggered by the use of I wish:
Im sorry that I didnt get her an anniversary present.
I wish ___________________________.

To complete the task successfully, the student has to

understand the original sentence & know how to
construct a grammatically correct equivalent.Thus, this
type of test item informs teachers about student
knowledge of the lg system.
system.
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THE C-TEST

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Unit 5

Indirect test item types (5)

Reordering items
Put the words in order to make correct sentences.

called / I / Im / in / sorry / wasnt / when / you

____________________________________________
Getting the students to put words in the right order to
make appropriate sentences informs the teacher about
their knowledge of syntax and lexicogrammatical elements and mechanisms.
Advantage: Reordering items are fairly easy to
construct.
Problem: Its difficult to ensure only one correct
order.
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OTHER INDIRECT ITEMS

$ Changing the form of words

a) Verbs: tenses, etc.
Researchers (1) to convince that a drug they
(2) to test can improve the memory and that
it (3) to be the forerunner of other drugs
which eventually (4) to improve mental
ability.
b) Word building
Students who were given the drug for a
fortnight did considerably (1. well) in tests
than others. The tests included the (2.
memorize) of lists of words as well as of (3.
inform) from two messages transmitted at the
same time

Unit 5

1
2
3
4

_____
_____
_____
_____

1 _____
2 _____
3 _____

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OTHER INDIRECT ITEMS

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Unit 5

$ Fill-ins
Jan _____ to the gym every Tuesday morning.
$ Choosing the correct tense of verbs in
sentences & passages
I have arrived / arrived yesterday.
$ Finding errors in sentences
She doesnt like too tall men.
All of these are easy to score & inform test-givers of
student underlying knowledge about the L2.
L2

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DIRECT TESTING

Unit 5

Direct test item types

For direct test items to have validity & reliability, test
designers need to
1. Create level playing field. Compare the following
prompts for a test of writing ability:
Why was the discovery of DNA so important for the
science of the 20th century?
Some businesses now say that no one can smoke
cigarettes in or even near any of their offices. Some
governments have banned smoking in all public places
whether outside or inside.
This is a good idea but it also takes away some
of our freedom. Do you agree or disagree? Give reasons
for your answer.
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DIRECT TESTING

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Unit 5

Whats the problem with the 1st

prompt?

It presupposes knowledge
of science & of 20th c.
scientific history & favors
those students who have
it, discriminating those
who dont have it.
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DIRECT TESTING

Unit 5

When testing the receptive skills, test designers also

need to avoid excessive demands on student general
or specialist knowledge (text topic).
Why? Bc receptive ability testing can also be
undermined if the means of testing requires
students to demonstrate good ability in the
productive skills (i.e. if students need to write or
speak well to reflect comprehension).
Result? It would be difficult to be sure that its the
receptive skills that are being measured.

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DIRECT TESTING

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Unit 5

2. Replicate real-life interaction: in real life, lg use

is motivated i.e. when we speak or write we do so for
a purpose.
Traditional tests of writing have often been based
on general essay questions & speaking tests often
included hypothetical questions about what t-ts might
say if they were in certain situation.
More modern test writers now include tasks which
attempt to replicate features of real life
(discussions, simulations, role-plays, etc.).
Reading & listening tests should also reflect real life,
as much as possible (texts should be authentic or
realistic, and so should be reading / listening tasks).

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DIRECT TESTING

Unit 5

Examples of direct test items that meet the criteria

mentioned above:
$ An interview questioning candidates about
themselves.
$ Info gap activities where a t-t has to find out info
either from an interlocutor or from another t-t.
$ Decision-making activities, such as showing paired
candidates photos of people and asking them to order
them from best to worst dressed.
$ Using pictures for candidates to compare/contrast,
whether they can both see them or whether they have
found similarities and differences without being able to
look at each others material (as in many
communication games).
$ Role-plays where t-ts perform tasks such as
introducing themselves, ringing a theater to book
tickets, etc.
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DIRECT TESTING

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Unit 5

$ M-c qs to test comprehension of a text.

$ Matching written descriptions with pictures of what
they describe.
$ Transferring written info to charts, graphs, maps,
etc. (Special care needs to be taken not to
disadvantage non-mathematically minded t-ts).
$ Choosing the best summary of a paragraph or a
whole text.
$ Matching jumbled headings with paragraphs.
$ Inserting sentences provided by the examiner in the
correct place in the text.
Tcnicas y Procedimientos de Evaluacin... 2008/09
Prof. Lourdes Cerezo

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DIRECT TESTING

Unit 5

$ Writing compositions and stories.

$ Transactional letters where candidates reply to a job
ad, or write a complaint to a hotel based on info given in
the exam.
$ Info leaflets about their school or a place in their
town.
$ A set of instructions for some common task.
$ Newspaper articles about a recent event.
$ Completing charts with facts & figures from a text.
$ Identifying which of a # of objects (pictures on test)
is being described.
$ Identifying which (out of 2 or 3 speakers) says what.
$ Identifying whether speakers are enthusiastic,
encouraging, in disagreement, or amused.
$ Following directions on a map & identifying the
correct house, place, etc.
Tcnicas y Procedimientos de Evaluacin... 2008/09
Prof. Lourdes Cerezo

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