ta aE ll era) Basic Electrical Engineering Technical Publications Pune’Ss et Basic Electrical Engineering ISBN 9788184316940 All rights reserved with Technical Publicatiens. No pert of this book should) be reproduced in any farm, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage ond retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by = Technical Publications Pune” #1, Aamit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India, Printer ‘Alert DTPrinter: Seno. 10/3,Sinhsged Road, Pne- 411 O41Table of Contents 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 The Structure of Matte 1.2.4 Structure of an Atom 1.3 Concept of Charge 1.3.1 Unit of Charge .. 1.4 Concept of Electromotive Force and Current .........ssscsssseerseseesssersereneed 4 1.5 Relation between Charge and Current... 1.6 Concept of Electric Potential and Potential Difference . 1.7 Electromotive Force and Potential Difference i D7 1.8 Resistance. 1.8.1 Factors Affecting the Resistance. 1.9 Resistivity and Conductivity... 1.9.1 Conductance (G).. 1.9.2 Conductivity. . 1.10 Effect of Temperature on Resistance 1.10.1 Effect of Temperature on Metals..............eeese coos sees tee eeeseeeeeeee 4.10.2 Effect of Temperature on Carbon and Insulators ... 4.10.3 Effect of Temperature on Alloys 1.10.4 Effect of Temperature on Semiconductors 1.11 Resistance Temperature Coefficient (R.T.C. 4.44.4 Unit of R.T.C. 4.11.2 Use of R.T.C. in Calculating Resistance at tC. 1.11.3 Effect of Temperature on R.T.C.... 2... ee eee es 4-19 1.11.4 Effect of Temperature on Resistivity... eee cece eee e ea eee 1-201.11.5 RTC. of Composite Conductor .............05 see bee eee eens ecaees - 1-23 1.12 Insulation Resistance....... = 1.12.1 Insulation Resistance ofa Cable. 8 1.12.2 Effect of Temperature on Insulation Resistance...................es ss eeeeees 1-H 1.12.3 Effect of Moisture on Insulation Resistance 1.13 Fundamental Quantities and Units ...... 1.43.4 Mechanical Units... sees ee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee 41-32 1.13.1.1 Relation between Torque and Power. 1.13.2 Electrical Units. 1.13.3 Thermal Units 1.13.4 Efficlency.. o.oo ee ee eee ee eee eee eee 1.14 Cells and Batteries 1.15 Types of Cells 1.16 Cell Terminology... 1.17 Primary Cells 1.17.4 Dry Zine-Carbon Cell 1.47.1.1 Cell Reaction. 1,17.1.2 Features of Cell. 1.17.2 Mercury Cell .... 4.17.2.1 Chemical réaction eee 2... 1-42 1.97.2.2 Features ofthecell, oo... ANT23Applications ee we 143 1.18 Secondary Cells . 1.19 Lead Acid Battery 1.19.1 Functions of Separators... ee a 1.19.2 Chemical Action in Lead Acid Battery 1.19.3 Features of Lead Acid Battery... oo... ees. s sees see ees ee eesseeeseeeeeeeees 1.19.4 Conditions of a Fully Charged Battery. 1.19.5 Maintenances and Precautions to be taken for Lead Acid Battery. 1.19.6 Testing Procedure for Lead Acid Battery. 1.20 Battery Capacity .....1.21 Battery Efficiency sesaneeseessnse ve 1.21.1 Ampere-hour Efficiency... . 0... seseeseeeeneneeete eet eeeeteeeereeeeenes 1-51 1.21.2 Walt-hour Efficiency ......... 1.22 Charge and Discharge Curves 1.23 Battery Charging 1.23.1 Indications of Fully Charged Battery 1.24 Charging Methods 1.24.1 Constant Current Method 4.24.2 Constant Voltage Method ......... 1.24.3 Rectifier Method 1.25 Grouping of Cell 4.25.1 Series Groupin: . 4.25.2 Parallel Grouping. ..........ee essen sees ese ee steers senescent eee 4.25.3 Series-Parallel Grouping . 1.26 Alkaline Cells. 1.27 Nickel - Iron Cell 1.27.1 Chemical Reaction... ....-. eet 4.27.2 Electrical Characteristics... 1.27.3 Capacity, T2TAEfficioncy. oo. eee eee eee eee A275 Advantages . oie ee eee eee eee ees eee ees 1.27.6 Disadvantages. 4.27.7 Application . 1.28 Nickel - Cadmium Cell. 1.28.1 Chemical Reaction............16 1.28.2 Features .... 1.28.3 Applications . . 1.29 Comparison of Various Batteries... 1.30 Comparison of Primary and Secondary Cells. 1.31 NIMH Battery tees eeseseneeeee 1.31.4 Construction...4.34.2 Coll Reactions... cece ceeccceeesececeeseeeseeeesseeessneeese : W313 Features oes eeesccesesseeseecscenstcsessstesseesensseeneseneees 1.31.4 General Characteristics 1.31.5 Self Discharge Characteristics . 1.31.6 Recharging Characteristics... Examples with Solutions Review Questions. 2.1 Introduction 2.3 Classification of Electrical Networks 2.4 Energy Sources 2.4.1 Voltage Source ... 2.4.2 Current Source 2.4.3 Dependent Sources. . 2.5 Ohm's. Law...........0. sotesesautenuessennessanee sucesaeenee 2.5.4 limitations of Oi 2-8 2.6 Series Circuit.............. sesesceseceescesesaeseseesae seeeseoees 2.6.1 Characteristics of Series Circuits... eee 2-9 2.7 Parallel Circuit....... 2.2.1 Characteristics of Parallel Circuits,2.8 Comparison of Series and Parallel Circuit: 2.9 Short and Open Circuits ............. 2.9.1 Short Circuit... eee teeeeeteeesesteseteeeeeteeeeieeeteeepeteetenieee 2-13 2.13.3 Current Sources in Series . . 2.13.4 Current Sources in Parallel _ . . 2.44 KirChhOfPS LAWS .....ssssccsssssssesesssssssessssssasscesesassecssassssessssasssssessssaesassaseeed 7 20. 2.14.4 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL). . 2.14.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)... 2.14.3 Sign Conventions to be Followed while Applying KVL . . 2.14.4 Application of KVL to a Closed Path... es eee e eee nee et ee eee e eee : 2.14.5 Steps to Apply Kirchhoff's Laws to Get Network Equations . 2.15 Cramer's Rule sone 2.16 Star and Delta Connection of Resistances. 2.16.1 Delta-Star Transformation... . 1... ssseseesesseessssesseeesseersiererere eel 2.16.2 Star-Delta Transformation... 2.17 Superposition Theorem .. 2.17.1 Explanation of Superposition Theorem 2.17.2 Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem. 2.18 Thevenin's Theorem ..........000 2.18.1 Explanation of Thevenin's Theorem ...... 2.0.0 sees sees seeeese esses senor 2.18.2 Steps to Apply Thavenin's Theorem... ......... 0.0.0... 00... eee 2.19 Norton's Theoret2.19.1 Explanation of Norton's Theorem 2.2.0.0, 60 0c ec cence sees seeeeeseeeeee 2 2-65 2.19.2 Steps to Apply Norton's Theorem ..... 0... cscs esse sees reeves eetee ees ee ees 2-66 2.20 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 2-70 2.20.1 Proof of Maximum Power Transfer TheOteM oss. ste s estes teense 270 2.20.2 Steps to Apply Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .......--.scseseseeeeveeee 2-71 2.21 Concept of Loop Current. Examples with Solutions. Review Questions... 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Magnet and its Properties. 3.3 Molecular Theory of Magnetization .. 3.4 Laws of Magnetism.. 3.5 Magnetic Field ..... 3.5.1 Magnetic Lines of Force... 0... eee eee eee eens eee ee ees 3.5.2 Direction of Magnetic Field 3.5.3 Properties of Lines of Force 3.6 Magnetic Flux () 3.7 Pole Strength 3.8 Magnetic Flux Density (B 3.9 Magnetic Field Strength (H ). 3.10 Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current (Electromagnets’ 3.11 Nature of Magnetic Field of Long Straight COMMUCEOF os eresneenrenererrerenrd = 13, 3.11.1 Magnetic Field Strength due to a Long Solenoid. 3.12 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field 3.12.1 Fleming's Left Hand Rule 3.12.2 Magnitude of Force Experienced by the Conductor . 3.13 Force between Two Parallel Current Carrying C Conductors...3.13.1 Direction of Both the Currants Same. .... 62. csese eee seerer tree eeeeeaeenees 3.13.2 Directions of Two Currents Opposite to Each Other... seer eeeseeeeseeees 3.13.3 Magnitude of Force between Two Parallel Conductors... 3.13.4 Unit of Ampere. . . 3.14 Permeability .. 3.14.1 Absolute Permeability (yu) oo... eee e ee ee eee eee eee eee e eee 3.14.2 Permeability of Free Space or Vacuum (1, ). 3.14.3 Relative Permeability (1.,) 3.15 Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F.or F ) 3.16 Reluctance (S) 3.17 Permeance . 3.18 Magnetic Circuits....... 3.18.1 Series Magnetic Circuits 3.18.2 Series Circuit with Air Gap. 3.18.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits .. . . 3.18.4 Parallel Magnetic Circuit with AirGap. oo... 0... 3.19 Kirchhoffs Laws for Magnetic Circuit. 3.19.1 Kirchhoffs Flux Law... . 3.19.2 Kirchhoffs MMF. Law . st 3.20 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Circuits. 3.21.1 Leakage Coefficient or Hopkinson’s Coefficient _. 3.21.2 Magnatic Fringing eo... eee ce ee eee cscs eee cess eeeseneeeseeeuees Examples with Solutions.......... es neseseererensersseessarasenseesse 4.4 Introduction 4.2 Faraday's Experiment. 4.3 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction ABA First LAW ween ee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee 4.3.2 Second Law.4.4 Nature of the Induced E.M. 4.5 Dynamically Induced E.M. 4.5.1 Magnitude of Dynamically Induced EMF. ...... 2.000.000. See esas sees ese 4-4 4.5.2 Direction of Dynamically Induced E.M.F........ 0.0.0. ces esses seeeee eee es eee 4-7 4.6 Statically Induced E.M.F. 4-10 4.7 Self Induced E.M.F. -11 1 Self 4-11 4.7.2 Magnitude of Self Induced EM.F............00.. 4-11 4.7.3 Expressions for Coefficient of Self Inductance (L).....seeessseee sees eeseeeveuee 4-13 4.7.4 Factors Affecting Self Inductance of a Coll. ...... ses cesses tenes e eee eee 4.8 Mutually Induced E.M.F........ 4.8.1 Magnitude of Mutually Induced EMF. ...... tions of Mutual indi its Unit 4.8.3 Expressions of the Mutual Inductance (M) ... 4.8.4 Coefficient of Coupling or Magnetic Coupling Coefficient 4.9 Effective Inductance of Series Conne@ction............:sscesesee 4.9.1 Series Aiding or Cumulatively Coupled Connection ..........cseseeeenseeeneeee 4.9.2 Equivalent Inductance of Series Aiding Connection .. . 4.9.3 Series Opposilion or Differentially Coupled Connection 4.9.4 Equivalent Inductance of Series Opposition Connection. . 4.10 Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field .. seveceneee 4.10.1 Expression for Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field... ...........seeeseeevseee 4.10.2 Energy Stored Per Unit Volume . . 4.11 Lifting Power of Electromagnets. Examples with Solutions............. Chapter 5 Eléctrostatics 7.2 5.1 Introduction... on 5.2 Concept of an Electric Charge. 5.3 Laws of Electrostatics........... 5.4 Electrostatic Field ................. SEE wea\ 5.4.1 Electric Lines of Force . 5.4.2 Properties of Electric Lines of Force. . 5.5 Electric Flux... soasceusessseesensescosseassessssasuesssassessssasoessuisrasteaseassanessessses 5.6 Electric Flux Density. 5.6.1 Surface Charge Density 5.7 Electric Field Strength or Field Intensity... 5.7.1 Relation between D and E 5.8 Permittivity 5.8.1 Absolute Permittivity . we 5.8.2 Permitlivity and Free Space.................................2 5-8 5.9 Electric Potential and Potential Difference 5.9.1 Potential Difference... . 5.10 Potential Gradient 5.11 Capacitor ...... 5.12 Capacitance...... 5.13 Action of a Capacitor §.14 Relation between Charge and Applied Voltage. 5.15 Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor 5.16 Dielectric Strength ............:..0 6.16.1 Dielectric Leakage and Losses............................ 5.17 Capacitors in Series §.17.1 Voltage Distribution in Two Capacitors in Series 5.18 Capacitors in Parailel, 5.19 Parallel Plate Capacitor with Multiple P Plates . 5.20 Composite Dielectric Capacitors ............. 5.21 Energy Stored in a Capacitor 5.22 Current in a Capacitor 5.23 Types of Capacitors... 5.24 Charging a Capacitor through Resistance.........ssssussssrerssesssrsessncessssers 5.24.1 Mathematical Analysis... .. +++ ..-sssssceesseeee sees ee ses tees estes5.24.2 Time Constant 5.24.3 Initial Rate of Rise of Capacitor Voltage ..... 5.25 Discharging a Capacitor through a Resistance 5.25.1 Mathematical Analysis... oo... +... cece e eee ev ese eee eee esse neers teenies §.25.2 Time Constant...................... 5.25.3 Significance of Time Constant. 5.26 Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Terms - A Comparison Examples with Solutions. Review Questions. B.A IMtFODUCHION ....e..ssccsesseesseessecesesenscessssesesasssnessosceeossasceessasseeceeesteeseesssessssece eG = 1 6.2 Advantages of A.C....... 6.3 Types of A.C. Waveform: 6.3.1 Advantages of Purely Sinusoidal Waveform ...........sssesee sense seeeess renee 6-3 6.4 Generation of A.C. Voltage .........sssecsessesseseesersenssessessssensesseesesesmesassesen’ 7D 6.5.6 Amplitude. 6.5.7 Angular Frequency (a). 6.6 Equation of an Alternating Quantity... ceeetesneeteceneeeeeaees 6.6.1 Different Ferms of E.M.F. Equation . 6.7 Effective Value or R.M.S. Value ... 6.7.4 Graphical Method... . 2... ee eee eee eee eee nett teens 6.7.2 Analytical Method ............- +2. seen ee eee6.7.3 Importance of R.M.S. Value 6.8 Average Value..... 6.8.1 Graphical Method... en eee eee eee eee eee ee eee 6.8.2 Analytical Mathod .... 2. ... sees es eee eee eee ee cette eee e eset ee notes 6.8.3 Importance of Average Value . 6.9 Form Factor (K))........... 6.10 Crest or Peak Factor (Kp) ....... if bin form. 6.12 Phasor Representation of an Alternating Quantity . 6.13 Concept of Phase of an Alternating Quantit 6.13.1 Phase Difference... A 6.14 Addition and Subtraction of Alternating Quantities ................sssseenO 2 34 6.14.1 Graphical Method... o.oo e eee cee cee tees eee e eset eee ees OO 3T 6.14.2 Analytical Method 6.14.3 Mathematical Representation of Phasor ... . 6.15 Multiplication and Division of Phasors...... 6.15.1 Another Way of Complex Number Representation . Examples with Solutions. Ghapter*7 7Single'Phase A.¢. Circuits 7.4 Introduction.......... 7.2 A.C. through Pure Resistance 7.3 A.C. through Pure Inductance . 7.3.1 Concept of Inductive Reactance .7.5.2 Power and Power Triangle... 0... eee eee 7-14 7.5.3 Apparent Power (8)... 7.5.4 Real or True Power (P) 7.5.5 Reactive Power (Q).. 7.5.6 Power Factor (cos) 7.6 A.C, Through Series R-C Circuit 7.6.2 Power and Power Triang'e . 7" 7.7_A.C. through Series R-L-C Circuit... sessessersescrsnressessenseresresceresnserreeeed = 24 TIAX> Xe .. 172% Ry > Ro.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-17 Fundamentals of Electricity Resistance in Q ‘Temperature °C orc 4 t 100°C Fig. 1.9 Graph of resistance against temperature Key Point: Change in resistance with temperature is according to the jacior called resistance temperature coefficient (R.T.C.) denoted by ct Definition of R.T.C.: The resistance temperature coefficient at t °C is the ratio of change in resistance per degree celcius to the resistance at t °C. AR per? eR * From the Fig. 1.9, change in resistance = R; - Ry change in temperature = ty - ty a _AR_ Ra-Ry change in resistance per °C = [> = teat RILC. at @C = cn Hence according to the definition of R.T.C. we can write ci ie. R-T.C. at t; C as, _ change in resistance per °C _ (Rz -Ry / tz -ti) “a resistance at t)°C Ry Similarly R.T.C. at 0 °C ie. Gg can be written as, = (Ri=Ro /ti-O Ro Ro-Ri _ Ri-Ro _ But Pea = omar = slope of the graph Hence R.T.C. at any temperature t °C can be expressed as, slope of the graph eeBasic Electrical Engineering 4-18 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.11.1 Unit of R.T.C. We know, a = change in resistance per °C 2. / °C = resistance att °C e—9 we 1.11.2 Use of R.T.C. in Calculating Resistance at t °C Let @ = RTC. aoc Ry = Resistance at 0 °C R, = Resistance at t, °C (Ri-Ro /ti-0) _ Ry-Ro ‘Then “= Rot Ro Ri~ Ry = 0% ty Ro Ry = Ry + 09 ty Ry = Ro (1 + Gy ty) Thus resistance at any temperature can be expressed as, So knowing Ry and ty at 0 °C the resistance at any t °C can be obtained. Alternatively this result can be expressed as below, Let R, = Resistance at ty °C R, = Resistance at t °C 4 = aE ... from definition om Ry (b-%) = Ry- Ry R= Rf + a @-)) Where t—t, = change in temperature = At In general above result can be expressed as, Reinat = initia (1 + Ofnirian (44) ] So if initial temperature is t, and final is tz, we can write, Ry 4 (1+ oy at]Basic Electrical Engineering 1-19 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.11.3 Effect of Temperature on R.T.C. From the above discussion, it is clear that the value of R.T.C. also changes with the temperature. As the temperature increases, its value decreases. For any metal its value is maximum at 0°C . From the result of section 1.11.2 we can write, R, = R [1+ 0 (y-t)] oo) where R, and a, are resistance and R.T.C. at t; C and Rz is resistance at t, °C. If the same resistance is cooled from t, to t, °C and if a, is R-T.C. at t, C then, Ry = Ry (1+ a (ty -t)] « Q) Dividing equation (1) by Ry, te Boe mw) a Ra Ri " 1+ 4 (-t) o @) Dividing equation (2) by Ry, =k - 1 Ry (l+ o (t-t)] Ra 1 Ry Treg(h-t) “@ Equating (3) and (4) we can write, 1 1+ aite-8) = Gey _ 1 _ 1-1-aa(ty—-te) a1 (h-h) = T+ (ti-tz) sD (f 2) =O (ty -t G2 (tp —t 4 (y-t) = Og (ti-ty) _ a2(t2-t) T¥a2(ti-t2) T¥o2(ti—t2) G2 1 * Trot) Tia ny ay tt -t2) « oy = 1 © Trate-h) Ty a ttta-h) ‘Using any of the above expression if a at any one temperature t; C is known then a at any other temperature t, can be obtained.Basle Electrical Engineering 1-20 Fundamentals of Electricity If starting temperature is t; = 0 °C and o, at t °C ie. o is required then we can write, +09 (t-0) l+aot This is very useful expression to obtain R.T.C. at any temperature t °C from Gp. 1.11.4 Effect of Temperature on Resistivity Similar to the resistance, the specific resistance or resistivity also is a function of temperature. For pure metals it increases as temperature increases. So similar to resistance temperature coefficient we can define temperature coefficient of resistivity as fractional change in resistivity per degree centigrade change in temperature from the given reference temperature. ie. if P= resistivity at t; °C P2 = resistivity at tC then temperature coefficient of resistivity at t; °C can be defined as, Le (©2 -Prdftz - ti) oO ' Pi Similarly we can write the expression for resistivity at time t °C as, Pr = Po (l +a t) Pra = Prufl+or(tz—tn) mm Example 1.5: A certain winding made up of copper has a resistance of 100 Q at room temperature. If resistance temperature coefficient of copper at 0 °C is 0.00428 /C, calculate the winding resistance if temperature is increased to 50 °C. Assume room temperature as Be. Solution : t = 25°C, R,=1009, %=50°, og = 0.00428 /C = —%0 Now % = Teagt gy 0.00828 1 = TFag ty ~ Teo. coramas ~ 0008866 1°C Use Ry = R, [1 + oy (ty — )] = 100 [ 1+ 0.003866 (50 - 25) ] = 109.6657: 2 .+. Resistance at 50 °CBasic Electrical Engineering 1-21 Fundamentals of Electricity ump Example 1.6: The resistance of a wire increases from 40-ohm at 20 °C to 50 — ohm at 70 °C. Find the temperature co-efficient of resistance at 0 °C. (Dec, - 99, Dec. - 2000) Solution : R,=409, t =20T, R, = 509, = 70°C Now, R, = Rll +a, Atl 50 = 40[1 +a, (70-20)] ie. Falta, 60) 50a, = 0.25 a = 5x 1WP/C ie, att) = 20°C _ _ te ; _ Ge Now, % = Tet he = TTeo 3 Oo = 5x10? = pot ke 1+ Wa, = 2000, 180a, = 1 a, = 555% 10°C ... Temperature coefficient at 0 °C. mi Example 1.7: A specimen of copper has a resistivity (p) and a temperature coefficient of 1.6 x 10° ohm - cm at 0 °C and 1/254.5 at 20 °C respectively. Find both of them at 60 °C. (May - 2001) Solution : Mya 16x ITS Qem, oy = gery (TC at20C = ao Now % = Trapt = ao | = Trap x20 wit = 0 B45 14+20a9 1+20 a = 245aq 1 % = agg (CT ato _ ap _1/245 _ 4 So = Trax "7, 0 ~ Bas’ = at 60°C ms Pr = Po (i +a t) Peo = 16x10 [1+ 3p 3% Jo 210 OemBasic Electrical Engineering 1-22 Fundamentals of Electricity immp Example 1.8: A resistance element having cross sectional area of 10 mm? and a length of 10 mtrs. takes a current of 4 A from a 220 V supply at ambient temperature of 20 °C. Find out, i) the resistivity of the material and ii) current it will take when the temperature rises to 60 °C, Assume ony = 0.0003 °C. (May - 2000) Solution : a = 10 mm? = 1010-6 m2, V=220V, [= 10m, I=4A, = 20 and am = 00003/C,R,= = essa 1 Now, R, = PM ie, 55 = P1Xt0 a 1010-6 Py = 0.000055 OD -m = 55 yQ-m a at 20°C i) pz at ty = 60°C, P2 = pr [1+oy(t2-t))] = 0.000055 [1 + 0.0008 (60 — 20)] = 55.66 1Q-m a I ii) R= ex 55.66x1076 x 10 - = o——— = 55.66 2 & 10x 10- © =v. . T= Ry 75566 7 39525 A w+ at 60°C tim Example 1.9°: A coil has a resistance of 18 ohm at 20 °C ard 22 ohm at 50 °C. Find the rise in the temperature when resistance becomes 24 ohm. The room temperature is 18 °C. (May-99, Dec.-2007) Solution : R, = 180, t= 20°C, R,=220 and }=50C Now, R, = Rll + ay(ty-ty) ie 22 = 18 [1 + a, 60-20) Solving, a, = 0.007407 /°C Now R, = 24 and Ry=R, [1 + G (ty -ty)] 24 = 18 [1 + 0.007407 (t, — 20)] 0.3333 = 0.007407 (t, — 20) 3-20 = 45 = 65°C So room temperature is 18 ‘C given. “, Temperature rise = 65-18 = 47°CBasic Electrical Engineering 1-23 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.11.5 R.T.C. of Composite Conductor Material 1 Material 2 In many practical cases, it is necessary to manufacture conductors using two different types of materials, to achieve special requirements. Such a composite conductor is shown in the Fig. 1.10. oy, Ry a, Ry The material 1 has RTC. cy and its Cs es contribution in composite conductor is R,. RytRy.049 The material 2 has R.T.C. o, and its Fig. 1.10 ite —— contribution in composite conductor is R,. The combined composite conductor has resistance R, + Ry while its RTC is neither a, nor «2 but it is a2, different than @, and a3. Analysis of Composite conductor: The analysis includes the calculation of a) from Gand «. Let R, = Resistance of material 1 at t, °C R, = Resistance of material 2 at t; °C t, = New temperature attained by composite conductor Ry = Resistance of material 1 at t, °C Ry = Resistance of material 2 at t, °C Ry = Resistance of composite material at ty °C Ry, = Resistance composite material at t, °C It is known that, Ry = Ry [1+ 4 ()- 4) (5) Ry = Ry [1+ o (h- ty] (8) Rye = Rig [1 + oy (tb - ty) wl) Where %2 = RT.C. of composite conductor at t) °CBasic Electrical Engineering 1-24 Fundamentals of Electricity Using (8) and (9) in (7), Ry + Rod = (Ry + Rel [1 + ayy (t, - 4) --(10) Using (5) and (6) in (10), Ry [1 + oy (ty ~ ty] + Ry [1 + og (ty - ty] = PR, + Ra] [1 + oy (ty - ty] oe Ry + Ry Gy (ty ~ ty) + Ry + Ry ey (ty — ty) = Ry + Ry Oy (ty — ty) + Ry + Ry yy (te- ty) Cancelling R, and Ry from both sides, Ry Gy (ty — fy) + Ry 09 (ty — ty) = Ry OF yp (ty ~ ) + Ry Gy (ty ~ t) Cancelling (t, ~ t) from bath sides, M2 +R) = Ryoy+Rea2 = aya(Ri +Rz2) ~ @) = Rigi +R202 oa = “RFR 2) Thus @ 4 which is R.T.C. of composite conductor can be obtained at t, °C. Once this is known, (3 at any other temperature can be obtained as, = 72 _ ‘ . Om = Teaygdt where At is temperature rise Ro _ o-on Prove that : Ri 42-82 Divide the equation (11) by Ry, Rz R, mt Ro = G2 tO Re R R; (ou) Ro = Rr {o-42 - @9] & 1 a 5 0 £ R g : .. Proved im Example 1.10: At a particular temperature the two resistances are 60 Q and 902 having temperature coefficients of 0.0037 PC and 0.005 AC respectively. Calculate the temperature coefficient of composite conductor at the same temperature, obtained by combining above two resistances in series. Solution : Ry = 60.9, R, = 900, ey = 0.0037 /°C, ay = 0.005 /°C Using the result derived, Ryo + Roo _ (60%0.0037)+(90% 0.005) 12 = RR FR2 (049 = 0.00448 /°CBasic Electrical Engineering 1-25 Fundamentals of Electricity mm Example 1.11: Two coils A and B have resistances 60 £2 and 30 Q respectively at 20 °C. The resistance temperature coefficients for the tio coils at 20 °C are 0.001 AC and 0.004 °C. Find the resistance of their series combination at 50 °C. Solution : The given values are, For coil A, Rar = 609, t= 20°C, oa, =-0.001 /C For coil B, Rg, = 309, t)=20°C, ap, = 0.004 /C Now Raz = Ray [1 + Garey - tl Raz = 60 [1 + 0.001 (50 - 20)] = 61.82 This is resistance of coil A at 50 °C. And Rez = Rg, (1 + Gp: Cz - ty) = 30 [1 + 0.004 x (50 - 20)] = 3360 This is resistance of coil B at 50 °C. Resistance of their series combination at 50 °C = Ray + Ryp = 61.8 + 336 = 95.40 ‘mm Example 1.42: Two coils A and B have resistances 100 Q and 150 Q respectively at O°C are connected in series. Coil A has resistance temperature coefficient of 0.0038 °C while B has 0.0018 °C. Find the resistance temperature coefficient of the series combination at oc. Solution : At 0, the series combination is = Ry + Rg = 100 + 150 = 2502 Now , R, = Ro (l+ogt) ie. (Rag = (Rap [1 + Gago tl where Rag is a resistance of series combination. Gag is resistance temperature coefficient of series combination. Now Rah = Ral [1 + ago t] and (Rg), = (Rpg [1 + ag #1 Rap = Ra + Beh = Rady {1 + a9 Y + Body [1 + O60 1) Substituting in above, (Rao (1 + cag t] + (Ryo [1 + Ggo tl = (Raplo [1 + Gano (Ralo = 100.2, agg = 0.0038 (Ra)p = 150.2, ogo = 0.0018 (Raplo = 250.0 100 [1 + 0.0088 t] + 150 [ 1 + 0.0018 t} = 250[ 1 + (aqp)y tl 100 + 0.38t + 150 + 0.27t = 250 + 250 O,gy tBasic Electrical Engineering 1-26 Fundamentals of Electricity 0.65 t = 250 agg t Ogg = 0.0026 /°C. This is the resistance temperature coefficient of the series combination at 0 °C. Note: The example may be solved using the result derived as, Rao, +Rpep Cap = Rate 70026 rc But in examination, such examples must solved using basic procedure as “above and not by using direct expression dei mt 4 ed. hm Example 1.13; At any given temperature, two material A and B have resistance temperature coefficients of 0.004 and 0.0004 respectively. In what proportion resistances made up of A and B joined in series to give a combination having resistance temperature coefficient of 0.001 per °C ? Solution : Let R be resistance of material A then (x R) be resistance of material B. The resistance of the series combination is, Rap = Ra + Rg Rap = R+xR=(1+9)RQ Let (&,p) = resistance temperature coefficient of the series combination. Let there be t °C change in temperature so, Rap = (Rap) (ap) (t) = (1 + x) R (0.001) (1) +) The resistance Rigg is also Ry, +R, where Rj is value of Ry due to change in temperature. Rj is value of Rg due to change in temperature. Ria = Ra - (ot) (t) = R- (0.004) (1) and Rp = Rg: (og) (t) = xR - (0.0004) (t) Rap = R (0.004) (t) + x R (0.0004) (t) Rap = R t(0.004 + 0.0004 x) we (2) Equating 1 and 2, Rt (1 + x) (0.001) = R t (0.004 + 0.0004x) 0.001 + 0.001 x = 0.004+0,0004x ie, 6x 1074 x = 0.003Basic Electrical Engineering 1-27 Fundamentals of Electricity x= 5 ie Rp=SRy i.e. resistance Ry and Rg must be joined in the proportion 1 : 5. ‘mp Example 1.14: A resistor of 80 Q resistance having a temperature coefficient of 0.0021 °C at 0 °C is to be constructed. Wires of two materials of suitable cross-sectional area are apailable. For material A the resistance is 80 0 per 100 m and temperature coefficient is 0.003 AC at 0 °C, For material B the corresponding figures are 60 Q per 100 m and 0.0015 AC at O °C. Calculate suitable lengths of the wires of materials A and B to be connected in series to get required resistor. Solution: Ray = Resistance of A at 0 °C, Rgg = Resistance of B at 0°C Op = RTC. of A at 0 C = 0.003 /C, ago = R.T.C. of Bat 0°C = 0.0015 /*C Rago = Resistance of series combination of A and B at 0 °C = 809 apo = RTC. of series combination at 0 °C = 0.0021 /°C We know, R, = Ry 1+ opt) ie. Ray =Raoll + Gao t) Rg, = Bp (1 + @po t) and Rap = Rago (1 + Gago *) But Rast = Rat + Bat w+ Series combination at t °C Similarly Rapo = Rag + Rap = 80 «+. Series combination at 0 °C + Ragg (1 + Oapo t) = Rag (1 + Oo t) + Ryo (1 + Gta t) 2. 80 (1 + 0.0021 t) = Rag (1 + 0.003 t) + Rpy (1 + 0.0015 t) 80 + 0.168 t = Rag + 0.003 Rag t + Ryg + 0.0015 Rgg t 80 + 0.168 t = (Ray + Rgo) + 0.003 Rag t + 0.0015 Rup t Now Ray +Rgo = 80 and Ry = 80 - Rag 80 +0168 t = 80 + 0.003 Ray t + 0.0015 (80 - Ray) t 0.168 t = [0.003 Rap + 0.0015 (80 - Rap)] t 0.168 = 0.003 Rag + 0.12 - 0.0015 Rag Rag = 322 * Rgo = 80 -32= 480 Now material A resistance is 80 per 100 m so for 32 © the length required is, Hx100 = 40m The material B has resistance of 60 2 per 100 m so for 48 0. the length required is , B10 = 80mBasic Electrical Engineering 1-28 1.12 Insulation Resistance The insulator is a material which offers a very high resistance to the flow of current. Because of this property such insulating materials are used to insulate current carrying conductors so that current do not leak from them and come in contact with other bodies. The conductor with insulation around it is shown in the Fig. 1.11 (a) while leakage current path is shown in the Fig. 1.11 (b). (Canductor Conductor Insulation Path of leakage current Insulation (a) Insulation around (b) Direction of leakage conductor current Fig. 1.11 Insulation and its function Mainly such insulators are used to cover entire conductors which are required to be maintained at high potential with respect to earth. Such insulators try to avoid any leakage of current from conductors to earth. The resistance which offers opposition to the flow of leakage current is an ideal perfect insulation resistance. It stops the leakage current. Vv Ri R, = Insulation resistance, V = Voltage between conductor and earth, I) = Leakage The commonly used insulating materials are rubber, paper, varnish, mica, percelain, glass etc. In practice the cables which are used to carry heavy currents are insulated with the help of number of layers of insulating materials. Let us derive the expression for the insulation resistance of a cable.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-29 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.12.1 Insulation Resistance of a Cable The Fig. 1.12 shows, such a cable Direction of which is insulated with the help’ of leakage curent _layer of insulating material. In such cables, leakage current flows radially from centre towards surface as shown in Fig. 112. Hence the cross-section of the path of such current is not constant but continuously changes with its length. 1 " 1 7 Fig. 1.12 Cable and path of leakage current So to calculate its resistance, it is necessary to consider the section of cylindrical cable of radius r with small thickness as shown in the Fig. 1.13. Let us find resistance of this ring. The radius of the ring is r and thickness dr. As leakage current flows redially the length in the direction of current, of this ring is dr only. While the total length of cable is say ‘? meters then its corss-sectional area perpendicular to the flow of current is surface area ie. 2 rl Hence the resistance of this ring can. Fig. 1.13 Section of length dr be written as dr 2nrl dR =p l=dr, a=2nrl, p= resistivity The total insulation resistance can be obtained by integrating this from inner radius up to outer radius ie. Ry to Ry. pdr Jan Tiss R; = fate 2 2elg Fat loee Ak wasR= Pl a R = ph lloge Re Loge Ri]Basic Electrical Engineering 1-30 Fundamentals of Electricity (z } a. Thus insulation resistance is inversely proportional to its length. R= 557 ee _ Key Point: If troo cables are joined in series, their conductor resistances come, a series but their insulation resistances are in. parallel if two cables are connected - i parallel then conductor ‘resistances are Sara but insulation series. im Example 1.15: A single core cable has a conductor of diameter 1.2 cm and its insulation thickness of 1.6 cit. The specific resistance of the insulating material is 7.5x 10° MQ cm. Calculate the insulation resistance per Kilometer of a cable. If now this resistance is to be increased by 20%. Calculate the thickness of the additional layer of insulation required. Solution: Length |= 1 km=1000m p= 7.5x108 MQ-cn = 7.5x108x106 Q-em = 7.5x108 x10° x10-*-m = 7.5x10? Qm «PL 12 R= Gis = 06am Insulation thickness = 1.6 cm R,=R,+t=22em | | 7 Rp)_ 758x102, (2.2 — a arise ee -)= Ferrer 28-( 5} Fig, 1.14 = 1550.9 MQ New R, required is, = 1550.9 + 0.2 x 1550.9 (increased by 20 %) = 1861.08 MO a} ee Pc RD 1861.08x10 oer Voae( Re] 7.51012 R om 2 1661.08%10° = > a000 (58) R2 = 2.8528 cm = New outermost radius. :. Additional thickness required = 2.8528 — R, — (original thickness) = 2.8528-06-1.6 = 0.6528 cmBasic Electrical Engineering 1-34 Fundamentals of Electricity im Example 1.16: Two underground cables A and B, each has a conductor resistance of 0.6 Q and 0.8 © respectively. Each has a insulation resistance of 600 MQ and 400 Mo respectively. If the cables are connected in, i) Series and ii) Parallel, Calculate conductor resistance, and insulation resistance of the combination. Solution : i) Cables are in series Conductor resistances are also in series. -. Conductor resistance of combination = 0.6 + 0.8 =142 While insulation resistance are in parallel under series connection. RaXRp _ 600106 x400%10° Ra+Rp 600x108 +400x106 R, of combination = 240 MQ il) Cables are in parallel Conductor resistances are also in parallel. -, Combinational conductor resistance = 7"°"0% = 0.3428 0 While insulation resistances are in series when cables are in parallel. R, of combination = Ry + Rg = 400 + 600 = 1000 MQ 1.12.2 Effect of Temperature on Insulation Resistance The insulation resistance depends on the temperature. When temperature increases, the valence electrons which are loosely bound to the nucleus, acquire thermal energy. Due to the additional energy acquired, these valence electrons become completely free from the force of attraction n by the nucleus. ‘These electrons are available as the free electrons. electrons, hetter is he ate und less % . Hence as temperature increases, the insulation resistance decreases while conductivity increases. The effect can be mathematically expressed interms of an exponential relationship as, Where Ry = Insulation resistance at t °C = Insulation resistance at 0 °C # : RTC, at 0°C & iBasic Electrical Engineering 1-32 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.12.3 Effect of Moisture on Insulation Resistance Practically insulation covering the conductor may absorb some moisture. Now water is very good conductor of electricity hence possibility of conduction increases through the insulation when it absorbs water. Thus moisture provides path for the leakage current. 1.13 Fundamental Quantities and Units. Scientists and engineers know that the terms they use, the quantities they measure must all be defined precisely, Such precise and standard measurements can be specified only if there is common system of indication of such measurements. This common system of units is called 'SI' system i.e. International System of Units. The S.L system is divided into seven base units and two supplementary units. The seven fundamental or base units are length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance and luminous intensity. The two supplementary units are plane angle and solid angle. All other units are derived which are obtained from the above two classes of units. The derived units are classified into three main groups, 1, Mechanical units 2, Electrical units 3. Heat units Let us discuss these groups in detail. 1.13.1 Mechanical Units The various mechanical units are, 4. Mass : It is the matter possessed by the body. It is measured in kg and denoted as m. 2. Velocity : It is the distance travelled per unit time, measured in m/s. 3. Acceleration : It is the rate of change of velocity, measured in m/s”, 4. Force: It is the push or pull which changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform motion of body, measured in Newton. One newton is the force required to give an acceleration of 1 m/s* to a mass of 1 kg. 5. Weight : The gravitational force exerted by the earth on a body is called its weight, measured in Newtons. 81 m/s" 6. Torque : It is the product of a force and a perpendicular distance from the line of action of force to the axis of rotation. It is measured in Nm. Weight = mx g where gravitational accelerationBasic Electrical Engineering 1-33 Fundamentals of Electricity Fxr Where r = radial distance of rotation 7. Work : The work is said to be done when force acting on a body causes it to move. If body moves through distance d under the force F then, The work is measured in Joules. 8, Energy :[t is the capacity to do the work. The work is done always at the cost of energy. The unit of energy is also Joules. The two forms of an energy are, i) Kinetic energy which is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion. If body of mass m is moving with velocity v then the kinetic energy is, ii) Potential energy which is the energy possessed by a body due to its position. When a body of mass m is lifted vertically through height of h then the potential energy is, mgh = Wh J where W = weight 9, Power : The rate of doing work is power measured in J/sec ie. watts Pe work done Jésec ie. W ws Energy expended = Power x time = work done 1.13.1.1 Relation between Torque and Power Consider a pulley of radius R and F is the force applied as shown in the Fig. 1.15. T= FxR Nm N per minute Let speed of pulley is N revolutions per (p.m) minute. Now work done in one revolution is force into distance travelled in one revolution. Fig. 1.15 d = distance travelled in 1 revolution = 2nR W = work done in 1 revolution = Fxd=2aRF J The time required for a revolution can be obtained from speed N r.p.m.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-34 Fundamentals of Electricity t= time for a revolution = 9 sec P = power = -—~ Pe Txw Where T = FxR = torque in Nm J 2nN angular velocity in rad/sec The relation P = T @ is very important in analysing various mechanical systems. 1.13.2 Electrical Units The various electrical units are, 1, Electrical work: In an electric circuit, movement of electrons i.e. transfer of charge is an electric current. The electrical work is done when there is a transfer of charge. The unit of such work is Joule. Key. Point! One joule of electrical work done is that work done in moving a ase of 1 coulamb through a potential differentce of 7 walt, So if V is potential difference in volts and Q is charge in coulombs then we can write, Electrical work W=VxQ J But T= a = Vit J Where t = Time in seconds 2. Electrical power: The rate at which electrical work is done in an electric circuit is called an electrical power. Electrical power P = SSOP NOR _ P = VI J/sec i.e. watts Thus power consumed in an electric circuit is 1 watt if the potential difference of 1 volt applied across the circuit causes 1 ampere current to flow through it. electrical work _W_ VIt t t Remember, Awalt' = 1 joule/sec As unit of power watt is small, many a times power is expressed as kW (1000 watts) or MW (1 x 10° watts). According to Ohm's law, V= IR or T=V/RBasic Electrical Engineering 1-35 Fundamentals of Electrici Using this, power can be expressed as, Where R = Resistance in 0 3. Electrical energy : An electrical energy is the total amount of electrical work done in an electric circuit. Electrical energy E = Power x Time = VIt joules The unit of energy is joules or walt-sec. The energy consumed by an electric circuit is said to be 1 joule or watt-sec when it utilises. power of 1 watt for 1 second. As watt-see unit is very small, the electrical energy is measured in bigger units as watt-hour (Wh) and kilo watt-hour (kWh). 1 Wh = 1 watt x I hour = 1 watt x 3600 see = 3600 watt-sec ie. J and LkWh = 1000 Wh = 1 x 10° x 3600 J = 3.6 x 10°J When a power of 1 KW is utilised for 1 hour the energy consumed is said to be 1 kWh. This unit is called Board of Trade Unit. “Key point - The electrics } bills’ we are getting are charged based: oh this Scommiercial unit of energy i. ‘ices AWh or sinite 1.13.3 Thermal Units 1. Heat energy : The flow of current through a material produces a heat. According to the principle of conservation of energy, the electrical energy spent must be equal to the heat energy produced. This is called Joule's law. 2. Specific heat capacity : The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1 kilogram of substance through 1 degree kelvin is called specific heat of that substance. 2 eielhg = thi i denned wy EN ETS Q Q * WaT “im (hz 1)Basic Electrical Engineering 1-% Fundamentals of Electricity Following table gives the values of specific heat capacity of various substances. Specific heat capacity in J/kg - °“K 417 Table 1.4 3. Sensible heat: The quantity of heat gained or lost when change in temperature ‘occurs is called sensible heat. This can be calculated as, ™m = Mass of substance in kg C = Specific heat in J/kg -K at = t,—t, = change in temperature 4, Latent heat: The quantity of heat required to change the state of the substance i.e. solid to liquid to gas without change in its temperature is called latent heat. It can be calculated as, Latent Heat = mxL Joules. Where m = Mass of substance in kg L = Specific latent heat or specific enthalpy ‘The unit of L is J/kg while unit of latent heat is joules. Total heat = Sensible heat + Latent heat ‘The various relations between electrical and thermal units are, 0.2389 calorie 3.6% 10°J = 860k cal 5. Specific enthalpy : It is the heat required to change the state of one kilogram mass of a substance without change in temperature. Its unit is J/kg.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-37 Fundamentals of Electricity 6. Calorific value : Heat energy can be produced by burning the fuels. The calorific value of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat produced by completely burning unit mass of that fuel. It is measured in kJ/gram, kJ/kg etc. Heat produced in joules = Mass in kg x calorific value in J/kg 7. Water equivalent of container; When water is heated in a container then the container is also heated. So heat is wasted to heat the container. To take into account this heat, water equivalent oe container must be known. Key Point * The water equivalent of ¢ container means ‘titateter Iieat is required to equrvalent to heat energy quired to Ideal container Water Container equivalent of getting heated Water § kg due to container heating of container 5kg = Water ts 50 kg ‘Water 50 kg I qt Heat = For water of 55 kg input due to water equivalent of container Fig. 1.16 Concept of water equivalent 1.13.4 Efficiency The efficiency can be defined as the ratio of energy output to energy input. It can also expressed as ratio of power output to power input. Its value is always less than 1. Higher its value, more efficient is the system of equipment. Generally expressed in percentage. Its symbol is . _ Energy output Energy input “20 _ Power output ~ “Power input 100 1.14 Cells and Batteries A device which is used as a source of eamf. and which works on the principle of conversion of chemical energy into an electrical energy, is called a cell, But practically the voltage of a single cell is not sufficient to use in any practical application. Hence variousBasic Electrical Engineering 1-38 Fundamentals of Electricity cells are connected in series or parallel to obtain the required voltage level. The combination of various cells, to obtain the desired voltage level is called a battery. The conductors of electricity can be classified in two categories as, 1. Non electrolytes : Conductors which are not affected by the flow of current through them are nonelcctrolytes. The examples are metals, alloys, carbon and some other materials. 2. Electrolytes : Conductors which undergo decomposition due to the flow of current through them are electrolytes. The examples are various acids, bases, salt solutions and molten salts. In any cell, two different conducting materials are immersed in an electrolyte. The chemical reaction results which separates the charges forming a new solution. The charges » get accumulated on the conductors. Such charged conductors are called electrodes. The positively charged conductor is called anude while the negatively charged conductor is called cathode. Thus the charge accumulated on the electrodes creates a potential difference between the two conductors. The conductor ends are brought out as the terminals of the cell, for connecting the cell to an external circuit. The terminals are marked as positive and negative. Thus the chemical energy gets converted to an electrical energy. Hence the cell is an electrochemical device. Key Point: The chevtical action in the maintane the required terminal vollage. 1.15 Types of Cells The two types of cells are, 1. Primary Cells : The chemical action in such cells is not reversible and hence the entire cell is required to be replaced by a new one if the cell is down. The primary cells can produce only a limited amount of energy. Mostly the nonelectrolytes are used for the primary cells. The various examples of primary cells are zinc-carbon dry cell, zinc chloride cell, alkaline cells, mercury cell etc. 2. Secondary Cells : The chemical action in such cells is reversible. Thus if cell is down, it can be charged to regain its original state, by using one of the charging methods. In charging, the electrical energy is injected to the cell by passing a current in the opposite direction through it. In such cells, the electrical energy is stored in the form of chemical energy and the secondary cells are also called storage cells, accumulators or rechargeable cells. These are used to produce large amount of energy. The various types of secondary cells are Lead-acid cell, Nickel-cadmium alkaline cell etc. The most commonly used secondary cell is a Lead-acid cell or Lead-acid battery.Basic Electrical Engineering 1.16 Cell Terminology 1-39 Fundamentals of Electricity The various terminologies related to a cell are, Fig. 1.17 E.M.F of a cell Internal resistance Te external circuit Rie ee Fig. 1.19 Terminal voltage 1. E.MLF. of a cell : The voltage of a cell in an open circuit condition, measured by a very high resistance voltmeter is called em-f. of a cell. This is denoted as E, measured in volts. This is shown in the Fig. 1.17. 2, Internal resistance of a cell ; The cell completes path of current from its positive terminal to negative terminal through external circuit. But to complete the closed path, the current flows from negative to positive terminal of cell, internally. The opposition by a cell to a current, when it flows internal to the cell is called the internal resistance of the cell. It is denoted as r and measured in ohms. In an equivalent circuit of a cell, its internal resistance is shown in series with that cell. The Fig. 1.18 shows a cell and its internal resistance. 3. Terminal voltage: When an external resistance is connected across the terminals of the cell, the current I flows through the circuit. There is voltage drop ‘Ir across the internal resistance of the cell. The cell emf. E has to supply this drop. Hence practically the voltage available at the terminals of the cell is less than E by the amount equal to 'Ir'. This voltage is called the terminal voltage V. This is shown in the Fig. 1.19. Mathematically, the terminal voltage is given by, From external resistance side we can write, [v= x |Basic Electrical Engineering 1-40 Fundamentals of Electricity It can also be observed that on no load i.e. external resistance not connected, the open. circuit terminal voltage is same as emf. of the cell, as current I = 0, E m no load ‘open circuit 1.17 Primary Cells It is seen that the primary cell is that which is required to replace by new one when it is run down. ‘ The oldest types of primary cell are simple voltaic cell, Daniell cell, Leclanche cell etc. Some commonly used primary cells are, 1. Dry cell [Zinc-Carbon] 2. Mercury cell 3. Zine-Chloride cell 4. Lithium cell 5. Alkaline Zinc-mercury oxide cell Let us discuss primary cell in detail. 1.17.1 Dry Zinc-Carbon Cell This is most common type of dry cell. It is the type of Leclanche cell. Negative electrode — Zinc cup lined with paper Positive electrode —+ Centrally located carbon rod The space between the paper and carbon rod is filled with a paste of sal ammoniac, zinc chloride, manganese dioxide and carbon dust. The sal ammoniac acts as an electrolyte, the zinc chloride improves the chemical action and manganese dioxide acts as depolariser. The Fig. 1.20 shows the cross-section of zinc-carbon dry cell. Positive terminal Tin plate Pitch or plastic seal Saw dust Carbon rod Sal ammoniac, zinc chloride paste Zine container ‘Absorbent paper Negative terminal Fig. 1.20 Zine-carbon dry cellBasic Electrical Engineering 1-41 Fundamentals of Electricity The zinc container is lined with paper to avoid direct reaction of zine with carbon. The container is sealed with an insulator called pitch which is plastic seal of the cell. The tin plates are used at top and bottom which are positive and negative terminals of the cell Tespectively. The carbon dust added to the paste used to improve the conduction of the electrolyte, Externally the zine container is covered with cardboard jacket to avoid any type of leakage. 41.17.14 Gell Reaction When zinc atoms react with the electrolyte, the electrons are removed from the carbon rod. These electrons accumulate on the zinc electrode. As the electrons are negatively charged, the zinc electrode acts as negative terminal. The carbon rod from where negative charge is lost in the form of electrons, acts as positive terminal. The sal ammoniac i.e, ammonium chloride paste reacts with zinc to liberate hydrogen. 41.17.1.2 Features of Cell 1. The emf. of new dry cell is about 1.5 V. 2. The internal resistance is about 0.1 to 0.4.2. 3. The capacity of 32 Ah when discharged through 20 Q resistor till voltage drops to 05 V. 5 4. When not in use for long time, zinc gets attacked by the paste slowly and cell becomes useless though not in use. 5. In working condition, voltage drops due to polarisation hence used for intermittent service. When disconnected the depolarisation occurs to resotre the cell e.m-f. 6. Least expensive. 7. Portable and convenient to use. 1.7.1.3 Applications Mostly used to get intermittent service to avoid polarisation. The various applications are, 1. Torch lights 2. Telephone and telegraph systems 3. Electronic apparatus and toyes 4. Wall clocksBasic Electrical Engineering 4-42 Fundamentals of Electricity 5. Electric bells 6. Radio receivers and many other consumer applications 1.17.2 Mercury Cell This is another type of a primary cell Negative electrode + Zine cylinder Positive electrode — Mercury compound in contact with nickel plated steel or stainless steel The concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and zinc oxide (ZnO) is used as an electrolyte. It is available in cylindrical shape or miniature button shape. The Fig. 1.21 shows the construction of a cylindrical mercury cell. Steel plate Insulating gasket Mercury oxide Zine cylinder Potassium hydroxide Insulator Steel casing Fig. 1.21 Mercury Cell The zinc electrode acting as negative terminal is made in the form of a hollow cylinder. The steel casing acts as a positive terminal. The layer of mercury oxide covers the electrolyte which is solution of KOH and ZnO. The cell is sealed with the help of insulating gasket. 1.17.2.1 Chemical reaction The net chemical teaction involved in the cell is, Zn + HgO —> ZnO + HgBasic Electrical Engineering 1-43 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.17.2.2 Features of the cell 1. The chemical reaction does not evolve any gas hence no polarisation. The cell maintains its e.m.f. for longer time in working condition. The terminal voltage is about 1.2 to 1.3 V. It has Jong life. It has high ratio of output energy to weight of about 90 - 100 Wh/kg. Costlier than dry cell. It has high energy to volume ratio of about 500 - 600 Wh/L. It has high efficiency. Good resistance to shocks and vibrations. 10. Disposal is difficulty due to presence of poisonous materials inside. ee Nee Pr wp 1.47.2.3 Applications. The cells are preferred for providing power to small devices as available in miniature ‘button shapes, The various applications are, 1, Hearing aids. 2. Electronic calculators. 3. Electronic clocks. 4. Guided missiles. 5. Medical electronic appliances such as pace makers. 6. Audio devices and cameras. 1.18 Secondary Cells It is seen that the secondary cells are rechargeable cells as the chemical reactions in it are reversible. The two types of secondary cells are, 1, Lead acid cell 2. Alkaline cell Let us discuss these cells in detail. 1.19 Lead Acid Battery The various parts of lead acid battery are, 1L. Positive plate or Anode : It is lead peroxide (PbO,) plate of chocolate, dark brown colour. 2. Negative plate or Cathode : It is made up of pure lead (Pb) which is grey in colour.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-44 Fundamentals of Electricity 3. Electrolyte : For the necessary chemical action aqueous solution of sulphuric acid (H,50,) is used as. an electrolyte. 4. Seperators : The positive and negative plates are arranged in groups and are placed alternately. The seperators are used to prevent them from coming in contact with each other short circuiting the cell. 5. Container : The entire assembly of plates along with the solution is placed in the plastic or ceramic container. 6. Bottom blocks : To prevent the short circuiting of cell due to the active material fallen from the plates, the space known as bottom blocks is provided at the bottom of the container. 7. Plate connector : The number of negative and positive plates are assembled alternately. To connect the positive plates together seperate connectors are used which are called plate connectors. The upward connections of the plate connectors are nothing but the terminals of the cell. 8. Vent-plug : These are made up of rubber and screwed to the cover of the cell. Its function is to allow the escape of gases and prevent escape of electroyte. The Fig. 1.22 shows the construction of lead acid battery. Terminals (PbO,) © © (Pb) Plate ; ° connecioi (a) Battery construction {b) Assembly of - ve and + ve plates Fig. 1.22 Construction of lead acid battery The various plates are welded to the plate connectors. The plates are immersed in H,S0, solution. Each plate is a grid or frame work. Except some special assemblies, wide space between the plates is provided. In an alternate assembly of plates, the negative plate is one more in number than positive. So all the positive plates can work on both the sides.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-45 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.19.1 Functions of Separators The separators used have the following functions in the construction of lead acid battery : 1. Acting as mechanical spacer preventing the plates to come in contact with each other. 2. Prevent the growth of lead trees which may be formed on the negative plates and due to heavy accumulation may reach to positive plate to short circuit the cell. 3, Help in preventing the plates from shedding of the active material. The separators must be mechanically strong and must be porous to allow diffusion of the electrolyte through them. 1.19.2 Chemical Action in Lead Acid Battery The chemical action in the lead acid battery can be divided into three processes : 1, First charging 2. Discharging 3, Recharging Let us discuss these processes in detail. 1. First charging : When the current is passed for the first time through electrolyte, the H,0 in the electrolyte is electrolysed as, HO S2Ht+ o The hydrogen ions as positively charged get attracted towards one of the electrodes which acts as cathode (negative). The hydrogen does not combine with lead and hence cathode retains its original state and colour. The oxygen ion as negatively charged gets attracted towards the other lead plate which acts as anode (positive). But this oxygen chemically combines with the lead (Pb) to form lead peroxide (PbO,). Due to the formation of lead peroxide the anode becomes dark brown in colour. Thus anode is dark brown due to the layer of lead peroxide deposited on it while the cathode is spongy lead electrode. So there exists a potential difference between the positive anode and the negative cathode which can be used to drive the external circuit. The electrical energy obtained from chemical reaction is drawn out of the battery to the external circuit, which is called discharging. 2. Discharging : When the external supply is disconnected and a resistance is connected across the anode and cathode then current flows through the resistance, drawing an electrical energy from the battery. This is discharging. The direction of current is opposite to the direction of current at the time of first charging. The discharging is shown in the Fig. 1.23. :Basic Electrical Engineering 1-46 Fundamentals of Electricity Negative PbO, SO, ions Anode Pb Cathode Positive H’ions Electrolyte Fig. 1.23 Discharging During the discharging, the directions of the ions are reversed. The H * ions now move towards anode and the SO[~ ions move towards cathode. This is because H, SO, decomposes as, H, 80, —> 2H" +S0,- At the anode, the hydrogen ions become free atoms and react with lead peroxide alongwith the HSQ, and ultimately lead sulphate Pb SO, results as, PbO, + H, SO, + 2H —> Pb SO, +2 H, O +. At Anode At the cathode, each SO{~ ion become free SO, which reacts with the metallic lead to get lead sulphate. Pb + SO, —>PbSO, «. At Cathode Thus discharging results into formation of whitish lead sulphate on both the electrodes, 3. Recharging: The cell provides the discharge current for limited time and it is necessary to recharge it after regular time interval. Again an e.m-f. is injected through the cell terminals with the help of an external supply. The charging is shown in the Fig. 1.24, Due to this recharging current flows and following reactions take place, At the cathode, PbSO, + 2H —> Pb + H, SO, At the anode, PSO, + SO, + 2H,O —> PLO, + 21,50,Basic Electrical Engineering 1-47 Fundamentals of Electricity _— External supply Current Anode ke Cathode Fig. 1.24 Recharging the lead acid battery Thus the PbO, gets formed at anode while lead sulphate layer on the cathode is redticed and gets converted to grey metallic lead. So the strength of the cell is regained. It can be seen from the reaction that water is sed and H,SO, is created. Hence the specific gravity of H,SO, which is the charging indicator of battery, increases. The specific gravity is 1.25 to 1.28 for fully charged battery while it is about 1.17 to 1.15 for fully discharged battery. The voltage also can be tised as a charging indicator. For fully charged battery it is 2.2 to 2.5 volts. The chemical reaction during charging and discharging can be represented using single equation as, Discharge —— PbO, + 2H,SO, + Ph “————— 2PHS0, + 2H,0 f | | ™ | | Positive Electrolyte Negative Both anode — Water Anode Cathode and cathode Fig. 1.25 1.19.3 Features of Lead Acid Battery The various features of lead acid battery are, 1. The capacity is about 100 to 300 ampere-hours. 2. The voltage is 2.2 V for fully charged condition. 3. The cost is low.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-48 Fundamentals of Electricity 4, The internal resistance is very low. 5. The current ratings are high. 6. The ampere-hour efficiency is about 90 to 95% with 10 hour rate. 1.19.4 Conditions of a Fully Charged Battery For identifying whether the battery is fully charged or not, following conditions must be observed, 1. The specific gravity of H)SO, must be 1.25 to 1.28. 2. The voltage stops to rise and its value is about 22 to 25 V. 3. Violent gasing starts as battery is fully charged. 4. The colour of positive plate becomes dark brown while the colour of negative plate becomes slate grey. 1.19.5 Maintenances and Precautions to be taken for Lead Acid Battery The following steps must be taken in the maintenance of the lead acid battery, 1. The battery must be recharged immediately when it discharges. 2. The level of the electrolyte must be kept above the top of plates so the plates. remain completely immersed. 3. The rate of charge and discharge shold not be exceeded as specified by the manufacturers. 4. Maintain the specific gravity of the electrolyte between 1.28 to 1.18. 5. The loss of water due to evaporation and gasing must be made up using only distilled water. 6. The connecting plugs should be kept clean and properly tightened. 7. It should not be discharged till its voltages falls below 1.8 V. 8. When not in use, it should be fully charged and stored in a cool and dry place. 9. It should not be kept long in discharged condition. Otherwise PbSO, gets converted to hard substance which is difficult to remove by charging. This is called sulphating. Thus sulphating should be avoided. 10. The battery must be given periodic overcharge at half the normal rate to remove white sulphate. 11. The temperature of the battery should not exceed 45 °C otherwise plates deteriorate rapidly. 12. The battery terminals should not be shorted to check whether battery is charged or net. 13. Always keep the surface of the container dry.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-49 Fundamentals of Electricity 14. No sulphuric acid should be added till it is sure that low specific gravity is duc to under charge and not due to white sulphate formed on plates. 15. The acid used must be pure without any impurity and colourless. 16. The sparks and flames must be kept away from the battery. 1.19.6 Testing Procedure for Lead Acid Battery 1. Using hydrometer: The testing basically involves the checking of specific gravity of the sulphuric acid. It can be checked by the use of hydrometer. The hydrometer consists of a glass float with a calibrated stem placed in a syringe. The readings on hydrometer are shown in the Fig. 1.26. Glass 1.24 4.14 float Hydrometer (a) Hydrometer (b) Reading 1.24 (c) Reading 1.14 Fig. 1.26 Testing lead acid battery 2 Using cell tester : Another method of testing the lead acid battery is called high discharge test or short circuit test. The cell tester is used for this test. It consists of 0 - 3 V voltmeter shunted by a low resistance. The low resistance shunt is connected between two prongs Handle as shown in the Fig. 1.27, The prongs are pressed against the cell terminals. A high discharge current flows through the low resistance and cell Voltmeter voltage is indicated by the voltmeter. Prongs The battery with full charge, without sulphatation occurred in it, shows proper reading on voltmeter. But battery which is sulphated, LA sew easistance showing other indications of full charge will show shunt Tow voltage reading. Thus this is reliable method Fig. 1.27 Cell tester of testing the lead acid battery. ‘Thus if the reading on voltmeter is less than 1.8 V, the battery needs charging while if it is more than 25 V it is overcharged. According to specific gravity reading the distilled water should be added to bring specific gravity back to its normal value.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-50 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.19.7 Applications The various applications of lead acid battery are, 1, In emergency lighting systems. 2. In automobiles for starting. 3. Uninterrupted power supply systems. 4, Railway signalling. 5. Electrical substations and the power stations. 6 7. . For compensating feeder drops in case of heavy loads. . For energizing the trip coils of the relays and the switch gears. 8. As a source of supply in mines and telephone exchanges. Apart from these applications, the lead acid batteries are used in various other areas also like telephone systems, aeroplanes, marine applications etc. 1.20 Battery Capacity ‘The battery capacity is specified in ampere-hours (Ah). ified discharge rate, Hill its voltage fells to: x For a lead acid battery, the discharge rate is specified 2 as 10 hours or 8 hours while the value of voltage to which it should fall is specified as 1.8 V. Mathematically the product of discharge current in. amperes and the time for discharge in hours ti] voltage falls to a specified value is the capacity of a battery. Battery capacity = Ip x Tp (Ah) Where Ip = Discharge current in amperes Tp = Time of discharge in hours till voltage falls to a Specified value. Sometimes it is specified as watt-hours (Wh). It is the product of the average voltage during discharge and the ampere hour capacity of a battery. The battery capacity depends on the following factors, 1. Discharge rate : As the rate of discharge increases, the battery capacity decreases. 2. Specific gravity of electrolyte : More the specific gravity of electrolyte, more is the battery capacity as it decides internal resistance of the battery. 3. Temperature : As temperature increases, the battery capacity increases. This is shown in the Fig. 1.28.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-51 Fundamentals of Electricity % Capacity Temperature in°c -10 -5 0 5 10 15 2 Fig. 1.28 Effect of temperature on battery capacity 4. Size of the plates : This is related to the amount of active material present in the battery. 1.21 Battery Efficiency Mainly the battery efficiency is defined as the ratio of output during discharging to the _ input required during charging, to regain the original state of the battery. It is defined in many ways as, 1. Ampere-hour efficiency or quantity efficiency 2. Watt-hour efficiency or energy efficiency 4.21.1 Ampere-hour Efficiency It is defined as ratio of output in ampere-hours during discharging to the input in ampere-hours during charging. It is denoted as Nay. Ampere-hours on discharge ‘lah “ —Ampere-hours on charge — ‘Current near «100 Nan = [ ‘Currentx Time on charge For lead acid battery, it ranges between 80 % to 90 %. 1.21.2 Watt-hour Efficlency It is defined as the ratio of output in watt-hours during discharging to the input in ‘watt-hours during charging. It is denoted as Ty, _ Watt-hours on discharge TWh = —Watt-hours on chargeBasic Electrical Engineering 1-52 Fundamentals of Electricity a [Voltage during discharge (average)]x[Currentx time at discharge] | 5) * © Tw = |—TVoltage during charge (average)] [Current time al charge] Average voltage during discharge “Average voltage during charge For lead acid idl battery, watt-hour efficiency ranges between 70 % to 80 %. 1.22 Charge and Discharge Curves The behaviour of battery voltage with respect to the time in hours of charging or discharging at normal rate is indicated by the curves called charge and discharge curves. During discharge of the lead acid cell, the voltage decreases from about 2.1 V to 1.8 V, when cell is said to be completely discharged. The discharge rate is always specified as S8hours, 10 hours etc. During charging of the lead acid cell, the voltage increases from 1.8 V to about 2.5 V to 2.7 V, when cell is said to be completely charged. If the discharge rate is high, the curve is more drooping as voltage decreases faster. Such typical charge and discharge curves for lead-acid cell are shown in the Fig. 1.29. While discharging the voltage decreases to 2 V very fast, then remains constant for long period and at the end of discharge period falls to 1.8 V. While charging, initially it rises quickly to 2.1 to 2.2 V and then remains constant for long time, At the end of charging period it increases to 25 to 2.7 V. Voltage of each cell iin volts. 27 2.6 25 24 23 22 24 20 19 1.8 1? 1.6 15 J-— Charge curve Discharge curve Time in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 cours Charging or discharging Fig. 1.29Basic Electrical Engineering 1-53 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.23 Battery Charging During charging, the chemical action takes place which is exactly opposite to that of discharging. Thus current in opposite direction to that at the time of discharge, is passed through the battery. For this the voltage applied is in excess of the voltage of the battery ‘or cell. The battery voltage acts in opposite direction to that of the applied voltage and hence called back e.m.f. The charging current can be obtained as, Charging current Where E, = Applied voltage E, = Back emf. ie. battery voltage R = External resistance in the circuit 4 = Internal resistance of the battery Simple battery charging circuit used to charge the battery from d.c. supply is shown in the Fig. 1.30. Rheostat for adjusting charging rate Fig. 1.30 Battery charging The ammeter measures the charging current which is called charging rate, which can ‘be adjusted using the external resistance R. The voltmeter measures the battery voltage. It is necessary that the positive terminal of the battery must be connected to the positive of the D.C. supply. ‘The charging current must be adjusted such that the temperature of the electrolyte will not increase beyond 100° to 110 F.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-54 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.23.1 Indications of Fully Charged Battery The various indications of the fully charged cells are, 1. Specific gravity : The specific gravity of the fully charged cell increases upto 1.28 from about 1.18. 2. Gassing : When the cell is fully charged, it starts liberating the gas freely. In lead acid battery the hydrogen is liberated at cathode while oxygen at the anode. Gassing is a good indication of fully charged battery. Some acid particles may go out with the gases hence the charging room must be kept well ventilated. 3. Voltage : The voltage of the fully charged cell is about 2.7 V. 4. Colour : The colour of the plates changes for fully charged cell. Colour of the positive plate changes to dark chocolate brown while that of negative plate changes to grey colour. But as plates are immersed in the electrolyte, this indication is not clearly visible. 1.24 Charging Methods The main methods of battery charging are, 1. Constant current method 2. Constant voltage method 3, Rectifier method 1.24.1 Constant Current Method When the supply is high voltage but battery to be charged is of low voltage, then this method is used. The number of batteries which can be charged are connected in series across the available d.c, voltage. The constant current is maintained through the batteries with the help of variable resistor connected in series. The circuit is shown in the Fig. 1.31. Fuse Ammeter High Variable resistance Fig. 1.31 Constant current method.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-55 Fundamentals of Electricity The charging time required in this method is comparatively large. Hence in modern charger the number of charging circuits are used to give a variation of charging rates. Initially higher charging rate is used and later on lower charging rate is preferred. 1.24.2 Constant Voltage Method In this method, the constant voltage is applied across the cells, connecting them in parallel. The charging current varies according to the state of the charge of each battery. The batteries to be charged are connected in 6 or 12 volt units across the positive and negative busbars ie. mains supply. When the battery is first connected, a high charging current flows but as the terminal voltage of the battery increases, the charging current reduces automatically. At the end of the full charge, the voltage of the battery is equal to the voltage of the busbars and no current flows. The charging time required is much less in this method. Another practically used method is called trickle charge. In this method, the charging ‘current is maintained slightly more than the load current, through the battery. The load is. constantly connected to the battery. So battery remains always in fully charged condition. The Fig. 1.32 shows the cascade resistances used for the charging of batteries on d.c. mains supply. pc. + + + supplyBasic Electrical Engineering 1-56 Fundamentals of Electricity The Fig. 1.33 shows the parallel charging circuit in which 2 separate groups each of 4 cells in series are connected in parallel across the mains. Fig. 1.33 Parallel charging circuit 1.24.3 Rectifier Method When battery is required to be charged from a.c. supply, the rectifier method is used. The rectifier converts a.c. supply to d.c. Generally bridge rectifier is used for this purpose. The Fig. 1.34 shows the circuit used for rectifier method, The step down transformer lowers the a.c. supply voltage as per the requirement. The bridge rectifier converts this low a.c. voltage to d.c. this is used to charge the battery.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-57 Fundamentals of Electricity Fuse — AC. E ‘supply |___. | Step down transformer Switch ammeter Fig. 1.34 Rectifier method 1.25 Grouping of Cells The single cell is not sufficient to provide necessary voltage in many cases. Practically number of cells are grouped to oblain the battery which provides necessary voltage or current. The cells are grouped in three ways, 1. Series grouping 2. Parallel grouping 3. Series-parallel grouping 1.25.1 Series Grouping The Fig. 1.35 shows the series grouping of cells so as to obtain the battery. There are n cells connected in series. i=—— Battery Fig. 1.35 Series grouping of cells Let E = EME. of cach cell t = Internal resistance of each cell V = Total voltage available = n x E voltsBasic Electrical Engineering 1-58 Fundamentals of Electricity Ry = Total circuit resistance = load + cells = Rp+nxr Key" Point + “In series circuit, current Te | improve current capacity. The current capa f ; ¢ in series. But voltage can be increased by increasi nuiriber of cells 1. 1.25.2 Parallel Grouping In this method, positive terminals of cells are connected together and negative terminals are connected together as shown in the Fig. 1.36. Battery Fig. 1.36 Parallel grouping of calls. The terminal e.m-f. of each battery must be same as E. V = Battery voltage = E = em-f. of each cell Internal resistance of each cell * " I, = Current through nth branch I = Total current increasing number af cells the: current eee can be increased. In series grouping current rating of each cell must be same while in panilel grouping voltage rating of each cell must be same. 1.25.3 Series-Parallel Grouping Practically the various groups can be connected in parallel where each group is a series combination of cells as shown in the Fig. 1.37.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-59 Fundamentals of Electricity Series. connection of cells in each group Groups in parallel Fig. 1.37 Series-parallel grouping This is used to satisfy both voltage and current requirement of the load. 1.26 Alkaline Cells The secondary cells can be alkaline cells. These are of two types. 1. Nickel - iron cell or Edison cell 2. Nickel - cadmium or Nife Cell or Junger cell 1.27 Nickel - Iron Cell In this cell, Positive Plate -» Nickel hydroxide [(Ni(OH) 3] Negative Plate — Spongy iron (Fe) The electrolyte is an alkali of 21 % solution of potassium hydroxide solution (KOH). The insulated rods are used to seperate the positive and negative plates. The Fig. 1.38 shows the construction of Nickel-iron cell. @» —0 Container Negative plate of iron Electrolyte KOH solution Fig. 1.38 Construction of Nickel-iron cellBasic Electrical Engineering 1-60 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.27.1 Chemical Reaction In a charged condition, the material of positive plate is Ni(OH)3 and that of negative plate is iron. When it is connected to load and starts discharging, the nickel hydroxide gets converted to lower nickel hydroxide as Ni(OH), while the iron on negative plate gets converted to ferrous hydroxide Fe(OH),. When charged again, reversible reaction takes place, regaining the material on each plate. Discharge 2NKOH); + 2KOH + Fe ——————~ 2Ni(OH), + 2KOH + Fe(OH), ft | | m™ | ft | Positive Electrolyte Negative Positive Electrolyte + Negative plate plate Plate Fig. 1.39 Total reaction ~ Key Point: An electrolyte does not undergo any hema nae __ gravity remains constant at about 12.0 By connecting various Nickel-iron cells property, the Nickel-iron battery i is obtained. 1.27.2 Electrical Characteristics The electric characteristics indicates the variations in the terminal voltage of cell against the charging or discharging hours. The Fig. 1.40 shows the electrical characteristics of Nickel-iron cell during charging and discharging. Terminal voltage Per ceil Charging curve Discharging curve 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 Charging or discharging time in hours at normal rate 7 Fig. 1.40 Electrical characteristics of Nickel-iron cellBasic Electrical Engineering 1-61 Fundamentals of Electricity When fully charged its voltage is about 1.4 V and during discharging it reduces to about 1.1 to 1 V. During charging, the average charging voltage is 1.7 to 1.75 V. 1.27.3 Capacity It is mentioned that electrolyte does not undergo any chemical change for this cell. ‘Thus specific gravity of the electrolyte remains constant for long periods. Hence rate of discharge does not affect ampere-hour capacity of this cell significantly. Thus Ah capacity of Nickel-iron cell remains almost constant. But it does get affected by the temperature. ‘The Fig, 1.41 shows the Ah capacity against discharging time curve for Nickel-iron cell. % Ah capacity 100 Constant 50 0 Discharging time 2 4 6 a in hours Fig. 1.41 Ah capacity against discharge time curve 1.27.4 Efficiency The internal resistance of Nickel-iron cell is higher than lead acid cell hence both the efficiencies ampere-hour as well as watt-hour are less than that of lead acid cell. The ampere-hour efficiency is about 80 % while the watt-hour efficiency is about 60 %, 1.27.5 Advantages The various advantages of Nickel-iron cell are, 1. Light in weight compared to lead acid cell. 2. Compact construction. 3, Mechanically strong and can sustain considerable vibrations. 4. Free from sulphatation and corrosion. 5. Less maintenance is required 6. Do not evolve dangerous attacking fumes. 7. Gives longer service life.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-62 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.27.6 Disadvantages The various disadvantages of Nickel-iron cell are, 1. High initial cost. 2. Low voltage per cell of about 1.2 V. 3. High internal resistance. 4. Lower operating efficiency. 1.27.7 Application The Nickel-iron batteries are used in, 1. Mine locomotives and mine safety lamps 2. Space ship 3. Repeater wireless station 4. To supply power to tractors, submarines, aeroplanes etc. 5. In the railways for lighting and airconditioning purposes. 1.28 Nickel - Cadmium Cell The construction of this cell is similar to the nickel-iron cell except the active material used for the negative plate. The electrolyte used is again 21 % solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) in distilled water. The specific gravity of the electrolyte is about 1.2. Little iron is added to cadmium to get negative plate. The iron prevents the caking of active material and losing its porosity. The Fig. 1.42 shows the construction of Nickel-cadmium cell. @e 20 Container Negative plate of cadmium mixed Positive plate nt of Ni(OH}y with little iron Electrolyte KOH solution Fig. 1.42 Construction of Nickél-Cadmium cellBasic Electrical Engineering 4-63 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.28.1 Chemical Reaction Tn this cell also, in working condition Ni(OH), gets converted to lower nickel hydroxide as Ni(OH), while cadimum hydroxide Cd(OH) 2 gets formed at the negative plate. During charging reverse reaction takes place. The electrolyte does not undergo any chemical change. Discharge 2NKOH), + 2KOH + Cd —————~ 2NKOH), + 2KOH + Ca(OH), ; of | ™ | | Positive Electrolyte Negative Positive Electrolyte Negative plate plate plate plate Fig. 1.43 Total reaction 1.28.2 Features 1. The electrical characeristics are similar to the Nickel-iron cell. 2. Due to use of cadmium, intemal resistance is low. 3. The efficiencies are little bit higher than Nickel-iron cell. 4, Advantages and disadvantages are same as that of Nickel-iron cell. 5. The various charging methods such as constant current, constant voltage, trickel charging can be used. 1.28.3 Applications The various applications of Nickel-cadmium battery are, 1. In railways for lighting and air conditioning systems. 2. In millitary aeroplanes, helicopters and commerical airlines for starting engines and provide emergency power supply. 3. In photographic equipments such as movie cameras and photoflash. 4. In electric shavers. 5. Due to small size in variety of cordless electronic devices.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-64 Fundamentals of Electricity 1.29 Comparison of Various Batteries “ae senior eat Netaudio ca Lead "mop Nickel worn Nickel hydroxide Ni (OH)s ead 0 a ce Sulphuric Potassium hydroxida| Potas ian trie H,50, KOH 2.0 Veal 12.ves 12 Vie | tera reeance | tow | eth | tow | | mvemseney | sowese | mao | rome 7 | wn oniney | rzeeon_ | som | sscon | Ah capacity Depends on Depends only on paeend ony on 8. discharge rate and) temperature Loss expensive twice the lead) Almost twice the lead tad cal acid cell 1250 About 8 to 10 years | Very long life discharges" 35. | wei | 12. | Mechanical strength Poor 1.30 Comparison of Primary and Secondary Cells Pacne [ri a Electrical energy is directly obtained from} Electrical energy is present in the cell in chemical energy. the form of chemical energy and then converted to electrical energy.Basic Electrical Engineering Fundamentals of Electricity Pe Teen ae No maintenance required. Frequent charging and other maintenance; is required. Examples are dry cell, mercury cell.) Examples are Nickebiron, lead acid and) zine-chloride cell Nicke-cadmium 1.31 NIMH Battery Now a days, number of battery powered portable electronic devices are developed. ‘The consumer demands higher energy rechargeable batteries which are capable of delivering longer service between recharges. The sealed nickel - metal hydride (NiMH) rechargeable battery satisfies the consumer demand and provides far improved performance compared to conventional rechargeable batteries. The NiMH battery has higher energy capacity and hence capable of providing longer service life. 1.31.4 Construction This type of battery uses Nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) as the active material in the positive electrode. While the negative active material is the hydrogen in the charged state, in the form of metal hydride. This metal hydride is an alloy which can undergo a reversible hydrogen absorbing and deabsorbing reaction when the battery is charged and discharged. Typically there are two types of classes of the alloy which is used as the electrode material in the NiMH battery. 1, ABs alloy of which LaNig is the example. 2. AB, alloy of which TiMn, or ZrMn, are examples. Practically ABs alloys are more preferred as they offer better corosion resistance characteristics which provides longer cycle life and better rechargeability. These alloys have large hydrogen storing capability. The low hydrogen pressure alloy and highly pure materials can minimize the self discharge. Both the electrodes use highly porous structure and large surface areas. This provides low internal resistance for the cell. The positive electrode is highly porous nickel-felt substrate into which the nickel compounds are pasted. While a perforated nickel-plated steel foil is used for the negative electrode onto which the plastic bonded active hydrogen storage alloy is coated. The electrolyte used is an aqueous solution of pottasium hydroxide (KOH). In NiMH battery, the minimum amount of electrolyte is used with most of the liquid being absorbed by the seperator and the electrodes. This design helps the diffusion of oxygen to the negative electrode at the end of charge for the “oxygen recombination” reaction.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-66 Fundamentals of Electricity The NiMH battery is designed with a discharge and charge reserve in the negative electrode. This is shown in the Fig. 144 Fig. 1.44 Schematic representation of NIMH battery In case of overdischarge, the gassing and the degradation of the cell is minimized by, the discharge reserve. In case of overcharge, the charge reserve make sure that the battery maintains low internal pressure. ‘The standard size NiMH batteries are constructed with cylindrical and prismatic type of nickel-metal hydride cells. 1.31.2 Cell Reactions ‘The cell reactions are divided into, 1. Cell reactions during charge. 2. Cell reactions during discharge. 1, During Charge : The positive electrode reaches to the full charge before negative electrode and causes the oxygen to evolve. 20H ~—> H,0 + 1.0, + 26° Due to minimum amount of electrolyte, the oxygen gas diffuses through the seperator to the negative electrode. This design is called ‘starved electrolyte’ design of the cell. The oxygen reacts with metal hydride at the negative electrode, to produce water. 2MH + 5 Q, —> 2M +H,0 2. During Discharge : The nickel oxyhydroxide is converted to nickel hydroxide. NiOOH + HO +e” —> Ni (OH), + OH~Basic Electrical Engineering 1-67 Fundamentals of Electricity While the metal hydriode is oxidized to the metal alloy (M). MH + OH” > M+H,0+e€ Thus the overall reaction on discharge is, MH + ‘NiOOH M4 Ni ion; 1.31.3 Features The various features of NiMH batteries are, 1. Higher capacity which is about 40 % longer life than ordinary NiCd battery of same size. 2, The charging is very fast in about one hour. 3. The cycle life is very long upto 500 charge / discharge cycles. 4. The internal resistance is very low due to ‘starved electrolyte’ type of design. 5. No pollution or effect on an environment as it does not contain any cadmium. 6. It is capable of performing well at extremes temperatures, on discharge from — 20°C to + 50 °C and on charge from 0 °C to 45°C. Due to higher energy density, battery volume and weight is minimum. It has wide voltage range. It is manufactured with special high impact and flame retardant polymers hence durable. 10. The various charging methods like quick charge, fast charge, trickle charge can be used for charging. 1.31.4 General Characteristics The discharge characteristics of NiMH battery is similar to that of NiCd battery. On charging, the open circuit voltage ranges from 1.25 to 1.35 volts/cell. On discharge, the nominal voltage is 1.2 volts/cell and the typical end voltage is 1 volt/cell. The Fig. 1.45 shows the discharge charactersitics of NiCd and NiMH batteries of same size. (See Fig. 1.45 on next page) Both the batteries show the flat characteristics almost throughout the discharge. The midpoit voltage is between 1.25 to 1.1 V, which depends on the discharge load. een 1.31.5 Self Discharge Characteristics During storage, the NiMH battery discharges on its own. This is due to the reaction of residual hydrogen in the battery with the positive electrode. This causes slow and reversible decompesition of positive electrode. This is called self discharge of the cell. The tate of such a self discharge depends on the time for which the cell is stored and the temperature at which the cell is stored. At higher temperature, the rate of self discharge isBasic Electrical Engineering 1-68 Fundamentals of Electricity Fig. 1.45 Discharge characteristics also high. The Fig. 1.46 shows the self discharge characteristics of NiMH cells at various temperatures. The long term storage of NiMH battery in charged or discharged state has no permanent effect on the battery capacity. Fig. 1.46 Self discharge curves for NiMH callsBasic Electrical Engineering 1-69 Fundamentals of Electricity joint: The loss in capacity due to self discharge is reversible and can be full capacity by repeated charge / discharge cycles, — Even the capacity loss due to storage upto one year can be recovered. But long term storage at high temperatures can damage seals and separators. The proper temperature range for the storage of NiMH batteries is 10 °C to 30 °C. 1.31.6 Recharging Characteristics The recharging characteristics of NiMH and NiCd batteries are almost same. For NiMH battery a proper charge control is necessary as it is more sensitive to overcharging. The most common method used for charging the NiMH battery is constant current charge method with current controlled to avoid excessive temperature rise. The Fig. 147 shows the typical charge-voltage characteristics of NiCd and NiMH batteries. The curves are almost flat when charged at constant current rate. Initially there is sharp increase in the voltage and similarly at about 80 % of charge, there is sharp rise in the voltages. But in the overcharging the NiCd batteries show the prominent voltage drop compared to NiMH batteries. Fig. 1.47 Typical charge-voltage characteristics 1.31.7 Safety Precautions The following care must be taken about the NiMH batteries for the safety purposes, 1, The battery should not be disassembled or opened. This can cause very high short circuit currents and may result into fire.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-70 Fundamentals of Electricity 2. Keep and use the batteries away from the heat sources. Do not subject the battery to heat or do not dispose the battery in a fire. Store the battery at the recommended temperature. }. Do not overcharge the battery. Due to this the battery may vent and hydrogen gas may be released. This gas can form explosive mixtures with the air. compartments. term use may be possible. 6. 1.31.8 Applications |. Do not expose battery to a source of ignition or do not use in the air tight device , Do not use the battery for long time exceeding its specified ranges though the short Do not drop or do not subject to the strong mechanical shocks. The various applications of NiMH battery are cellular phones, portable computers and many consumer electronic products. The batteries are used in digital cameras, cordless electronic devices, clectronic toys and providing emergency supply to various electronic instruments. As the NiMH batteries are expensive, main application areas are cellular phones and laptop computers. 1.31.9 Comparison Parameter Positive electrode Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Nickel hydroxide Ni(OH)3 metal hydride (NIMH) Nickel oxyhydroxide NIOOH Negative electrode Cadmium (Cd) Metal hydride alloy (MH) Electrolyte Internal resistance Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Very low | Volumetric energy donsity 140 Whi 55 Wh / kg 180 Wh /L 10. | Self discharge at 20 °C 15 - 20 % per month 20 - 30 % per month 11. Gost Best cost par performance value 12. | Protection Internal short circuit protection is nat provided. Very high Not supposed to produce internal shorts.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-71 Fundamentals of Electricity Note: The gravimetric energy density is a measure of how much energy a battery contains in comparison to its weight and typically expressed in watthour per Kilogram (Wh/kg). The volumetric energy density is a measure of how much energy a battery contains in comparison to its volume and is typically expressed in wattthour per litre (Wh/L). Examples with Solutions ‘mu Example 1.17: A copper coil wher: connected to a 30 volts supply initially takes current of 3A and has a mean temperature of 20 °C. After sometime the current flowing in the coil falls to 2.85 A, supply voltage remaining same, The mean temperature of the coil is then 334°C. Determine the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0 °C, ie. to. Alsa state if it is true that a can have i) zero value ii) negative value and if yes for which materials. (Dec. - 2001) Solution: V = 30 volts, 1; =3 Amp, t; = 20°C I, = 2.85 Amp, t) = 334 °C Now we have, R, = ~ =F =00 at t;=20°C Rp = eas = 1052.9 at t) =334°C ‘We can write, Ry = Ro [ita t] Ry = Rp +e ty] w= (1) Rp = Rg [1+ ap ta] (2) Dividing equation (1) by (2), B-ee 10 1+ G9 (20) 052 ~ +a (334) 0.9505 (1+ 334 ay) 1+20 uo 0.9505~1 = 20 ap — (0.9505) (334) ao Solving, Go = 42139x10-3/°C It is true that a can have zero value in case of alloys as with increase in temperature, alloys show almost no change in their resistance. The materials are Manganin and Eureka. It is also true that @ can have negative value in case of insulating materials as with increase in temperature, resistance of insulating materials decreases. The materials are rubber, paper, mica, wood etc.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-72 Fundamentals of Electricity im Example 1.18: It is required to maintain a loading of 5 KW in a heating unit. At an initial temperature of 15 °C, a voltage of 200 V is necessary for this purpose. When the unit is settled down to a steady temperature, a voltage of 220 V is required to maintain the same loading. Estimate the final temperature of the heating element, if the resistance temperature co-efficient of the heating element is 0.0006 per °C at 0 °C. (May - 2002) Solution ; Power output = 5 kW = 5000 W, o9 = 0.0006 /°C At t)=15°C,V, = 200 volt and tz, Vz = 220 volt v2 At 15°C, Pevhew(g)- 3 1 V2 (200)? . R, = =b =r nan we at t)=15 C Vv: v3 At ty, P=V2 newe(e)-e ~» power remains same v2 220)? Rz = 2 = 968 2 vw at °C Now we have, Ri = Ro fitaoti] a (I) Rz = Ro [1+ 9 tz] ww Q) Dividing equation (2) by equation (1), Ry _ 1l+ao t2 Ri T+ap ty 1409 t2 = & (1ta0 ty) 28 [1 + (0.0006)(15)] a ty = 1.2208-1=02208 ty = 368.15°C imp Example 1.19: If c, is the resistance temperature coefficient of a material at ty “C and Oy at ty °C. Then prove that, 1-2 (t)-t) == (Dec.-2005, Dec.-2007, May-2008) 102 Solution : The resistance temperature coefficient at any temperature t°C can be obtained as, i ee = * 1+aotBasic Electrical Engineering 41-73 Fundamentals of Electricity ao O So = =o _ | Trapt 4% = Traptz where % = resistance temperature coefficient at 0 °C A _ 1 _ leet, It+aoty _ l+aqty-l-ooti G2 Oy eo oy to Golt2—th) _ bok .. Proved im Example 1.20: It takes 30 minutes for an electric kettle to raise the temperature of 10 kg of water from 24 °C to 100 °C. The water equivalent of the container is 1 kg and the heat lost due to radiation is 400 kj. Assuming the specific heat of water as 4200 J/kg°K, calculate the current taken by the kettle from a suppiy of 200 V. (May - 1999) Solution : Water equivalent of kettle =1 kg Total mass m = mass of water + equivalent of container = 10 + 1 = 11 kg At = t)-t) =100-24= 76 Heat energy required to heat the water is, H Net input required Time power input I m C At = 11x4200*76 = 3511.2 kJ Energy required + Energy lost 3511.2 + 400 = 3911.2 ky 30 min = 1800 sec inputinJ _ 3911.2x103 time in sec 1800 2172.88 W Mm Example 1.24: Find the amount of electrical energy expended in raising the temperature of 45 litres of water by 75 °C. To what height could a load 5 tonnes be raised with the expenditure of the same amount of energy ? Assume efficiency of heating and hifting equipment to be 90 % and 70 % respectively. Assume the specific heat capacity of water to be 4186 J/kg °K and 1 litre of water to have a mass of 1 kg and 1 tonne is equal fo 1000 kg. (May - 1998, May-2007)Basic Electrical Engineering 1-74 Fundamentals of Electricity Solution : m = 45 litres = 45 kg, At = 75 C, C = 4186 J/kg K Output energy = mC At = 45x 4186 x 75 1.4127« 10" J Output energy 1.412710? Energy exp ~ qofheating equipment ~ 0.9 1.5697 10" J Now this much energy is to be utilised to lift a load of mass m = 5 tonnes = 5000 kg. Input energy = 1.5697 10" J 1 of lifting equipment = 70% = 0.7 Output energy = nx input = 0.7 x 1.5697 10” = 1.098x10" J Output energy = mgh 1.098 10” = 5000 x 9.81xh h = 224021 m Se load can be raised to a height of 224.021 m. ‘=> §=Example 1.22: In case of power supply failure 7.5 kW electrical lighting and fan load of @ commercial establishment is supplied by a small diesel generator set. Efficiency of diesel engine and the electrical generator are 55 % and 80 % respectively. Calculate the per kWh unit cost of this electricity if the set runs average 90 hours per month. The cost of diesel is Rs. 10/- per litre and the calorific value of diesel is 52,000 kj/itr. (Dee. - 1998) Solution ; Consider the system shown in the Fig. 1.48. Diesel ‘Net output Mech, Elect. Energy Energy Fig. 1.48 Output energy = 7.5 kW 7.5 x 90 = 675 kWh = 675 x 3600 kJ = 2.43 «106 kj 55% and Generator Tz = 80% 0 Monthly output Engine T1 iBasic Electrical Engineering 1-75 Fundamentals of Electricity output — 2.43106 = 8 mxN2 0.55«0.8 5522 10° kJ Monthly input = Hence for an entire month the diesel required is, «cat in Ui 5.522% 10° . Diesel in litres = S509 — = 106.206 litres Hence the total cost = 106.206 x 10 = Rs. 1062.06 This is required to supply 675 kWh hence, 1062.06 aE = Rs, 1.573 Cost per kWh = n> Example 1.23: Determine the current flowing at the instant of switching a 60 watt lamp om a 230 V supply. The ambient temperature is 25 °C. The filament temperature is 2000 °C and the resistance temperature coefficient is 0.005 PC at 0 °C. (Dec. - 1998) Solution: P = 60 W, V = 230 V, ty = 25 C, t, = 2000 T R, = resistance of filament in ON condition -% Ve. 220" _ se1670 _ _ Oo _ 0.005 -3 a, = RTC ath = Taney 7 Trooosxas 7 Mt x10 ic Now R, = Ry (+a, 40 881.67 = R, [1 + 444x10-3 <(2000-25)] R, = 90.2512 I = current at switching time Vv 230 = Ry Soa 2H A imp Example 1.24: Af the instant of switching a 40 W lamp on 2 230 V supply, the current is observed to be 2.5 A. The RT.C. of filament is 0.0048 °C at O°C. The ambient temperature is 27 *C. Find the working temperature of the filament and current taken during normal operation. (May-2007) Solution : P = 40 W, V = 230 V, 1 = 25 A, a, = 0.0048 /°C At the time of switching, temperature is ambient ie. t = 27 °C, Ry = =e oanBasle Electrical Engineering 41-76 Fundamentals of Electricity Under working condition, power consumption of lamp is 40 W. V2 (230)? Ro # pty BREA Now Re = Ry [1+ 7 (h- 2) 2 Go _ _0.0048 27 T¥aet 1+0.0048x27 = 4.2492 x 107? °C 1322.5 = 92[1 + 4.2492 x 10°? (t, - 27)] 14.375 = 1+ 4.2492 x 10°? ( - 27) 1-27 = 31476513 ft = 3174.6513 °C .-. working temperature I(working) = = 0.1739 A ... working current vi _ 230 Rp 13225 im Example 1.25: An electric motor is driving a train weighing, 100 thousand kilogram up on an inclined track of 1 in 100 at a speed of 60 km/h. The frictional force of tracks is 10 kg. per 1000 kg. of its weight. If the motor operates on 11 KV, find the current taken by the motor assuming the overall efficiency of the system as 70 %. (Dec. - 1999, Dec. - 2000) Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.49. Now, slope is 1 in 100. sin 0 tan 0 = 755 = 001 as Ois very small W sin 6 = 100x103 x 0.01 = 1000 kg = 1000 x 9.81 = 9810 N Track resistance = 10 kg per 1000 kgBasic Electrical Engineering 41-77 Fundamentals of Electricity = 20 32 = 799g *100%103 = 1000 kg = 9810 N ‘Now, W sin @ and track resistance, both are opposite to motion. Total resistance = 9810 + 9810 = 19620 N Work done = Force x distance travelled in 1 sec = 19620 x d Now, Speed = 60 km/h 3 d= distance travelled in 1 sec. = SOU" = 1667 m Work done = 19620 x 16.67 = 3270654 J + Work done — 327065.4 Power required by load = —S>O° =“ = sah W Power required by load = 3270654 W Pi, = Tat = RINGS _ ser36.2057 W But, Pin = VXI he, 4672362057 = 11 «109 x1 I = 42476A tmp Example 1.26 : An aluminium kettle weighs 2.8 kg and holds 2750 crt? of water. When connected to 220 V supply, its heater element takes current of 10 A. The efficiency of the kettle is given as 75%. Find the time required to boil the water from the initial temperature of 27 °C. Assume specific heat capacity of water and aluminium as 4200 J/kg °K and 950 J/kg °K respectively. (Dee. - 97) Solution : Mass of kettle m, = 2.8 kg and Mass of water m = 2750 cm? Now 1 m? water = 1000 kg m = 2750x107 x 1000 = 2.75 kg Specific heat of kettle C, = 950 J/kg K Specific heat of waterC = 4200 J/kg K Heat required to raise temperature of water = mC At =275 x 4200 x (100 - 27) = 843150 J Heat lost in heating the kettle = m, Cy At = 2.8 x 950 x (100 - 27) = 194180 JBasic Electrical Engineering 1-78 Fundamentals of Electricity Total heat required = 843150 + 194180 = 1037330 J The efficiency y = 75% Heat output = 1037330 = 13831067 J Heat input 7 O35 Power input = Vx I= 220 x 10 = 2200 W total heat input Now Pe time required 2200 = 1383106.7 time time = 626.68 sec = 10 min and 26.68 sec. map Example 1.27: A fully charged car battery can give 200 Wh of energy for operating starting mechanism. At each start, the engine has to be cranked at 50 r.p.m. for 10 seconds, against a torque of 50 N-m. Assume overall efficiency of 40 % of the machine, estimate the number of starts before the battery is required to be recharged. Solution : For 1 start, N= 50 rpm. 2aN ie. o= > = 5.2359 rad/sec. Torque T = 50 N-m Output of 1 start = Tx@ = 261.799 watt-sec ie. J Efficiency = 40 % output — 261.799 Input power required for I start = = = = 654.498 watt-sec ie. J Energy for 1 start = power x time = 654.498x10 = 654498 joules ie, watt-sec Total energy battery can give = 200 Wh. Energy required for 1 start = 6544.98 watt-sec ._ 6544.98 . . = Sqr (watthour ive. Wh = 1.81 Wh. Total energy 200 Wh Number of starts = [oT ayforistat = T8TWh ~ 10497 . Number of starts are approximately 111.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-79 Fundamentals of Electricity ‘mm Example 1.28: An electric furnace is used in order to melt 50 kg of tin per hour. Melting temperature of tin is 235 °C and room temperature is 15 °C. Latent heat of fusion for tin is 13.31 keal/kg. Specific heat of tin is 0.055 keal/kg°K. If input to furnace is 5 kW, ‘find the efficiency of the furnace. (Dec.-2005) Solution = m=5S0kg, t,=15 °C, t = 235°C, L= 1331 kcal/kg C = 0.055 kcal/kg, Pi, = 5 kW The melting takes place in two steps : 1. Heat required to raise temperature from 15 °C to 235 °C = mC At 2. Latent heat required to convert solid state to liquid state = mL. H = heat output required =m C At+mL = 50x 0.055 x (235 — 15) + 50x 13.31 = 1270.5 kcal Now Teal = 42] H = 12705x10?x42J = 5336.1 KJ time = 1 hour = 3600 sec 3 Pg = HUGH SEB6I%I0Y yoyo Wy While P, = SW ey = Fouts 199 = M482:25 100 = 29.685 % Pin 5x103 map Example 1.29: A motor drives a load torque of 200 N-m at 750 rp.m. drawing 18 KW from mains. Assuming temperature to remain constant and 1 joule equal 0.2392 cal, determine, i) efficiency of motor and ii) losses per minute in kcal Solution : T= 200 Nm, N = 750 rpm, Pi, = 18 kW Page = Tx @= Tx 22% qutput of motor = 200x2nx750 _ 1570796 kW 60 15.70796 Pout en = —Bitx 100 = Se x 100 = 87.26 % Losses = Pi, — Poy = 18 x 10°-15,70796 x 10° = 2292.04 W Losses in 1 minute = 2292.04 x (60 sec) = 1375224 J Now 1J = 02392 calBasic Electrical Engineering 1-80 Fundamentals of Electricity Losses/min = 1375224 x 0.2392 = 32.8953 kcal ‘These losses appear in the form of heat. im Example 1.30: Given below are the different electric appliances used by a family, their ratings and number of hours they are used daily. Find the electric bill per month if cost per unit (1 KWh) is 75 paise. (Assume 30 days month) Solution : First calculate daily consumption of each appliance in watt hours. Appliance Energy consumption in watt-hour [ener | wae 3x60x8 = 1440 [ra Monthly energy consumption = 4,9x 30 = 147 kWh = 147 units. Monthly bill = 147x(0.75) = Rs. 110.25 a> Example 1.31: In a hydroelectric generating station the difference in level (hend) between the water surface and turbine driving the generators is 425 meters. If 1250 liters of water is required to generate 1 KWh of electric energy. Find the overall efficiency.Basic Electrical Engineering 41-81 Fundamentals of Electricity Solution : 1 litre of water = 1 kg of water m= 1250kg h=425m Energy produced by water = mgh = 1250x9.81x 425 = 5.21156 x106 J 6 :. Energy produced in 1 hour by water = SAOSIN" = 1447.6563 Wh = 144765 kWh While actual generation = 1 kWh “ 1 Efficiency = Togas” 100 = 69.077 % tus Example 1.32: An electrically driven pump motor lifts 80 m° of water per minute through a height of 12 m. Efficiencies of motor and pump are 70 % and 80 % respectively. Caiculate, i) Current drawn by motor if it works on 400 volts supply. ii) Energy consumption in KWh and cost of the energy at the rate of 75 paise/KWh, if pump operates 2 hours per day for 30 days. “Assume lin? of water = 1000 kg {Dec..2006) Solution : The given values are, m= 680m =80 x 100kg ohe=l2m;_ time=1 minute The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.50. T= 70% 1) = 80% Electrical For water lifting Fig. 1.50 Po = mgh = 80 x 1000 x 981 x 12=9.4176 x 10°) . Pout inj _ 9.4176x106 Poup in watts = Fo in) _ 2A «+ time = 1 min = 60 sec = 156.96 x 10° watts Pout _ 156.96x103 aap = OF Rae 7 2802857 x 10° watts Pn = But P, = VI ie. 280.2857 x 10° = 400 x IBasic Electrical Engineering 1+82 Fundamentals of Electricity ie I = 700.714 A ii) Daily energy consumption = VIt | where t = 2 hours per day = 400 x 700714 x 2= 560.5712 x 10° Wh = 560.5712 kWh Monthly consumption = 560.5712. x 30 = 16817.136 kWh cost of energy = 16817.136 x rate per kWh = 16817.136 x 0.75 = Rs, 1261285 ‘> Example 1.33: An electric boiler has two heating elements each of 200 V, 4 KW rating. Boiler contains 20 litres of water at 20 °C. Assuming 8 % loss of heat from boiler, find the time required after switching on the boiler to heat the water up to 90 °C if a) two elements are in parallel! and b) two elements are in series Specific heat capacity of water is 4180 J/kg°K. Assume supply voltage as 200 V. Solution : Mass of water = 20 litres = 20 kg At = t-t) =90-20=70C=70K Heat energy required, H = mC At = 20x70x4180 =5.852«106 J a) Elements are in parallel : Voltage across each element = 200 V . _ ¥2 _ (200)? Resistance of each = > = or = 10a Fig. 1.51 T= current by each element PR = (20)? x10 = 4 kW Total power absorbed = 2x4=8 kW Power by each element Total input energy = powerxtime=8000t J Let ‘t’ be time required to raise the temperature of water. But there are 8 % losses ie. 7) = 92 % «. Net heat energy required to raise the temperatureBasic Electrical Engineering 1-83 Fundamentals of Electricity = Le. 6 = ggg = 6-36086%108 J 6.36086x10 = B000t t = 795.1087 sec. = 13.25 min. b) Elements in series : Net heat energy required to raise R=100 R= 109 the temperature of water due to losses remains same Le. 6.36086x10° J. 1 But let us see how much energy can v=200¥ be absorbed when elements are in parallel. Fig, 1.52 Total resistance due to series = Rj +R, =2R=202 Total current drawn = -—=>—=10A Power by each clement = 1? R = (10)?x10= 1 kW Total power drawn = 2x power by each = 2 kW . Total energy absorbed in time 't' sec powerx time = 2000t J 2000 t = 6.36086x108 t = 3180.43 sec = 53 min Vim Example 1.34: The level difference (head) between water surface and turbine at hydroelectric generating station is 500 m. The- capacity of station is of 250 MW and it supplies a full load for 8 hours a day. Overall efficiency of station is 90 %. Find how much volume of water is used, daily. Solution : It is connected to full load ie. Poy = 250 MW = 250x106 watt ie J/sec Energy output in 8 hours = 250x106(8% 3600) = 72x10!2 J Potential energy of water = mgh = mx9.81x500 J This must supply the energy input required for driving a load. 12Basic Electrical Engineering 1-84 Fundamentals of Electricity 8x1072 = mx 9.81% 500 m = 1,6309%109 kg Now 1m’ of water = 1000 kg 1.6309x109 kg = 1.6309x106 m? «Volume of water daily consumed is 1.630910 m°, im Example 1.35: A locomotive when driving a load 30 x 10° kg requires an output of 60H.P. Load is moving up an incline of 2 in 100, The frictional resistance is 300 kg. The gearing efficiency of 80 % and motor efficiency is 90 %. Calculate the speed at which load is moving and current drawn by the motor if connected to 500 V mains. Assume 1 HLP. = 735.5 W. Solution : mass of load = 30 x 10°kg, slope 2 in 100, friction = 300 kg Te = 80%, jm=9% V=500V w = Weight of load = mx g "= 30 x 10° x 9.81 = 294300 N ‘The various forces acting on the locomotive are shown in the Fig. 1.53. ah Ww Fig. 1.53 The components opposite to motion are, 1. Friction resistance = 300 x 9.81 = 2943 N 2. Component of weight opposite to motion = W sin 0 2 = 254300 x 755 = 5886 N Remember that for small values of @, sin @ = tan 8 = 52Basic Electrical Engineering 1-85 Fundamentals of Electricity ‘Total resistance = 2943 + 5886 = 8829 N Pa But Pin = 49093.33 = Total output = «. Total output energy = Opposing force = Work done = 35304 = ds Speed of load = Nm = 0.9 ng =0.8 Total Poa output 60H. P. Fig. 1.54 output of motor = 60 H.-P. = 60 x 735.5 = 44130 W Pout _ 44130 _ Wm 0 = 49033.33 W VI 500 xT 98.067 A ++ current drawn Pout * Nig = 44130 x 0.8 = 35304 W Total output x 1 sec joules vo a8 1 W =1J/sec 35304 J 8829 N work done in overcoming opposition opposing force x distance travelled in 1 sec g829xd J 8829 x d 3.9986 m in 1 sec 3.9986x 3600 3.9986 m/sec = a kamph = 14.39 kmph tam «Example 1.36: An electric lift makes 20 double journeys per hour. A ioad of 8 tonne is raised by it through a height of 60 m and it returns empty. The lift takes 80 sec to go up and 70 sec to return. The weight of cage is 1 tonne and that of counter weight 2500 kg. The efficiency of hoist is 75 % and of motor is 80 %. Find the energy consumption for 1 hour in Wht and power output rating of motor.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-86 Fundamentals of Electricity Solution : The up and down journeys are shown in the Fig. 1.55 (a) and (b). Gage 4 tonne Load 8 tonne (a) Fig. 1.55 (b) 1) During upward journey, Net mass = mass of load + mass of cage — counter weight = 8105 +1105 -2500 = 6500 kg Net weight = 6500x9.81= 63765 N h = 60m Work done = mgh = 63765x60 = 3.8259%10° J li) During downward journey, Net mass = counter weight - mass of cage = 2500 -1x103 = 1500 kg Work done = mgh = 1500x9.81x60 = 882.9%105 J Hence in a double journey ic. upward and downward, Total work done = 3.825910 +882.9%103 = 4,.7088x106 J Ty 70.8 Ny = 0.75 Input to motor Fig. 1.56Basic Electrical Engineering 1-87 Fundamentals of Electricity In 1 hour lift completes 20 double journeys Total work done in 1 hour = 4.7088 x106%20 = 94.176x10° J Net output in 1 hour Pout = Output of motor = out put of motor 7 94.176x106 61: = TE = 175.568x10 Jin 1 hour Pout _ 125.568x106 . = 6 Ji Pa = ao 18 156.96x108 J in 1 hour 156.96 10° 3600%1000 Hourly consumption is kWh = = 43.6 kWh 1 power required out of Hil i +. Work done in upward journey = 3.8259x106 J Workdone _ 3.8259x106 Th 0.75 Time required = 80 sec for upward journey Output rating = Pout _ 2:1012x10" = ga765 watts Pout = = 5.1012x106 J 63765 - ~ 735.5 $6.69 HP. w. 1 HP. = 735.5 W im Example 1.37: A belt driven pulley of 0.1 m in radius rotates at a speed of 1500 revolutions per minute. The tension in the tight side is 35 kg. If it is producing output of 2 KW, calculate tension in the slack side of belt.- Solution : Net tension acting on the pulley is difference between the two tensions, ie. -F=(Tj-1))x9.81inN where T, and T, are in kg. Torque produced = Fx r Where r = radius of pulley = (Ty -T2)*9.81x0.1Basic Electrical Engineering 1-88 Fundamentals of Electricity = (35-T2)x0.981 N-m Now power produced, P = Txo 2x103 = (35-Ty)x0. 981x228 as o= oan Where N is speed in p.m. 2x1 1500 2x103 = (35-Tp)x0.981x ao T, = 22.02 kg. iwm> Example 1.38: Determine the power input necessary for an electric geyser to heat 8 litres of water from 25 °C to 75 °C in 10 min. Water equivalent of geyser is 150 grams. Heat lost in this period is 30 kj. Find the efficiency of the geyser. Solution : Mass of water = § litre = 8 kg, water equivalent of geyser = 150 gm At=t,-t = 75 - 25 = 50, Time = 10 min = 600 sec, Heat lost = 30 kJ Total mass m 8 + 0.150 = 8.150 kg Heat required = m CAt = 8.150x 4190x50 = 1.7074x108 J Now Heat input = Heat required + Heat lost 1.7074 106 + 30x103 = 1.737425x108 J Heatinput _ 1,737425%10° Time 600 EEE Power input Key Point: While elciuiie ‘efficiency of geyser we pie energy aut required to heat water alone and nat along with the geyser. , useful output = 8419050 = 1.676x10° J useful output 1.676x108 Geyser = ~torarinput “1° = 7 yaraxa08 = 96.465 % Key Point : Water equivalent of geyser means whatever heat is required to "heat body of geyser can be considered to be equivalent to energy ie to heat equivalent mass of water,Basic Electrical Engineering 1-89 Fundamentals of Electricity im Example 1.39: Determine the horsepower rating of an electrical motor which is required to be coupled to a centrifugal pump provided to lift water in to over head tank. The tank capacity is 10 kilo Itrs. The tank’s water head is 10 mtrs. The efficiencies of pump and motor, at operating conditions, are 65 % and 85 % respectively. The tank is required to be filled up fully in 15 minutes. Water head ioss due to pipe friction is equivalent to 1.15 mtrs. Further if the over head water tank is required to be fully filled up twice a day, what shall be the monthly (30 days) electricity bill if the electricity charges are Rs. 3.50 per unit kWh ? {Dec. - 2001] Solution : m = 10 kilo litres = 10,000 Its = 10,000 kg, as 1 litre = 1 kg &= 981 m/s? , t= 15 min = 900 sec, h= 10m Water head loss due to pipe friction = 1.15 m Reg = 104115 = 11.15 m Net work done = mg hej Net work done mg hey _ 10000x9.81x1115 i i re Power output of pump = 1215.35 W = 1.2153 kW Pin to motor = eer - aS Power output of motor Horsepower rating of motor Input energy required Total hrs required Total input Total electricity bill for month = Total input Monthly bill 2199.72 W = 2.2 kW Power output of pump T[pump 12153x103 0.65 (1869.69) /735.5=2.542 HP = 1869.69 W Power input to motor x twice a day 22x 10°x 2 =44kW 2.x 15 min = 30 min = 5 his A4kWx hes =22 kWh daily it energy x Number of days = Rate of energy 2.2x 30x 3.50 Rs, 231Basic Electrical Engineering 90 Fundamentals of Electricity: im Example 1.40: A three blade wind mill is used to lift underground water and store it at ground level using a pump. For average wind speeds the value of torque developed is 20 N-m and the speed of this wind mill is 150 1.p.m. Actual head of water is 9 m and pipe Friction is 1 m headloss. The wind mill mechanical efficiency and water pump efficiency are 40 % and 75 % respectively. Calculate the run of this wind mill fo store water quantity of 20 kilo litres at ground level. (May - 2003) Solution : T = 20 N-m, N = 150 np.m. h, = total head = 9 + 1 = 10 m Nim = 40 %,T1pump = 75 %, m= 20 klitre = 20103 litre 2nN _ 20x2nx150 Py = Txo Where => =o 314.1592 W W Pin XTm Example 1.41: Three cells each having em, of 1.6 V and internal resistance 1.1 Q are connected in (i) series and (ii) parallel, to resistance of 2.5. Find in each case, a) Current b) p.d. across the external resistance c} power wasted in the external resistance. Solution : Case i) Series connection "Vor 16V or 18Y rat10 Total emf. = 3 x emf. of each cell Ep=3%16=48V Total resistance of circuit Rp=3r+RBasic Electrical Engineering 1-91 Fundamentals of Electricity = 3x114+25 “ a) T= b) V = pd. across R =I x R = 0.8275 = 2.5 = 2.0689 V 3 P = PR = (0.8275) x 25 = 1.7118 W : Parallel connection In equivalent form, when batteries’ are in parallel, r=140 the total internal resistance is 16V k E 1.6 ae lager” 530.266 7 OSS A R252 Fig. 1.59 b) - WaIx R= 055814 « 25 = 13953 V 3 P=PR = (0.55814)" x 25 = 0.7788 W imp Example 1.42: When a resistance of 2 Q is placed across the terminals of battery, the current is 2 A. When the resistance is increased to 5 Q, the current falls to 1 A. Find em. of battery and its internal resistance. Solution : The two cases are shown in the Fig. 1.60. f R, =22 (2) “o Fig. 1.60 Now l= Pie ie B=2[24¢r]=442r wl) ‘ E and = ie ie, B=1[5+r]=54r +)Baslc Electrical Engineering 1-92 Fundamentals of Electricity Subtracting (2) from (1), OQ = -l+trier=10 and E=6V tum» Example 1.43: A bucket contains 15 - litres of water at 20°C. A 2-kW immersion heater is used to raise the temperature of water to 95 °C. The overall efficiency of the process is 90 %, and the specific heat capacity of water is 4187 J/kg°K. Find the time required for the process. [Dec.-2003] Solution : m = 15 kg, 1 litre = 1 kg of water, C = 4187 J/kg K ty =20 °C, tz =95 C, Pin =2KW, 1=90 % Energy required to heat the water is the output energy. Output energy = mC At=15%4187%(95-20) =4.7103%106 J output _ 4.7103x106 _ = = 6 Input energy = 1 a5 5.2337 10° J p, = -inputin] in Time in sec 6 2x103 = 5:2337%10' time time = 2616.875 sec = 43.614 minutes ius» Example 1.44: AE 0°C, a specimen of copper wire has its resistance equal to 4-milliohm and its temperature coefficient of resistance equal to (1 / 234.5) per °C. Find the values of its resistance and temperature coefficient of resistance at 70 °C. {Dee.-2003] Solution = Ro = 4m 9 = yar eC = oo = Tyaot diz = OL BES) po onszsasec at 70°C 1+5yp5%70 Now R= 1 Rp (109 nea +a37)| =5,194mQ at 70°C ‘a> Example 1.45: An electric pump lifts 12 m3 of water per minute to a height of 15-1. If ils overall efficiency is 60%, find the input power. If the pump is used for 4-hours @ day, find the daily cost of energy at Rs. 2.25 per unit. : [Dec-2003]Basic Electrical Engineering 1-93 Fundamentals of Electricity Solution m = 12 m3 =12x1000 kg as 1 m3 of water = 1000 kg, h = 15 m, 1 =60%, time = 1 minute = 60 sec Energy output = mgh = 12x1000%9.81%15 =1.7658%106 J 6 Energy input = OP TERRI 2294108 Jie. watt-sec time for lifting = 1 minute = 60 sec input 2943x106 _ tae a 49.05 kW For 4 hours, pump consumes Pin x4 = 196.2 kWh Thus total units per day = 196.2 Daily cost 196.2x2.25 = Rs, 441.45 Pin = ‘um> Example 1.46: Az electric pump lifts 60 m> of water per hour to a height of 25 m. The pump efficiency is 82 % and the motor efficiency is 77 %. The pump is used for 3 hours daily. Find the energy consumed per week, if the mass of 1 - nt? of water is 1000 kg. [May-2004] Solution: 1m? = 1000 kg hence m = 60 m> = 60000 kg h= 25m, im =77 %, Np = 82 %, time = 1 hour = 3600 sec P, ieee] —- Sea) he a= O77 y= 082 tag bPor-mon Lifting water Fig. 1.61 Pout = mgh =60000x 9.81% 25=14.715%10° J Pout inJ _ 14.715*106 Pout in watts = a J =—000— 4087.5 W — Pout 4087.5 Pin Aeknp “077x088 * 6473.7092 W Per day 3 hours running hence, Daily consumption = 6473.7092x 3 = 19.421 kWh . Weekly power consumption = 7x19.421 = 135.947 kWh . Weekly energy consumption = 135.947%103 x 3600 = 489.4124x106 JBasic Electrical Engineering 1-94 Fundamentals of Electricity im Example 1.47: A single-core cable has its conductor diameter as 1.5 cm and outer diameter as 3.9 cm. The resistivities of conductor and insulator are 1.73 x 10-8 ohm-m and 8x 1012 ohm-nt respectively. Find, for a cable length of 100 m, its insulation resistance and the resistance of conductor. [May-2004] Solution: D, = 15cm, outer diameter = 3.9 cm, pe =1.73x10°Q m, pi =8x10" Om, f= 100m For conductor, R =2¢! z t. “242 _. and a= FDP =zx(15x107)° =1.767x104 m2 8 R = LiBx10x100 9.7897%10-3 O 1,767x104 «seulat Dy For insulation, R, = =z = 0.75 an Dz -Dy R, = Ry+t Where t= =12cm 2 = 0.75 +12=195 em _ pif Re \_ 8x10 | (1.95 Re a we RE )=Saa00 (O35) = 1,.2165x10%Q iamp Example 1.48 :. Two coils connected in series have resistances of 600 2 and 400 Q with temperature coefficient of 0.1 % and O4 % respectively at 20 °C.. Find the effective temperature coefficient of series combination at 20 °C. When the combination is heated to 50 °C, find the resistance of the series combination. [Dec.-2004] 0.4 Solution : Ry = 600.9, Ry = 4000, a = 01 % = 0 and ay = 04 % = 2% All values given at t; = 20 °C. Let Rj and Rj are resistance values at t; °C Ry = Ry + oy (ty - tpl and Ry = R, [1 + a yt) Atty °C, Ry. = Ry + Ry and at t, °C, Rig = Ri + Rb While Riz = Ry [1 + Oy, (ty - t)] Where 2 = R-T.C. of series combination at t °C RL +R2 = (Ry + Ry) [1 + os (ty - ty)Basic Electrical Engineering 1-95 Fundamentals of Electricity + Ry [1 + oy t - f)] + Ry [1 +o (ty ~ t)] = (Ry + Ry) [1 + Oy (ty - ty)] fa Ryo +Ro@, Simplifying, 02 = RR ... Refer section 1.11.5 0.1 om = OTIS =22x10 9 PC Now Ry = Ry + Ry = 600 + 400 = 1000 2 at ty = 20°C Rig = resistance of series combination at ty = 50 °C = Ryg [1 + og (ty - ty) = 1000 [1 + 22 x 1073 (50 - 20)] = 10662 Note : Alternatively find Rj and R} at 50°C and Rig = Ry + R} i> Example 1.49: The effective head of 100 MW power station is 220 m. Station supplies full load for 12 hours a day. The overall efficiency of power station is 86.4 %. Find the volume of water used. [Dec-2004] Solution : h = 220 m,, Full load output Poy, = 100 MW = 100 x 10° W t = 12 hours, 1 = 86.4%, Poy = 100 x 10° W ie. J/sec «Energy output for full load=P,,, x hours per day = 100 x 10° x 12 = 1200 x 10° Wh 7200 x 10° x 3600 J = 4.32 x 10'7y Energy output _ 4.321012 Hh 0.864 This is potential energy of water mgh. P.E. of water = Input energy supplied mxgxh = 5x10" 5x1012 9.81% 220 But 1 m? of water = 1000 kg Input energy =5x 107] m= = 23167 x 10° kg 2.3167 x10 3 6 3 T000 m” = 2.3167 x 10° m volume of water used = nm Example 1,50: An electric furnace is used to melt aluminium. Initial temperature of the solid “aluminium is 32 °C and its melting point is 680 °C. Specific heat capacity of aluminium is 0.95 Kifkg*K, and the heat required to melt 1 kg of aluminium at its melting point is 450 Kj. If the input power drawn by the furnace is 20 kW and its overail efficiency is 60%, find the mass of aluminium melted per hour. DMay-2005]Basic Electrical Engineering 1-96 Fundamentals of Electricity Solution = t, = 32 °C, t, = 680 °C, C = 0.95 kJ/kg"K, Pig, = 20 KW, 1 = 60% = 0.6 Heat required to melt 1 kg of Al at melting point is 450 kJ is the information related to Latent Heat. Total heat sensible heat + Latent heat =m C At + mL Where L = 450kJ/kg as given “. Total output energy = m [C At + L] = m [0.95 x (680 - 32) + 450] = m « 1.0656 x 10° kJ ... Note both C and L in kJ Pi, = 20 kW and time = 1 hour as mass of Al per hour to be obtained Input energy = P,, x time = 20 x 10° x 3600 = 72 x 10°7 . Output energy = Input x n = 72x 108 x 0.6 = 43.2 x 10° J = 43.2 x 10° kJ Equating with total output energy required, m x 1.0656 x 10? = 43.2 x 10° m = 40,5405 kg aluminium per hour will be melted ‘=> Example 1.51: Show how four cells, each rated 1.5 V, 0.1 A, can be connected as batteries in three different ways to obtain different voltage and current ratings. State the voltage and current ratings of each type. . [May-2005] Solution : The three ways in which cells can be connected are, @ @ 1=2x0.1 £ @@: Vei5x2=3V VE4x1526V 1=2x01=02A 1=0.4 Aas series (c) Sories-parallel (a) Series grouping srouring V=15V 1=4x01=04A (b) Parallel grouping Fig. 1.62Basic Electrical Engineering 1-97 Fundamentals of Electricity im Example 1.52: At 0 °C, the resistances and their temperature coefficients of resistance of two resistors "A and ‘B’ are 80 ohm and 120 ohm, and 0.0038 per °C and 0.0018 per °C, respectively. Find the temperature-coefficient of resistance at 0 °C of their seires combination. [May-2005] Solution : At 0° C, Ry = 80.0, Ry = 120.0, a = 0.0038 /°C, 09 = 0.0018 /°C Refer section 1.115, = Riai+R202 = RFR; «» RTC. of combination at 0 °C _ 80%0,0038+120%0.0018 “2 = —— “304120 =26x 10% 7c ‘=> Example 1.53: In a thermal generating station the heat energy obtained by burning 1 kg of coal is 16,000 kj. Find the mass of coal required to get an output electrical energy of 1kWh from the station, if its overall efficiency is 18 %. [May-2005] Solution : m = 1 kg, Heat energy = 16000 kJ, output = 1 kWh, n = 18 % Calorific value of coal = heat energy /kg = 16000 kJ/kg Total input energy = m x 16000 x 10° J - (1) m = mass of coal burned Output required = 1 kWh = 1x 10° Wh = 1x 10? x 3600 Wesec ie. J . Output inJ _ 1x10 3600 Input required = SSPE = 2x 10°] + Q Equating (1) and (2), m x 16000 x 10? = 20 = 10° m = 125 kg «.. mass of coal required im Example 1.54: Calculate the current required by a 1500 V D.C. locomotive when driving a total load of 100x103 kg at 25 kom per hour up on incline of 1 in 100, Assume tractive resistance of 0.069 Nikg and efficiency of motor's gearing as 70 %. [May-2006]Basic Electrical Engineering 1-98 Fundamentals of Electricity Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.63. 6 — sin 8 W sin ® Track resistance Total resistance Work done speed d work done Pout But Pa i= Example 1.55 : Fig. 1.63 1 tan 6 = 755 = 0.01 Gis very small 100x103 x0.01 = 1000 kg = 9810 N 0.069 N/kg = 0.069% 100x103 = 6900 N 9810 + 6900 = 16710 N Force x distance travelled in 1 sec = 16710xd 25 km/hr 3 2x10" = 6.944 m in 1 sec 16710x 6.944 = 116040.924 J W_ _ 116040.924 _ time =~ ieee > 116040.924 W Pout _ 116040924 _ 165.77274x103 W Tgear 07 vx Pin _ 165.77274x103 _ . v 500 110.5151 A current required A D.C. shunt motor, after running several hours on constant voltage of 400 V, takes field current of 1.6 A. If temperature rise is 40°C, what value of extra resistance is required in field circuit to maintain field current equal to 1.6 A. Assume motor started from cold at 20°C and aq = 0.0043 /°C. [May-2006]Basic Electrical Engineering 1-99 Fundamentals of Electricity Solution : V = 400 V, 1; = 1.6 A, At = 40°C Ty = 20°C a9 = 0.0043 /°C Vv _ 400 Rp = y= 7g = 202 .. Field circuit resistance after 4 hours at tz °C Rz = Ry [1+a, At] where G1 = G29 250 = Ry {1+0.0043x 40] Ry, = 213.3105 2 .» Field circuit resistance at t; °C But I; is to be maintained constant. Vv l= aR 7 té Ri+Ry = “ = 250 Ry = 250 — 213.3105 = 36.6894 O .» Extra resistance required. tim ~Example 1.56 : An immersion heater is used for heating 9 liters of water. Its resistance is 50 ohm and has efficiency of 83.6 %. How much time required to heat water from 20 °C to 70 °C, when connected to 250 V supply. Specific heat capacity of water is 4180 J/kg °K. [Dee.-2005, 6 Marks] Solution :1 liter=1kg, V=250V, t)= 70°C, t, = 20°C. m=9kg,R=500, 1 = 83.6%, C= 4187 J/kg°K Output energy = Energy required to heat the water = mCAt = 9x4187% (70-20) = 188415108 J Output _ 1.88415x10° Input energy = —J— = age = 22537108 J Py, = ve = a = 1250 W fin ny = Mine Time = 1802.96 sec = 30,05 min.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-100 Fundamentals of Electricity | tab Example 1.57 : A single core Cu cable has conductor diameter of 3 cm and insulation thickness of 2 cm. The resistivity of Copper and insulation is 1.73 x 10” ® and 9x10%2 ohm-meter respectively. Determine resistance of conductor and insulator of the cable for 150 meter length. (Dec.-2007] i Solution :p¢ = 1.73 x 10° °Q-m, pj =9 x 10" O-m,! = 150m, For conductor, Dy = diameter = 3.em, Ry = le 15.an 2 = FOP = 7.0685 cm? = 7.0685 x 1074 m’ Ep qD -8. R= Pele 273x107 *150 . 5.6711 x 107.0 7.0685x10~4 For insulation, R, = Ry +t=15+2=35an Pip fRz)_ 9x02 |, 35 R= Sil }- inl Te = 8.091 x 10°72 2nx150 i> Example 1.58 : How Jong it will take to raise the temperature of 880 gm of water from 16 °C to boiling point. The heater takes 2 Amp at 220 V supply and has efficiency of 90 %. [Dec.-2007] Solution : m= 880 gm, At= 100°C -16°C = 84, 1=90%,1=2A,V=2200V For the water, C = 4190 J/kg°K Output Heat required = m C At = (880 x 107) x 4190 x 84 = 309.7248 kJ Heat output _ 309.7248 n “OF Heat input = = 344.1386 kJ power input = VI = 220x2=440W ie. J/s . Heat input But = power input = Tere = 244.1386 x 103 440 = Time required Time required = 782.1333 sec = 13.035 min ‘a> Example 1.59 : A resistance element having cross sectional area of 10 mm” and length 10 meter takes a current of 4 Amp from 220 V supply at temperature of 20 °C. Find (i) the resistivity of the material and (ii) current it will take when temperature rises 60 °C, Assume cq = 0.0003 /C. (May-200:Basic Electrical Engineering 1-101 Fundamentals of Electricity Solution :a = 10 mm? = 10x 10° m2, P= 10m, T=4A, V=220 V, t= 20°C = ¥.%0, i R) = p= +552 aol _ Ria _ 55«10%10-6 But R= > ie pete p = 55x10 °Om «Resistivity ii) th = OC, ay =aat 20°C = 0.0003 /°C Ry = Ry [1 + a (tb - t)] = 55 [1 + 0.0008 (60 - 20)] = 55.66.02 Review Questions PRE NA ew 10. Il. 12, 13. What is charge ? What is the unit of measurement of charge ? Explain the relation between charge and current. |. What is the difference between e.m,f. and potential difference ? What is the resistance ? Which are the various factors affecting the resistance ? Define the resistivity and conductivity of the material, stating their units. Explain the effect of temperature on the resistance of, i) Metals ii) Insulators and iti) Alloys. Define resistance temperature coefficient. Derive its units. Explain the use of R.T.C. in calculating resistance at t °C. Explain the effect of temperature on R.T.C. Write the notes on, i) Mechanical units ii) Electrical units iti) Thermal units ‘An electric kettle is required to heat 10 litres of water from room tenrperature of 20 °C to 100 °C, in 2 minutes, the supply voltage being 200 V dc. If the efficiency of kettle is 90 %, calculate the resistance of the heating element. Assume the specific heat capacity of water 4190 [/kg °K. (Ans. ; 1.2887) Find the rating of a tin-melting furnace in order to melt 50 kg of tin per hour. The melting temperature of tin is 230 *C while its initial temperature is 20 °C. Specific heat of tin is 0.055 kealéag: while its latent heat is 13.31 keallkg. Assume furnace efficiency as 70 %. (Ans. : 2.0645 kW) An electric kettle contains 1.2 kg of water at 20 °C, It takes 20 minutes to raise the temperature of the water to 100 °C. Assuming the heat lost due to radiation and heating the kettle to be 60 kj, (find the current taken by the kettle from the supply of 230 V. Assume specific heat capacity of water to be 4190 J/kg °K. (Ans. +675 A)Basic Electrical Engineering 1-102 Fundamentals of Electricity 18. 21. . The current at the instant of switching a 40 W, 240 V lamp is 2 Amp. The resistance temperature . State the features and application areas of lead acid battery. State the maintenance procedure for lead acid batteries. . How battery capacity is defined ? On which factors it depends ? in. a hydroelectric generating station the difference in level (head) between the water surface and the turbine driving the generators is 425 meters. If 1250 litres of water are require to generate 2kWh of electrical energy, find the over all efficiency. (1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg). (Ans. : 69.079 %) An electric lift makes 120 double journeys in a day and a load of 6 tonne is raised to a height of 160 m in one and half minutes. In the return journey the cage of the lift is empty and it completes the journey in 70 secs. The weight of the cage is 600 kg and the counter weight is 3 tonne. Calculate, h.p rating of motor. Assume the efficiency of the lift as 80 % and that of motor is 88 %. (Ans. : 66 HP.) One tonne of brass is to be melted in an electric furnace. If the charge is to be melted in 45 min, what is the power input to the furnace ? Assume furnace efficiency as 65 % Specific heat of brass is 0,094 calfgm °K, Latent heat of brass is 40 cal/gm, Melting point of brass is 927 °C. Initial temtperature of brass is 25 °C. (Ans. : 297.629 kW) A pump which is gear driven by a d.c. electric motor delivers 1000 kg of water per minute to a tank, 22 m above the level of the pump. if the efficiency of pump is 80% and that of the gearing is 90 % while that of motor is 85 %, what current does the motor take from 400 V supply. (Ans. ; 14.69 A) The field winding of a dic. machine takes a current of 20 Amp. from 240 V d.c. supply at 25 °C. After a run of a 4 hours, the current drops to 15 Amp, supply voltage remaining constant. Determine its temperature rise. (Ans. : 86.5 °C) A coil has resistance of 18 Q at 20 °C and 20 Q at 50 °C. Find its temperature rise when ils resistance is 21 (1 and ambient temperature is 15 °C. (Ans. : 50 °C) coefficient of the filament material is 0.0055: at the room temperature of 20°C. Find the working temperature of lamp. (Ans, : 2020 °C) The resistance of a copper wire is 50 2 at a temperature of 35 °C. If the wire is heated to a temperature of 80 °C. find its resistance at that temperature. Assume the temperature co-efficient of resistance of copper at 0 °C to be 0.00427 PC. Also find the temperature co-efficient at 35 °C. (Ans, : 58.350, 3.712403 /°C) The field winding of a d.c. motor is connected across a 440 V supply. When the room temperature is 17°C, winding current is 2.3 A. After the machine has been running for few hours, the current has fallen to 1.9 A, the voltage remaining unaltered. Calculate the average temperature throughout the winding, assuming ag of copper = 0.00426 PC. (Ans, : 70°C) What is cell and battery ? State and explain the various types of cells. Explain the construction of lead acid battery. Explain first charging, discharging and recharging in case of lead acid battery.Basic Electrical Engineering 1-103 Fundamentals of Electricity What is battery efficiency? In how many ways battery efficiency is expressed 7 |. State and explain what is ampere-hour efficiency and watt-hour efficiency. . Write a note on charge and discharge curves for lead acid battery. With a basic charging circuit, explain the battery charging. Explain the two methods of battery charging. . State the indications for fully charged battery. 35. Explain the construction of NiMH battery. . Slate the'cell reactions of NiMH cell. . State the features of NiMH cell. . Draw and explain the following charactersitics of NiMH batteries, i) Discharge characteristics ii) Self discharge characteristics iii) Charge-voltage characteristics . Slate the safety precautions while using the NiMH batteries. ). What are the applications of NiMH batteries. . Compare Nickel-Cadium and Nickel metal hydride batteries, ogoa - 104)D.C. Circuits 2.1 Introduction In practice, the electrical circuits may consist of one or more sources of energy and number of electrical parameters, connected in different ways. The different electrical parameters or elements are resistors, capacitors and inductors. The combination of such elements alongwith various sources of energy gives rise to complicated electrical circuits, generally referred as networks. The terms circuit and network are used synonymously in the electrical literature. The duc. circuits consist of only resistances and dc. sources of energy. And the circuit analysis means to find a current through or voltage across any branch of the circuit. This chapter incsudes various techniques of analysing d.c. circuits. The chapter explains the basic terminology used in the network analysis and classification of networks. It explains Ohm's law, Kirchhoff's laws and various network simplification techniques such .. series-parallel combinations, star-delta transformation, source transformation etc. These techniques are very basic and useful, which can be further applied to understm 1 various network theorems. The network theorems such as Superposition, Thevenin's, Norton's and Maximum power transfer as applied to d.c. circuits are also included in this chapter. 2.2 Networ’ Terminology In this section, we shall define some of the basic terms which are commonly associated with a network. 2.2.1 Network Any arrangement of the various electrical energy sources along with the different circuit elements is called an electrical network. Such a network is shown in the Fig. 2.1. 2.2.2 Network Element Any individual circuit element with two terminals which can be connected to other circuit element, is called a network element. Network elements can be either active elements or passive elements. Active elements are the elements which supply power or energy to the network. Voltage source and 2-1)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-2 D.C. Circuits current source are the examples of active elements. Passive elements are the elements which either store energy or dissipate energy in the form of heat. Resistor, inductor and capacitor are the three basic passive elements. Inductors and capacitors can store energy and resistors dissipate energy in the form of heat. 2.2.3 Branch A part of the network which connects the various points of the network with one another is called a branch, In the Fig. 2.1, AB, BC, CD, DA, DE, CF and EF are the various branches. A branch may consist more than one element. 2.2.4 Junction Point A point where three or more branches meet is called a junction point. Point D and C are the junction points in the network shown in the Fig. 2.1. 2.2.5 Node A point at which two or more elements are joined together is called node. The junction points are also the nodes of the network. In the network shown in the Fig. 2.1, A, B, C, D, E and F are the nodes of the network. 2.2.6 Mesh (or Loop) Mesh {or Loop) is a sct of branches forming a closed path in a network in such a way that if one branch is removed then remaining branches do not form a closed path. A loop also can be defined as a closed path which originates from a particular node, terminating at the same node, travelling through various other nodes, without travelling through any node twice. In the Fig. 21 paths A-B-C-D-A, A-B-C-F-E-D-A, D-C-F-E-D etc. are the loops of the network. In this chapter, the analysis of dc. circuits consisting of pure resistors and d.c. sources is included. Fig, 2,4 An electrical network 2.3 Classification of Electrical Networks The behaviour of the entire network depends on the behaviour and characteristics of its elements. Based on stich characteristics electrical network can be classified as below : i) Linear Network : A circuit or network whose parameters i.c. elements like resistances, inductances and. capacitances are always constant irrespective of the change in time, voltage, temperature etc. is known as linear network. The Ohm's law can be applied to such network. The mathematical equations of such network can be obtained by using theBasic Electrical Engineering 2-3 D.C. Circuits law of superposition. The response of the various network elements is linear with respect to the excitation applied to them. ii) Non linear Network : A circuit whose parameters change their values with change in time, temperature, voltage etc. is known as non linear network . The Ohm's law may not be applied to such network. Such network does not follow the law of superposition. The response of the various elements is not linear with respect to their excitation. The best example is a circuit consisting of a diode where diode current does not vary linearly with the voltage applied to it. lil) Bilateral Network : A circuit whose characteristics, behaviour is same irrespective of the direction of current through various elements of it, is called bilateral network. Network consisting only resistances is good example of bilateral network. iv) Unilateral Network : A circuit whose operation, behaviour is dependent on the direction of the current through various elements is called unilateral network. Circuit consisting diodes, which allows flow of current only in one direction is good example of ‘unilateral circuit. ¥) Active Network : A circuit which contains at least one source of energy is called active. An energy source may be a voltage or current source. vi) Passive Network : A circuit which contains no energy source is called passive circuit. This is shown in the Fig, 2.2. R, Ry Ry No energy My Ry Oh Re (a) Active network {b) Passive network Fig. 2.2 vii) Lumped Network : A network in which all the network elements are physically separable is known as lumped network. Most of the electric networks are lumped in nature, which consists elements like R, L, C, voltage source etc. vill) Distributed Network : A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance etc. cannot be physically separable for analysis purposes, is called distributed network. The best example of such a network is a transmission line.where resistance, inductance and. capacitance of a transmission line are distributed all along its length and cannot be shown as a separate elements, any where in the circuit.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-4 D.C. Circuits The classification of networks can be shown as, Electrical circuits or networks @ @ @ @ Active Passive Linear Nonlinear Unilateral Bilateral + Lumped Distributed Fig. 2.3 Classification of networks 2.4 Energy Sources There are basically two types of energy sources ; voltage source and current source. These are classified as i) Ideal source and ii) Practical source. Let us see the difference between ideal and practical sources. 2.4.1 Voltage Source Ideal voltage source is defined as the energy source which gives constant voltage across its terminals irrespective of the current drawn through its terminals. The symbol for ideal voltage source is shown in the Fig. 2.4 (a). This is connected to the load as shown in Fig. 2.4 (b). At any time the value of voltage at load terminals remains same. This is indicated by V- I characteristics shown in the Fig. 2.4 (c). (a) Symbol (b) Circuit {c) Characteristics Fig. 2.4 Ideal voltage source Practical voltage source : But practically, every voltage source has small internal resistance shown in series with voltage source and is represented by Rs- as shown in the Fig. 2.5. Internal resistance Ree ° e Practical {a} Circuit (b) Characteristics Fig. 2.5 Practical voltage sourceBasic Electrical Engineering 2-5 D.C. Circuits Because of the Rye, voltage across terminals decreases slightly with increase in current and it is given by expression, ME = — Ree) I, + 5 = Vg~T Re Voltage sources are further classified as follows, )) Time Invariant Sources : The sources in which voltage is not + varying with time are known as time v v= invariant voltage sources or D.C. TL. sources. These are denoted by capital letters. Such a source is represented in Fig. 2.6 (a) D.C. source the Pig. 26 fo). Ii) Time Variant Sources : The sources in which voltage is vi) varying with time are known as time variant voltage sources or A.C. sources. These denoted ll letters. This Fig. 2.6 (b) A. C. source is chown in the Me 26). 2.4.2 Current Source Ideal current source is the source which gives constant current at its terminals irrespective of the voltage appearing across its terminals. The symbol for ideal current source is shown in the Fig. 2.7 (a). This is connected to the load as shown in the Fig. 2.7 (b). At any time, the value of the current flowing through load I, is same ic. is irrespective of voltage appearing across its terminals. This is explained by V-I characteristics shown in the Fig. 2.7 (c). I A ° + =i, ] ly I, Load | yu ° - 0 ML (a) Symbol {b) Circuit (c) Charactoristics Fig. 2.7 Ideal current source But practically, every current source has high internal resistance, shown in parallel with current source and it is represented by Ry,. This is shown in the Fig. 2.8,Basic Electrical Engineering 2-6 D.C. Circuits Intemal resistance L Ideal 1 . Practical ° 0 M (a) Circuit (b) Characteristic Fig. 2.8 Practical current source Because of Rgy, current through its terminals decreases slightly with increase in voltage at its terminals Similar to voltage sources, current sources are classified as follows : i) Time Invariant Sources : The sources in which current is not varying with time are known as time invarient current ' sources or D.C. sources. These are denoted by capital letters. Fig. 2.9 (a) D. C. source Such a current source is represented in the Fig. 2.9 (a). ii) Time Variant Sources : ‘The sources in which current is varying with time are known as time variant current sources or A.C. sources. These are denoted by small letters. Such a source is represented in the Fig. 2.9 (b). The sources which are discussed above are independent sources because these sources does in not depend on other voltages or currents in the network for their value. These are represented by a circle with a polarity of voltage or direction of Fig. 2.9 (b) A. C. source current indicated inside 2.4.3 Dependent Sources Dependent sources are those whose value of source depends on voltage or current in the circuit. Such sources are indicated by diamond as shown in the Fig. 2.10 and further classified as, i) Voltage Dependent Voltage Source : It produces a voltage as a function of voltages elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called VDVS. It is shown in the Fig. 2.10 (a).Basic Electrical Engineering 2-T D.C. Circuits Hl) Current Dependent Current Source : It produces a current as a function of currents elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called CDCS. It is shown in the Fig. 2.10 (b). lil) Current Dependent Voltage Source : It produces a voltage as a function of current elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called CDVS. It is shown in the Fig. 2.10 (c). iv) Voltage Dependent Current Source : It produces a current as a function of voltage elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called VDCS. It is shown in the Fig. 2.10 (d). op on oh "Fig. 2.10 K is constant and ¥; and I, are the voltage and current respectively, present elsewhere in the given circuit. The dependent sources are also known as controlled sources. In this chapter, d.c. circuits consisting of independent d.c. voltage and current sources are analysed. 2.5 Ohm's Law This law gives relationship between the potential difference (V), the current (I) and the resistance (R) of a d.c. circuit. Dr. Ohm in 1827 discovered a law called Ohm's Law. It states, Ohm's Law: The current flowing through the electric circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference across the circuit and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided the temperature remains constant, Mathematically, R + - Where I is the current flowing in amperes, the V is QS _ the voltage applied and R is the resistance of the Vv conductor, as shown in the Fig.-2.11. Fig. 2.11 Ohm's law v Now l=¢ The unit of potential difference is defined in such a way that the constant of proportionality is unity.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-8 D.C. Circuits The Ohm's law can be defined as, The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points of a conductor to the current (I) flowing between them is constant, provided that the temperature of the 2.5.1 Limitations of Ohm's Law The limitations of the Ohm's law are, 1) It is not applicable to the nonlinear devices such as diodes, zener diodes, voltage regulators etc. 2) It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as silicon carbide. The law for such conductors is given by, v= kiI™_ where k, m are constants. 2.6 Series Circuit A series circuit is one in which several resistances are connécted one after the other. Such connection is also called end to end connection or cascade connection. There is only one path for the flow of current. ‘Consider the resistances shown in the Fig. 2.12. The resistance Ry, Ro and R, are ‘said to be in series. The combination is connected across a source of voltage V volts. Naturally the current flowing through all of them is same indicated as I amperes. e.g. the chain of small lights, used for the decoration Fig. 2.12 A series circult purposes is good example of series combination. Now let us study the voltage distribution. Let V;,V2 and V3 be the voltages across the terminals of resistances R,, R2 and Ry respectively Then, Vo = WitV2 + V3 ‘Now according to Ohm's law, Vi Current through all of them is same ie. I IR, , V2 =IR2, V3=1R3Basic Electrical Engineering 2-9 D.C. Circuits a V = IR) +1 Rz+IR3 =1(R, +R2+R3) Applying Ohm's law to overall circuit, V =I Req where Req= Equivalent resistance of the circuit. By comparison of two equations, Req = Ry+Rz+R3 ie. total or equivalent resistance of the series circuit is arithmetic sum of the resistances connected in series. R = Ry +Ry+R3+ 2.6.1 Characteristics of Series Circuits 1) The same current flows through each resistance. 2) The supply voltage V is the sum of the individual voltage drops across the resistances. Vio= VytVo tun. + Va 3) The equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. 4) The equivalent resistance is the largest of all the individual resistances. ie R > R,, R>Ry, ....R>Rn 2.7 Parallel Circuit The parallel. circuit is one in which several resistances are connected across one another in such a way that one terminal of each is connected to form a junction point while the remaining ends are also joined to form another junction point. Consider a parallel circuit shown in the Fig. 2.13. In the parallel connection shown, the three resistances R, ,Rz and Ry are connected in parallel and combination is connected across a source of voltage “V '. In parallel circuit current passing through each resistance is different. Let total current drawn is say ‘I' as shown. There are 3 paths for this current, one through. R,, second through R2 and third through R3. Depending upon the values of Rj ,R2 and R; the appropriate fraction of total current passes through them. These individual currents are shown as I; ,lz and I3. While the voltage across the two ends of each resistances Ry, Rz and Rg is the same and equals the supply voltage V. Now let us study current distribution. Apply Ohm's law to each resistance. Vi=1,R1, V=InR2, V= I3R3 Fig. 2.13 A parallel circuitBasic Electrical Engineering 2-10 D.C. Circuits Vv v Vv. Is Ri’ beg: I= ay ViVJV IT = yptlg +13 = ith Rs 1 1 1 =v fete te () For overall circuit if Ohms law is applied, V = 1Reg Vv and l= -- Req where Req = Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit ‘Conductance (G) : It is known that, 7 = G (conductance) hence, sor pl dea Important result : Now if n = 2, two resistances are in parallel then, R ~ Ri *Ra This formula is directly used hereafter, for two resistances in parallel. 2.7.4 Characteristics of Parallel Circuits 1) The same potential difference gets across all the resistances in parallel. 2) The total current gets divided into the number of paths equal to the number of resistances in parallel. The total current is always sum of all the individual currents.Basic Electrical Engineering D.C. Circuits T= Uytlytlyt.tly 3) The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a paralle! circuit is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistances. 4) The equivalent resistance is the smallest of all the resistances. R< Rj, R Ry, Req ® Re oq? Rp The equivalent resistance is the smaller than the smallest of all the resistances in parallel,Basic Electrical Engineering 2-12 D.C. Circuits ‘> Example 2.1: Find the equivalent resistance between the two points A and B shown in the Fig. 2.14, 30 Fig. 2.14 Solution : Identify combinations of series and parallel resistances. The resistances 5 2 and 6 9 are in series, as going to carry same current. So equivalent resistance is 5 + 6 = 112 While the resistances 392 , 4 0, and 4 © are in parallel, as voltage across them same but current divides. +, Equivalent resistance is, k = Syd = 2 Re 2 #129 ee on et Parallel a2 8 Parallel Fig. 2.14 (a) Fig. 2.14 (b) Replacing these combinations redraw the figure as shown in the Fig. 2.14 (a). Now again 1.2 9 and 2 Q are in series so equivalent resistance is 2 + 1.2 = 3.2 Q while 11.2 and 79 are in parallel. , R, Rz . y, Mx? 77 Using formula Rt equivalent resistance is jh * is 4.2772. Replacing the respective combinations redraw the circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.14 (b). Now 3.2 and 4.277 are in parallel. . 3.2x4.277 Replacing them by 357555 = (1.83042 Rap = 1+ 1.8304 = 2.8304 QBasic Electrical Engineering 2-13 D.C. Circuits 2.9 Short and Open Circuits In the network simplification, short circuit or open circuit existing in the nework plays an important role. 2.9.1 Short Circuit When any two points in a network are joined directly to each other with a thick metalic conducting wire, the two points are said to be short circuited. The resistance of such short circuit is zero. RSESS The part of the network, which is short circuited is shown in the Fig. 2.15. The points A and B are short circuited. The resistance of the branch AB is R, =02. The curent I,g is flowing through Fig. 2.15 the short circuited path. According to Ohm's law, Ree * Tap aay though current flows vi ae 2.9.2 Open Circuit When there is no connection between the two points of a network, having some voltage across the two points then the two points are said to be open circuited. As there is no direct connection in an open circuit, the resistance of the open circuit is <. The part of the network which is open circuited is shown in the Fig. 2.16. The points A and B are said to be open circuited. The resistance of the branch AB is Roc ="Q. There exists a voltage across the points AB called open circuit voltage, Vag but Roc = 2. According to Ohm's law,Basic Electrical Engineering 2-14 D.C. Circults 2.9.3 Redundant Branches and Combinations The redundant means excessive and unwanted. The redundant branches and combinations can be removed and these branches do not affect the performance of the circuit. The two important situations of redundancy which may exist in practical circuits are, Situation 1: Any branch or combination across which there exists a short circuit, becomes redundant as it does not carry any current. If in a network, there exists a direct short circuit across a resistance or the combination of resistances then that resistance or the entire combination of resistances becomes inactive from the circuit point of view. Such a combination is redundant from circuit point of view. To understand this, consider the combination of resistances and a short circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.17 (a) and (b). No current () (b) Fig. 2.17 Redundant branches In Fig. 2.17 (a), there is short circuit across R;. The current always prefers low resistance path hence entire current I passes through short circuit and hence resistance R, . becomes redundant from the circuit point of view. In Fig. 2.17 (b), there is short circuit across combination of R3 and Ry. The entire current flows through short circuit across R, and Ry and no current can flow through combination of R, and Ry. Thus that combination becomes meaningless from the circuit point of view. Such combinations can be elliminated while analysing the circuit. Situation 2: If there is open circuit in a branch or combination, it can not carry any current and becomes redundant. In Fig. 2.18 as: there exists open circuit in branch BC, the branch BC and CD can not carry any current and are become redundant from circuit point of view.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-15 D.C. Circuits Fig. 2.18 Redundant branches due to open circuit 2.10 Voltage Division in Series Circuit of Resistors Consider a series circuit of two resistors Ry, 1 Ry Re and R2 connected to source of V volts. As two resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through both the resistors is vi same, ie. I. Then applying KVL, we get, V=IR, +IR2 . Vv Fig. 2.19 ole Total voltage applied is equal to the sum of voltage drops Vg and V2 across R; and Rg respectively. Va = Ri = v . R, es Rit+R2 2 |v Similarly, Van = [.Ro Vv Rz Vee * moe [Re] So this circuit is a voltage divider circuit.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-16 D.C. Circuits, / ‘ua Example 2.2 : Find the voltage across the three resistances shown in the Fig. 2.20. Ry Ra Ry 102 202 wa co. ¢) 60V Fig. 2.20 Vv Solution : I= RypFRp aR .. Series circuit = oO = ~ 0+204+30 ~ __VxRy ~ RY +R2+R3 1A Ve, = IR =1x10 =10V VxR2 = Bek, +R 71%? =20V Veg = IR2 _ _ ¥XR3 ~ Ryp+R2+R3 and Ves = IR3 =1x30 =30V 2.11 Current Division in Parallel Circuit of Resistors Consider a parallel circuit of two resistors Rj iy and R2 connected across a source of V volts. Ip Current through Ry is 1; and R2 is Ip, while total current drawn from source is I. Ip = 4h Vv v But = gr = Ry Fig. 2.21 R. Leh (ie) Substituting value of I; in [y, ie. Ve R)= bb RoBasic Electrical Engineering 2-17 D.C. Circuits iy W o as az ee, + o w or = ale + ey = a+ zt ie ls h i> Example 2.3: Find the magnitudes of total current, current through Ry and R> if, Ri= 102, Rr= 20 Q,and V=50V. Fig. 2.22 Solution : The equivalent resistance of two is, Ri Rp _ 10x20 Req = Wy +Rz ” 10+20 Tide Ry eer 7 754 = 6.672 6.67 As per the current distribution in parallel circuit, - Rp Ee 20 hs wag; +R ). 75*( arm) 5ABasic Electrical Engineering D.C. Circuits and ly = Ri ics = 25 A It can be verified that Ip = 1; +1; 2.12 Source Transformation Consider a practical voltage source shown in the Fig. 2.23 (a) having internal resistance Rse, connected to the load having resistance R,. Now we can replace voltage source by equivalent current source. Fig. 2.23 (a) Voltage source Key. Point: ‘ The. two sources are said to be equivalent, if © current to the load, with saine load connected across its ter The current delivered in above case by voltage source is, Vv = —— Rese and R, in seri ol eR)’ se and R, in series (1) If it is to be replaced by a current source then load current must be (Ree #Ri) a 7 L Consider an equivalent current source shown in the Fig. 2.23 (b). The total current is 'T. Fig. 2.23 (b) Current source Both the resistances will take current proportional to their values. From the current division in parallel circuit we can write, Ray Lek ——_— ad . (Ren +R) a Now this I, and —<—Y__ must be same, so equating (1) and (2), Ree +Ry Vi | KR RetRL Ray +Ry Let internal resistance be, Rse= Ra = R say.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-19 D.C, Circuits Then, V = IxRy = xR Vv cs Te The direction of current of equivalent current source is always from -ve to + ve, internal to the source. While converting current source to voltage source, polarities of voltage is always as +ve terminal at top of arrow and —ve terminal at bottom of arrow, as direction of current is from -ve to +ve, internal to the source. This ensures that current flows from positive to negative terminal in the external circuit. Note the directions of transformed sources, shown in the Fig. 2.23 (a), (b), (c) and (d). Fae Rae , L be , Dg Fig. 2.24 (a) = = Fig 224 (b) T= wvihy—s 1 ~ = ¢ Ry =v Fig. 2.24 (c) V=1xRsh Fig. 2.24 (d) V =IxRen => Example 2.4: Transform a voltage source of 20 volts with an internal resistance of 5 Q to a current source. Solution: Refer to the Fig. 2.25 (a).Basic Electrical Engineering 2-20 D.C. Circuits’ ok Fig. 2.25 (a) Fig. 2.25 (b) Vv Then current of current source is, I= g& = 2 = 4 A with internal parallel resistance same as Rye. , Equivalent current source is as shown in the Fig. 2.24 (b). im» Example 2.5: Convert the given current source of 50 A with internal resistance of 10 Q. to the equivalent voltage source. A 50 Al 10a B Fig. 2.26 Solution | The given values are, 1 = 50 A and Ry, = 109 For the equivalent voltage source, wondr,, Vs IXRgy = 50x 10 = 500 V soov(T Vv Ree = Rey = 100 in series. The equivalent voltage source is shown in the Fig. 2.26 (a) Fig. 2.26 (a). Note the polarities of voltage source, which are such that + ve at top of arrow and — ve at bottom. 2.13 Combinations of Sources In a network consisting of many sources, series and parallel combinations of sources exist. If such combinations are replaced by the equivalent source then the network simplification becomes much more easy. Let us consider such series and parallel ‘combinations of energy sources.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-21 D.C. Circuits 2.13.1 Voltage Sources in Series If two voltage sources are in series then the equivalent is dependent on the polarities of the two sources. Consider the two sources as shown in the Fig. 227. “() Mi VyAV> = VV Va an) Fig. 2.27 ifthe plies ofthe to seus ce same then the autre single source i the addition of the two sources with polarities same as that of the two sources. Consider the two sources as shown in the Fig. 2.28. us v. 2 = = e ® ° Fig. 2.28 Thus if the polite of the two sources are different then ne rivaled single source is the difference between the two voltage sources. The polarities of such source is same as that of the greater of the two sources. The technique can be used to reduce the series combination of more than two voltage sources connected in series. 2.13.2 Voltage Sources in Parallel Consider the two voltage sources in parallel ° as shown in the Fig. 2.29. The equivalent single source has a value v,(+) V2(*) = VE Ve same as V, and V2. It must be noted that at the terminals open circuit voltage provided by each source must be equal as the sources are in parallel. Fig. 2.29Basic Electrical Engineering 2-22 D.C. Circuits. 2.13.3 Current Sources in Series Consider the two current sources in series as shown in the Fig. 2.30. \ The equivalent single source has a value same = heh : ie I L : Fig. 2.30 2.13.4 Current Sources in Parallel Consider the two current sources in parallel as shown in the Fig. 231. oo " be bb " be (a) (by Fig. 2.31 Thus if the directions of the curents of the sources connected in parallel are same then the equivalent single source is the addition of the two sources with direction same as that of the two sources. Consider the two current sources with opposite directions connected in parallel as shown in the Fig. 2.32. 4 vy = Iy-lg hy k ES el, (21) (Ip>h) (a) ) Fig. 2.32 ‘Thus if the directions of the two sources are different then the equivalent single source ‘has a direction same as greater of the two sources with a value equal to the differenceBasic Electrical Engineering 2-23 D.C. Circuits 2.14 Kirchhoffs Laws In 1847, a German Physicist, Kirchhoff, formulated two fundamental laws of electricity. These laws are of tremendous importance from network simplification point of view. 2.14.1 Kirchhoff's Currant Law (KCL) Consider a junction point in a complex network as shown in the Fig. 2.33. At this junction point if 1;= 2A, Iz = 4A and 13 = 1A then to determine I, we write, total current entering is 2+4= 6A while total current leaving is 1+ I, A Fig. 2.33 Junction point And hence, Iy =5 A. This analysis of currents entering and leaving is nothing ‘but the application of Kirchhoff's Current Law. The law can be stated as, The total current flowing towards a junction point is equal to the total current flowing away from that junction point. Another way to state the law is, The algebraic sum of all the current meeting at a junction point is always zero. The word algebraic means considering the signs of various currents. rents fl ing towards a ts flowing away from a junction pr e.g. Refer to Fig. 2.33, currents 1) and I are positive while 13 and Iyare negative. Applying KCL, Vi at junction O = 0 Iyp4lyz-Ig-Iy = Oke 1y +z =13 +14 The law is very helpful in network simplification. 2.14.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) “In any network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops across the circuit elements of any closed path (or loop or mesh) is equal to the algebraic sum of the emf s in the path” In other words, "the algebraic sum of all the branch voltages, around any closed path cr closed loop is always zero." Around a closed path } V=0Basic Electrical Engineering 2-24 . D.C. Circuits The law states that if one starts at a certain point of a closed path and goes on tracing and noting all the potential changes (either drops or rises), in any one particular direction, till the starting point is reached again, he must be at the same potential with which he started tracing a closed path. Sum of all the potential rises must be equal to sum of all the potential drops while tracing any closed path of the circuit. The total change in potential along a closed path is always zero. This law is very useful in loop analysis of the network. 2.14.3 Sign Conventions to be Followed while Applying KVL When current flows through a resistance, the voltage drop occurs across the resistance. The polarity of this voltage drop always depends on direction of the current. The current always flows from higher potential to lower potential. R R Ao—\AM 8 A o— WW 8 —_—! i— ta) Fig. 2.34 (by In the Fig. 2.34 (a), current I is flowing from right to left, hence point B is at higher potential than point A, as shown. In the Fig. 2.34 (b), current I is flowing from left to right, hence point A is at higher potential than point B, as shown. Once all such polarities are marked in the given circuit, we can apply KVL to any closed path in the circuit. Now while tracing a closed path, if we go from - ve marked terminal to + ve marked. terminal, that voltage must be taken as positive. This is called potential rise. For example, if the branch AB is traced from A to B then the drop across it must be considered as rise and must be taken as + IR while writing the equations. While tracing a closed path, if we go from +ve marked terminal to - ve marked terminal, that voltage must be taken as negative. This is called potential drop. For example, in the Fig: 2.34 (a) only, if the branch is traced from B to A then it should be taken as negative, as - IR while writing the equations. Similarly in the Fig. 2.34 (b), if branch is traced from A to B then there is a voltage drop and term must be written negative as — IR while writing the equation. If the branch is traced from B to A, it becomes a rise in voltage and term must be written positive as + IR while writing the equation.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-25 D.C, Circuits ons 2.14.4 Application of KVL to a Closed Path Consider a closed path of a complex network with various branch currents assumed as shown in the Fig. 2.35 (a). As the loop is assumed to be a part of complex network, the branch currents are assumed to be different from each other. Due to these currents the various voltage drops taken place across various resistances are marked as shown in the Fig. 2.35 (b). Fig. 2.35 (a), (b) Closed loop of a complex network The polarity of voltage drop along the current direction is to be marked as positive (+) to negative (-). Let us trace this closed path in clockwise direction ie. A-B-C-D-A, Across R; there is voltage drop 1, Ry and as getting traced from +ve to -ve, it is drop and must be taken as negative while applying KVL. Battery E; is getting traced from negative to positive Le. it is a rise hence must be considered as positive.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-26 D.C. Circults Across Rz there is a voltage drop Iz Rz and as getting traced from +ve to -ve, it is drop and must be taken negative. Across R3 there is a drop 13 R3 and as getting traced from +ve to —ve, it is drop and must be taken as negative. Across Ry there is drop ly Ry and as getting traced from +ve to -ve, it is drop must be taken as negative. Battery E, is getting traced from —ve to +ve, it is rise and must be taken as positive. -. We can write an equation by using KVL around this closed path as, Ay Ry +Ey—Ip Ry -I3 Rg -Iq Ry +Ep= 0 «. Required KVL equation ie. E, +E2 =1, Ry +1,R2 +19R3 +1gRg lf we trace the closed loop in opposite direction i.e. along A-D-C-B-A and follow the same sign convention, the resulting equation will be same as what we have obtained above. The same sign convention is followed in this book to solve the problems. 2.14.5 Steps to Apply Kirchhoff's Laws to Get Network Equations The steps are stated based on the branch current method. Step 1: Draw the circuit diagram from the given information and insert all the values of sources with appropriate polarities and all the resistances. Step 2: Mark all the branch curretns with some assumed directions using KCL at various nodes and junction points. Kept the number of unknown currents minimum as far as possible to limit the mathematical calculations required to solve them later on. Assumed directions may be wrong, in such case answer of such current will be mathematically negative which indicates the correct direction of the current. A particular current leaving a particular source has some magnitude, then same magnitude of current should enter that source after travelling through various branches of the network. Step 3: Mark all the polarities of voltage drops and rises as per directions of the assumed branch currents flowing through various branch resistances of the network. This is necessary for application of KVL to various closed loops. Step 4: Apply KVL to different closed paths in the network and obtain the corresponding equations. Each equation must contain some element which is not considered in any previous equation. ‘Key Point: KVL must be applied’ to sufficient number of loops Blan that cack i kis included at deast once in any | of the equations.Basic Electrical Engineering Step 5: Solve the simultaneous equations for 2-27 D.C. Circuits the unknown currents. From these currents unknown voltages and power consumption in different resistances can be calculated. What to Ho, if corset source exists 7 d SA (5-1) Fig. 2.36 2.15 Cramer's Rule i there is current source in ff ion. “considering the current source. But while applying KVL, the loops could not be considered involving ‘current source, The loop eqrations must eee which do not pene any current source, This is sehbork Hier ‘complete the pices For example, consider the circuit shown in the Fig 2.36. The current distribution is completed interms of current source value. Then KVL must be applied to the loop bedeb, which does not include current source. The loop abefa should not be used for KVL application, as it includes current source. Its effect is already considered at the time of current distribution. If the network is complex, the number of equations ic. unknowns increases. In such case, the solution of simultaneous equations can be obtained by Cramer's Rule for’ determinants. Let us assume that set of simultaneous equations obtained is, as follows : ayy xy + 8y2X2+ eee + ln XD 821 X} +87 X94 ssn + AQ Xn Ant Xp + An? R24 covers a Cy =D where C,C2... .Cq are constants. Then Cramer's rule says that form a system determinant A or D as, i 912 ++ Ain re M82 + 82m ml @p2 ++ @nn Then obtain the subdeterminants Djby replacing j column of 4 by the column of constants existing on right hand side of equations ie. C),C2,... CasBasic Electrical Engineering 2-28 D.C. Circuits Cy apg we Ady ay ain D, = C2 4220. Aan Dp= fa Caw. Ang Ca ane , tar Ca Ban} um 412 and D, = P2822 nl 82 «Cn The unknowns of the equations are given by Cramer's rule as, where D,, Dz,..., Dx and D are values of the respective determinants. => Example 2.6: Apply Kirchhoff's current law and voltage law to the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.37. Indicate the various branch currents. 150 30 Write down the equations relating the various branch currents. Solve these equations to find the values of these currents. Is the sign of any of the calculated currents negative ? If yes, explain the significance of the negative sign. Solution : Application of Kirchhoff's law : Step 1 and 2: Draw the circuit with all the values which are same as the given network. Mark all the branch currents starting from +ve.of any of the source, say +ve of 50 V ‘source. Step 3: Mark all the polarities for different voltages across the resistances. This is combined with step 2 shown in the network below in Fig. 2.37 (a). 12 1, g h-k 300 Fig. 2.37 h-k Fig. 2.37 (a)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-29 D.C. Circuits Step 4: Apply KVL to different loops. Loop 1: A-B-E-F-A, ~ 15 I, - 20 1, + 50 = 0 ) Loop 2: B-C-D-E-D, ~ 30 (1, - ly) - 100 + 20) = 0 ves (2) Rewriting all the equations, taking constants on one side. 5 +20h= 50 0) and - 301, + 501, = 100 8) 15 20 Apply Cramer's rule, De= 30 50 = 1350 . 50 20 Calculating D,, Dy = |i9 sol" 500 = a. = 037A 1 Calculating D,, Dp = | 20 a = 3000 " D2 _ 3000 h= Sis = 222A For I, and I,, as answer is positive, assumed direction is correct. +. For I, anstver is 0.37 A. For I, answer is 2.22 A I)-l = 037-222=-185A Negative sign indicates assumed direction is wrong. ie. 1-1, = 1.85 A flowing in opposite direction to that of the assumed direction. 2.16 Star and Delta Connection of Resistances In the complicated networks involving large number of resistances, Kirchhoff's laws give us complex set of simultaneous equations. It is time consuming to solve such set of simultaneous equations involving large number of unknowns. In such a case application of ‘Star-Delta or Delta-Star transformation, considerably reduces the complexity of the network and brings the network into a very simple form. This reduces the number of unknowns and hence network can be analysed very quickly for the required result. These transformations allow us to replace three star connected resistances of the network, by equivalent delta connected resistances, without affecting currents in other branches and vice-versa,Basic Electrical Engineering 2-30 D.C, Circuits Let us see what is Star connection 7 If the three resistances are connected in such a manner that one end of each is connected together to form a junction point called Star point, the resistances are said to be connected in Star. . ‘The Fig. 2.38 (a) and (b) show star connected resistances. The star point is indicated as S. Both the connections Fig. 2.38 (a) and (b) are exactly identical. The Fig. 2.38 (b) can be redrawn as Fig. 2.38 (a) or vice-versa, in the circuit from simplification point of view. Ry Ry Ry s (by () Fig. 2.38 Star connection of three resistances: Let us see what is delta connection 7 If the three resistances are connected in such a manner that one end of the first is connected to first end of second, the second end of second to first end of third and so on to complete a loop then the resistances are said to be connected in Delta. The Fig. 239 (a) and (b) show delta connection of three resistances. The Fig. 2.39 (a) and (b) are exactly identical. R, Ry Ar $E CE Ry ra Ry (0) (a) Fig. 2.39 Delta connection of three resistances te)Basic Electrical Engineering 2.0 D.C. Circuits 2.16.1 Delta-Star Transformation Consider the three resistances Rj2,R23,R31 connected in Delta as shown in the Fig.240. The terminals between which these are connected in Delta are named. R, . Pax ee as 1, 2 and 3. Now it is always possible to 3 H 2 replace these Delta connected resistances by three equivalent Given Delta Fig. 2.40 Equivalent Star star connected _resistances Ry.R2,R3 between the same terminals 1, 2, and 3. Such a Star is shown inside the Delta in the Fig. 2.40 which is called equivalent Star of Dsith cannected resistances. Let us analyse Delta connection first, shown in the Fig. 2.40 (a). Parallel 1 1 mA sz ty J Ry Ra 2 Ruz 3 w., Raa Ras 3 2 (a) Given Delta Fig. 2.40 (b) Equivalent between 1 and 2 Now consider the terminals (1) and (2). Let us find equivalent resistance between (1) and (2). We can redraw the network as viewed from the terminals (1) and (2), without considering terminal (3). This is shown in the Fig. 2.40(b). Now terminal ‘3' we are not considering, so between terminals (1) and (2) we get the combination as, Ry parallel with (R3; +Rz3) as R3, and Ra; are in series. «. Between (1) and (2) the resistance is, Riz (R31 +R) Riz +(Rai +R) . Ry Rp aoe [using RtRy for parallel combination] Now consider the same two terminals of equivalent Star connection shown in the Fig. 2.41. ' ---(a)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-32 D.C. Circuits 1 Ry Re 2 3 Fig. 2.41 Star connection . Fig. 2.42 Equivalent between 1 and 2 Now as viewed from terminals (1) and (2)-we can see that terminal (3) is not getting connected anywhere and hence is not playing any role in deciding the resistance as viewed from terminals (1) and (2). And hence we can redraw the network as viewed through the terminals (1) and (2) as . shown in the Fig. 2.42. -.Between (1) and (2) the resistance is = Ry +Rz wes (B) This is because, two of them found to be in series across the terminals 1 and 2 while 3 found to be open. . Now to call this Star as equivalent of given Delta it is necessary that the resistances calculated between terminals (1) and (2) in both the cases should be equal and hence equating equations (a) and (b), Riz (Rai +R) = Ri+R . vel Raz +(Ra3 +Ra) uo @ Similarly if we find the equivalent resistance as viewed through terminals (2) and (3) in both the cases and equating, we get, Ras (Rai +Bia) = R2+R «.(d) Ry +(Ras +Rai) _ ) Similarly if we find the equivalent resistance as viewed through terminals (3) and (1) in both the cases and equating, we get, Rai (Riz +Ras) = R3+RK we (e) Ri +(Ra +R) _ ©) Now we are interested in calculating what are the values of Rj,R2,R3 interms of known values Rj2,R23, and R3}. Subtracting (d) from (c), Ri2(Rai +Ra3)- Ras (Rai +Riz) _ Ry +R2=Rz-R3 {Riz +R +Ra)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-33 D.C. Circuits Riz Ri —Roa Rar AIcks Ryo + R33 +R3i © lf Adding (f} and (e), Rig Rai -Ras Rai +Rai(Riz +Ra3) Rio +Ra3 +R31 Riz Rai -Ros Rai +Rai Rig + Rai Ros Riz +Ro3 + R31 = Ry+R3+R)-R3 = 2Ri 2Ri2 Ra Ry +Ra +R3, Similarly by using another combinations of subtraction and addition with equations (c), (d) and (e) we can get, Ro Riz Rag 12 + Ry +R31 and Ry = Rags Rar 3 Rig Ry +R3y QR, = So if we want equivalent resistance between terminal (2) and star point ic. Rz then it is the product of two resistances in delta which are connected to same terminal ie. terminal (2) which are Rj2 and R23 divided by sum of all delta connected resistances Le. Ry2,R23and R3- Riz Ras Ro = RgtRa thnBasic Electrical Engineering 2-6 D.C. Circuits 2.16.2 Star-Delta Transformation Consider the three resistances R,,Rz and R3 connected in Star as 4 shown in Fig. 2.44. Now by Star-Delta conversion, it is always possible to replace these Star connected resistances by three equivalent Delta connected ’ > Fesistances R12,Rz3and R31, between Reg the same terminals. This is called Given Star Fig. 2.44 Equivalent Delta “Tvalent Delta of the given star. Now we are interested in finding out values of Ry2,R23 and R3, interms of R,,R2 and R3. For this we can use set of equations derived in previous article. From the result of Delta-Star transformation we know that, Ry Rar 4 Ras Ra B* RptRn +R “© = —Ra ks Ra = RaeRp+hn oth) = Ras Ra Ra = Riz +Ro3 + Ray @ Now multiply (g) and (h), (h) and (i), (i) and (g) to get following three equations. Rio? Rai Rag RiRz = ——2 a oi} (Riz +Ry +R) 2 RoR3 = —Ra’ Bu Ba 0) (Riz +Ra3 +Rai) 2 R3R, = —Rat Ra Res _ oA) (Rin +Ra +R)? Now add (j) (k) and (/) Rig*RaiRag +Ras*RigRgi +Rgr7Rig Ros (Riz +Ray +a)? RizRaiRas(Riz +Ros +Rai) (Ria +Ras +R)? RiRy +RpR3+R3R1 = RiRz +R2R3+R3Ry = Rizk Ras RiR2+R2R3+R3R, = RpeRn tharBasic Electrical Enginearing 2-35 D.C. Circuits Ry2R. 7 But Rath thy = R, From equation (g) Substituting in above in R.H.S. we get, RyRy +RzR3+R3Ry = Ry Ros R3 Ri Ro = Rp +R3 + Similarly substituting in R.H.S., remaining values, we can write relations for remaining two resistances. Rig = Ry +Rp+RtR2 R3 and - Ri R3 Ray = Rs +Rit— ee ‘So if we want equivalent delta resistance between terminals (3) and (1), then take sum of the two resistances connected between same two terminals (3) and (1) and star point respectively i.e. terminal (3) to star point R3 and terminal (1) to star point ie. Ry. Then to this sum of R; and R3, add the term which is the product of the same two resistances ie. Ry and R3 divided by the third star resistance which is R2. RiR3 :, We can write, R3; = Ri +R3 + Re which is same as derived above. Result for equal resistances in star and delta : If all resistances in a Delta connection have same magnitude say R, then its equivalent Star will contain,Basic Electrical Engineering 2-36 D.C. Circuits RxR. Ri = Rp =Rs = noRGk 2k “3 Le. equivalent Star contains three equal resistances, each of magnitude one third the magnitude of the resistances connected in Delta. If all three resistances in a Star connection are of same magnitude say R, then its equivalent Delta contains all resistances of same magnitude of , Ru = Ri =Rp = ReR ee = 3R ie. equivalent delta contains three resistances each of magnitude thrice the magnitude of resistances connected in Star. Equivalent deta Rus Rai RRS Re + Ra ~— Ri2Rzs Riz + Rag +R ~ . HL —__ RsRn RiRs a Ba + Ka + Rn Table 2.1 Star-Delta and Delta-Star Transformations Re im Example 2.7: Convert the given Delta in the Fig. 2.46 into equivalent Star. Fig. 2.46Basic Electrical Engineering 2-37 D.C. Circuits. Solution : Its equivalent star is as shown in the Fig. 2.47. where Ry = Ae = 167 a Ry = gid, = 59 Ry = gee es Fig. 2.47 . ‘am Example 2.8: Convert the given star in the Fig. 2.48 into an equivalent delta. 4 1.870 8 250, 52 3 2 Fig. 2.48 Solution : Its equivalent delta is as shown in the Fig. 2.48 (a). A Ry = 1.674549 = 167+5+333 =109 as na Roy = 54254 > 2 5425475 215 0 1-67 3 Res 2 Ra 22,541,674 227 = 254167 +0833 =50 Fig. 2.48 (a) ‘mi Example 2.9: Find equivalent resistance between points A-B. 162 4100 6Q 4g Fig. 2.49Basic Electrical Engineering 2-38 D.C. Gircu 5 } Solution : Redrawing the circuit, > o Fig. 2.49 (a) A 21x14 ‘aB = Frid ~ 849 od Rag = 21/114 8 Fig. 2.49 (b) > =Example 2.10: Find: equivalent resistance between points A-B. 182 109 Le ey Fig. 2.50 Solution : Redraw the circuit, A Ao Parallel “409 / combinationsBasic Electrical Engineering 2-39 D.C. Circuits A 15x10 _ 75108? = 192 F Rag = 6+24=8.40 6x4 _ ext =2.40 8 Fig. 2.50 (b) Rag = 849 im Example 2.11: Calculate the effective resistance between points A and B in the given circuit in Fig. 2.51. (Dec. - 97) 29 an 4a Ae 2a 52 oB an Fig. 2.51 Solution : The resistances 2, 2 and 3 are in series while the resistances 4, 2, and 5 are in series. Ao 2424+3=792 and 44+24+5=119 The circuit becomes as shown in 2*2*3 Fig. 2.51 (a). Converting 4 PQR to equivalent star, Fig. 2.51 (a) 6x3 Ren = gygee 7 128 6x6 Ren = gegz6 7 42 6x3 Ron = graze 128Basic Electrical Engineering 2-40 D.C. Circuits Hence the circuit becomes as shown in the Fig, 2.51 (b). The resistances 2 and 1.2 are in series. Ae 1,2 and 11 are in series. 5 and 2.4 are in series. -. Circuit becomes after simplification as shown in the Fig. 2.51 (c). The resistances 7.4 and 12.2 are in parallel. 7Ax122 74122 = = 4.6061 2 So circuit becomes, Now the two resistances are in parellel as shown in the Fig. 2.51(e). 77.8061 ‘a3 = Fy 7.5061 ~ 36° 2 (a) Fig. 2.51 {e) ‘mm Example 2.12: Determine the current supplied by each batiery in the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.52 by using Kirchhoff's laws. {May - 98) Fig. 2.52Basic Electrical Engineering 2-41 D.C, Circuits Solution : Show all the branch currents and the polarities of voltage drops across the resistances due to the respective currents as shown in the Fig. 2.53. 5a BtHh) 49 Sete (EL-1) 82 (Fy) F (Fhy-h) Fig. 2.53 Applying KVL to various loops : For loop 1, ABGHA -51-31,-5+20 = 0 ie +51+3=15 (1) For loop 2, BCFGB -4(-1) +5-245+54+3h = 0 ie dl-7y +, =15 -.Q) For loop 3, CDEFC -8(1-1)-I)- 30-542, = 0 ie. -81+ 8l, +101, = 35 8) Solving (1), (2) and (3) I= 2.558 A, 1, = 0.7357 A, 1 = 4.9581 A Hence the current supplied by various batteries can be calculated as below : Current supplied by B, = I= 2.558 A Current supplied by By = 1, = 0.7357 A Current supplied by By = I, = 4.9581 A Current supplied by B, = (I—1,) = (2.558 - 0.7357) = 1.8223 A Current supplied by B, = (I — 1, — Ip) = (2.558 - 0.7357 ~ 4.9581) = -3.1358 A + = Ve sign means opposite direction ‘ump Example 2.13: Find the equivatent resistance between terminals B and C of the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.54. . (May - 99)Basic Electrical Engineering D.C. Circuits BQ Fig. 2.54 Solution : Solution is also possible by converting Delta to Star which gives solution in less steps. Converting star ADCB to delta ACB. A Rap Rac > = , \ by J 8 Roe c c Fig. 2.54 (a) A Parallel combinations 252 62 8 c 8 B c 8a ia Fig. 2.54 (b) Fig. 2.54 (c) 5x5 12x12 8x6 Ry = gpg 2252 a= igre 76% Ras gg rteBasic Electrical Engineering 2-43 D.C, Circuits 259 A 6a Fig. 2.54 (d) Fig. 2.54 (@) 4x85 Rec = ogg 72720 i> Example 2.14: Using Kirchhoff's laws, calculate the current delivered by the battery shown in Fig. 2.55, (May - 99) 3a “a Qrov 42 Fig. 2.55 Solution : The various branch currents are shown in the Fig. 2.55 (a). = 30+ Fig. 2.55 (a) Consider loop ABEFA, +5 (,-l)-41,+4(,-L) = 0 ie 41, +51,-131,=0 ws (1) Consider loop BCDEB, +21,-10+41, +41, = 0 ie 41,+21,+41,=10 w+ (2)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-44 D.C. Circuits Consider loop ABCA, +8 (h-k)+21,-30,-h) = 0 ie. 31 +101, -5I3 =0 -- B) Using Cramer's rule, 1, = 1.3852 A This is the current delivered by the battery. ‘=> Example 2.15: Find the resistance between (1) B & C and (2) A & C in the network shown in the Fig. 2.56. (Dee. - 99, Dee. - 2000) Solution : (i) Between B and C As looking through B and C, 10 9 and 10 2 are in series, as both carry same current. B (20])20) =10a 20.0 10+ 6.67 | = 16,672 10+ 6.67 = 16,672 s Seer Fig. 2.56 (d) Fig. 2.56 (e) A (16.67||16.67) Rac = 8.33 + 6.67 = 8.332 <= Rac = 150 s c Series: 6.670 Fig. 2.56 (f) ‘mm Example 2.16 : Find the Vce and Vag for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.57. (May-2006) Fig. 2.57 Solution : Assume the two currents as shown in the Fig. 2.57 (a) Fig. 2.57 (a)Basic Electrica! Engineering 2-46 D.C. Circuits Applying KVL to the two loops, —61, - 51; -91,4+20 = 0 and —8Iz - 5Iy - 71,+40=0 Ty = 1A and 12=24 i) Trace the path C-E, (51) Giz) 6 = SVs 410M 10 V4. E 5a 5 H 52 Fig. 2.57 (b) Vcp = -5V = 5 V with C negative ii) Trace the path A-G, (6h) (7h) A + 6 - 4 OV, 414 ve 6a 8 4 7m Fig. 2.57 (c) Vac = 30 V with A positive timp Example 2.17 : Calewlate the equivalent resistance between the terminals (X) and (Y) for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.58. (Dec. - 2007) 32 8a 92 ANN ANN VW —o (¥) 3a 6a So Q 52 62 40 4Q (X)e- AWW AMA AAA, Fig. 2.58 Solution : On the left side 3 Q and 3 Q are in series while on the right side 5 Q and 49 are in series.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-47 D.C. Circuits A c D ory) 3+9 =6n en 5+4290 (Ko Eoeo F an © H Fig. 2.58 (a) Convert 4 ABFE to equivalent star. Convert 4 CDHG to equivalent star, As all the resistance of A ABFE are equal, all the resistances of equivalent star are also equal, given by, 6x6 R= Teas" 22 Similarly in equivalent star of CDGH, each 92 resistance is equal say R’ given by, © D . 9x9 R= geor5 39 -) 3a 9a The circuit reduces as shown in the Fig. 2.58 (d). G H Fig. 2.58 (c) The resistances 2.Q, 8 © and 3 Q are in series. The resistances 29, 4.9 and 3Q. are in series. Fig, 2.58 (d)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-48 D.C, Circuits 24+84+3=130 913 an 75918182 39 244432909 Fig. 2.58 (2) Fig. 2.58 (f) Ryy = 2+ 5.31818 + 3 = 1031816 0 mm Example 2.18 : Find the current in the branch A - B in the d.c. circuit shown in the Fig. 2.59, using Kirchhoff’s laws, (Dee. - 2000) Fig. 2.59 Solution : The various branch currents are shown in the Fig. 2.59 (a). Fig. 2.59 (a)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-49 D.C. Circuits Applying KVL to loop ADBA. -h-(,-5)+], = 0 1-2) = 5 ve Applying KVL to the loop ACBA, = (16-1, - 1) -(12-1,-1) +1, = 0 2 -W+]+h-124h+h+h = 0 3 +2, = 3 1» Q) Add (1) and (2), 41;= 23 I, = 575A -» This is the current through branch AB. im Example 2.19: A circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.60 (a). Using delta-star analysis, reduce it to the circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.60 (b). Find the values of Ry Ry and R, in the equivalent farm of the circuit. 3a 3a 1 J A 8 c po] 42 Ry ANNA AWWW AW 52 62 6o I 1, wf | yy | 40 Vy Vas Ry R, My F 6 H F c H (a) (b) Fig. 2.60 Solution : Point : The arrangement of resistances is to be artalysed and rearranged in Jentt delta, formed of Ra, Ry and Re. The 34 resistances in branch JJ are in series giving 3 + 3 = 6Q The delta is formed of CBIJDC which is to be converted to star. Fig, 2.60 (c)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-50 D.C. Circuits As each resistance of Ais 62, in equivalent star, _p — 6x6 _ Ris Reo Ry = grgzg = 2M Series combinations G Fig. 2.60 (4) F G H Fig. 2.60 (e) The Fig. 2.60 (e) represent equivalent star to be converted to delta to get required form, Ry 7 6 A s E A E 6 = Ro G Fig. 2.60 (f) Ri = 7464258 200Basic Electrical Engineering 2-54 D.C. Circuits . 7x6 Ry = 7464522 = 200 R3 = 6364586 = 1714280 A Ry E Thus final form of the circuit which is expected is as shown in the Fig. 2.60 (g). R, = Ry = 209 Ry = Ry = 202 R, = R’ = 17.1428. 2 Fig. 2.60 (g) ump Example 2.20: The circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.61. i) Find the equivalent resistance across the supply. di) If voltage drop across 5Q is 100 V, find the supply voltage. iti) Find the power consumed by each resistance. Fig. 2.61 Solution : It is series combination of resistances. i) Req = Ry + Rp + Ry =5 + 10+ 20 = 352 ii) The drop across R, is 100 V given. The current remains same through R,, R; and Ry. Vi, = drop across Ry =I x R, = 100 V 100 100 _ De gag cA Vz = drop across Ry =I x Ry = 20 x 10 = 200 V V3 = drop across Ry =I x Ry = 20 x 20 = 400 V Vo = Vi + Vy + V5 = 100 + 200 + 400 = 700 V .» Supply voltage iii) P, = power consumed by Ry = Vil or PR, = 2000 W R= power consumed by R; = Vzl or PR, = 4000 W Py = power consumed by R; = V3l or IR, = 8000 WBasic Electrical Engineering 2-52 D.C. Circuits hm Example 2.21: The four resistances 40 0, 32 2, 60 Q and RQ are connected in parallel across d.c. supply. Current in 400 is 3.A while the total current from supply is 25.8 A. Find, i) Supply voltage ii) Ry iii) Equivalent resistance across supply. Solution : The circuit diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.62. T= 25.8 A - In parallel circuit voltage across each v resistance is same equal 320 Ry Seog Ry | to supply voltage. Fig. 2.62 i) Supply voltage V = I,Ry = IR, = 1,R3 = LR, V = IR) =3x40=120V ii) 120 = x 3221x602 x Ry I, = 375A, h=2A But he h+ht+h+h 258 = 34+3.75+2+T, Ty = 17.05 A And yx Ry = V ie. 17.05 Ry = 120 Ry = 7.03812 ii) For parallel circuit, ph = + t+, Req = 4.65110 2.17 Superposition Theorem This theorem is applicable for linear and bilateral networks. Let us see the statement of the theorem. Statement : In any multisource complex network consisting of linear bilateral elements, the voltage across or current through any given element of the network is equal to the algebraic sum of the individual voltages or currents, produced independently across or in that element by each source acting independently, when all the remaining sources are replaced by their respective internal resistances,Basic Electrical Engineering 2-53 D.C. Circuits Key Point : if the infernal resistances of We sources are unknown then the widependent valtage sources must be replaced by short circuit while the independent current sources must be replaced by an open circuit. The theorem is also known as Superposition principle. In other words, it can be stated as, the response in any element of linear, bilateral network containing more than one sources is the sum of the responses produced by the sources, each acting independently. The response means the voltage across the element or the current in the element. The superposition theorem does not apply to the power as power is proportional to square of the current, which is not a linear function. 2.17.1 Explanation of Superposition Theorem Consider a network, shown in the Le ar Fig. 2.63, having two voltage sources V) and V>. v2) Oy. Let us calculate the current in branch ASB of the'network, using superposition theorem. B Step 1) According to Superposition theorem, consider each source independently. Let source V, volts is acting independently. At this time, other sources must be replaced by internal impedances. vy R, But as internal impedance of V; is not given, the source V>_ must be replaced by short circuit. Hence circuit becomes, as B shown in the Fig. 2.63 (a). Using any of the network reduction techniques discussed earlier, obtain the current through branch A-B i.e. I4g due to source V, alone. Fig. 2.63 (a) Step 2) Now consider source V volts alone, with V; replaced by a short circuit, to obtain the current through branch A-B. The corresponding circuit is shown in the Fig. 2.63 (b). Obtain I,g due to V2 alone, by using any of the network reduction techniques Fig. 2.63 (b) discussed earlier.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-54 D.C. Circuits Step 3) According to the Superposition theorem, the total current through branch A-B is the sum of the currents through branch A-B produced by each source acting independently. Total Ing = Ixy due to V) + Ing due to V3 2.17.2 Steps to Apply Superposition Theorem Step 1: Select a single source acting alone. Short the other voltage sources and open the current sources, if internal resistances are not known. If known, replace them by their internal resistances. Step 2: Find the current through or the voltage across the required element, due to the source under consideration, using a suitable network simplification technique. Step 3: Repeat the above two steps for all the sources Step 4: Add the individual effects produced by individual sources, to obtain the total current in or voltage across the element. im Example 2.22 : Use the Superposition theorem to calculate the current in branch PQ of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.64. (ee, - 97) Solution : In a superposition principle, each source is to be considered independently. Fig. 2.64 Step 1: Let us consider 4.2 V, replacing other by short circuit. 2. oP + 42V= 3 2 1 Q Fig. 2.64 (a)D.C. Circuits Basic Electrical Engineoring 2-85 The resistances 3 © and 2 Q are in parallel 3x2 32-55-1202 4.2 © aaa 714 I Now we want Ipg, hence using current division formula, 2 Thg = LAxg gaa al 1+. due to 4.2 V alone Fig. 2.64 (b) Step 2: Now consider 3.5 V source, replacing other by a short circuit. The resistances 2 and 1 are in series hence 2series 1=24+1=302 The resistances 3 and 3 are in parallel. 3x3 33 = 55-150 3.5 -gaig7t4 2 Pe Pest ‘Series 2 2 ne - 4 Qa 35V 35V Fig. 2.64 (c) Fig. 2.64 (d) But we want Ipg, hence using current division formula we get, P . a 15 2 = 3: Pea PQ (3+3) +5 3 1; aT =1xaya Fig. 2.64 =O05TA 9. 2.65 (0) .» due to 3.2 V aloneBasic Electrical Engineering 2-56 D.C. Circuits Hence total current through PQ branch =04AL+05AT=01 AT wm Example 2.23: Calculate current through the 15 Q resistance using Kirchhoff's law and verify your answer using Superposition theorem as well. The circuit is shown in the Fig, 2.65. (Dec. -98) SOV so 182 62 202 a 25Q 60V Fig. 2.65 Solution : To use Kirchhoff's law, let us indicate various currents as shown in the Fig. 2.65 (a). A= Consider loop ABDA, 4 +60-101)-151,-51,=0 52 151,+ 15h = 60 h+h=4 we (1) 0% Consider loop BDCB, ~ 15 Ty + 25 (I, - 1) + 60 + 20 (l, - L) =0 =451, +601, = 60 ~h 2509 gov Fig. 2.65 (a) -31+4, =4 -- Q) Add [3 equation (1)] to (2), -31,+4 = 4 #31,+3h 7h = 16 I, = 22857 A So current through 15 Q resistance is 2.2857 A from B to D. Now let us use Superposition Theorem, consider upper 60 V battery alone the lower ‘battery is replaced by short circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.65 (b). 12Basic Electrical Engingering 2-57 D.C. Circuits The circuit further reduces to, 6ov 59V on sos 150, 20a Series 252 Fig. 2.65 (b) Fig. 2.65 (c) Hence the total current is, 60 60 ccs T= eyasyay 7 erirgs 7 22857 A Current division rule ae 45 45 Pop = Degg tiny = 22857 x 1.7142 AL due to one 60 V battery. Consider other 60 V battery now, hence circuit reduces as, Parallel 4502 7.52 450 452 a noi aotes 80 60V cov Fig. 2.65 (d) Fig. 2.65 (e) Fig. 2.65 ff) . = oo . Total current I = Brass * +75 = 1.1428 A Wap = Ixqgyg = 11428 x5 = 05714 AS gp = 0.5714 AL due to other 60 V battery. Hence according to Superposition Theorem, Tysq = 1.7142 + 0.5714 = 2.2857 AL This is same as calculated by Kirchhoff's laws.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-58 D.C. Circuits imp Example 2.24: Use Superposition theorem to find the current through the 20 ohm resistance shown in the Fig. 2.66. (May - 99) 102 600 szov(+) (*) esv Fig. 2.66 Solution : Step 1: Consider 120 V battery alone, shorting 65 V battery. 1001, , 600 102 Tap 120 202 120 20s 60 = 152 soa & wa Fig. 2.66 (a) Fig. 2.66 (b) 120 Ir = qosisrap = 7188 4 Uap = xaos .» Current division rule 1.6363 A due to 120 V battery 1 Step 2: Consider 65 V battery alone, shorting 120 V battery. sores, 102 , 609 1 son tr 05 40 x 20 _ ond soa BO” Fig. 2.66 (c) Fig. 2.66 (d)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-59 D.C. Circuits 65 Ty = ggg = 08863 A Tan = Ty Xapgy = 05909 A duc to 65 V battery 4 --Total current through 20 {2 resistance, according to Superposition theorem is, Tho = 1.6363 + 0.5909 both in same direction zn7zAal " om Example 2.25 : In the circuit shown, find current through branch AB by Superposition theorem. (ec. - 99) Fig. 2.67 Solution : Step 1: Consider 6 V source alone 1 ‘Now, resistances 102 and 3 2 are in parallel. * Hence total current, I is - 6 A 1022 B T= 13928 A Fig. 2.67 (a) As per current distribution in parallel branches, 3 _ 1.392B%3 = Ixgto = =03214A1 ... (6 V alone) This is I,p due to 6 V battery alone. Step 2 : Consider 4 V battery alone. Now, the resistances 2 Q and 10 Q are in + parallel. Hence, current I can be obtained as, Av 4 20 100 = 4 = '= Samo ES) aa \ 2410 5 4 = are = OSL Fig. 2.67 (b)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-60 D.C. Circuits According to current distribution in parallel branches, 2 2 = Peep = 08871 xap = 0.1428 AL .- (4 V alone) This is I, due to 4 V battery alone. According to Superposition theorem, Total Ing = 0.3214 AL + 0.1428 AL = 0.4692 A L .Total current 2.18 Thevenin's Theorem Let us see the statement of the theorem. Statement : Any combination of linear bilateral circuit elements and active sources, regardless of the connection or complexity, connected to a given load Ry, may be replaced by a simple two terminal network consisting of a single voltage source of Vry, volts and a single resistance Rey in series with the voltage source, across the two terminals of the load Ry. The voltage V4, is the oper circuit voltage measured at the two terminals of interest, with load resistance R, removed. This voltage is also called Thevenin’s equivalent voltage. The R,q is the equivalent resistance of the given network as viewed through the terminals where R, is connected, but with Ry removed and ail the active sources are replaced by their internal resistances. Key Point: If the internal resistances are not known then independent voltage sources are to be replaced by the short circuit while the leapt current sources must be replaced by the open ¢ circuit. 2.18.1 Explanation of Thevenin'’s Theorem The concept of Thevenin's equivalent across the terminals of interest can be explained by considering the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.68 (a), The terminals A-B are the terminals of interest across which R; is connected. Then Thevenin's equivalent across the load terminals A-B can be obtained as shown in the Fig. 2.68 (b). Fig. 2.68Basic Electrical Engineering 2-61 D.C. Circuits The voltage Vy; is obtained across the terminals A-B with R; removed. Hence Vj; is also called open circuit Thevenin's voltage. The circuit to be used to calculate Vyy; is shown in the Fig. 2.69 (a), for the network considered above. While Reg is the equivalent resistance obtained as viewed through the terminals A-B with Rj removed, voltage sources replaced by short circuit and current sources by open circuit. This is shown in the Fig. 2.69 (b). {a) Calculation of Vz, Fig. 2.69 (b) Calculation of Ra, While obtaining V4, any of the network simplification techniques can be used. When the circuit is replaced by Thevenin's equivalent across the load resistance, then the load current can be obtained as, By using this theorem, current through any branch of the circuit can be obtained, treating that branch resistance as the load resistance and obtaining Thevenin's equivalent across the two terminals of that branch. 2.18.2 Steps to Apply Thevenin's Theorem Step 1: Remove the branch resistance through which current is to be calculated. Step 2 : Calculate the voltage across these open circuited terminals, by using any of the network simplification techniques. This is Vyjy- Step 3: Calculate R,q as viewed through the two terminals of the branch from which current is to be calculated by removing that branch resistance and replacing all independent sources by their internal resitances. If the internal reistances are not known then replace independent voltage sources by short circuits and independent current sources by open circuits. Step 4: Draw the Thevenin's equivalent showing source Vij, with the resistance R,, in series with it, across the terminals of branch of interest. Step 5 : Reconnect the branch resistance. Let it be R,. The required current through the branch is given by,Basic Electrical Engineering 2-62 D.C. Circuits 2.18.3 Limitations of Thevenin's Theorem The limitations of Thevenin's theorem are, 1. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of nonlinear elements. 2. Not applicable to unilateral networks. 3. There should not be magnetic coupling between the load and circuit to be replaced ‘by Thevenin's theorem. 4. In the load side, there should not be controlled sources, controlled from some other part of the circuit. um Example 2.26: For the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.70 find the Thevenin's equivalent across 16 Q resistance and hence find the current through it. (May - 84) Fig. 2.70 Solution : Step 1: Remove 16 Q resistance. Step 2 ; Find open circuit voltage View 2-1, - 4h - 20+ 30=0 *. 281, =10 h=Ba ..Drop across 4 2 is = jax Fig. 2.70 (a) = 1.4285 V 1.42B8-V 20 Trace the path from A to B and he tame y= B arrange the voltage drops as shown in —| the Fig. 2.70 (b). 40 © Vap = Voy = 20 + 1.4285 Fig. 2.70 (b) = 21.4285 V with A positiveBasic Electrical Engineering 2-63 D.C. Circuits Step 3 : Calculate R,., shorting both the voltage sources. 4 4a aA 242 Parallel —— Req Fig. 2.70 (c) Fig. 2.70 (d) Rag = 24 || 4 = 3.42859 A Step 4 : Thevenin's equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.70 (e). Step 5: Hence current I is, RL= 160 Vin 21.4285 “Ry tR, | SGB+IS “aH 21.4285 v(+ B = 11029 AL Fig. 2.70 (e) wm Example 2.27: Find the current I, in Fig. 2.71, by application of Thevenin's theorem. (Dec-2003) Fig, 2.71 Solution : Thevenin’s theorem Step 1: Remove the branch of 10.2 through which current is required. Step 2 : Find open circuit voltage Vyy,.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-64 D.C. Circuits Fig. 2.74 (a) Applying KVL to the two loops, -51,-151,;44 = 0 ie 1y = apr Oza Drop Vag = 15x02=3V -121,-81,+6 = 0 ie I, = 5-034 Drop Vez = 8x0.3=24V Trace path from B to C as shown in the Fig. 2.71 (b), showing drops with proper polarities. . Fig. 2.71 (b) Both drops are in opposite direction. ’ Vin = Vpc =3-24=0.6 V with B positive Step 3 : Find Rpg =Rgc with voltage sources replaced by short circuits. ALH,G Bo © A ,5a B oc Re op same point as shorted B ¢ Parallel Zsa 6Q tS combinations | D.E.F H G Fr E same point as shorted 2a Fig. 2.74 (c) Rac = 6 || 15)+(8 |] 12)=855W=R,, — 4: Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.71 1 (a.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-65 D.C. Circuits Step 5: Hence current 1, is, Rog 8 ly Vin 0.6 Reg +10 855410 w 0.032345 A 32.345 mA v; aH 10.2 Fig. 2.74 (d) 2.19 Norton's Theorem The Norton's theorem can be stated as below, Statement : Any combination of linear bilateral circuit elements and active sources, regardless of the connection or complexity, connected fo a given load R,, can be replaced by a simple two terminal network, consisting of a single current source of Inj amperes and a single impedance Ryg in parallel with if, across the two terminals of the load Ry. The ly is the short circuit current flowing through the short circuited path, replaced instead of Ry. It is also called Norton's current. The Req is the equivalent impedance of the given network as viewed through the load terminals, with Ry removed and all the active sources are replaced by their internal impedances. If the internal impedances are unknown then the independent voltage sources must be replaced by short circuit white the independent current sources must be replaced by open circuit, while calculating Roy. Key Point: Infact the calculation of Reg and its value remains same, whether the theorem applied to the network is Thevenin ‘or: Norton, as tong as terminals of mterest remain same. aie 2.19.1 Explanation of Norton's Theorem Consider the network shown in the Fig. 2.72 (a). The terminals A-B are the load terminals where R, is connected. According to the Norton's theorem, the network can be replaced by a current source ]hy with equivalent resistance R,g parallel with it, across the load terminals, as shown in the Fig. 2.72 (b).Basic Electrical Engineering 2-66 D.C. Circuits For obtaining the current Iy, short the load terminals AB as A) (4) R, |{ shown in the Fig. 2.73 (a). Then find ly current Ty by using any of the network simplification techniques discussed earlier. This is Norton's current. While to calculate Req use same procedure as discussed earlier for Thevenin's theorem. For the convenience of reader circuit for calculation of R.q is shown in the Fig. 2.73 (). This theorem is called dual of the Thevenin's theorem. This is Fig. 2.73 (b) because, if the Thevenin's equivalent voltage source is converted to equivalent current source using source transformation, we get the Norton's equivalent. This is shown in the Fig. 2.73 (c). Fig. 2.73 (a) Rea ‘ ty= STH a vi Rea ™ or Vi = ty x Rag = Ww Rea 5 B Fig. 2.73 (c) 2.19.2 Steps to Apply Norton's Theorem Step 1: Short the branch through which the current is to be calculated. Step 2: Obtain the current through this short circuited branch, using any of the network simplification techniques. This current is Norton's current I. Step 3 : Calculate the equivalent resistance R.q, as viewed through the terminals of interest, by removing the branch resistance and making all the independent sources inactive. Step 4: Draw the Norton's equivalent across the terminals of interest, showing a current source Iy with the resistance R,q parallel with it. Step 5 : Reconnect the branch resistance. Let it be Rj. Then using current division in parallel circuit of two resistances, current through the branch of interest can be obtained as, Ts W*s— NO Rg FREBasic Electrical Engineering 2-67 D.C. Circuits i> Example 2.28 : Using Thevenin's theorem determine the current flowing through 22 resistance in the network shown in Fig. 2.74. (Dec.-2005) 19 19 + + RV 20 6v Fig. 2.74 Verify the answer using Norton's theorem. Sol. : Thevenin's theorem : Step 1: Remove 2 resistance. ‘Step 2: Find open circuit voltage Vy4;. 1 12 A Applying KVL to the loop, we 10 vo -I- 1-6+12=0 + + . ee Vow sv W=6 ie T=3A ~ | 7 Drop across 19 = 3x1=3V A Tracing path from A to B through 12 V source as shown in the Fig. 2.75 (b). 12V Fig. 2.74 (a) 19 ty - es Ae— Wy» | > —e -av* wv * Van = Vin =12-3=9V with A positive Fig. 2.74 (b) Step 3 : Calculate R.,, shorting voltage sources. 10 1a Parallel Fig. 2.74 (c)Basic Electrical Engineerii 2-68 D.C. Circuits Req = 1i[l=05a Step 4: Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.74 (d). R, 0.60 | a R220 Vit ay 4 Fig. 2.74 (d) Step 5 : Current through 2 is, Vin I = R,+Ra 7 36AL Norton's Theorem : Step 1: Short the branch of 2.2. Step 2 ; Calculate the short circuit current I,;. Apply KVL to the two loops, -1,+12 50 iet, =A +» Loop I -(, -Iy)-6=0 -» Loop II -l+ly -6=0 Iy = 641, =18 A Step 3: Calculate Rog shorting voltage Fig. 2.75 (a) sources. This is same as calculated above. = 052 cs Req Step 4 : Norton's equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.75 (b). a Req 2050 i Be Step 5: Current through 2 0 is, ‘ R = eq 18x05 _ IL = IN” RGR = =36AL Fig. 2.75 (b)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-69 D.C. Circuits ump Example 2.29: Replace the given network by Norton's equivalent across the terminals A-B. 10a Ch) 6Q mvs) a0 Fig. 2.76 Solution : Step 1: Short the branch AB. Step 2 : Calculate the short circuit current using Kirchhoff's laws. As there is current source, apply KVL to these loops only which do not include current source. The current source value is considered, for current distribution using KCL. Loop CABEC, + 31, + 6(10 — Iq) = 0 2.31, - 6 ly = - 60 -=-(l) Loop GDEHG, 3h, + 20=0 h=D=607A ..Q) ly = 13.333 AL Step 3 : To calculate Rig, replace voltage source by short circuit and current source by open circuit.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-70 D.C. Circuits Rog = 62 Step 4: Norton's equivalent across A-B is shown in the Fig. 2.76 (c). oA In saa3a@) Fea Z 6 8 Fig. 2.76 (c) Key Point: Do not apply KVL to the loop corisisting current source. The effect of current saurce is taken care of while obtaining current distribution. Then apply KVL fo those loops which do not include my current source. 2. 20 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Let us see the statement of the theorem. Statement : Iii an active resistive network, maximum power transfer to the load resistance takes place when the load resistance equals the equivalent resistance of the network as viewed from the terminals of the load. 2.20.1 Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Consider a d.c. source of voltage V volts and having internal resistance of r ohms connected to a variable load resistance Ry, as shown in the Fig. 2.77 (a). The load current is I, and is given by, v LR The power consumed by the load resistance R,, is 2 p-12 R,-|Y-] 2 LOM LarRL) | If R,, is changed, 1, is also going to change and at a particular value of R,, power transferred to the load is maximum. Let us calculate value of Ry, for which power transfer to load is maximum. To satisfy maximum power transfer we can write, dP _ dR, Fig. 2.77 (a) 2 d Vv . aR, eal R= 0 2 od Ry _ . v aR, |Ferp?| 0 .-. a8 voltage is constantBasic Electrical Engineering 2-71 D.C. Circults 4 d ‘ e+e Ee 8 ae (+Ry = 0 +R) ()-RL2+R) = 0 (f+ RL-2R,) = 0 R, Thus when load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of source the maximum power transfer takes place. Now any complex network can be represented with a single voltage source of Vu volts with equivalent resistance Rig in series with it, using Thevenin's theorem across the load terminals. Thus the variable load resistance Rj, in such case must be equal to Rq to have maximum power transfer to the load, equivalent Fig. 2.7 (b) Ry = -» for maximum power transfer Let us calculate the magnitude of maximum power transfer. It can be obtained by substituting Ry = R,, in the expression of power. Prax = (-] Rit Ry = Reg 2.20.2 Steps to Apply Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Step 1: Calculate Thevenin’s voltage Vy; or Norton's current Iy. Step 2: Calculate R,, as viewed through the load terminals. Step 3: Draw Thevenin's equivalent or Norton's equivalent. Step 4: Ry = R,q gives the condition for maximum power transfer to load. Step 5: And maximum power is given by, 2 VinBasic Electrical Engineering 2-72 D.C. Circuits HE SE he Key. iN: a> Example 2.30: Find the value of Ry for maximum power transfer and the magnitude of maximum power dissipated in the resistor Ry in the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.78. Fig. 2.78 Solution : Step 1: Remove the load resistance R,. Step 2 : Find the Thevenin's voltage Vzy across the open terminals as magnitude of maximum power is asked. Applying KVL to the loop, -2-21-34+6=0 oo 41=3 3st) (s)iov +: 1= 075A ». Drop across 2.0 = 2x0.75=15V The 2 © resistance in branch ed is not ° ! ‘ 2a . carrying any current hence drop across it is zero volts. Trace the path from a to b Fig. 2.78 (a) and show the various voltage drops as shown in the Fig. 2.78 (b). 15 ev ov 10V ae b M2) Fig. 2.78 (b) Vay = 115-6 = 5.5 V with b positive with respect to a.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-73 D.C. Circuits Step 3: Calculate R,y, replacing all voltage sources by short circuits. ' 20 a | b Parallel Rea 8 . Reg e aber? e € © 20 Fig. 2.78 (c) Fig. 2.78 (d) As seen from the Fig. 2.78 (d) and 2.78 (e) we can write, Pa 22 = 10 Req = [2 | 2] +2=1+2=30 AW s Thus for maximum power transfer to load, Fig, 2.78 (e) Ri = Ry =39 Step 4: The maximum power transfer is given by, 2 tae = 3H eq, _ 6.5)? _ = ao* 2.5208 W imp Example 2.31: Find the value of Rap for maximum power transfer, in the circuit shown int the Fig. 2.79.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-74 D.C. Circuits Solution : As magnitude of P,,,, is not required, only Reg as seen through terminals AD is to be obtained with voltage source shorted. As points B and D are directly connected, the circuit can be redrawn as shown in the Fig. 2.79 (b), showing B and D as a single point. 8,De B and Dis same point as directly le Parallel Fig. 2.79 (a) Fig. 2.79 (b) A Req —a 3 9 | series 5 o Reg = @) HIF + 613)] ; = @I9+2] = Bay ” Parallel = 235710 Fot Prax Rap = Reg = 2.3571 2 Fig. 2.79 (c) 2.21 Concept of Loop Current A loop current is that current which simultaneously links with all the branches, defining a particular loop. The Fig. 2.80 shows a network. In this, 1, is the loop current for the loop ABFEA and simultaneously links with the branches AB, BF, FE and EA. Similarly I, is the second loop current for the loop BCGFB and 1, is the third loop current for the loop CDFGC. Fig. 2.80 Concept of loop currentBasic Electrical Engineering 2-75 D.C. Circuits Observe. : 1. For the common branches of the various loops, multiple loops currents get associated. For example to the branch BF, both I, and 1, are associated. 2. The branch current is always unique hence a branch current can be expressed interms of associated loop currents. Key Point: The total branch current is the algebraic sum of all the deep currents associated with that branches. Ipp = [,-Iy from B to F leg = Iz-I, from C to G 3. The branches consisting current sources, directly decide the values of the loop currents flowing through them. The branch DH consists current source of I,, amperes and only the loop current I, is. associated with the branch DH in opposite direction. Hence 1, = —! 4. Assuming such loop currents and assigning the polarities for the drops across the various branches due to the assumed loop currents, the Kirchhoff's voltage law can be applied to the loops. Solving these equations, the various loop currents can be abtained. Once the loop currents are obtained, any branch current can be calculated. / Note : From the syllabus point of view, in this book, the branch current method is. used to solve the problems. If loop currents are given in the problem, mark the branch currents interms of given loop currents and then use KVL, to solve the problem. Examples with Solutions ‘ump Example 2.32: Calculate the resistance between terminals A-B. 102 2 Fig. 2.84 Solution : Refer Fig. 2.81 (a), 402 wa 0 100 102 Fig. 2.81 (a)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-76 1 D.C. Circuits Loop A-C-D forms A converting to Star, 10 10x10 2 noes 3 Fos Ras = 7010410 = = 3330 A D Res 109 wa = Reg = Rpg c Fig. 2.84 (b) s A 3332 5 3332 102 3.3390 won Fig. 2.81 (d) 3.3312 as33Q Ry u B (13,333||13.333) (13.3330 + paraitel = 6,966.2 Fig. 2.81 (¢) Rag = 3333 + 6.666 = 102 um Example 2.33 : Determine the resistance between the terminals X and Y for the circuit shown in Fig, 2.62. [Dec.-2006] (All resistances in ohm) Fig. 2.82Basic Electrical Engineering 2-77 D.C. Circuits Solution : Converting inner delta to star. 3x3 Seaeg 12 Each resistance = 5 5 x vs yx y Fig. 2.82 (a) Converting inner star to delta. Bach resistance = 24+2+2%2 =60 2 All three parallel combinations, _ ox 56 = 556 = 27720 =p 5.45450 Series Parallel 27e72 a kX a ff. ¥ x ~_— ff —- ¥ Ryy Rxy Fig. 2.82 (b) Ryy = 54545||27272 = 18181 2. tap Example 2.34: Find the equivalent resistance across the terminals A and B shown in the Fig. 2.83. All resistances are in ohms.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-78 D.C. Circuits Fig. 2.83 Solution : Converting following Delta into Star. 4x6 R= gg 2 6x2 49 sa Ry Ree gyaee 71% 4x2 & = ees Ry fe Ra = gyre = 20670 6x2 wy RU = Gears = 97S , 2: Fig, 2.83 (a) R; = ot =19, _ _6xB Rs = gyae5 799 Redrawing original network with above conversions. Combining 4 and 3 which are in series to get 7.Q and converting 2a 88 aa following Delta to Star, the circuit Fig. 2.83 (b) reduces as shown in the Fig. 2.83(e). Fig. 2.83 (c} Fig. 2.83 (d)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-79 102 Ry R's Ry 1752 12. Fig. 2.83 (e) Redrawing the circuit, O672 1.37250 0.78430 A B 1.3725 us Series Fig. 2.83 (f) Rap = 1.6326 + 0.7843 Rag = 2.417 2 i> Example 2.35 : 100 1209 Fig. 2.84 Solution : Points 'X' and ‘a’ are at same potential. Points 'Y' and ‘d’ are at same potential Points ‘a’ and 'c’ are at same potential. Points ‘d' and ‘b’ are at same potential. All resistances are in parallel. 1 = = 2.10530 Re Tit T *e*12t 10 al D.C. Circuits 1.7510 R= Tysrige7 ~ 13750 a L75xL | RY = 1.75+10+1 eto u_ 10x1 _ Re = Tyeiori 7 97682 Fig. 2.83 (g) 0.78430 wi 2.0425 x 8.13725 20825 + 6.13725. Fig. 2.83 (h) = 1.63269 Find the equivalent resistance across terminals X and Y. oo ag Fig. 2.84 (a)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-80 D.C. Circuits we) Example 2.36: In a bridge circuit the resistance of branch AB = 30 9, BC = 41 0/ AD = 6 Q, while a 4 V battery is connected between points A and C. An ammeter with internal resistance of 102, is connected between points B and D. The resistance of branch CD is ‘R’ ohms. If ammeter is showing a reading of 15 mA (1), determine value of R. Solution : Step 1 : Draw the circuit diagram. Step 2 and 3: Assume the various branch currents applying KCL at various nodes. And mark polarities of all voltages due to these currents as shown in Fig. 2.85 (a). Step 4: Apply KVL to various loops. Loop 1; Loop A-D-C-A (through battery) -6 (i, - i) - Ri, - i, + 0.015) +4 = 0 ie — iy (6 + R) + i, (6 + R) = (0.015R — 4) ... (1) Loop 2: Loop A-B-D-A = 30 i, - 0.015 x 10 + 6 (iy ~i.) = 0 ie. 6i,-36i, = 0.15 (2) Loop 3: Loop A-B-C-A (through battery) -30 i, ~41(i,- 0.015) +4= 0 ie. =Tli, = = 4615 -+ Q) From (3) iy = 0.065 A qe From (2) iy = 0415 A 4v Fig. 2.85 B 4 4v 4, Fig. 2.85 (a)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-81 D.C, Circuits From (1) — 0.415 (6 + R) + 0.065 (6 + R) = 0.015 R-4 ie 249 - 0.415 R + 039 + 0.065 R = 0.015 R-4 0.365R 19 R = 52059 mmp Example 2.37: Two batteries A and B having ems of 209 V and 211 V having internal resistance 0.3 Q and 0.8 2 respectively are to be charged from a d.c. source of 225 V. If for that purpose they were connected in parallel and resistance of 4 Q was connected between the supply and batteries to limit charging current, find i) Magnitude and direction of current through each battery. ti) Power delivered by source. Solution : The circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 2.86. We can use branch current method. Show the branch currents and polarities. Apply KVL to different loops. Loop 1: Loop A-B-E-F-A = 03 Ip 209 + 225-41 =0 ie. 41,+031, = 16 vO) Loop 2: Loop A-B-C-D-E-F-A, Fig. 2.86 ie. 0.8 0, -1,)- 211 + 225-41, = O ic. 481,-081,= 14 (2) Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously, I, = 3663A and I, = 4482A : I, -1, = 0.8183 A i.e. it is in opposite direction to what is assured. i) Magnitude of current through source = 3.663 A T Magnitude of current through battery A = 4.462 AL Magnitude of current through battery B = 0.8183 A T ii) Power delivered by, Source = 225 x 3.663 = 824.175 wattsBasic Electrical Engin ing 2-82 D.C. Circuits mp Example 2.38: Find the current through branch AB, using Superposition theorem. a 102 , 300 10A 202 100W Fig. 2.87 Solution : Step 1: Consider 10 A source alone, replacing 100 V source by short circuit Resistance 20 and 30 are in parallel _ 20% 30 Req = 20430 = 129 By using current division rule, Fig. 2.87 (a) 5 Ing = 10x55 = 185185 A> Current through AB is 1.85185 A from A to B due to 10 source. A wey 1=104 Tas LEE “ nb fe fon Fig, 2.87 (b) Step 2: Consider 100 V source alone, replacing current source by open circuit. Note ; Current source must be replaced by open circuit while voltage source must be replaced by short circuit if internal resistances are not given. Referring Fig. 2.87 (c) and (d), 20x15 Req = 20+15 = 65710 ° i] Fig. 2.87 (c) ~ 30+8.571 2.5925 A Series 1065 = 157R "Basic Electrical Engineering 2-83 D.C. Circuits Parallel 3000 3002 yt 4{ - 100V = 88712 100 V Fig. 2.87 (d) Current through 15 9 using current division is 2.5925 A 302 20 = 25925 + 148148 A — = 0.3703 A > Both are in opposite direction so there will be subtraction of two currents. Ans. : 0.3703 A from A to B im Example 2.39: Find the currents ij, iy, i; and powers delivered by the sources of the network in Fig. 2.88. (May - 2001) a_i Fig. 2.88 Solution : The various branch currents are shown in the Fig. 2.88 (a), by applying KCL at various nodes interms of i,, iz, i; shown. Loop ABCA, - 6, - 12 (y tigi) = 0 ie. -18i,-12i,+12=0 (1) Loop CDEC, -4i,+4412 = 0 ie i, =4A - QBasic Electrical Engineering 2-84 D.C. Circuits Fig. 2.88 (a) Loop DEED, <-444i, = 0 ie ig=1A ws 3) Loop BCDB, -12 (i, +ig-i-12 = 0 ie -i,- ig +ig=1 oa @) Substituting i, = 4 A in (1) and (4) -3i,+2i = 8 = 6) -t = 5 6) -15 ip tig = 4 ne 05i, = 1 i) = 2A and ig=7A Power by 12 V source = i,x 12 = 84 W and Power by 4 V source = 4% (i, + i;) = 20 W ‘ump Example 2.40: Find the value of ’R' so that 1A would flow in it, for the network in the Fig. 2.89. (May-2001) R—eiA 20 102 Fig. 2.89Basic Electrical Engineering 2-85 « DC. Circuits Solution : The various branch currents are shown in the Fig. 2.89 (a). A L g k-h o1 R D Lice I-kk 10 + 20 H 4, G F Fig. 2.89 (a) Loop ABGH, -1I,-12-101,)=0 ie 101,+1,=-12 wee (1) Loop BCEFGB, - 6 (I, -{,-1)-2(l,-1) +124+h=Oie -81,+91,=-18...Q) Multiplying equation (1) by 9 we get, 901,+91, = - 108 = Q) Subtracting equation (3) from (2) we get, -981, = +90 1, = -09183A and I, = —28163A Current through 69 = I, -1,-1=- 0.9183 + 2.8163 -1 = 0.898 A Drop across 62 = 6x current through 6 9 = 6 x 0.898 = 5.388 V Same is drop acrossR = Rx1= 5.388 R = 5.388 & ium Example 2.41: For a given circuit shown in Fig. 2.90, find out the equivalent resistance between terminals X and Y. (May - 2003) 1259 Ryo = 252 Rep = 200 1252 Fig. 2.90Basic Electrical Engineering D.C. Circuits Solution : The two 125 Q resistances are in parallel so equivalent is (12.5/2) = 6.25 2. Converting star at point D to equivalent delta, A A c 20x3 20x%3 20 ~ 2602 =60n 20 20 B c 20x3 5 = 602 Fig. 2.90 (a) Thus the circuit reduces as shown in the Fig. 2.90 (b). (60|j20) — (60)20) 2152 =150 (60||25) = 17.6470 6.250 6.250 Fig. 2.90 (b) Fig. 2.90 (c) Ryy = (6.25) |] {15 + 15) |j (17.647) } = (6.25) || [30 |] 17.647] = (6.25) | [1141] =40 ‘um Example 2.42: For the network shown in Fig. 2.91, find the current in the 2-ohm resistance by using Superposition theorem. (Dee. - 2002)Basic Electrical Enginearing 2-87 D.C. Circuits Solution : Step 1: Consider 5 V source acting, short the other. - av, 32 12 12 Fig. 2.91 (a) Fig. 2.91 (b) = 5 fr = gyseuyg 7 3244 ly Using current division, ai. = 11764 Ad Tha = nq +3 Step 2: Consider 10 V source TEE y+) acting, short the other. 12 2a Applying KVL to the various la loops, -31,- (,-1,) +10=0 Fig. 2.91 (c) 6 -4h+h=-10 a (1) ~(y-1)-2(,-h +h) +10 = 0 31, +3-2, = -10 + @ 1-1) +3h = 0 -+4h <0 - B o -4 1 -10 -4 1 D =|-3 3 -2/=-17,D,=|-10 3 -2)/=-120 -1 4 0 o 4 ~°0 0 -10 1 0 -4 -10 D, = |-3 -10 -2|=-30,D,;=|-3 3 -10|= +50 -1 0 0 -1 4 0 D. D, D. = apt = 7.058 A, Ty = =P = 1.7687 A, = Fh =Basic Electrical Engineering 2-88 D.C. Circults * Tia = 1-1 +k = 7.058 - 1.7647 + (- 2.9411) = 2.3522 AL Step3: Ing = Ih +13p = 3.5286 Ad .. Both in same direction. i> Example 2.43: Find the equivalent resistance of the network between the terminals A and B shown in the Fig, 2.92. (May - 91) A 39 J) 32 30 3a 9a 92 Fig. 2.92 Solution : Converting delta of 3, 3Q and 9 Q to star, A 3a 3a R, = es =182 9x3 of R2= gpapg 7182 um 8a 3x3 Rs gpgqg = 060 4 R,+3=480 8 Fig, 2.92 (a) R,+3=369 Converting delta of 1.8 Q, 3.6 9 and 9 Q to star, A a ; Parallel 48a 48+ 0.45 342.25 = 5,252 = 5.250 s 182 a Fig. 2.92 (b) Fig. 2.92 (c) Fig. 2.92 (d)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-89 D.C. Circuits. R= eee = asa Ry = poet Sansa Ry nm ee gs se Rap = [(5.25) |] (5.25)] + 1.125 = 2.625 + 1.125 = 3.75.2 mm Example 2.44: For the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.93, find the current through 20 9 using Thevenin’s theorem. (Nov. - 87} Solution : Step 1: Remove the 20 © resistance. 40V ie + 20v 202 82 Qa +H 6n 30V Fig. 2.93 Step 2: Calculate the voltage across open circuit terminals. Apply KVL to the two loops, -40-81p-81+20=0 2161p =~ 20 =-125A — 40 + 30-6 (I, - I,) + 20=0 = 0.4166 A Trace the path from A to B and show the various voltages and drops, as shown in the Fig, 2.93 (b). . Vag = Voy = 20410 =30V Fig. 2.93 (a) Vap = Vin = 20 + 10 = 30Basic Electrical Engineering 2-90 D.C. Circuits 20 Saal Note that I, is flowing in opposite direction As—_| t—+—ww—* 8 to what is assumed, as it is negative, Sg Step 3: Find R,q by replacing all voltage d sources by short circuit. Fig. 2.93 (c) Fig. 2.93 (d) Fig. 2.93 (@) Reg A 4a ] os Req = 8 || 8= 42 Vin | nan Step 4: Thovenin’s equivalent is shown =30V I in the Fig. 2.93 (f. 30 } Step 5:1 = Tr B Fig. 2.93 (f) =125AL —- Example 2.45: In the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.94, calculate current through 1 2 resistance connected between A-B, using Thevenin's theorem. (Nov. - 85)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-01 D.C. Circuits. Solution : Step 1: Remove 1 Q resistance and also combine 2 || 2 = 12 Step 2 : Calculate voltage across open circuit. Fig. 2.94 (a) Fig. 2.94 (b) -I1-214+10+60 = 0 70 T= 3 =23333 A 3 So trace the path from A to B and show all voltage drops, 23.33 V 60. 60, 2 Vag = Vay = 23.33 V one ~ - hey —* “——8 With A negative with respect toB Fig. 2.94 (c) Step 3 : Calculate Reg by replacing voltage sources by short circuits. eo Reg = Rap = (1) 14) 1.4) = (1) = 0.6672 Step 4:Thevenin's equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.94 (e). 23.33 Step 5:1 = 120 67 =MAT Fig. 2.94 (e)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-92 D.C. Circuits ‘up Example 2.46: The network has following configuration, Arm AB = 10 Q, Arm CD = 20.0, Arm BC = 30.9, Arm DA = 200, Arm DE = 50, Arm EC = 109 and a galoanometer of 40 Q is connected between B and E. Find by Thevenin's theorem, the current in the galvanometer if 2 V source is connected between A and C. (May - 86) Solution : The network is shown in the Fig. 2.95. Fig. 2.95 Step 1: Remove the galvanometer. h-b Fig. 2.95 (a) Step 2 : Calculate voltage across open circuit between B and E. Let us use Kirchhoff's laws, Apply KVL to different loops, Loop BCAB, -301,+2-10h=0 ic. = G= 005A 1 Q) Loop CDAC, - 20 (I, -1;-1y) +200, -1)-2=0 ie. 401, +201,=4 1 Q) Loop CEDC, = - 101, - 5p +20 (,-1,-1)=0 ie-20-351,=-1 ... GB)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-93 D.C, Circuits Multiplying (3) by 2 and adding to (2) we get, “400 501, =2 y=- 004A 101; = 0.4 ¥ So direction of I, is opposite to what is assumed. Fig. 2.95 (b) The various drops across the path BE are, as shown in the Fig. 2.95 (b). Vee = Vou = 15-04 = 11 V with B +ve Step 3 : Calculate R,,, replacing voltage source by short circuit Ye. (30)|10) =750 Fig. 2.95 (d) 7.52 (15/10) \qasii10) =62 Parallel Fig. 2.95 (0) Fig. 2.95 (f) Req = Rog = 7.5 +6 = 1350Basic Electrical Engineering 402 G Fig. 2.95 (g) im> Example 2.47 : sa) 2-94 D.C. Circuits Step 4: Thevenin's equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.95 (g). Step 5: Hence current galvanometer is, through I = 0.02056 A 1. 13.5+40 = 20.56 mA Find the current in 4 Q resistance by Norton's theorem. ; 42 Fig. 2.96 Solution : Step 1: Short the branch a-b. Step 2 : Find the short circuit current I,y. Fig. 2.96 (b) From Fig. 2.96 (a), Iy=7-lA Apply KVL to loop without any current source. ie. cdabefc. -6+2h =0 al=3A sly=7-3 =4Al Step 3: Calculate Re by opening current sources and shorting voltage source. From the Fig. 2.96 (b) Reg = 2.2Basic Electrical Engineering 2-95 4 D.C. Circuits a Step 4 : Norton's equivalent across terminals a-b is as shown in the Fig. 2.96 (c). Step 5: W=4AG) Ry S20 4a R I=ly eo Lt Req _ 4x2 “Ga Fig. 2.96 (c) =1333 AL i> Example 2.48: Find the magnitude of Ry for the maximum power transfer in the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.97. Also find out the maximum power. 32 Fig. 2.97 Solution : Step 1: Remove the load R,. Step 2: Obtain Vpy or ly by Kirchhoffs laws. Let us find Iy by shorting the load terminals. Now Iy = Apply KVL to those loops which do not consist current source. 4-2 (6-1-1) +10+51,=0 Fig. 2.97 (a) “a7+2h=2 -» (1) ~ 31, - 4, +2 (6-1-1) =0 +24,4+9h = +12 ws (2) 7 2 7 2 D =|, g|=59 and r2=[) »|7 8 Dz _ 80Basic Electrical Engineering 2-96 D.C. Circuits 3n <=, Step 3: Find Ryg across load, opening current source and shorting voltage source. Parallel an Fig. 2.97 (b) Rog = 34+ (62) 4+4=3 + 14235 +4 = 84235 0 Step 4: For Pray Ry, = Req = 8.4235 2 And Wry = ly x Reg = 1.3559% 8.4235 = 11.4216 V V2, _ (11.4216)? TH _ l- = 4Roqg —4%8.4235 ee Pra ‘> Example 2.49: Find the value R for maximum power to R and what is the value of maximum power ? Fig. 2.98 Solution : Step 1: Remove the resistance R. : Step 2: Find the open circuit voltage Vy, across A-B, using Kirchhoff's laws. I, and I, can be obtained by 6a current division rule at node C. 3A ok 00 20v(+) - 16 I = 3Axsgteg = LI707 A Fig. 2.98 (a) I, = BAK, = 1.8293 A fn Tees ~ Drop across 25 = 25 1, = 29.2675 VBasic Electrical Engineering 2-97 } D.C. Circuits 29.2675 20V Trace the path from A to B through A 8 259 and show the various drops as shown =a in the Fig. 2.98 (b). Fig. 2.98 (b) Vi = Vag = 29.2675 - 20 = 9.2675 V with A positive Step 3: To find R,,, replace voltage source by short and current source by open circuit. Series 102 Ac . _ 25x16 _ =>, Reg os Reg = 25 I 16 = 5372 = 9.756.2 6a Step 4: Thevenin's equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.98 (d). Fig. 2.98 (c) A Step 5: For maximum power to R the Rea 3 9756.0 value of R must be R. R V(* 927 v * R= Rq= 97560 — ra)? _ (9.27)? © a and Prax = "TRL 7 Geo.756 7 2202 W Fig. 2.98 (d) ium Example 2.50: Find the current through the 30 Q resistance by Thevenin's theorem. ra 100 V All resistances are in ohms Fig. 2.99Basic Electrical Engineering 2-98 D.C. Circuits’ Solution ; Step 1: Remove 30 Q resistance. Combine 6 and 12 © resistances as are in series. Similarly combine 5 and 10 Q resistances which are in series. Step 2: Determine the voltage across terminals from where 30 Q is removed. Convert delta formed by 18 2 to equivalent star. All resistances in delta are same so in star we get all resistances same as, 18x18 18+18+18 Re 62 Fig. 2.99 (a) Similarly convert delta of 15 Q to equivalent star. We get all resistances in star equal as, 15x15 R= pyiseis 799 So replacing both delta by star we get the circuit as shown in the Fig. 2.99 (b). 6 6 a~ B.S § 100 V 100 V Fig. 2.99 (b) Fig. 2.99 (c) From the Fig. 2.99 (c), the current I is, 100 = 6Q 290 $a BrTes 75K he AWA v=o V=72.5V v 0 «. Drop across 29 Q = 29x I= 725 V Fig. 2.99 (d)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-99 D.C. Circuits As no current flows through 6 2 and 5 9 connecied to A and B, the voltage Vag is the drop across 29 © resistance. Vap = 72.5 V = Vry with A+ ve wrt, B Step 3 : Calculate R,q, replacing voltage source by short circuit. To calculate Req, use Fig. 2.99 (d) directly with voltage source shorted. Rearranging we get the network as shown in the Fig. 2.99 (e). Reg 6 ci 6 ate 5 ps A 6 c 6 Fee s => eries 29 a Be 5 0 8 Fig. 2.99 (d) Fig. 2.99 (0) Reg = 6+ 291) +5=6+(FT | 5 = 18.9752 Fig. 2.99 (f) Step 4: Thevenin's equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.99 (g). 4 } Step 5 : So current through 30 0 18.975 9S Rog resistance now can be obtained as, ' Zsa ee 28 725V(7) Vry an" 18.975 + 30 = 1.4803 AL B Fig. 2.99 (g)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-100 D.C. Circults mm Example 2.51; For the dc. circuit shown in Fig. 2.100, write the Kirchhoffs law equations in the branch currents 11,1 and 1, as shown for loops ABGHA, BCFGB and CDEFC. Solve these equations to find current 15. (Dec-2003] Fig. 2.100 Solution : The current distribution and voltage drops due to the branch currents is shown in the Fig. 2.100 (a). Applying KCL at node B, current through AB is I, + I). A 28th g lp 102 6 Ir 129 p Ho iytly Gk F E Fig. 2.100 (a) Apply KVL with sign convention to the given loops. Loop ABGHA, = -S(I, #1))-151,+4 = 0 ie. 201,451, =4 «@) Loop BCFGB, -101,-8154+151, = 0 ie. 151,-101,-81,=0 aw (2) Loop CDEFC, -~12(1,-13)-6+8I, = 0 ie. -121,+201; =6 -- 3) Apply Cramer’s rule to find I. 20 5 O 20 4 0 D = 15 -10 -8 =- 7420, D,=/15 0 =— 240 0 -12 29 0 6Basic Electrical Engineering 2-101 D.C. Circuits imp Example 2.52: Find, by Superposition theorem, the current [ in the 8 ohm resistance in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.100. (Dec-2003] Solution : Step 1: Consider 4 V source alone, short 6 V source. Applying KVL to the three loaps, 5a Lj-ly 100 Tj--ly 12:2 Fig. 2.101 (a) Loop 1, -51,-15 1, 4#4=0 ie 51, +151, =4 (D Loop 2, =10(1,-I,)-81, +151, =0 ie. -101,+251,-81; =0 ww (2) Loop 3, ~12(i,-1)-15)+81; =0 ie. -121, +121, +201, =0 wo» 3) 5 15 0 5 15 4 D=|-10 25 -8/= 7420 and D, =/-10 25 0)= 720 -12 12 20 -12 12 0 D. 1; = - = 0.09703 A J ... current due to 4 V alone Step 2: Consider 6 V source alone, short 4 V source. 52 409 12.0% Fig. 2.104 (b) Combine 52 and 159 in parallel (5]]15) = 3.75 Q 3.782 Fig. 2.104 (c) Fig, 2.101 (d)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-102 D.C. Circuits 6 = = 6 = Now ty = apaqa7s a ieesoera ~ 09917 4 I = Ipxqqez2y = 0203 A J. Use of current division ‘Thus total current through 89 due to both the sources is, Igq = 0.09703 + 0.2223 = 0.31993 A L im Example 2.53: Find the effective resistance across terminals M-N of the resistive network shown in Fig. 2.102. [Dec-2003] M 32a 6Q 3.250 252 N Fig. 2.102 Solution : Converting upper delta to star, 3x6 Ri = 37396715 _ 3x3 _ Ry = ap arg 7075. 3x6 Rs = geae6 7158 Fig. 2.102 (a) Ryw = 15 + (4]4)=15 +2 350 Fig, 2.102 (b)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-103 D.C, Circuits ‘mp Example 2.54: Int the circuit shown in Fig. 2.103, find the source current by the method of simplification of network. [May-2004] GS 04740 Gin Fig. 2.103 Solution : Converting delta ABD to star we get, Convert delta B tostar 6x3 Ry = ge gegg = 0.6206.9 A Ry = poe 4.13790 3x20 Ry = gaayag 7206892 s F ra 04740 ov Fig. 2.103 (a) R125 16.1379 Q_ Parallel (16.1379 1 12,0689) 0.6208 0 oe208Q © = 6.9049. A Series 0.474. a asta 1 Tay (b) ro) Fig. 2.103 1 = Veo a 025.4 Rota 0620640474 + 6.9005 ~Basic Electrical Engineering 2-104 D.C. Circuits ‘amp Example 2.55: For Fig. 2.104 shows a d.c. two-source network; the branch currents 1, and I, are as marked in it. Write, using Kirchhoff's laws, two independent simultaneous equations in 1, and 1,. Solve these to firtd 1. (May-2004] Fig. 2.104 Solution : The current distributions and veltage drops are shown in the Fig. 2.104 (a). 5a pit), Applying KCL at node B, current through BC is (fy -12) Fig. 2.104 (a) Applying KVL to the two leaps, Loop ABEFA, —51;-101,+4=0 ie. 1,421, = 08 (1) Loop BCDEB, -8(I,-I,)-6+101, =0 ie. -81, 4181, =6 2 To solve for I,, multiply (1) by 9 and subtract from (2), 171, = 6-(9*0.8) 1, = 0.07054 > mp Example 2.56: Use Theventin’s theorem to find the current in the branch BD of the network shown in Fig. 2.105. (May-2004] Fig. 2.405Basic Electrical Engineering 2-105 D.C. Circuits Solution : For Thevenin’s theorem. Step 1: Remove branch BD. Step 2: Find the open circuit voltage, Vijz =Vgp a n I 10.2 20a + + 5V of Bay SV (rozes7 a gQ 4Q Fig. 2.105 (a) E] Ty = qqgggy = O86 A Using current distribution, 24 I =ly Xoeie = 0.2778 A and I, =I, -I, = 0.20833 A The various drops due to 1, and I, are as shown in the Fig. 2.105 (b). To find Vpn, trace the path BCD as shown as shown in the Fig. 2.105 (c). D B 5, 2224 y 0.8332 Vo 81 Sp 4 Q D 0.8332 V 2.2224V c Fig. 2.105 (b) Fig. 2.105 (c) Vap = 2.2224 - 0.8332 = 13892 V_ with B negative w.r.t. D. Van = 1.3892 V with B negativeBasic Electrical Engineering 2-106 D.C. Circuits Step 3: Find Reg, removing BD and shorting voltage source. Parallel combinations Bo 102 200 | Aandc Do B A Reqs> directly Req shorted aa 4a ¢ pe Fig. 2.105 (d) Req = (20 |] 4)+(10 |] 8)=3.333+4.444 =7.7777 2 Step 4 : Thevenin’s equivalent is shown. Reg B Von 179 Step 5: I= - Rog +20 Vow 1 “a 1.3892v / 200 _ 1.3892 ITF D = 0.05 A from D to B Fig. 2.105 (e) imp Example 2.57: Write the Kirchhoff's voltage equations for the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.106 and hence find current flowing through 4 Q resistance. (Dee. - 2004) Fig. 2.106 Solution : The various branch currents are shown in the Fig. 2.106 (a). Applying KVL to various loops, Loop ABEDA, ~2ly -12(1, -13)+(I)-I,)+12 = 0 ie, -1, 4151-121, = 12 ... (1) Loop BCFEB, -21-10+3{1,-13)+12(ly-1;) = 0 ie, 31, +121,-171, = 10 ... (2) Loop DEFHGD, -(Ij -I,)-3(,-I)—41, +24 = 0 i.e. 8y-Ip-313 = 24... @)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-107 D.C. Circuits Fig. 2.106 (a) To find current through 49 ie. 1,. -1 15 =12 12 15 =12 D={3 12 -17|=- 664, D,=)10 12 -17|=- 2730 6-1 -3 24 -1 -3 .. Current through 4.2 tim Example 2.58: For the network shown in the Fig. 2.107, find the current flowing through 5 resistance using Superposition theorem. (Dee. - 2004, May-2007) 409 5a + 20V= sa Fig, 2.107 Solution : Step 1: Consider 30 V source alone, open 8 A source. 10 h (b) Fig. 2.107Basic Electrical Engineering D.C. Circults = —2 oo © = TorHTa 107 2666 = 23684 A > Using current division rule, I = Ip Xqog = 2-368x5 = 0.78046 A ~ — ... Due to 30 V alone The direction is from A to B shown in the Fig. 2.107 (a). Step 2 : Consider 8 A source alone, short 30 V source, i Seis a. 5 BBA (ayaa 28871 3 ea (e) (a) Fig. 2.107 Using current division rule, Wy = 8xgpp gery = 2N083 A ... due to 8 A atone The direction is from B to A. Step 3: According superposition theorem. I, = 15 +15 = 0.78946 — + 2.21053 «— = (2.21053 - 0.78946) <= 1.42107 A < from B to A we) Example 2.59: For the Fig. 2.108 of Ex. 2.58. find the current flowing through 5 resistance using Thevenin’s theorem. (Dee. - 2004, May-2007) Solution : Step 1: Remove the branch of 5 9. Fig. 2.108 (a)Basic Electrical Eng ring. 2-109 D.C, Circuits Step 2 : Calculate the open circuit voltage across terminals AB from where 5 22 is removed. From loop CAEDC, ~10l, ~41, +30 0 ie. i = 2.1428 A From loop BHGFE, I, = 8A «+. as current source ~. Drop across 4Q = 1 x4=4 «2.1428 = 857142 V and Drop across 3Q = Lx3=8x3=24V Tracing the path from A to B as 0 E £ 3 ‘i ao—(" -}_s_»_C*} 28 AEFB and arranging voltage drops as 8.57142 V 24V shown in the Fig. 2.108 (b) Fig. 2.108 (b) Vap = 24-8.57142 = 15.4285 V with A -ve wrt B Vay = 15.4285 V with A -ve wan B Step 3: Calculate Rug, replacing voltage source by short and current source by open circuit. “ Parallel | A B 2.8574 a 32 Series Fig. 2.108 (c) Fig. 2.108 (d) Req = Rap = 2.8571 + 3 = 5.85719 Step 4: The Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.108 (e). Step 5 : Find the current through 5 9. As polarity of Vz is with A —ve, the current through 5 © flows from B to A. Von 15.4285 la = Rog +R, | 5857145 = 14210 A from B to A Fig. 2.108 (a) This is same as obtained in earlier example.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-110 D.C. Circuits ‘=> Example 2.60: For the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.109, write the Kirchhoff's law equations for loops BCDB, CEDC and ABDEFA in terms of the branch currents I}, 1, and 1, as shown. Find current I, by solving these equations, (May - 2005) ‘The numbers indicate resistance values inohm 8 Fig. 2.109 Solution: The various other branch currents interms of the currents I, 1, I, and c Current entering at junction point B is +h. Through branch CE it is (1, - 1,). ly =Ig+ ly +ly) Through branch DE it is (1, + 1,). Fl +s Applying KVL ts the various loops, Loop BCDB, 41,31, +413 = 0... (1) ATE Wiig F 10V Fig. 2.109 (a) Loop CEDC; 2A -Ip)+5(1, +13)+31, =O ie, 2, 410g 451; =0 ... (2) Loop ABDEFA, ~413 -5({Iz +13)-2(l, +13)+10 =0 ie. 2) +512 +111, = 10 To find current I, using Cramer's rule, 1-364 034 D = /-2 10 5/=-301, D,=|9 10 5)/=-550 2095 10 5 11Basic Electrical Engineering 2-111 D.C. Circuits ‘mm Example 2.61: For the network shown in the Fig. 2.110, find the current I, in the 3 ohm resistance, by applying Thevenin’s Theorem. (May - 2005) Fig. 2.110 Solution : Step 1: Remove the branch through which I, is flowing i.e. CD. ‘Step 2: Find the open circuit voltage across CD Le. Vay; Let the branch currents are I, and I, As CD is open, I, flows from BD and DE while I, flows from BC and CE. Apply KVL to the two loops, Loop BCEDB, Al, -21, +51, +41, = 0 ie. 1,3, =0 ..d) Loop ABDEFA, 41, -5I, -2([, +1,)+10 = 0 ie. 1, +2h, = 10... Q) Fig. 2.110(a) Solving (1) and (2), I, = 0.5882A, I, = 1.7647 A So, drop across BC = I, x 1 = 1.7647 V drop across BD = I, x 4=4 x 0.5882 = 2.3528 VBasic Electrical Engineering 2-112 D.C. Circuits 1 B 4 co To find Vep, trace path from CBD and 1.7647V 2.3528 arrange all voltage drops as shown in the Fig, 2.110 (a). Fig. 2.110 (b) Vep = 2.3528 - 1.7647 ++. 88 Oppositive polarities 0.5881.V with ‘C’ +ve wart, ‘D’ Vor = Vp = 0.5881 V with ‘C’ +ve wart ‘D’ Step 3 : To find Rug, replacing voltage source by short circuit. (Same point as dit {Same point as directly 2 connected) Fig. 2.410 (c) Fig. 2.110 (d) 5x4 _ 2x5 _ gepeg = 18161 Gy5eg = 0-909 Fig. 2.110 (e) Fig. 2.110 (f)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-113 D.C. Circuits Co => Series 5 2.909 Rea Reg ( : 2009 1.8181 shel 4.7272 x 2.908 . Tare 2908 © 0857 0.909 Fig. 2.110 (g) Fig. 2.110 (h) c c Reg 1.0837 2.9018 mam Series 5 ly a Rea 0.5881¥ 1.8181 Vin Do o Fig. 2.140 (i) Fig, 2.110 G) Rep = Req = 1.0837 + 1.8181 = 2.9018 2 Step 4: The Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.110 (i) Step 5: The current I, through 3 0 resistance is, Vn 0.5861 fe = RSeRL @ Zo0eea = OOM AL map Example 2.62 : Determine the current supplied by each battery in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.111 by using Kirchhoff's laws. [Dec.-2005] Fig. 2.111Basic Electrical Engineering 2-114 D.C. Circuits Solution : The various branch currents are shown in the Fig. 2.111 (a). Fig. 2.114 (a) Applying KVL to the three loops I, Il and II, =I) -401,+8 = 0 ie. 1, +401, =8 =» (1) =20(1, - 12) - 100, - 1, 415)+401, = 0 ie. -81, +701, - 101; = 0 *... Q) 421, - 124+10(1, - 1,415) = 0 ie. 101, = 101, +121, = 12 = 3) Solving (1), (2) and (3) I, = 0.1005 A -- Current supplied by 8 V battery Iz = 1.0807 A .« Current supplied by 12 V battery imp Example 2.63: Using Superposition theorem, calculate the current flowing in 19 resistance for the network shown in Fig. 2.112. 3] 42 + + 5OV 40V 100 - - 19 20 Fig. 2.112Basic Electrical Engineering 2-145 D.C. Circuits Solution : Step 1: Consider 100 V battery alone, short other sources. 40 rm ayoute2 i100 v* ee) sea (b) Using current division rule, he Ip xapeyy = 2887 AL vw» Due to 100 V alone Step 2 : Consider 50 V alone, shorting other sources. cf a E a_i c sov" Pe + - 42 ov = 1.3330 2a 4a 20 in 10 D E F 5 D (ec) (d) Fig. 2.112 ir 50V -_" = " ac I; = T1303 21.4316 A 19 ie. Ij =p = 21.4316 AT ~» Due to 50 V alone Fig. 2.112 ()Basic Electrical Engineering 2-116 D.C. Circuits Step 3 : Consider 40 V alone, shorting other sources. *a0V (411) = 0.82 20 Parallel Using current division rule, = 4 4 I] = Upxgyy 7 14.2857 = 1142es Al ~~ Due to 40 V alone Using superposition principle, lig = Ty 4} +1] = 14.2857 A44214316 AT 411.4285 AL = 4.2826 AL .. Current through 10 ium Explain 2.64: Lise Kirchhof’'s Law to find current supplied by the battery for the circuit shown in Fig, 2.113. (May-2006] 39, 72 120 3a 100 V, 42. Fig. 2.113Basic Electrical Engineering 2-117 D.C. Circuits Solution : The branch currents are shown in the Fig. 2.113 (a). (h-1) 100 'V 4Q Fig. 2.113 (a) Apply KVL to the three loops I, It and HI. -31, - 501,+12(1-1,) = 0 ie 121-151,-501,=0 ..(1) -7(1, - 1,)4+3(1- 1, +1,)4+501, = 0 ie 31- 101,+601, =0 v» (2) =12(1 - 1,) - 3(1- 1, +1,) - 41+100 Solving (1), (2) and (@), O ie. -191+151, - 31, =-100 .. (3) I = 10.1634 A... Current supplied by battery =p ~Example 2.65 : Find current flowing through 30 resistance by Superposition Theorem for the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.114. [May-2006] 5A 22 + ve 0 Gav Fig. 2.114Basic Electrical Engineering 2-118 D.C. Circuits. Solution : Step 1 : Consider 5 A alone, short 20 V source. SA 20 5A 3a 20 $+10= 150 >| 150 Ty 30 =~ Redundant Parallel a8 shorted ‘combination (a) {b) Fig. 2.114 Using current division rule, L 6 I's Sxapypapg 7 SAL .. Due to 5 A alone Parallel tc} cy Fig. 2.114 p= 0Le iy “Ir = 33g 7 6A Using current division rule, 4 eo ——= 20114 ov 3 = Oxa og LAT .» Due to 20 V alone =3.3330 wlyg = 375ALH AT = 275 AL Fig. 2.114°(@)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-119 D.C. Circuits ‘a> ~Example 2.66 : Use Thevenin’s Theorem to find current in 1 Q resistance for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.115. (May-2006] Fig, 2.115 Solution : Step 1: Remove the 19 resistance. Step 2: Find open circuit voltage V7,;. Fig. 2.115 (a) 1 = 242244 and drop across 10 2 is 24 V. No current can flow through § 2 so drop across it is zero. Tracing path from A to B as shown in the Fig. 2.115 (b). 2¥. 2av ov aN Ao— |---| 0B 7 Bn «. Vay = 12 + 24 = 36 V with A positive Fig. 2.115 (b)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-120 D.C. Circuits Step 3: Find R.g, shorting voltage sources. Short 80 8a A A 92 ‘Short 100 = =< \ 2B o8 Both are directly shorted hence become redundant (c) (qd) Fig. 2.115 Req = 82 Step 4: The thevenin’s equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.115 (e) - Ya _ _36 Step 5 T= yet Bel = 4A... Current through 19 Fig. 2.115 (e) ‘mip Example 2.67 : Apply Thevenin’s theorem to calculate current flowing in branch AB for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.116. [Dec.-2006] A 20 19 + 10¥ - CH) 10a 32 8 Fig. 2.116Basic Electrical Engineering 2-121 D.C. Circuits Solution : Step 1: Remove branch AB. Step 2: Calculate Vag = Vy, open circuit voltage. 2a, eo) 19 +e 100 Fig. 2.116 (a) Loop I: -2(10-1,)-10+21, = 0 ie) =7.5A wa. KVL As 2.Q and 10 A are in parallel across A-B, Van = Drop across 20 = 21, = 2x7.5= 15 V Vay = 15V with A positive Step 3 : Calculate R,, opening 10 A and shorting 10 V source. 22 19 10 A ->—Wv—2 A ar" 20 Qn R,, 12 § Example 2.69 : Using source transformations, determine the voltage across 5 ohm resistance for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.118. [Dec.-2006] 32 thev ) 52 Fig. 2.118 Solution : Converting 6 V voltage source to current source. 6a 22 Parallel 3ij6 #22 Fig. 2.148 (a) 6a 20 24 (4) CHisa 5Q aas4v(*) — Convert to voltage source 20 22 8a 4 (#) 5Q ZA O5A bisa 5a av(2) Convert to current source Add two current sources. as In same directionBasic Electrical Engineering 2-124 D.C. Circuits 20 20 aa = zat) 5a eres S50 16V Convert to voltage source 10. ' 52 4164 16V 5a SS Convert to current source Fig. 2.118 (b) Using current division rule, 10 le 16% 20 = 1.0667 A Vsq = 5x1 = 5.333 V imp Example 2.70: Using Kirchhoff's laws, find the current flowing in 2 ohm resistance for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.119. ([May-2007] 160 162 320 + + 20V ~ 20 Fig. 2.119Basic Electrical Engineering 2-425 D.C. Circuits Ans. : The various branch currents are as shown. 4 (y-1) 16 (y= 1g) Fig. 2.119 (a) Loop: ~161,-213 +20=0 ie. +161, +21, =20 oD) Loop I : -16(1,-I,)+ 32{1, -I5)+161, =0 ie. -161, +641, — 321, =0 wal) Loop I : -20+ 21, ~ 32(1)-13)=0 ie. -3aly + 341, =20 (3) Solving for 13, 1; = 1.5709 AL ++ Use Cramer's rule um Example 2.71 : Apply Thevenin’s theorem to calculate the current in 6 Q resistance for the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.120. Also use superposition theorem to calculate the current int 10 & resistance. (Dee. - 2007) 59 100 + 200¥ $a 6aQ Fig, 2.120 Soution : Use of Thevenin's theorem to find 1, 9 Step 1: Remove 6 Q branch. Step 2: Calculate V;;; across open circuitBasic Electrical Engineering 2-126 D.C, Circuits 5a 100 0A Applying KVL to the loop, =51, -51, +200 = 0 — 1) =20A 50V -Drop across 5Q = 100 V Fig. 2.120 (a) Trace the path from a to B as shown in the Fig. 2.120 (b). Vinw = Vag = 100-50 ov 4 100V_ _$0¥, mes Ae AW 0 Wyo 4] 08 = 50 V with A positive 10.2 52 Fig. 2.120 (b) Step 3 : Calculate R,g, shorting voltage soures. wn 4 100 Wy —2 A = <= Req 545 a Ba r 250 <= Req B (c) (d) Fig. 2.120 Ry = +25 = 1250 Step 4: Thevenin’s equivalent is shown in the Fig. 2.120 (e). Step 5 : Hence the current through 62 is, Lae vm __50 pa= HH . Req +6 125+6 = 2.7027 Al Use of superposition theorem to find Typ Fig. 2.120 (e)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-127 D.C. Circuits Step 1: Consider 200 V source alone, shorting 50 V source. 52 Ny 109 5a by vy * + . 200 ¥ => 52 69 200V—> §Q S 10+6=162 - \ paral 1) (a) Fig. 2.120 52 i 200 Ty = eesace = 22.7027 A t= 553.5005 = 72-70 2 51116 5 a 200V =3.8005q ‘Using current division rule, . 5] Tio = Tp spyg = 5084 A Fig. 2.120 (h) Step 2: Consider 50 V source, short 20 V source. 59 102 Mo 102 Iq 6Q 60 a= 50 a Fig. 2.120 2 50 fo = eT LIMITA 10+6+2.5 Step 3 :Tigq =Tto +I }o = 5.4054 2.7027 — = 2.7027 A> Note that 10 9 and 6 9 are in series, hence carry same current hence the answer through 6 9 by Thevenin's theorem and through 10 9 by superposition theorem, matches with each other.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-128 D.C. Cireuits ‘um Example 2.72: Calculate the current delivered by each of the voltage source for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.121. (Dec.-2007) 20 sow * “sv B12 22 _&ig Fig. 2.121 Solution : 1 9 and 1.9 of each voltage source are the internal resistances and appear in series with the respective source in the circuit. The current distribution using KCL at the various nodes is shown in the Fig. 2.121 (a). Applying KVL to the three loops 1, II and II. Fig. 2.124 (a) -2,-+30= 0 ie 1, +2,=30 --(1) -2(1, - 1h) - 2(, -1, +1,) +21, = 0 ie. -4l, + 6, - 213 =0 +-(2) -2(, -+1)-+15 = 0 ie. 421, -21, +31, = 15 ++.(3) Solving (1), (2) and (3), =A, h=9A, h=3A Thus the current delivered by source 30 V is 12 A while that by source 15 V is 3 A.Basic Electrical Engineering 2-129 D.C, Circuits ‘m= Example 2.73: For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.122, find the voltage across 4 9 resistance by source transformation. (May-2008) 30 22 12 6v (4) 4a Fig. 2.122 Solution : Convert 6 V voltage source to equivalent current source, 20 19 22 10 4Q Convert to vollage source fa) (b) Fig, 2.122 2a 1a 12 20 (ses Cb) 4a {c) (d)Basic Electrical Engineering 2-130 D.C. Circuits 41a 4g iaQ) aa @) 4a Convert to voltage source {e) (h Fig. 2.122 Once a single loop is obtained, KVL can be applied. ~1-41+16-41 " ° t= 18 L478 Al " so Fig, 2.122 (g) vm Example 2.74: For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.123, find the vlawe of unknown resistance 'R’ so that maximum power will be transferred to lead. Hence find maximum power. (May-2008) Fig. 2.123Basic Electrical Engineering 2-131 D.C. Circuits Solution : R for P,,a, is the Rey opening current source and shorting voltage source. 109 3 251116 we! 25a 7s 252 so => Bn Parallel (a) (b) (c) Fig. 2.123 Req = 9.756 0 = R for Prax To find P,,,,, obtain the value of Vzyy. Parallel (F)3a 250 160 (d) (e) Fig. 2.123 A 3A 3A + sens 29.268V 20V 8B (D) 3a 287560 9 A&W] + 28 20 vl ~ 9.756 2 wn (a) Fig. 2.123 Vap = Vay = 9.268 V with A positive V2, _ (9.268) Prax = = (9.268)? _ = 2.2011 W = 4x 9.756Basic Electrical Engineering 2-132 D.C. Circults Review Questions . Explain the various types of sources used in d.c. circuits. Explains the concept of source transformation with suitable example. Derive the relationship to express three star connected resistances into equivalent delta. Derive the relationship to express three delta connected resistances into equivalent star. State and exp,ain. Superposition theorem. . Two voltmeters A and B, having resistances of 5.2 k 0 and 15 k Q respectively are connected in series across 240 V supply. What is the reading on each volimeter ? (Ans. : 61.78 V, 178.21 V) 7. Two resistances 15 and 20 0 are connected in parallel. A resistance of 12 Q is connected in series with the combination . A voltage of 120 V is applied across the entire circuit, Find the current in each resistance, voltage across 12 © resistance and power consumed in all the resistances. (Ans. 3.33 A, 2.5 A, 70 V) 8. A resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising two resistances of 12 and 8 Q. The total power dissipated in the circuit is 700 watts when the applied voltage is 200 V. Calculate the value of R.. (Ans. ; 52.3428 9) 9. In the series parallel circuit shown in the Fig. 2.124, find the 4a E aR we N 102 an 50V | D “ E08 00 Cc Fig. 2.124 ® voltage drop across the 40 resistance if) the supply voltage V (Ans. :45 V, 140¥) 10. Find the current in all the branches of the neteoork shown in the Fig. 2.125. (Ans. : 39 A, 21 A, 39 A, 81 A, 11 A, 41 A} o-———_ < + > BOA OA 120Basic Electrical Engineering 2-133 D.C. Circuits 11. If the total power dissipated in the circuit shown in the Fig. 2.126 is 18 watts, find the value of R and current through it. (Ans. : 12.0, 0.6 A) 30 40 +he 412 Fig. 2.126 12. The current in the 6 © resista nce of the network shown in the Fig. 2.127 is 2A. Determine the currents in all the other resistances and the supply voltage V. 2a 62 3a 4g v Fig. 2.127 (Ans. : 5 A,2.5 A, 14,46 V) 13. A particular battery when loaded by a resistance of 50 Q gives the terminal voltage of 48.6 V. If the load resistance is increased to 100 Q, the terminal voltage is observed fo be 49.2 V. Determine, i) EMP. of battery ii) Internal resistance of battery Also caiculate the load resistance required to be connected to get the terminal voltage of 49.5 V (Ans. : 49.815 V, 196.42 Q) . Determine the value of R shown in the Fig. 2.128, if the power dissipated in 10 Q resistance is 90 W. (Ans.: 1000) 800 me Tea * il - 150 V Fig. 2.128Basic Electrical Engineering 2-134 D.C. Circuits 15. A resistance of 10 Q is connected in series with the two resistances each of 15 2 arranged in parallel. What resistance must be shurted across this parallel combination so that the total current taken will be 1.5 A from 20 V supply applied ? (Ans. 62) Two coils are connected in parallel and a voltage of 200 V is applied between the terminals. The total curreni taken is 25 A and power dissipated in one of the resistances is 1500 W. Caiculate the resistances of two coils. (Ans. : 26.67. 11.43.20) ~ Two storage balteries A and B are connected in parallel to supply a load of 0.3. Q The open circuit em, of A is 11.7 V and that of B is 12.3 V. The internal resistances are 0.06 2 and 0.050. respectively. Find the current supplied to the load. (Ans, :36.778 A) Using Kirehhoff's laws, find the current flowing through the galoanometer G in the Wheatstone bridge network shown in the Fig. 2.129. (Ans. : 48.746 mA) 254,20 Fig. 2.129 |. A network ABCD is made up as follows : AB has a cell of 2 V and negligible resistance, with the positive terminal connected to A; BC is a resistor of 250 ; CD is a resistor of 100 & ; DA is @ battery of 4 V and negligible resistance with positive terminal connected to D; AC is a milliammeter of resistance 1002. Calculate the reading on the milliammeter. (Ans. : 26.67 mA) . State and explain Thevenin’s theorent. . State and explain Norton's theorem. . State and explain Maximurt power transfer theores. Use Thevenin’s theorem to calculate current through branch A-B. (Ans. : 2.4857 A from A to B)Basic Electrical Enginecring 2-135 D.C. Circuits 10 A SA e 200 ia 8 252 500 Fig. 2.130 24, Find current through 8 © resistance by Norton's theorem. (Ans. : 1.7954 A from A to B) Fig. 2.134 25. Calculate current through 10 02 resistance by i) Superposition Theorem ii) Thevenin's Theorem (Ans. : 1.6208 A from A to B) A 190 8 F D za OE 3a Fig. 2.132Basic Electrical Engineering 2-136 D.C. Circuits 26. Find the current through branch A-B by using i) Thevertin’s Theorem ii) Norton's Theorem (Ans, ; 0.2273 A from A to B) B Fig. 2.133 go00Magnetic Circuits 3.1 Introduction All of us are familiar with a magnet. It is a piece of solid body which possesses a property of attracting iron pieces and pieces of some other metals. This is called a natural magnet . While as per the discovery of Scientist Oersted we can have an electromagnet. Scientist Oersted stated that any current carrying conductor is always surrounded by a magnetic field. The property of such current is called magnetic effect of an electric current, Natural magnet or an electromagnet, both have close relation with electromotive force (emf), mechanical force experienced by conductor, electric current etc. To understand this relationship it is necessary to study the fundamental concepts of magnetic circuits. In this chapter we shall study laws of magnetism, magnetic field due to current carrying conductor, magnetomotive force, simple series and parallel magnetic circuits . 3.2 Magnet and its Properties As stated earlier, magnet is a piece of solid body which possesses property of attracting iron and some other metal pieces. a) When such a magnet is rolled into iron pieces it will be observed that iron pieces cling to it as shown in Fig. 3.1 The maximum iron pieces accumulate at a tron places gory “2 the two ends of the magnet while very few Ne ae accumulate at the centre of the magnet. ‘ The points at which the iron pieces Fig. 3.1 Natural magnet accumulate maximum are called Poles of the magnet while imaginary line joining these poles Suing <= | => is called Axis of the magnet. North N s South ii) When such magnet is suspended freely oth etn by a piece of silk fibre, it tums and always adjusts itself in the direction of North and Fig. 3.2 Freely suspended South of the earth. @-1)Basic Electrical Engineering 3-2 Magnetic Circuits The pole which adjusts itself in the direction of North is called North seeking or North(N) pole, while the pole which points in the direction of South is called South seeking or South (S) pole. Such freely suspended magnet is shown in the Fig. 3.2 This is the property due to which it is used in the compass needle which is used by navigators to find the directions. iii) When a magnet is placed near an iron or steel piece, its property of attraction gets transferred to iron or steel piece. Such transfer of property of attraction is also possible by actually rubbing the pole of magnet on an iron or steel piece. Such property is called magnetic induction. Magnetic Induction : The phenomenon due to which a magnet can induce magnetism in a (iron or steel) piece of magnetic material placed near it without actual physical contact is called magnetic induction. iv) An ordinary piece of magnetic material when brought near to any pole N or S gets attracted towards the pole. But if another magnet is brought near the magnet such that two like poles ('N' and 'N' or 'S' and 'S’), it shows a repulsion in between them while if two unlike poles are brought near, it shows a force of attraction. Key Point : Like poles repel each other and the unlike poles attract each other. a -Repuision is the sure test of magnetism as ordinary piece of magni material ltoays shows attraction towards both the poles. Let us see the molecular theory behind this magnetism. 3.3 Molecular Theory of Magnetization Not only magnetized but materials like sw iron, steel are also complete magnets SN i . / \ AX, ssording to molecular theory. All materials N Ss A = S consist of small magnets internally called PK wn molecular magnets. In unmagnetised materials such magnets arrange themselves in Fig. 3.3 Molecular magnets in closed loops as shown in the Fig. 3.3 unmagnetised material So at any joint, effective strength at a point is zero, due to presence of two unlike poles. Such poles cancel each other's effect. But if magnetized material is considered or ‘S$ unmagnetized material subjected to magnetizing force is considered, then such small molecular magnets arrange themselves : f ria} i the direction of magnetizing force, as Fig. 3.4 Magnetised plece of material shown in the Fig. 34Basic Electrical Engineering 3-3 Magnetic Circuits Unlike poles of these small magnets in the middle are touching each other and hence neutralizing the effect. But on one end 'N' poles of such magnets exist without neutralizing effect. Similarly on other end 'S' poles of such magnets exist. Thus one end behaves as 'N' pole while other as 'S' pole. So most of the iron particles get attracted towards end and not in the middle. From this. theory, we can note down the following points : 1) When magnetizing force is applied, immediately it is not possible to have alignment of all such small magnets, exactly horizontal as shown in the Fig. 3.4. There is always some limiting magnetizing force exists for which all such magnets align exactly in horizontal position . Key Point: Thovgh unigitctizing force is increased beyond certain value, there is no chance for further alignment of molecular magnets hence further: inagietization not possible. Such condition or phenomenon is called Sanitation’ 2) If the magnet is broken at any point, each piece behaves like an independent magnet with two poles to each, ‘N' and ‘S'. 3) The piece of soft iron gets magnetized more rapidly than hard steel. This is because alignment of molecular magnets in soft iron takes place quickly for less magnetizing force than in hard steel. Fig. 3.5 Breaking of magnet 4) If unmagnetised piece is subjected to alternating magnetizing force i.e. changing magnetizing force, then heat is produced. This is because molecular magnets try to change themselves as per change in magnetizing force. So due to molecular friction heat is generated. 5) If a magnet is heated and allowed to cool, it demagnetizes. This is because heat sets molecular magnets into motion so that the molecules again form a closed loop, neutralizing the magnetism. 6) Retentivity : When a soft iron piece is magnetized by external magnetizing force due to magnetic induction, it loses its magnetism immediately if such force is temoved. As against this hard steel continues to show magnetism though such force is removed. It retains magnetism for some time. ing. rare the seciele force is “Key ‘Point : The power of resBasic Electrical Engineering 3-4 Magnetic Circuits 3.4 Laws of Magnetism There are two fundamental laws of magnetism which are as follows : Law 2: This law & ¢ as Coulomb's Law. The force ( F ) exerted by one pole on the other pole is, a) directly proportional to the product of the pole strengths, b) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and c) nature of medium surrounding the poles. Mathematically this law can be expressed as, Boo ML i where M, and M, are pole strengths of the poles while d is distance between the poles. KM Mz where K depends on the nature of the surroundings and called permeability. 3.5 Magnetic Field We have seen that magnet has its influence on the surrounding medium. ‘The region around a magnet within which the influence of the magnet can be experienced is called magnetic field. Existence of such field can be experienced with the help of compass needle, iron or pieces of metals or by bringing another magnet in vicinity of a magnet. 3.5.1 Magnetic Lir-:s of Force The magnetic fiela of magnet is represented by imaginary lines around it which are called magnetic lines r force. Note that these lines have no physical existence, these are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael Faraday to get the visualization of distribution of such lines of force. 3.5.2 Direction of Magnetic Field The direction of magnetic field can be obtained by conducting small experiment. Let us place a permanent magnet on table and cover it with a sheet of cardboard. Sprinkle steel or iron fillings uniformly over the sheet. Slight tapping of cardboard causes fillings to adjust themselves in a particular pattern as shown in the Fig. 3.6Basic Electrical Engineering 3-5 Magnetic Circuits Cardboard sheet tron filings Fig. 3.6 Magnetic lines of force The shape of this pattern projects a mental picture of the magnetic field present around a magnet. A line of force can be defined as, Consider the isolated N pole (we cannot separate the pole but imagine to explain line of force) and it is allowed to move freely, in a magnetic field. Then path along which it moves is called line of force. Its shape is as shown in the Fig. 3.6 and direction always from N-pole towards S-pole. The direction of lines of force can be understood with the help of small compass needle. If magnet is placed with compass needles around it, then needles will take positions as shown in the Fig. 3.7. The tangent drawn at any point, of the dotted curve shown, gives direction of resultant force at that point. The N poles are all Fig. 3.7 Compass needle experiment pointing along the dotted line shown,from N- pole to its S-pole. The lines of force for a bar magnet and U-shaped magnet are shown in the Fig. 3.8. Lines — uU Fig. 3.8 (a) Bar magnet Fig, 3.8 (b) U-shaped magnetBasic Electrical Engineering 3-6 Magnetic Ci its Attraction between the unlike poles and repulsion between the like poles of two magnets can be easily understood from the direction of magnetic lines of force. This is shown in the Fig. 3.9 (a) and (b). Repulsion com> < Attraction 20 ==> Lines of force Lines af force Repuision Magnet 1 Magnet 2 Fig. 3.9 (a) Force of attraction Fig. 3.9 (b) Force of repulsion 3.5.3 Properties of Lines of Force ‘Though the lines of force are imaginary, with the help of them various magnetic effects can be explained very conveniently. Let us see the various properties of these lines of force. 1) Lines of force are always originating on a N-pole and External to terminating on a S-pole, external to the magnet. {magnet 2) Each line forms a closed loop as shown in the =e Fig. 3.10. Key Point: This means that 2 a ine emerging i from N-pole, continues: Fig. 3.10 Lines of force complete _ the closed path 8 magnet Ne S ‘ joke a closed Toop. “Ties. internal ee ears called as lines of induction. = aj Lia ian aa ta 4) The lines of force, are like stretched rubberbands and always try to contract in length. 5) The lines of force, which are parallel and travelling in the same direction repel each other. 6) Magnetic lines of force always prefer a path offering least opposition.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-7 Magnetic Circuits 3.6 Magnetic Flux ( ) The total number of lines of force existing in a particular magnetic field is called magnetic flux. Lines of force can be called lines of magnetic flux. The unit of flux is. weber and flux is denoted by symbol (@ . The unit weber is denoted as Wb. 3.7 Pole Strength We have seen earlier that force between the poles depends on the pole strengths. As we are now familiar with flux, we can have idea of pole strength. Every pole has a capacity to radiate or accept certain number of magnetic lines of force i.e. magnetic flux which is called its strength. Pole strength is measurable quantity assigned to poles which depends on the force between the poles. If two poles are exerting equal force on one other, they are said to have equal pole strengths. Unit of pole strength is weber as pole strength is directly related to flux i.e. lines of identical bie aha eae of 1 metre in free space experiences a force eee 16n* So when we say Unit N-pole, it means a pole is having a pole strength of 1 weber. 3.8 Magnetic Flux Density ( B ) It can be defined as “The flux per unit area (a) in a plane at right angles to the flux is known as ‘flux density’. Mathematically, MP or Tesla mt Cross Plane at right sectional angles to lines of force areaa Magnetic lines of force i.e. flux Magnet Fig. 3.11 Concept of magnetic flux densityBasic Electrical Engineering 3-8 Magnetic Circuits 3.9 Magnetic Field Strength ( H ) This gives quantitative measure of strongness or weakness of the magnetic field. Note that pole strength and magnetic field strength are different. This can be defined as ‘The force experienced by a unit N-pole (i.e. N pole with 1 Wb of pole strength ) when placed at any point in a magnetic field is known as magnetic field strength at that point. It is denoted by H and its unit is newtons per weber i.e. (N/Wb) or amperes per metre (A/m.) or ampere tums per metre (AT/m). The mathematical expression for calculating magnetic field strength is, ampere turns length H = id tensity im Example 3.1: A pole having strength of 0.5x10-3 Wh is placed in a magnetic field at @ distance of 25 cm from another pole. It is experiencing a force of 0.5 N. Assume constant of medium (1 ___). Determine, 36n? x10-7 a) magnetic field strength at the point. b) the strength of other pole. c) distance at which force experienced will be doubled. Solution : The given values are, M, = 0.5x10-3 Wb, d=25cm = 0.25m, Fe05 N K = (—— 1 _,) = 28144773 36n? x10? (a) Magnetic field strength, H = Newton _ Force experienced _ __ 05 Wb «Pole strength = 5x10 =1000 N / Wb. b) According to Coulomb's law, Fp. KMiMz a2 0.5x1073 x 28144.773x Mz 05 = TT (0.25) My, = 222x103 Wb -» pole strength of other poleBasic Electrical Engineering 3-9 " Magnetic Circuits c) FeiN 28144.773x0.5«10-3 x2.22x10-9 dz le d = 0.1767 m = 17.67 cm At a distance of 17.67 em from another pole, the first pole will experience a force 1 N. ae ‘Key Point: When increases, — e brought nearer and nearer, force eeperienced by them 3.10 Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current (Electromagnets) When a coil or a conductor carries a current, it produces the magnetic flux around it. Then it starts behaving as a magnet. Such a current carrying coil or conductor is called an electromagnet. This is due to magnetic effect of an electric current. If such a coil is wound around a piece of magnetic material like iron or steel and carries current then piece of material around which the coil is wound, starts behaving as a magnet, which is called an electromagnet. The flux produced and the flux density can be controlled by controlling the magnitude the current. The direction and shape of the magnetic field around the coil or conductor depends on the direction of current and shape of the conductor through which it is passing. The magnetic field produced can be experienced with the help of iron fillings or compass needle. Let us study two different types of electromagnets, 1) Electromagnet due to straight current carrying conductor 2) Electromagnet due to circular current carrying coil 3.10.1 Magnetic Field due to Straight Conductor When a straight conductor carries a current, it produces a magnetic field all along its length. The lines of force are in the form of concentric circles in the planes right angles to the conductor. This can be demonstrated by a small experiment. force (flux) Consider a straight conductor carrying a current, passing , through a sheet of cardboard as shown in the Fig. 3.12. Sprinkle Sheet of iron fillings on the cardboard. Small tapping on the cardboard cardboard causes the iron filling to set themselves, in the concentric circular pattern. The direction of the magnetic flux can be determined by placing compass needle near the conductor. This direction depends on the direction of the current passing through the 1 conductor. For the current direction shown in the Fig. 3.12 ie. from top to bottom the direction of flux is clockwise around the Fig. 3.12 Magnetic field conductor, due to a straight conductorBasic Electrical Engineering 3-410 Magnetic Circuits Conventionally such current carrying conductor is represented by small circle, (top view of conductor shown in the Fig. 3.12). Then current through such conductor will either come out of paper or will go into the plane of the paper. Kay Point: When curreni going into the p observer, it is representted fy a ‘cross’, inside the The cross indicates rear view oe anand ae of an arrow, ce the pees is vested: oe aig! tide te eee The dot indicates front view i.e. tip of an arrow. This is shown in the Fig. 3.13. =@ Cross (Going away) from observer Ly (a) Current into the paper (b) Current out of the paper Fig. 3.13 Cross and Dot convention 3.10.1.1 Rules to Determine Direction of Flux Around Conductor 41) Right Hand Thumb Rule : It states that, hold the current carrying conductor in the tight hand such that the thumb pointing in the direction of current and parallel to the conductor, then curled fingers point Flux | in the direction of the magnetic son ~~ current field or flux around it. The Fig. 3.14 $ Thumb explains the rule. ~ Peat, _Uat vs apply this rule to the Curled Nig a conductor passing through card fingers indicate hand sheet considered earlier. This can Atepaon of aust be explained by the Fig. 3.15. Fig. 3.14 Right hand thumb rule 4 Fig. 3.15 Direction of magnetic lines by Right hand thumb ruleBasic Electrical Engineering 3-11 Magnetic Circuits Conventionally it is shown as in the Fig. 3.16. {a) Clockwise (b) Anticlockwise Fig. 3.16 Representation of direction of flux 2) Corkscrew Rule : Imagine a right handed screw to be along the conductor carrying current with its axis parallel to the conductor and tip pointing in the direction of the current flow. Then the direction of the magnetic field is given by the direction in which the screw must be turned so as to advance in the direction of the current. This is shown in the Fig. 3.17. ps pase 11.8, 8. men's CD aves " ui Ad vent Advancement a — direction n 4 Sroorent it of current (a) Clockwise rotation ({b) Anticlockwise rotation Fig. 3.17 Corkscrew rule 3.10.2 Magnetic Field due to Circular Conductor i.e. Solenoid Coil or A solenoid is an arrangement in which long conductor [/ senducter Core is wound with number of turns close together to form a coil. The axial length of conductor is much more than the diameter of turns. The part or element around which the conductor is wound is called as core of the solenoid. Core 1 1 may be air or may be some magnetic material. Solenoid Fig. 3.18(a) Solenoid with a steel or iron core in shown in Fig. 3.18{a). When such conductor is excited by the supply so that it carries a current then it produces a magnetic field which acts through the coil along its axis and also around the solenoid. Instead of using a straight core to wound theBasic Electrical Engineering Fig. 3.18(b) Flux around a solenoid Battery Flux lines 3-12 Magnetic Circuits conductor, a circular core also can be used to wound the conductor. In such case the resulting solenoid is called Toroid. Use of magnetic material for the core produces strong magnet. This is because current carrying conductor produces its own flux. In addition to this, the core behaves like a magnet due to magnetic induction, producing its own flux. The direction of two fluxes is same.due to which resultant Magnetic field becomes more strong. The pattern of the flux around the solenoid is shown in the Fig. 3.18(b). The rules to determine the direction of flux and poles of the magnet formed: 1) The right hand thumb rule : Hold the solenoid in the right hand such that curled fingers point in the direction of the current through the curled conductor, then the outstretched thumb along the axis of the solenoid point to the North pole of the solenoid or point the direction of flux lines inside the core. This is shown in Fig. 3.19 (a) and (b). Curted fingers current direction: ——s- Stretched N thumb N direction Fig. 3.19 (a) Direction of flux around a solenoid = Curled finger current Stretched street thumb N direction Right hand Fig. 3.19 (b) Direction of flux around a solenoid3-13 Magnetic Circuits In case of toroid, the core is circular and hence using right hand thumb rule, the direction of flux in the core, due to current carrying conductor can be determined. This is shown in the Fig. 3.20(a) and (b). In the Fig. 3.20 (a), corresponding to direction of winding, the flux set in the core is anticlockwise while in the Fig. 3.20 (b) due to direction of winding, the direction of flux set in the core is clockwise. The winding is also called magnetising winding or magnetising coil as it magnetises the core. Magnetising I -+- Magnetising supphy winding veel Flux ' direction in core Flux Core \ Thumb Curled pointing flux finger) & Right hand indirection of current Fig. 3.20 2) Corkscrew rule : If axis of the screw is placed along the axis of the solenoid and if screw is turned in the direction of the current, then it travels towards the N-pole or in the direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid. 3) End rule: If solenoid is observed from any one end then its polarity can be decided by noting direction of the current. Consider solenoid shown in the Fig. 3.21. If it is seen from the end A, current will appear to flow in clockwise direction, so that end behaves as S-pole of the magnet. While as seen from the end B, current appears to flow in anticlockwise direction then that end which is. B, behaves as N-pole of the magnet. End A End 8 Generally right hand thumb rule is used to 4 . determine direction of flux and nature of the Clockwise Anticlockwise poles formed. Using such concept of an Fig. 3.24 End rule electromagnet, various magnetic circuits can be obtained. 3.11 Nature of Magnetic Field of Long Straight Conductor We have seen that any current carrying conductor produces magnetic field around it and behaves like a permanent magnet with its field around.Basic Electrical Engineering Magnetic Circuits Consider a conductor carrying ‘current I amperes of length 'I' meters. Consider point P in the vicinity of such conductor. There will be influence of magnetic field on point P which can be quantified by magnetic field strength H at point P. This is definitely proportional to current I and inversely proportional to distance of point P from the conductor. The magnitude of such magnetic field strength "H' can be calculated by using the expression Fig. 3.22 (a) Field strength dua to ny +8in C2) The proof of this is out of the scope of this book. For infinitely long conductor ie. length ‘I’ is very very large then a, and a2 tend to 90°, 21 I . . = 7 qq bin 9+sin 99] = 5 This unit of magnetic field strength A/m is mentioned earlier when field strength is defined. Group of N H If such 'N' conductors are grouped together / to form'a coil or a cable then field strength due to current I passing through each conductor of the group can also be calculated by using same expression. The only change will be the Beld strength calculated above will get multiplied by "N'. So magnetic field strength at a point ‘d’ Fig, 3.22(b) metres away from centre of such group of ‘N’ conductors each carrying current I amperes is where AT/m means ampere tums per metre.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-15 Magnetic Circuits 3.11.1 Magnetic Field Strength due to a Long Solenoid Similar to the case of long straight conductor, we can decide field strength along the axis of a long solenoid. Such field strength depends on the number of tums of the conductor around the core and magnitude of current I passing through the conductor. If '/" is the length of the solenoid in metres then H can be determined by the expression : Key Point: The expression ts applicable for solenoids quiich are very very leng fut in practice the expression! 18 wsed for all types of solenotds. ‘> Example 3.2: A current of 2 amp is flowing through each of the conductors in a coil containing 15 such conductors. if a point pole of unit strength is placed at a perpendicular distance of 10 cm from the coil, determine the field intensity at that point. Solution : [= 2A, N = 15,d=10em=01m, NI 15x2 Und =e = 47.74 ATim H = => Example 3.3: A solenoid of 100 cm is wound on a brass tube. If the current Hirough the coil is 0.5 A, calculate the number of turns necessary over the solenoid to produce a field strength of 500 AT/m at the center of the coil. Solution : The field strength on the axis of a long solenoid is given by H = m AT/m I = Length of coil = 100 cm = 1 m, N = Number of turns I = Current = 05 A Nx0.5 1 500 N = 1000 So 1000 turns on solenoid are necessary to produce the required field strength. 3.12 Force on a Current Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field We have already mentioned that magnetic effects of electric current are very useful in analysing various practical applications like generato:s, motors etc. One of such important effects is force experienced by a current carrying conducto. in a magnetic field. Let a straight conductor, carrying a current is placed in a ~iagnetic field as shown in the Fig. 3.23 (a).Basic Electrical Engineering 3-16 Magnetic Circuits The magnetic field in which it is placed has a flux pattern as shown in the Fig. 3.23 (a). Magnet Current carrying conductor Magnetic flux lines (a) Flux due to magnet (b) Flux due to current carrying conductor Fig. 3.23 Current carrying conductor in a magnetic fleld Now current carrying conductor also produces its own magnetic field around it. Assuming current direction away from observer i.e. into the paper, the direction of its flux can be determined by right hand thumb rule. This is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 3.23 (b). [For simplicity, flux only due to current carrying conductor is shown in the Fig. 3.23 (b).] ‘Now there is presence of two magnetic fields namely due to permanent magnet and due to current carrying conductor. These two fluxes interact with each other. Such interaction is shown in the Fig. 3.24 (a). This interaction as seen is in such a way that on one side of the conductor the two lines help each other, while on other side the two try to cancel each other. This means on left hand side of the conductor shown in the Fig. 3.24 the two fluxes are in the same direction and hence assisting each other . As against this, on the right hand side of the conductor the two fluxes are in opposite direction hence trying to cancel each other. Due to such interaction on one side of the conductor, there is accumulation of flux lines (gathering of the flux lines) while on the other side there is weakening of the flux lines. The resultant flux pattern around the conductor is shown in the Fig. 3.24 (b). Addition of flux eee i ff AAS Senet / @))}) }-gipesna \ of flux Conductor a Ai —— Direction of force on conductor (a) Presence of the two fluxes (b) Resultant flux pattern Fig. 3.24 Interaction of the two flux linesBasic Electrical Engineering 3-17 Magnetic Circuits According to properties of the flux lines, these flux lines will try to shorten themselves. While doing so, flux lines which are gathered will exert force on the conductor. So conductor experiences a mechanical force from high flux lines area towards low flux lines area i.e. from left to right for a conductor shown in the Fig. 3.24. Ki fuses. ‘oint: Thus we can conclude that current carrying conductor placed in the c field, experiences a mechanical force, due to interaction of two — This is the basic principle on which D.C. electric motors work and hence also called motoring action. 3.12.1 Fleming's Left Hand Rule Direction of \ motion Lines of The direction of the force experienced by the current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field can be determined by a rule called “Fleming's Left Hand Rule’. The tule states that, ‘Outstretch the three fingers of the left hand namely the first finger, middle Thumb flux (motion) Left finger and thumb such that they hand % are mutually perpendicular to each Feat Dwection ot other. Now point the first finger in finger the direction of magnetic field and (flux) the middle finger in the direction Middie of the current then the thumb finger (current) Fig. 3.25 Fleming's left hand rule diagrammatic form in the Fig. 3.25. gives the direction of the force experienced by the conductor’. The rule is explained in the Apply the rule to crosscheck the direction of force experienced by a single conductor, placed in the magnetic field, shown in the Fig. 3.26 (a), (b), (c) and (d). Fig. 3.26 Direction of force experienced by conductorBasic Electrical Engineering 3-18 Magnetic Circuits 3.12.2 Magnitude of Force Experienced by the Conductor The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor depends on the following factors, 1) Flux density (B) of the magnetic field in which the conductor is placed measured in Wb/m? ie. Tesla. 2) Magnitude of the current I passing through the conductor in Amperes. 3) Active length '!' of the conductor in metres. The active length of the conductor is that part of the conductor which is actually ‘under the influence of magnetic field. If the conductor is at right angles to the magnetic field as shown in Fig. 3.27 (a) then force F is given by, _ F = Bl Newtons tHe He ile Magnetic field Magnetic field Magnetic field (a) (b) (ec) Fig. 3.27 Force on a current carrying conductor But if the conductor is not exactly at right angles, but inclined at angle 6 degrees with respect to axis of magnetic field as shown in the Fig. 3.27 (b) then force F is given by, F = Bllsin 8 Newtons As shown in the Fig. 3.27 (c), if conductor is kept along the lines of magnetic field then @ = 0° and as sin 0° = 0, the force experienced by, the: conductor: also zero. ey P >oint : The direction oe such force ean te reversed either by changing the - direction of current or by changing the direction of the flux lines in which it is kept. _ If both are reversed, the direction of force remains same. tu Example 3.4: Calculate the force experienced by the conductor of 20 cm long, carrying 50 amperes, placed at right angles to the lines of force of flux density 10x10-3 Wh/n’. Solution : The force experienced is given by, F = Blilsin @ where sin(@) = 1 as 6 = 90 degrees B = Flux density = 10x10 Wb/m? 1 = Active length = 20 cm = 0.2mBasic Electrical Engineering 3-19 Magnetic Circults I = current = 50 A F = 10x103 «50x02 = 0.1N 3.13 Force between Two Parallel Current Carrying Conductors The force between two parallel current carrying conductors depends on the directions of these two currents. We have seen that whenever there is interaction of two fluxes, the force gets generated. In this case each current carrying conductor produces its own flux around it. So when such two conductors are placed nearby, due to interaction of two fluxes there exists a force between them. 3.13.1 Direction of Both the Currents Same Consider two parallel conductors A and B which are carrying current in the same direction as shown in the Fig. 3.28 (a). ©© {a) Current carrying conductors {b) Flux pattern Fig. 3.28 Force of attraction Then the direction of the two radial fields around them can be decided by right hand thumb rule. When such two conductors are placed parallel to each other and nearby the two fields interact. In space between the conductors, the two fluxes are in opposite direction and cancel each other's effect and get neutralised while in space outside the conductors two fields help or assist each other, producing high flux area around the conductors. The resultant flux pattern is shown in the Fig. 3.28 (b). As flux lines outside try to shorten as per their property, they exert force on the conduciors. Hence conductors experience a force of attraction in between them. Force of —S + —_ ttraction 3.13.2 Directions of Two Currents Opposite to Each Other Consider the conductors A and B which are carrying currents in the directions opposite to each other. Then the directions of the two radial fields can be shown in the Fig. 3.29 (a) When such two conductors are placed nearby, parallel to each other then these two fields interact with each other. Now in space between the conductors two fluxes assist each other producing high flux zone. While surrounding the conductors, two fluxes oppose each other and cancel each other. The resultant flux pattern is shown in the Fig. 3.29 (b).Basic Electrical Engineering 3-20 Magnetic Circuits ©©) -H)@- “Force of repulsion (a) Currant carrying conductors (b) Flux pattern Fig. 3.29 Force of repulsion As flux lines within the space try to shorten as per their property and due to this they exert force on the conductors in directions opposite to each other. Due to this conductors experience a force of repulsion in between them. 3.13.3 Magnitude of Force between Two Parallel Conductors We have seen that two current carrying conductors when placed nearby, parallel to each other experience a force. The direction of such a force depends on the directions of the flow of currents. Let us derive expression for its magnitude which requires the understanding of the permeability. Let the two parallel conductors be 'A' and 'B' carrying currents I, and I, amperes | respectively, placed in vacuum. Now the magnetic field strength at a point ‘d’ metres from the axis of the current carrying conductor is given by _! H= iad AT/m or A/m where I is current through the conductor. Now let distance between the centres of the conductors be ‘r' metres. So magnetic field strength due to conductor A at a centre of B which is 'r' metres away is - i Ho oy Now let conductors are placed in vacuum then B = woH . Flux density due to conductor A at center of B is _ bolt 2 Boe oa Wo/m Now force experienced by conductor B is F = BIIBasic Electrical Engineering 3-21 Magnetic Circuits —$—$— Example 3.5: Two long parallel conductors carry currents of 70 A and 120 A in opposite directions. The perpendicular distance between the conductors is 15 cm, Calculate the force per metre which one conductor will exert on the other. Also calculate the field strength at @ point which is 60 mz from conductor A and 90 mm from conductor B. Solution : I, = 70 A, I, = 120A, R= 15cm = 0.15 m. Force per metre is required i.e. / = 1m I 1 F = 2x10 I Ip > = 2«10°7 x70x120x G75 = 0.0112 Nim I | Flux Flux t Kl P A 5 At point Pin between, Hisin same direction Fig. 3.30 Now magnetic field strength at a point 60 mm away from A is given by I 70 = ay = > = 185.68 Af Ma * aed ~ 2axtéoxt09) ,Basic Electrical Engineering 3-22 Magnetic Circuits Magnetic field strength at a rat 90 mm away from conductor B is given by I 120 Hy = —— = 212.00 A/ Tad ~ Zax(90%10) = Key Point: Since the currents wt the two vonductors are in opposite direchon, at a point in between the two, magnetic field strengths will be in same direction, as shown. Resultant magnetic field strength at a point 60 mm from A and 90 mm from B is H = Ha + Hg = 185.68 + 212.20 = 397.88 A/m 3.13.4 Unit of Ampere If the current through each conductor is 1 A while the distance between their centers is 1 m and length ! of cach conductor which is under the influence of flux density B is 1 m then, l)= b=1A andl=r=1lm F = 2x10-7 xixix} = 2x10-7 N. In such a case, force experienced by each conductor is 2x10-7 N. From this, unit of ampere can be defined. Key Point: A current, which when flowing through each of the two long paraliel straight conductors having mfinite length and negligible cross-section, separated from each otler by a distance of one meter in vacuum, producing a force 2x10-7 N per meter length in between the conductors is called one ampere current. 3.14 Permeability The flow of flux produced by the magnet not only depends on the magnetic field strength but also on one important property of the magnetic material called permeability. It is related to the medium in which magnet is placed. The force exerted by one magnetic pole on other depends on the medium in which magnets are placed. Key Point: The permeability is defined as the ability or ease with which the magnetic material forces the magnetic flux through a given medium. For any magnetic material, there ate two permeabilities, i) Absolute permeability _ii) Relative permeability. 3.14.1 Absolute Permeability (1 ) The magnetic field strength (H) decides the flux density (B) to be produced by the magnet around it, in a given medium, The ratio of magnetic flux density B.in a particular medium ( other than vacuum or air} to the magnetic field strength H producing that flux density is called absolute permeability of that medium.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-23 Magnetic Circuits It is denoted by » and mathematically can be expressed as, ie. The permeability is measured in units henries per metre denoted as H/m. 3.14.2 Permeability of Free Space or Vacuum ( to ) If the magnet is placed in a free space or vacuum or in air then the ratio of flux density B and magnetic field strength H is called Permeability of free space or Vacuum or air. It is denoted as 19 and measured in H/m. It denotes the ease with which the magnetic flux permeates the free space or vacuum or air. _ It is experimentally found that this 19 ie. ratio of B and H in vacuum remains constant every where in the vacuum and its value is 4nx10-7 H/m. B invacuum = 4nx10-7 H/m Key Point ; For a magnetic material, the absolute permeability j. is not constant. This is tecatise B and H bears a nonlinear relation in case of magnetic materials. magnetic field strength is increased, there is change in flux density B but not exac proportional to the increase in H. Sr aes The ratio B to H is constant only for free space, vacuum or air which is Ho =4nx10-7 H/m. 3.14.3 Relative Permeability ( j1,) Generally the permeability of different magnetic materials is defined relative to the permeability of free space ( 19). The relative permeability is defined as the ratio of flux density produced in a medium (other than free space) to the flux density produced in free space, under the influence of same magnetic field strength and under identical conditions. Thus if the magnetic field strength is H which is producing flux density B in the medium while flux density Bg in free space then the relative permeability is defined as, He = 2 whee cee, Bo It is dimensionless and has no units. For free space, vacuum or air, Ur= 1 According to definition of absolute permeability we can write for given H, Re $ in medium --(1)Basic Electrical Engineering 3-24 Magnetic Circuits B, Hg = 7 in free space ---Q2) Dividing (i) and (2) abe . Ho Bo B ‘but = hy Be uo fe B= Bohr H/m The relative permeability of metals like iron, steel varies from 100 to 100,000 For example if relative permeability of the iron is 1000 means it is 1000 times more magnetic than the free space or air. 3.15 Magnetomotive Force ( M.M.F.or F ) The flow of electrons is current which is basically due to electromotive force (e.m-f.). Similarly the force behind the flow of flux or production of flux in a magnetic circuit is called magnetomotive force (m.m.f.) The m.m.f. determines the magnetic field strength. It is the driving force behind the magnetic circuit. It is given by the product of the number of tums of the magnetizing coil and the current passing through it. Mathematically it can be expressed as, m. NI ampere tums where N= Number of turns of magnetising coil and I = Current through coil Its unit is ampere turns (AT) or amperes (A). It is also defined as the work done in joules on a unit magnetic pole in taking it once round a closed magnetic circuit. 3.16 Reluctance (S) In an electric circuit, current flow is opposed by the resistance of the material, similarly there is opposition by the material to the flow of flux which is called reluctance It is defined as the resistance offered by the material to the flow of magnetic flux through it. It is denoted by ‘S'. It is directly proportional to the length of the magnetic circuit while inversely proportional to the area of cross-section.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-25 Magnetle Circuits I S« a where'!’ in'm" while‘a’ in'm2' 5 = Ki a where K = Constant of proportionality = Reciprocal of absolute permeability of material = Fn ow. —! pa Holra It is measured in amperes per weber ( A/Wb). S A/ Wb The reluctance can be also expressed as the ratio of magnetomotive force to the flux produced. AT / Wo or A/ Wb 3.17 Permeance ‘The permeance of the magnetic circuit is defined as the reciprocal of the reluctance. It is defined as the property of the magnetic circuit due to which it allows flow of the magnetic flux through it. It is measured in weber per amperes (Wb/ A). 3.18 Magnetic Circuits The magnetic circuit can be defined as, the closed path traced by the magnetic lines of force i.e. flux. Such a magnetic circuit is associated with different magnetic quantities as mmf, flux reluctance, permeability etc. Consider simple magnetic circuit shown in the Fig. 3.31 (a). This circuit consists of an iron core with cross-sectional area of ‘a’ m? with a mean length of ‘I’ m. (This is mean length of the magnetic path which flux is going to trace.) A coil of N tums is wound on one of the sides of the square core which is excited by a supply. This supply drives a current I through the coil. This current carrying coil produces the flux () which completes its path through the core as shown in the Fig. 3.31 (a). This is analogous to simple electric circuit in which a supply ie. emf. of E volts drives a current I which completes its path through a closed conductor having resistance R. This analogous electrical circuit is shown in the Fig. 3.31 (b).Basic Electrical Engineering 3-26 Magnetic Circuits: Flux(o) I Iron core 5 E R Area of c/s ‘a mn Fig. 3.31 (a) Magnetic circuit Fig. 3.31 (b) Electrical equivalent Let us derive relationship between m.m-f, flux and reluctance. I = Current flowing through the coil. N = Number of tums. = Flux in webers. B = Flux density in the core. }t = Absolute permeability of the magnetic material Hy = Relative permeability of the magnetic material Magnetic field strength inside the solenoid is given by, Hs M AT/m ft) Now flux density is, B = pH Be babe Wb/m? .-Q) Now as area of cross-section is ‘a' m* , total flux in core is, = Ba = HobeNts Wb 8) where NI = Magnetomotive force mmf, in AT I ~ Kobra = Reluctance offered by the magnetic path.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-27 Magnetic Circuits This expression of the flux is very much similar to expression for current in electric im Example 3.6: An iron ring of circular cross sectional aren of 3.0 em? and mean diameter of 20cm is wound with 500 turns of wire and carries a current of 2.09 A to produce the magnetic flux of 0.5 m Wb in the ring. Determine the permeability of the material. (May - 2000) Solution : The given values are : a= 3em?=3x 104m, d= 20cm, N=50, I= 2A, @ = 05mWb Now, I = xxd=nx 20 = 628318.cm = 0.628318 m set. 0.628313 = £6667 109 gy Holra mx 107 xp, x3x 104 Ur 7” _ mmf _ NI faye NI_ 500x2 go NEL 22% 10° AT / Wo we & 05x 103 * ‘ Equating (1) and (2), 2 e198 = 18667 x 10° Hr p, = 833.334 3.18.1 Series Magnetic Circuits In practice magnetic circuit may be composed of various materials of different permeabilities, of different lengths and of different cross-sectional areas. Such a circuit is called composite magnetic circuit:When such parts are connected one after the other the circuit is called series magnetic circuit. Consider a circular ring made up of different materials of lengths I),/2 and 13 and with cross-sectional areas a, a, and ay with absolute permeabilities pj ,p2and 3 as shown in the Fig. 3.32.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-28 {Length of magnetic. fy material 2) Fig. 3.32 A series magnetic circuit (Length of Magnetic Circuits Let coil wound on ring has N turns carrying a current of I amperes. The total mmf. available is = NIAT This will set the flux “¢ which is same through all the three elements of the circuit. This is similar to three resistances connected in series in electrical circuit and connected to emf. carrying same current T through all of them. Its analogous electric circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 3.33. 1 R, Ry Ry Rr Ry Ls ' Ce] Ex Ry & T Fig. 3.33 Equivalent electrical circuit The total resistance of the electric circuit is Ry + Ry + Ry . Similarly the total reluctance of the magnetic circuit is, Total St Total 6 = NI NI (m.m.£.)T $1 +52 +53 = ly + + Hiay B242 H3a3 Total mmf _ NI NI Total reluctance ~ St ~ (5; +52 +53) Sr = (51 +52 +53) > 519+52 +53 6 (m.m.£), +(m.m.f)y +(m.m.f)Basic Electrical Engineering 3-29 Magnetic Circuits The total m.m.f. also can be expressed as, (m.om.f.)T = Hyl; +H2i2 +H3l3 By, = Be Bs where H, = 24 , Has —3 Hi H2 Ms So for a series magnetic circuit we can remember, 1) The magnetic flux through all the parts is same. 2) The equivalent reluctance is sum of the reluctance of different parts. 3) The resultant m.m.f. necessary is sum of the m.mf.s in each individual part. 3.18.2 Series Circuit with Air Gap Fhunto} The series magnetic circuit can also have a face theugh Such air gap is not possible in case of electric . air gap circuit. Iron ring of length f, Consider a ring having mean length of iron Fig. 3.34 A ring with an air gap part as ‘Ij’ as shown in the Fig. 3.34. Total mmf = NI AT Total reluciance where Sj; = Reluctance of iron path Sg = Reluctance of air gap Ae The cross-sectional area of air gap is assumed to be equal to area of the iron ring. ~ Is St = iar *io ar m.m. f. NI os Reluctance ~ oTBasic Electrical Engineering 3-30 Magnetic Circuits or Total mmf. = m.m4. for iron + m.m- for air gap => Example 3.7: An iron ring 8 cm. mean diameter is made up of round iron of diameter cm and permeability of 900, has an air gap of 2mm wide. it consists of winding with 400 turns carrying a current of 3.5A. Determine, i) mmf. fi) total reluctance iii) the flux iv) flux density in ring (May - 98, Dec-99) Solution : The ring and the winding is shown in the Fig. 3.35. Diameter of ring d= 8 cm, length of iron = md—length of air gap fy = wx (810 )—-2«104 = 0.2493 m. cltas gap k Key Point: While calculating iron length, Fig. 3.35 do nat forget to subtract length of air gap from total mean length. ig = Length of air gap = 2mm = 2x103m diameter of iron = 1 cm area of cross section a= ta = F(ixzy te 4d a = 7.853x10-° m? Area of cross section of air gap and ring is to be assumed same. i) Total mmf. produced = NI = 4003.5 = 1400 AT (ampere turns) ii) Total reluctance 8; = Sj +S, gs = al Hobra «Given p, = 900 0.2493 4nx10-7 x 900x7.853x10-5 = 2806947.615 AT/ Wb 5, = er as r= 1 for airBasic Electrical Engineering 3-34 Magnetic Circuits 3 s, = ——2x10" __ _ a 2667106 AT / Wb 8 4nx10-? «7.853x105 Sp = 2806947.615 420.2667 10° = 23.0737x10 AT / Wb mm.fi _ NI 1400 i) * = Seuctance St ~ Da0ra7xa08 = 6067x105 Wh 5 606710 _ 07725 Wb fm? iv) Flux density Fasscit = $. a 3.18.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuits In case of electric circuits, resistances can be connected in parallel. Current through each of such resistances is different while voltage across all of them is same, Similarly different reluctances may be in parallel in case of magnetic circuits. A magnetic circuit which has more than one path for the flux is known as a parallel magnetic circuit. Consider a magnetic. circuit shown in the Fig. 3.36 (a). At point A the total flux $, divides into two parts and 42. The fluxes $, and $2 have their paths completed through ABCD and AFED respectively. This is similar to division of current in case of parallel connection of two resistances in an electric circuit. The analogous electric circuit is shown in the Fig. 3.36 (b). (a) Magnetic circuit (b) Equivalent electrical circuit Fig. 3.36 A parallel magnetic circuitBasic Electrical Engineering The mean length of path ABCD ‘The mean length of the path AFED ‘The mean length of the path AD ‘The reluctance of the path ABCD The reluctance of path AFED The reluctance of path AD ‘The total m.m-f. produced flux mmf. For path ABCDA, NI For path AFEDA, NI where Ss Generally For parallel circuit, NI 3-32 Magnetic Circuits km im dom 31 $3 Se NI AT mmf. reluctance oxs 51+ OS. $252 + OS. by central limb iny one of outer limbs (NDap + (NIaaco or (NI)arep $5 +1951 or $252] As in the electric circuit emf. across parallel branches is same, in the magnetic circuit the m.m-f. across parallel branches is same. Thus same m.m.f. produces different fluxes in the two parallel branches. For such parallel branches, 1S = 2 Sy Hence while calculating total mmf, the mn. of only one of the two parallel branches must be considered. 3.18.4 Parallel Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap Consider a parallel magnetic circuit with air gap in the central limb as shown in the’ Fig. 3.37.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-33 Magnetic Circuits Fig. 3.37 Parallel circuit with air gap The analysis of this circuit is exactly similar to the parallel circuit discussed above. The only change is the analysis of central limb. The central limb is series combination of iron. path and air gap. The central limb is made up of, path GD = iron path = |e pathGA = airgap =i The total flux produced is >. It gets divided at A into 4 and 42. 9 = m+b2 The reluctance of central limb is now, = 4’ Hac Hoac Hence m.m.f. of central limb is now, [(m.m-tan =(m.m.fop +(m.m.filca Hence the total m.m.f. can be expressed as, (ND jotai= (ND¢p +(NIca +(NDagco oF (NI) are Thus the electrical equivalent circuit for such case becomes as shown in the Fig. 3.38. Similarly there may be air gaps in the side limbs Fig, 3.38 Electrical equivalent but the method of analysis remains the same. irculBasic Electrical Engineering 3-4 Magnetic Circuits ‘im Example 3.8: The magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 3.39 is constructed of wrought iron. The cross-section of the centre limb is 8 cm? and of each other limb, 5 cm?. If the coil on centre limb is wound with 1000 turns, calculate the exciting current required to set up a (flux of 1.2 mWb in the centre limb. Width of each air gap is 1 mm. Points on the B/H curve of wrought iron are as follows - (May - 2002) Fig. 3.39 Solution: Given; —_ |, = length of central limb = 10 cm = 0.1 m ac = 8 cm? =8x10-* m?, 6 = 12m Wb = 1.2x10-3 Wb 1, = Length of iron path of side limb = 25 cm = 0.25 m (on each side) Ty = Length of air gap = 1 mm =1x10-3 m ai = 5 em? =5x10-4 m? ‘This is the example of parallel magnetic circuit. The flux in central limb 12 mWb gets divided into two equal paths as shown in Fig. 3.39. Flux in side limbs= 8 Le. . o) = 0.6 mWbBasic Electrical Engineering Flux density in central limb is, Magnetic Circuits oe _ 1210-3 Be = = "ae Bx10-4 =15 Tesla Flux density in air gap is, _ i _ 0610-3 8 "ai 5x10-4 Flux density in side limb is, i _ 0.6x10-3 B, = 2 = 212 Wo/m? ie Tesla ai 5x10-4 =12 Wb/ m? ie.Tesla The equivalent circuit in electrical form is shown in Fig. 3.40 (a). Applying KVL to loop ABCD, r PRp-4Ri=0 E-IR.- 3 I I EalRct+ > Reta Ri Similarly applying Kirchhoff's mmf law to the loop, mmf = He le +H, Ig +Hi i Hele = mmf. required by central limb Hg lg = mmf, required by air gap Hii, = mmf. required by iron path on any one side 1) Central limb Be = 15 Tesla From B-H table given, corresponding, He = 2000 Hei, = 2000x01 = 200 AT I) Side limb Bi = 1.2 Tesla From B-H table, given corresponding Hj = 625 Hi) k = 625x025 = 156.25 ATBasic Electrica! Engineering 3-36 Magnetic Circuits Ill) The air gap Ce hae Bg = HoH, Bg 12 H, = &=—_ & Ho 4nxio-? Hg = 95492965 AT Hg lz = 95492965 x (1x 10-3) Hg lz = 954.9296 AT Total mmf. required = Hele + Hi li+Hg |g NI = 200415625 +954.9296 NI = 1311.17 AT a tl = 1311.17 _ ‘131117 No. oftumns ~~ 1000 I 131 A im Example 3.9: A cast steel structure is made of a rod of square section 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm shown in the Fig. 3.41. What is the current that should be passed in a 500 turn coil on the left limb so that a flux of 2.5 mWb is made to pass in the right limb. Assume permeability as 750 and neglect leakage. N= 500 Fig. 3.41 Solution : This is parallel magnetic circuit. Its electrical equivalent is shown in the Fig. 3.41 (a). The total flux produced gets distributed into two parts having reluctances $1 and $2. $1 = Reluctance of centre limb Sq = Reluctance of right sideBasic Electrical Engineering 3-37 Magnetic Circuits 5, -—! 25x 10-7 e_"@) A c 1 * [owe a1 "Tp t07 = 750m 2525x104, Sh h 5 co 6) = 424413103 AT/Wb R. R. S. = ly _ 40x10-2 a 3 2° Howe ®t 4nxl0-? x750x25x 25x10 679.061x 103 AT/Wb F ¢° 4 s, 8 For branch AB and CD, mmf, is same. Fig. 3.41 (a) mmf. = 9) S,= $2 52 And $2 = 25 mWb o given "3 3 oy = 252 = BEM HOGI? «4 ayy 1 424.413« 10 $146) =25+4=65 mWb 6 Total m.m.f. required is sum of the m.mf. required for AEFB and that for either central or side limb. Saera = Sp =679.061x 103 AT/Wb » mmf. for AEFB = Sarrg x = 679.061x 109 x 6.5x 10% = 4413.8965 AT Total mmf. = 4413.8965+9) 5; = 44138965 44x 10-3 x 424.413x 103 = 6111548 AT But NI = total mmf. Se = aaa 3.19 Kirchhoffs Laws for Magnetic Circuit Similar to the electrical circuit Kirchhoff's Laws can be used to analyse complex magnetic circuit. The laws can be stated as below : 3.19.1 Kirchhoffs Flux Law The total rr ignetic flux arriving at any junction in a magnetic circuit is equal to the total magnetic {ux leaving that junction.Basic Electrical Engineering Magnetic Circuits Ata junction, The law infact is used earlier to analyse parallel magnetic circuit at a junction A shown in the Fig.3.36 (a), where o = o1 +02 3.19.2 Kirchhoff's M.M.F. Law The resultant m.m.f. around a closed magnetic circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the products of the flux and the reluctance of each part of the closed circuit ie. for a closed magnetic circuit. As XS = fluxx reluctance = m.m.f. MMF. also can be calculated as Hx! where H is field strength and '!’ is mean length m.m.f, = Hi Alternatively the same law can be stated as : The resultant m.m.f. around any closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the products of the magnetic field strength and the length of each part of the circuit i.e. for a closed magnetic circuit 3.20 Comparison of Magnetic and Electric Circuits Similarities between electric and magnetic circuits are listed below : Magnetic Circuit Path traced by the current is called Path traced by the magnetic fux is electric circuit defined as magnatic circuit. E.MF. is the driving force in electric M.M-F. is the driving fore in the magnetic circuit, the unit is volts. circuit , the unit of which is ampere turns. There is current I in the electric circuit There is flux @ in the magnetic circuit measured in amperes. measured in: webors. The flow of electrons decides the current The number of magnetic lines of force in conductor. decides the flux. Resistance oppose the flow of the curent.| Reluctance is opposed by magnetic path Unit is ohm. to the flux. Unit is ampere tumMweber.Basic Electrical Engineering Re oe. Directly proportional to I. Inversely proportional to ‘a’. Depends on nature of material. Magnetic Circuits s= a Directly proportional to 1. Inversely proportional to = afte. Inversely proportional to area ‘a’, emf, The current I= —5 3 Kirchhoff's current and voltage jaw is applicable to the electric circuit. electric circuit the current actually Le. there is movement of electrons, Kirchhoff's mmf. law and flux law is applicable to the magnatic circuit Magnetic Circuit Due to mmf, flux gets established and does not flow in the sense In which current flows. are many materials which can be as insulators Le. air, P.V.C., resin atc, from which current can Energy must be supplied to the electric circuit to maintain the flow of current. The resistance and the conductivity are independent of current density (8) under constant temperature. But may change dus to the temperature. Electric lines of flux are not closed. They Start from positive charge and end on There is continuous consumption of electrical energy. ‘Thefe is no magnetic insulator as flux can pass through all the mateslals, even through the alr as well, Energy is required to create the magnetic flux, but is not required to maintain it, The reluctance, permeance and permeability are dependent on the flux density. 3.21 Magnetic Leakage and Fringing Most of the applications which are using magnetic effects of an electric current, are using flux in air gap for their operation. Such devices are generators, motors, measuring instruments like ammeter, voltmeter etc. Such devices consist of magnetic circuit with an air gap and flux in air gap is used to produce the required effect.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-40 Magnetic Circults: Such flux which is available in air gap and is utilised to produce the desired effect is called useful flux denoted by ou . It is expected that whatever is the flux produced by the magnetizing coil, it should complete its path through the iron and air gap. So all the flux will be available in air gap. In actual practice it is not possible to have entire flux available in air gap. This is because, we have already seen that there is no perfect insulator for the flux. So part of the flux completes its path through the air or medium in which coil and magnetic circuit is placed. The Fig. 3.42 shows the useful and leakage flux. Fig. 3.42 Leakage and useful flux 3.21.1 Leakage Coefficient or Hopkinson's Coefficient The ratio of the total flux ($7) to the useful flux (p ,) is defined as the leakage coefficient of Hopkinson's coefficient or leakage factor of that magnetic circuit. It is denoted by 4. total flux _ >r ‘uset bu The value of ‘¥’ is always greater than 1 as oy is always more than $y. It generally varies between 1.1 and 1.25. Ideally its value should be 1. 3.21.2 Magnetic Fringing When flux enters into the air gap, it passes through the air gap in terms of parallel flux lines. There exists a force of repulsion between the magnetic lines of force which are parallel and having same direction. Due to this repulsive force there is tendency of the magnetic flux to bulge out (spread ont) at the edge of the air gap. This tendency of flux to bulge out at the edges of the air gap is called magnetic fringing.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-441 Magnetic Circuits It has following two effects : 1) It increases the effective cross-sectional area of the air gap. 2) It reduces the flux density in the air gap. So leakage, fringing and reluctance, in Practice should be as small as possible. ~ Key Point ‘This is possible by choosing good magnetic material and Fig. 3.43 Magnetic fringing tnaking the air gap as narrow as _ possible. tmp Example 3.10: A cast iron ring of 40 cm mean length and circular cross section of 5 cm diameter is wound with a coil. The coil carries a current of 3 A and produces a flux of 3mWb in the air gap. The length of the air gap is 2 mm. The relative permeability of the cast iron is 800, The leakage coefficient is 1.2. Calculate number of turns of the coil. Solution : Given, |, = 40cm =04m, I, = 2x10-3 m I, = y= pgp = 04 - 210-3 = 0.398 m a T=3A, y= 2x10-3 Wb,pi, = 800, A=12 n=... Leakage coefficient 1 %s JN ho . 122% 2x10-3 LT a =19.63 X 10" m* * or = 2.4x10-3 Wb bad Now reluctance of iron path 8, = —! Fig. 3.44 Hobra a = Fd? = 2x52 = 19.6349 cm? = 19.634 x 10” 4m? $s, = ———2:28 __ - 201629.16 at/wb 4nx10-7 x 800% 19.63x107* _ mmf. _ NI oT = Teluctance ~ §; -3 = NI 24x10°° = sae29T6 NI for iron path = 483. 909 ATBasic Electrical Engineering 3-42 Magnetic Circuits Reluctance of air gap | 2x10-3 8 Amxt0-? «19.634 x 10-4 | = B10608.86 AT/Wb Now «= not 2x10-3 = aE NI for air gap = 16212177 AT Total mam, required = (NDjzon + (NDaic gap NI = 483:909 + 1621.2177 NI = 2105.1267 ic. Nx 3 = 2105.1267 N = 7017 =702 tums. Examples with Solutions hm Example 3.11: An iron ring has circular cross-section 4 cm in radius and the average circumference of 100 cm. The ring is uniformly wound with a coil of 700 turns. Calculate, i) Current required to produce a flux of 2 mWb in the ring, if relative permenbility of the iron is 900. ii) If a saw cut of Imm wide is made in the ring, calculate the current which will give same flux as in part (i). Neglect leakage and fringing. (Dec. - 2001, May - 2003, May-2006) Solution : Given, I = 100 cm =1m, N = 700, $= 2 mWb = 2x10-3 Wb, pr = 900 i) Radiusr = 4m a = mr? = mx(4)2 = 50.2654 cm? = 50.2654 x 10° 4 m? go = —mmf__ NI ~ ‘Teluctance ~ S I gs = _—_ and Howra o- Mibuted 700x1x4nx10-? x 900% 50.2654 10-4 -3 = 2x10 1Basic Electrical Engineering 3-43 Magnetic Circuits. I = 0.5025 A ii) Air gap of 1 mm is cut in the ring. So length of iron = 100 cm - 1 mm k= 99cm Length of air gap /, = 1 mm ' ° = 110-3 m, — Airgap fe Reluctance $= Sj +S, 1 ita ie 1=U+l, as for air gap pr = 1 Fig. 3.45 $= 99.9x10-2 110-3 41077 « 900%50.26x 1074 “hk %1077 %50.26x10-4 S = 175748.1 + 15833162 = 334079.72 AT/Wb _M., 37001 O = ng be 2x10"* = Serpe TE I = 0.9545 A iw ©Example 3.12: An iron ring has a mean diameter of 20 cm and a uniform circular cross section of 2.5232 cm diameter with a small brass piece fitted of 1 mm length. Three coils are wound on the ring as shown in the Fig. 3.46 and carry identical d.c. current of 2 A. If the relative permeability of iron is 800, estimate :- i) the magnetic flux produced in air-gap, ti) self-inductance of the arrangement. iii) net mmf. in the ring. (May - 2001) Fig. 3.46 Solution : From the various values given, as Flay? = F 25232)" = 5 om? = 5x 104 meBasic Electrical Engineering 3-44 Magnetic Circuits Ip = 1 dian = 1X 20 = 62.8318 cm = 0.6283 m I = Ip-f, = 0.6283 - 1x 10"? = 0.6273 m and i, = Tmm=1x 103m Ht, = 800 and I=2A I, | = 5 +5, =—i—+—8 St = & +S, Hora Hoa 0.6273 + 1x10 4nx10-7 x800x5x104 © 4nx10-7 x5x104 = 1247973.698 + 1591549.431 = 2839523.129 AT/Wb Net mmf. = Ny I, +Ny1,+N31,_ ... all produce flux in same direction = 2(500+125+125) = 1500 AT wel lz =1y =2A mm.f 1500 se 4 9 = Tetuctance ~ TE59573-195 ~ 528210 Wh Le N _, (600+125+125)? S =~ 9a39523.179 — = 0198 H mp Example 3.13: A magnetic circuit is excited by three coils as shown in the Fig. 3.47. Calculate the flux produced in the air gap. The material used for core is iron having relative permeability of 800. The length of the magnetic cirewit is 100 cm with an air gap of 2 mm in it. The core has uniform cross-section of 6 cm”. (Wee. - 2002) eta N= 800 Fig, 3.47 Solution : Given, N, = 600, I, =6A, Nz =100, h=5A N; = 800, =1A, fp=100cem=1mBasic Electrical Engineering 3-45 Magnetic Circuits = ip-I,=1m-2% 10" = 0.998 m I, = 2x10-3 m, ly = 800,a=6em’ =6x 104m Now _ total reluctance S = S, +S, gs, = i = __08 ___ s6s4548.263 aT/Wo Hollra 4xx10-? x 800x6x10-4 5 lk 2x10-3 = ——__—___ = 2652582.385 AT/Wb Hoa 4nx10-7 x6x10-+ / S$ = 4307130.648 AT/Wb. Let us find the direction of flux due to various coils using right hand thumb rule. As shown in the Fig. 3.47(a) mmf of coil (1) and (2) are in same direction while mmf. of coil (3) is in opposite direction. ——Airgap Net mamf= (N, [,) + (Nz 1) - (N53 1;) = (600 x 6) + (100 x 5) — (1 x 800) NI = 3300 AT . g= meme NI __ 3300 ly | ” “Feluctance “S ~ 4307130.648 Fig, 3.47 (a) <. Flux in air gap = 0.7661 mWb ‘ump Example 3.14: A magnetic circuit consists of two materials as shown in Fig. 3.48. The core has uniform cross-section of 6 cm’, The core carries a winding with 900 turns. The current in the coil is 3 A. Calculate the flux produced in the air gap if the length of the air gap is Imm. Relative permeability of material A is 1000 and that for B is 1500. The length of the magnetic circuit for A is 80 co and for B it is 50 cm. a-Gom*Basic Electrical Engineering 3-46 Magnetic Circuits Solution: [4 =80cm=08m, ig=50cn=05m a= 6em’=6x10'm, |, =1mm=1x10%m N = 900, I=3 4, Ur), = 1000, (r)g = 1500 The total reluctance S = Sy+ Sp+5, a= gute ~ Fae Tatoo TOT * 16108 AT/ Wo Se * ities ~ Faaao 7 xasoowocTOT © 2097 AT/ Wo g, = —& =——1X10° __sapgp912 AT/Wo & Hoa ~ 4nx10-7 x6x10-4 S = 28942212 AT/Wb m.m.f. NI The flux ¢ = Tinctancs = S 3x900 a o= Berea = 9-582 < 10° Wb = 0.9542 mWb tm Example 3.15: A ring of cast steel has an external diameter of 24 cm and internal diameter of 18 cm. The area of cross-section is 3 cm x 3 em. Inside and across the ring an ordinary steel bar 18cmx3 cm x 0.4 cm is fitted with negligible air gap. Calculate the mmf. required to produce a flux density of 1 Whim? in the other half ABD. Neglect leakage. The B-H curves are given below in table form. Refer the Fig. 3.49. iA For cast steel ring [evwin? [sf rasa | ra | re _| [warm | oo | soo | 1750 | 2000 | For steel strip | awein? [ra | ras [rs | t6_ | io [warm | r200 | soso | 700 | co | Fig. 3.49 Solution : Mean diameter of ring « “274 . 21 cmBasic Electrical Engineering 3-47 Magnetic Circuits Mean circumference = nD = 1x21 = 65.9732 cn = 0.659734 m. Length of path AED = Length of path ABD = SESR7H 8 032986 m For required flux density of 1 Wb/m? in path ABD, referring to corresponding B-H curve, value of H is 900 AT/m. mmf. for path ABD = HxI = 900 x 0.32986 = 296.874 AT Now the circuit is parallel magnetic circuit, the corresponding equivalent electric circuit is shown in the Fig. 3.49(a) The mmf. across path ACD is same as across path ABD as both paths are parallel to each other, across the path DEA which is supplying m.m.f. mam.f. across ACD = 296.874 AT “ H for path acD = Semel Fig. 3.49 (a) lacD 296, 874 = “gig = 1650 The corresponding B = 1.45 from B-H curve given for the steel strip, Flux through path ACD = Bxa Cross sectional area of steel = 3x 0.4 = 12 am? = 12x10 * m? gaco = 145% 12% 1074 = 1,74 = 104 Wo Similarly flux through path ABD = Bxa Cross sectional area of ABC = 3%3=9 cm" =9x 107‘ m? daup = 1x9x 1074 =9x 104 Wo ++ Total flux supplied by path AED = ¢4cp + aap 1.74% 104+ 9% 1074 = 1.074 x 10° We. QAED:Basic Electrical Engineering 3-48 Magnetic Circuits «. Flux density for path AED, B= fn, 3 p= Loxton _ 11933 Wb/m2 9x10-4 ‘The corresponding ‘H’ value required, from the table given is 1200. mmf. for path AED = Hx = 1200% 0.32986 = 395.832 AT Total mmf = 395.832 + 296.874 = 692.706 AT in Example 3.16 : A soft iron ring of 20 cm mean diameter and circular cross-section of 4om diameter is wound with a magnetising coil. A current of 5 A flowing in the coil produces flux of 2.5 imWb in the air gap which is 2.2 mm wide, Taking relative permeability fo be 1000 at this flux density and allowing for a leakage coefficient of 1.2, find the number of the turns on the coil. (Dec.-97) Solution : dean = 20 em, d =4em,1=5 A, d= 25 mWb, I, = 22 mm, k= 12 mean length { = nx dmean= ™%20x10~? = 0.6283 m Cross section diameter = 4 cm as qv =p = 12.566 cm? = 12.566 x10-4 m? J, = length of air gap = 2.2 mm = 2.2x 10> m J, = length of iron path = 1 - |, = 0.6261 m = _ftotal flux 6 = 9 Now * Sir gep ux ~ 9“! = 35.4073 $ = 3x 107 wb. The total reluctance of the magnetic circuit, S = § +5, Now gs = —i-___0626__sye4ou.15 AT/Wb Hora 4nx10-7 x1000%12.566% 10-4 3 While s, - 2 22x10 = 13932074 AT/Wb 8 " oa 4nx10-? x12.566x10-4Basic Electrical Engineering 3-49 Magnetic Circuits Ni = mmf ._ NI ow ® = Teluctance Si+Sg _ m.m.f.for air gap , 3 _ m.m.f forair gap & = 35 ie, 2.5x1073 = —Tar a mmf. for air gap = 3483.01 m.m.f. for iron , -3 _ mmf for iron SS SO = a TS o= mmf. for iron = 1189.4825 Hence the total munf. can be obtained as : Total = mm4f. for air gap + m.m-f. for iron mmf. = 3483.01 + 1189.48 = 4672.501 AT/Wb Now mmf = NxI ie. 4672501=Nx5 4672501 _ == Hence the number of turns on the coil required is approximately 935. N= 934.5 ina Example 3,17; An iron ring, cross sectional area of 5 cm™ and mean length of 100 cm, has an air gap of 2mm cut in it. Three separate coils having 100, 200 and 300 turns are wound on the ring and carry currents of 1 A, 2.5 A and 3 A respectively such that they produce additive fluxes in the ring. Relative permenbility of the ring material is 1000. Calculate the flux in the air gap. (Dec. - 98) Solution : a = 5 cm? =5x10"4 m%, ly = 100 cm = 1m, I, = 2mm = 2x10-3 m i, = Ip- ly =1-2x10-3 = 0.998 m Total reluctance S = Sj +S, 5, = i 2 __08 ___ 1 558366.332 AT/Wb Holea — 4mx10-? x1000%5% 1074 Ip 2x10-3 : S, = —& =——_"—____. = 3183098.862 AT/Wb 5 oa 4xx10-7 x5« 10-4 , S = 1588366.332 + 3183098.862 = 4771465.194 AT/Wb Net mmf. = Nyly + Ngly + Ngly = 100 x 1+ 200 « 2.5 + 300 x 3 = 1500 AT All m.m-fs help each other as they produce additive fluxes in the ring.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-50 Magnetic Circuits m.m.f. 1500 % = Teluctance ~ F77TE6S 194 ~ 00003143 Wb = 0.3143 mWb im Example 3.18; The Fig. 3.50 shows a magnetic circuit with two similar branches and an exciting coil of 1500 turns on central limb. The flux density in the air gap is 1 Wh/m* and leakage coefficient 1.2. Determine exciting current through the coil. Assume relative permeability of the iron constant equal to 600. Fig. 3.50 Solution : Flux density in air gap By = 1 Wb/m? a= 3xdeiem@ = 12x10! Mm dy = Bexa =1%12x10-4 = 12x10-4 Wh. a= Tet 242 % 12«10-4 ér = side = 1.2x12x10-4 side = 1.44 1073 Wo As the circuit is parallel magnetic circuit, oa = Ysider + side 2 = 2x 144 x 10% = 288 x 107? (as sides are similar) Section 1] Central tim k= 9em=0.19 m a = 12x10-4m? te = 0.19 Hobkra 4x 10-7 x600%12%10~4 S.= = 20999611 AT/WbBasic Electrical Engineering 3-54 Magnetic Circuits Section IN] One side limb 25 +25 = 50cem=05m a = 12x10 4m? i 05 Se ee Molea dx 10? x 600%12%10 = 55262133 AT/Wb Section Ill] Air gap 1, = lem=0.01m a = 12x10-4m?2 5 = ee 0.01 Moa 4nx10-7 x12x10-4 = 6631456 AT/Wb mmf. for central limb = Oc) Se = 2.88 ¥10~3 x 20999611 = 604.78 AT m.m-f. for one side limb = OsidexSi = 1.44 1073 x 552621.33 = 795.774 AT mand. for air gap = 9% S, = 12x 10° * x 6631456 = 7957.7472 AT -. Total m.m.f. = m.m.f. for central limb + m.m.f. for one side + m.m.f. for air gap NI 604.78 + 795.774 + 7957.7452 1500 1 = 9358.3107 I = 6.2388 A ‘ma Example 3.19: A magnetic circuit has the mean length of flux path of 20 cm, and cross sectional area of Icmi*. Relative permeability of its material is 2400. Find the m.m.f. required to produce a flux density of 2tesla in it. If an airgap of Imm is introduced in it, find the manf. required for the air gap as a fraction of the total m.m.f. to maintain the same flux density. (Dec. - 2003) Solution: ; =20cm, a=1cm?, p, = 2400, B=2T k 20%10-2 Hows ®@ Onxt0-7 x 2400x1x104Basic Electrical Engineering 3-52 , Magnetic Circuits = 663.145x103 AT/Wb @ = Bxa=2x1x104 Wb Now = maf mmf. = 9x5=2x10-lx663.145x105 = 132.6291 AT Now Ig = 1 mm is introduced in it. i = 20cm-1mm=0.199 m 5, = —/_=659.809x10? AT/Wb Hola i and Sg = reg 279877108 AT/Wb o He =1 for air 9 = Bxa=2x107 Wb w. Same as B is same (M.2.Diron path = SiX 51319658 AT and. (mm. fai: gap = Sgx$=1591.5494 AT Total mmf = 1723.5152 AT (M.M.) airgap = 0.9234 times total m.m.f iam Example 3.20: A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over a steel of relative permiability 900, having a mean circumference of 40 mm and corss-sectional area of 50 mm’, If a current of 5 A is passed through the coil, find i} mmf. ii) reluctance of the ring and iti) flux (Gee. ~ 2004) Solution : Given: N = 300, p, = 900, I= 40 mm = 40 x 107m, a= 50 mm’ = 50x10 8m, 1=5A i) mmf. = NI = 300 x 5 = 1500 AT 3 ii) g = 1 0x0? __ gg. 7355103 ATID Holtra — 4nx10-? x900x50x10~° This is reluctance of the ring. was gs = mmé iti) 3 o = mmf __1500__ _ 93.3057 mWb w+ Flux S$ 707355x103Basic Electrical Engineering 3-53 Magnetic Circuits > Example 3.21: An iron ring has its mean length of flux path as 60 cm and its cross-sectional areas as 15 cm. Its relative permeability is 500. Find the current required to be passed, through a coil of 300 turns wound uniformly around it, to produce a flux density of 1.2 tesla. What would be the flux density with the same current, if the iron ring is replaced by air-core ? (Miay - 2005) Solution : Given : J = 60 cm = 60 x 107? m, a = 15 cm? = 15 x 10° mp, = 500 N = 300, B=12T,1=? I 60x10~2 : = = __ = 636.6197 « 10° AT/W Case S © eum ” GiecdO? xB00x5%104 * , B= 2 ie = Bxa=12% 15x 104 =18 «109 Wo m.m.f, _ NI Now S= aS 636.6197 x 10? = 001 186x103 wm I = 3.8197 A .«. Current required (Case 2 : Ring replaced by air core for which wr = 1 hence p = Ho g = —L~ 0x10? __ 318.3998 x 108 AT/W Ho® = 4nx10-? x15x104 Tis same as calculated above ie. I = 3.8197 A mmf = NI = 300 x 3.8197 = 1145.91 AT ge mf 159 3g sor wh s 318.3098x 10° B= 223108 34107? Tor Whim’... New flux density a 15x10 im Example 3.22: A conductor of length 10 cm carrying 5 A is placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 1.25 tesla. Find the force acting on the conductor, if it is placed (i) along the lines of magnetic flux, (ii) perpendicular to the lines of flux, and (ii) at 30° to the flux. (May - 2005) Solution : 1 = 10 cm = 10 x 10°? m,1=5A,B=125T Case 1: Along lines of magnetic flux @= Angle between conductor and axis of magnetic field =v +. Fe BL sin @= 1.25 x 5x 10x 1077 sin 0 =O0N 1e5 Fig. 3.51Basic Electrical Engineering 3-54 « Magnetic Circuits Case 2: Perpendicular to lines of flux ie. @ = 90° F = BU. sin 90 = BLL = 125 x 5 x 10x 107? = 0.625 N Case 3: At 30° to the flux i.e. @ = 30° Fs BLL sin 30° = 1.25 x 5 x 10 x 10°? x 4 = 0515 N, ium Example 3.23 : A ring shaped core is made up of two parts of same material. Part one is @ magnetic path of length 25 cm and with cross sectional area 4 cm?, whereas part two is of length 10 cm and cross sectional area of 6 cm?. The flux density in part two is 1.5 Tesla. If the current through the coil, wound over core, is 0.5 Amp., calculate the number of turns of coil, Assume p1, is 1000 for material. [Dee.-2005] Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 352. By = S$ = $)+Sy=—1—4—2_ Bohra Mobraz 2510-2 10x10-? . 4nx10-7 1000%4%10-4 — 4mx 10-7 «1000% 610-4 = 629988.3164 AT/Wb m.m.f _ NI gears -4 . __NxO5S S9x10°" = S9oge S161 N = 1133.979 = 1134 -. Number of turns um Example 3.24: The mean diameter of steel ring is 40 cm and flux density of 0.9 Wh/m? is produced by 3500 Aturns/meter. If the cross-section of the ring is 15 cm” and number of turns 440, calculate: i) the exciting current ii) the self inductance in henry and iti) exciting current and inductance when air gap of 1 cm is cut im the ring. [Dec-2006]Basic Electrical Engineering 3-55 Magnetic Circuits Solution : dye.y = 40 em, B = 0.9 Wb/m’, H = 3500 AT/m, a = 15 cm? N = 440 ly = B= w= ii) Ls iii) Now air gap ig = 1 he Sp = o= Now o= 1.35x10-3 = mmf = N2_ -=° mXdmean = 7X40 = 125.6637 cm Howry H=pH b= OF - as7axi0-4 125.6637 x 10-2 ee = 3.2579 10° AT/ Wb 25714 10-4 x15x10-4 NI = Hx Jy = 3500 x 125.6637 x 107? = 4398.2295 AT 4398.2295 43982295 T 999 A 2 2 Nf 40" gos04 HH St 32579106 cm is cut. ly = ly = 124.6637 an | 48,2148. Si+8¢* Gat higa 124.6637x10-?_ 110-7 25714x10-4x15x10-4 = 4nx10-? x15x10-4 3232x106 +5.3051x106 = 8.5371x106 AT/Wb Bxa =09x15x10-4 = 1.35x10-3 Wb monf Reluctance m.m.f- 8.5371x10° NI = 11525.085 115251494 _ a s935 a N ay? = 0.0226 H 8.5371x10°Basic Electrical Engineering 3-56 Magnetic Circuits w= Example 3.25: An iron ring of mean length 50 cm has air gap of Imm and a winding of 200 turns. If the relative permeability of iron is 300, find the flux density when a current of 1 amp flows through the coil. [Dec.-2007] Solution : The total m.m-f. is, mam.f. = N= 200 « 1 j= 80em-~I, = 200 AT The total reluctance is, Sp=S,+ 85 = iron path + air gap ky ie vey © 1 for air * Toura Hoa 1, = 360 =2)__0499 _, 1107 alanx1077 x300 4nx10 Fig. 3.53 _ 2119.4133, - a o = mi NL ~ ‘reluctance Sp ~ ( 9 200 2-B= i a 7 Firpaiag ~ 00MS but (P= B = flux density B = 0.0943 Wh/m? ‘ump Example 3.26: A ring has diameter of 21 cm and a@ cross-sectional area of 10 om. The ring is made up of semi-circular sections of cast iron and cast steel with each joint having a reluctance equal to an air gap of 0.2 mm. Find the Amp-Turns required 10 produce a flux of 8 x 10 4 Wb. The relative permeabilities of cast steel and cast iron are 800 and 166 respectively. [May-2008] Solution : The arrangement is shown 2 in the Fig. 3.54, a=10cem — Cast iron At each joint there is an air gap. This is a series magnetic cirucit. The total reactance is, Sr = Sizon + Syteel + 9g + Sy d = 21 cm = total diameter of ring Cast steel py = 800 Fig. 3.54Basic Electrical Engineering 3-57 Magnetic Circuits . Total circumference = mx d = 65.973445 cm = 0.659734 m Total air gap length = 2x i, = 0.4 mm = 04 x 10? m and nd—-2i, lison = Ge = 0.329667 m = Ietect S, = —lsteel_,_liron sox Holria Holr2a “Hoa : 1 0.329667 , 0.329667 |, 2x0.2x10 4nx10-7 x10x104 | 800 166 1 = 2226601.156 AT/Wb 6 = 8x tot wh = meme Sr mmf. = ox $,=8 x 10" 4 2096601.156 = 1781.281 AT | Review Questions . State and explain the lnws of magnetism. . What is magnetic field and magnetic lines of force? State the properties of lines of force. . Define and state the units of following parameters: #) magnetic flux ii) magnetic pole strength iii) magnetic flux density iv) magnetic field strength v) absolute permeability wi) relative permeability vii) mang. viii) reluctance . Derive the relation between mamyf, reluctance and the flux. 5. State and explain the following rutes: # Right hand thumb rule ii) Flenting’s left hand rite iii) Fleming's right hand rule iv) Lenz's law 0) Kirchhoff's laws for magnetic cireuits . Explain the proceduce to analyse following circuit, with suitable example : i) Series magnetic circuit fi) Series magnetic circuit with air gap iii) Parallel magnetic circuit What is an electromagnet ? What is solenoid? . Point out the analogy between electric and magnetic circuits. ). Explain the magnetic leakage and magnetic fringing.Basic Electrical Engineering 3-53 ‘Magnetic Circuits. 11. 12. 13. Me 1S. 16. 1. 18. 0. Define leakage coefficient * Explain how current carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. A steel ring of 180 cm mean diameter has a cross sectional area of 250 mm?. Flux developed in the ring ts 500 Wb when a 4000 turns coil carries certain current. Find D mmf. required ii) reluctance iif) current in the coil Given that the relative permeability of the steel is 1100. (Ans, : 8181.72 AT, 1.6363 107, 2.045 A) A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over a steel ring of relative permeability 900, having mean circumference of 40 mm and cross-sectional area of 50 mm?. If a current of 25 A is passed through the coil, determine i) mmf. ii) reluctance of ring and iii) flux (Ans. : 7500 AT, 707355.3 AT/Wb, 0.0106 Wb) Find the number of ampere turns required to produce a flux of 0.44 milli-weber in an iron ring of 100 cm mean circumference and 4 cm? in cross-section. B Vs ty test for the iron gives the following result : If @ sew cut of 2 mm wide is made in the above ring, how many extra ampere turns are required to maintain same flux ? (Ans, : 486.307 AT, 1744 AT) An iron ring of 20 cm mean diameter and 10 cni? cross-section is magnetised by a coil af 500 turns. The current through the coil is 8A. The relative permeability of iron is $00. Find the flux density inside the ring . (Ans. 4 Whim?) An iron ring of 100 cm mean circumference is made from round iron of cross-section 10cm?, it relative permentility is 800. If it is wound with 300 turns, what current is required to produce a flux of 11x10 Wh ? (Ans. 3.647 A) A coil of 300 turns and of resistance 10 2 is wound uniformly over a steel ring of mean circumference 30 cm, and cross-sectional area 9 cmi2. It is cormected to « supply at 20 V dc. If the relative permeability of the ring is 1500, find : (i) the magnetising force ; (ii) the reluctance ; (iii) the mam.f. 5 and (iv) the flux. (Ans. : 600 AT, 176838.82 AT/Wb, 2000 AT/m, 3.3929 mWb) A coil is wound uniformly with 300 turns over a steel ring of relatioe permeability 900 having a mean circumference of 400 mm and cross-sectional area of 500 rtm? If a current of 25 A is passed through the coil find D mmf. ii) reluctance and iii) flux (Ans. : 7500 AT, 707355.3 AT/Wb, 10.6 mWb) : Qoo00Electromagnetic Induction 4.1 Introduction Uptill now we have discussed the basic properties, concepts of magnetism and magnetic circuits. Similarly we have studied, the magnetic effects of an electric current. But we have not seen the generation of emf. with the help of magnetism. The emf. can be generated by different ways, by chemical action, by heating thermocouples etc. But the most popular and extensively used method of generating an emf. is based on electromagnetism. After the magnetic effects of an electric current, attempts were made to produce electric current with the help of magnetism rather than getting magnetism due to current carrying conductor. In 1831, an English Physicist, Michael Faraday succeeded in getting e.m.f, from magnetic flux. The phenomenon by which emf. is obtained from flux is called electromagnetic induction. Let us discuss, what is electromagnetic induction and its effect ‘on the electrical engineering branch, in brief. 4.2 Faraday's Experiment Let us study first the experiment conducted by Faraday to get understanding of electromagnetic induction. Consider a coil having ‘N' turns connected to a galvanometer as shown in the Fig. 4.1. Galvanometer indicates flow of current in the circuit, if any. A permanent magnet is moved relative to coil, such that magnetic lines of force associated with coil get changed. Whenever, there is motion of permanent magnet, galvanometer deflects indicating flow of current through the circuit. : co Fig. 4.1 Faraday's experiment (4-1)Basic Electrical Engineering Electromagnetic Induction The deflection continues as ime as motion of magnet exists. More quickly the magnet is moved, the greater is the deflection. Now deflection of galvanometer indicates flow of current. But to exist flow of current there must be presence of emf. Hence such movement of flux lines with respect to coil generates an emf. which drives current through the coil. This is the situation where coil in which e.m.f. is generated is fixed and magnet is moved to create relative motion of flux with respect to coil. Similar observations can be made by moving a coil in the magnetic field of fixed permanent magnet, creating relative motion between flux and coil. This arrangement is shown in the Fig. 4.2. The coil Q) AB is moved by some external Gavanometer means in the magnetic field of fixed permanent magnet. Coil is connected to galvanometer. Whenever conductor AB is moved in the direction shown in the Fig. 4.2 the galvanometer deflects indicating flow of current through coil AB. Motion of coil AB Fig. 4.2 Another form of Faraday’s experiment Key Point: The deflection is on one side when condtctor | & moved up. While it is oS in other direction, when it is moved down. j i Similarly greater is the deflection if conductor is moved quickly in magnetic field. In both cases, basically there is change of flux lines with respect to conductor i there is cutting of the flux lines by the conductor in which e.m.f. induced. With this experiment Faraday stated laws called Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction. ‘This phertomienon of citing of flux lines conductor of coil is called electromagnetic ind: “conductor t0' set the Thus, to have induced e.m-f. there must exist, 1) A coil or conductor. 2) A magnetic field (permanent magnet or electromagnet). 3) Relative motion between conductor and magnetic flux (achieved by moving conductor with respect to flux or moving with respect to conductor.) esis as long elie tion peBasic Electrical Engineering 4-3 Electromagnetic Induction 4.3 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction From the experiment discussed above, Michael Faraday a British scientist stated two laws of electromagnetic induction. 4.3.1 First Law Whenever the number of magnetic lines of force (flux) linking with a coil or circuit changes, an emf. gets induced ir that coil or circuit. 4.3.2 Second Law The magnitude of the induced emf. is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages (flux x turns of coil). Flux linkages Flux x Number of turns of coil The law can be explained as below. Consider a coil having N turns. The initial flux linking with a coil is >, Initial flux linkages = No, In time interval t, the flux linking with the coil changes from 9; to $2. Final flux linkages = N $2 Rate of change of flux linkages = Be Nh Now as per the first law, e.m-f. will get induced in the coil and as per second law the magnitude of e.m.f. is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages. e« Ne Ni e= Kx Sa Nie _ dg e= Ni With K as unity to get units of e as volts, dd is change in flux, dt is change in time hence (do / dt) is rate of change of flux. ‘Now as per Lenz's law (discussed later), the induced e.m.f. sets up a current in such a direction so as to oppose the very cause producing it. Mathematically this opposition is expressed by a negative sign. Thus such an induced e.m.f. is mathematically expressed alongwith its sign as,Basic Electrical Engineering 4-4 Electromagnetic Induction 4.4 Nature of the Induced E.N.F. EME. gets induced in a conductor, whenever there exists change in flux with that conductor, according to Faraday's Law. Such change in flux can be brought about by different methods. Depending upon the nature of methods, the induced emf. is classified as, 1) Dynamically induced em, and 2) Statically induced emf 4.5 Dynamically Induced E.M.F. The change in the flux linking with a coil, conductor or circuit can be brought about by its motion relative to magnetic field. This is possible by moving flux with respect to coil conductor or circuit or it is possible by moving conductor, coil, circuit with respect to stationary magnetic flux. Both these methods are discussed earlier in discussion of Faraday: experiment . Key Point: Such an induced eat “which i is due to physica “mov conductor wit: respect to flux. p if of agnet wit respect to conductor is called dynamically 1 nd emf. or motional induced 4.5.1 Magnitude of Dynamically Induced E.M.F. Consider a conductor of length | metres moving in the air gap between the poles of the magnet. If plane of the motion of the conductor is parallel to the plane of the magnetic field then there is no cutting of flux lines and there can not be any induced emf. in the conductor such condition is shown in the Fig. 4.3(a). ey Point! When plane of the flux conductors then there is no cutting of flux, he In second case as shown in the Fig. 43(b), the velocity direction i.e, motion of conductor is perpendicular to the flux. Hence whole length of conductor is cutting the flux line hence there is maximum possible induced emf. in the conductor. Under £7 Pane of tux such condition plane of flux and plane of motion are perpendicular £7 Piane of motion to other: Fig. 4.3 (a) No cutting of fluxBasic Electrical Engineering 4-5 Electromagnetic Induction fpoton ‘of conductor v Conductor -— i eae A Consider a conductor moving Ae with velocity v m/s such that its plane of motion or direction of i velocity is perpendicular to the direction of flux lines as shown in Fig. 4.3 (b) Maximum cutting of flux Fig. 4.4 (a). | ty vsing j—— Flux lines. @ Conductor +> v (velocity) vcos 6 v Direction of flux (a) (b) (c) Fig. 4.4 B = Flux density in Wb/m? Active length of conductor in metres. (This is the length of conductor which is actually responsible for cutting of flux lines.) v = Velocity in m/sec. Let this conductor is moved through distance dx in a small time interval dt, then Area swept by conductor = Ixdx m? Flux cut by conductor = Flux density x Area swept do = BxIxdx Wb According to Faraday's law, magnitude of induced e.m-f. is proportional to the rate of change of flux.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-6 Electromagnetic Induction Flux cut Time = # [Here N = 1 as single conductor) BI dx dt dx But SE = Rate of change of displacement = Velocity of the conductor v * i This is the induced e.m.f. when plane of motion is exactly perpendicular to the plane of flux. This is maximum possible e.m.f. as plane of motion is at right angles to plane of the flux. But if conductor is moving with a velocity v but at a certain angle § measured with respect to direction of the field (plane of the flux) as shown in the Fig. 44 (b) then component of velocity which is v sin @ is perpendicular to the direction of flux and hence responsible for the induced e.m.f.. The other component v cos @ is parallel to the plane of the flux and hence will not contribute to the dynamically induced e.m.f. ‘Under this condition magnitude of induced emf. is given by, where @ is measured with respect to plane of the flux. tm—> Example 4.1: A conductor of 2 m length moves with a uniform velocity of 1.27 m/sec urtder a magnetic field having a flux density of 1.2 Whine (tesla), Calculate the magnitude of induced eam. if conductor moves, i) at right angles to axis of field. ii) at an angle of 60° to the direction of field. Solution : i) The magnitude of induced emf. e= Bly for @ = 90° 12x2%1.27 = 3.048 volts Bly sind where 0 = 60° e = 12x2x127xsin60 = 2.6397 volts. e ii) ump Example 4.2: A coil carries 200 turns gives rise a flux of 500 Wb when carrying @ certain current. If this current is reversed in v th of a second. Find the average emf. induced in the coil.Basic Electrical Engineering Solution : The magnitude of induced emf. is, = nig NG 4-7 Electromagnetic Induction where do is change in flux linkages ie. change in N $. Now in this problem flux is 500x10-¢ for given current. After reversing this current, flux will reverse its direction. So flux becomes (-500x10-6). dg This happens in time dt u 0.1 sec. Average emf. 2-01 = 800% 10-6 - (+500 10 ), -1«103 =n = ron") a vt Ol 45.2 Direction of Dynamically Induced E.M.F. The direction of induced e.m.f. can be decided by using two rules. 1) Fleming's Right Hand Rule As discussed earlier, the Fleming's Left Hand Rule is used to get direction of force experienced by conductor carrying current, placed in a magnetic field while Lines of Direction of e.m-f. (current) Fig. 4.5 (a) Fyee Force riot! Right hand Flee f Current (e.m-t) fem.) Fig. 4.5 (b) Fleming's Right Hand Rule is to be used to get direction of induced e.m.f. when conductor is moving in a magnetic field. According to Fleming's right hand rule, outstretch the three fingers of right hand namely the thumb, fore finger and the middle finger, perpendicular to each other. Arrange the right hand so that first finger point in the direction of flux lines (from N to S) and thumb in the direction of motion of conductor with respect to the flux then the middle finger will point in the direction of the induced e.m.f. (or current). Consider the conductor moving in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig. 4.5 (a). It can be verified using Fleming's right hand rule that the direction of the current due to the induced emf. is coming out. Symbolically this is shown in the Fig, 4.5 (b).Basic Electrical Engineering 4-8 Electromagnetic Induction Kay Point: In practice though magnet 1 moved keeping the conductor stationary, ‘while application of rile, hums should point im the direction of relative motion we conductor with respect to flux, assuming the flux stationary. This rule mainly gives direction of current which induced e.m.f. in conductor will set up when closed path is provided to it. Verify the direction of the current through conductor in the four cases shown in the Fig. 4.6 by the use of Fleming's right hand rule. Relative motion of conductor {a) Current coming out {b) Current going In Relative motion of canductor {c) Current going In (4) Current coming out Fig. 4.6 Verifying Fleming's right hand rule 2) Lenz's Law This rule is based on the principles derived by German Physicist Heinrich Lenz. The Lenz's law states that, “The direction of an induced emf. produced by the electromagnetic induction is such that it sets up a current which always opposes the cause that is responsible for inducing the e.m.f.' In short the induced emf. always opposes the cause producing it, which is represented by a negative sign, mathematically in its expression. _ Nae ee c™at The explanation can be given as below : Consider a solenoid as shown in the Fig. 4.7. Let a bar magnet is moved towards coil such that N-pole of magnet is facing a coil which will circulate the current through the coil.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-9 Electromagnetic Induction According to Lenz's Law, the direction of current due to induced emf. is so as to oppose the cause. The cause is motion of bar Bar magnet magnet towards coil. So emf, will set up a current through coil in such a way that the end of solenoid facing bar magnet will j become N-pole. Hence two Fig. 4.7 Lenz's law like poles will face each other experiencing force of repulsion which is opposite to the motion of bar magnet as shown in the Fig. 4.7. <== Direction of motion If the same bar magnet Force of attraction due to] j, Coa a induced d is moved away from the me current in coi coil, then induced emf. will set up a current in the direction which will cause, Bar magnet the end of solenaid facing bar magnet to behave as S-pole. Because of this two => Direction of motion unlike poles face each other and there will be force of Fig. 4.8 Lenz’s law attraction which is direction of magnet, away from the coil. The galvanometer shows deflection in other direction as shown in the Fig. 4.8. The Lenz's law can be summarized as, ] Direction of current is. such that N pole gets a Motion of Induced Current Direction of ‘Tries to oppose Lenz's law magnet emf ‘eld magnet motion Induced em. D>jopposes caus producing it Fig. 4.9 Concept of Lenz's lawBasic Electrical Engineering 4-10 Electromagnetic Induction 4.6 Statically Induced E.M.F. Key Point: The change in flux tines with respect to coil can te achieved without physically moving the coil or the magnet. Such induced emf in a coil which is | without physical movement of coil or a magnel is called statically induced emf. Explanation : To have an induced e.m.i. there must be change in flux associated with a coil. Such a change in flux can be achieved without any physical movement by increasing and decreasing the current producing the flux rapidly, with time. Consider an electromagnet which is producing the necessary flux for producing e.m.f. Now let current through the coil of an electromagnet be an alternating one. Such alternating current means it changes its magnitude periodically with time. This produces the flux which is also alternating ie. changing with time. Thus there exists do/dt associated with coil placed in the viscinity of an electromagnet. This is responsible for Producing an em¥. in the coil. This is called statically induced em. Key Point ; dt cam be noted that there is no pliysical moveynent of conductor, it #8 the alienating supply winich ts responsible for such The concept of statically induced em-f. is shown in the Fig. 4.10. ‘Current flows due to statically Stalically induced e.mf. emf. 6 f ind juced Coll in viscinity of t in this coil cae alternating fux + Alternating flux (6) 2 Changing with time Alternating current Alternating t voltage Fig. 4.10 Concept of statically induced e.m.f. Such an induced e.m-f. can be observed in case of a device known as transformer. Note : Due to alternating flux linking with the coil itself, the e.m.f. gets induced in that coil itself which carries an alternating current. The statically induced e.m.f. is further classified as, 1) Self induced em.f. and 2) Mutually induced emf. We shall study now these two types of statically induced e.m.fs.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-11 Electromagnetic Induction 4.7 Self Induced E.M.F, Consider a coil having ‘N' turns and carrying current T’ when switch ‘S' is in closed position. The current magnitude can be varied with the help of variable resistance connected in series with battery, coil and switch as shown in the Fig. 4.11. The flux produced by the coil links with the coil itself. The total flux linkages of coil will be N ¢ Wb-turns. Now if the current T is changed with the help of Fig. 4.11 variable resistance, then flux produced will also change, due to which flux crx due to current linkages will also change. Hence according to Faraday's law, due to rate of change of flux linkages there will be induced e.m-f. in the coil. So without physically moving coil or flux there is induced emf. in the coil. The phenomenon is called self induction. The e.m-f. induced in a coil due to the change of its own flux linked with it is called self induced e.m.f. Ses ee oe Sea: 4.7.1 Self Inductance According to Lenz's law the direction of this induced e.m-f. will be so as to oppose the cause producing it. The cause is the current I hence the self induced e.m.f. will try to set ‘up a current which is in opposite direction to that of current I. When current is increased, self induced emf. reduces the current tries to keep it to its original value. If current is decreased, self induced emf increases the current and tries to maintain it back to its original value. So any change in current ‘through cail is opposed fy te the coil. Iti is analogous ‘0 electrical inectia or electromagnetic inertia, 4.7.2 Magnitude of Self Induced E.M.F. From the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, self induced emf. can be expressed asBasic Electrical Engineering 4-12 Electromagnetic Induction Negative sign indicates that direction of this emf. is opposing change in current due to which it exists. The flux can be expressed as, = (Flux / Ampere )x Ampere = $x IT Now for a circuit, as long as permeability |’ is constant, ratio of flux to current (ie. B/H) remains constant. Rate of change of flux = 4 rate of change of current do _ oat dt I'dt e= nf 4 ++ (39 The constant Ne in this expression is nothing but the quantitative measure of the tT property due to which coil opposes any change in current. So this constant Ne is called coefficient of self inductance and denoted by ‘L'. Tt can be defined as flux linkages per ampere current in it. Its unit is henry (H). A circuit possesses a self inductance of 1 H when a current of 1 A through it produces flux linkages of 1 Wb-turn in it. dl From this equation , the unit henry of self inductance can be defined as below. The coefficient of self inductance is also defined as the e. the current in the circuit changes uniformly at the rate of one ampere per second.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-13 Electromagnetic Induction 4.7.3 Expressions for Coefficient of Self Inductance (L) Lt = Ne , . Q) I But o= Le a Le x henzies Q) I Now s=— pa L 2 “(2 a 2 2, Le SBE . Niven henries 8) Where 1 = length of magnetic circuit a = area of cross-section of magnetic circuit through which flux is passing. 4.7.4 Factors Affecting Self Inductance of a Coil Now as defined in last section, L = N@Hobea ! We can define factors on which self inductance of a coil depends as, 1) It is directly proportional to the square of number of turns of a coil. This means for same length, if number of.turns are more then self inductance of coil will be more. 2) It is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the magnetic circuit. 3) It is inversely proportional to the length of the magnetic circuit. 4) It is directly proportional to the relative permeability of the core. So for iron and other magnetic materials inductance is high as their relative permeabilities are high.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-14 Electromagnetic Induction 5) For air cored or non magnetic cored magnetic circuits, 1;=1 and constant, hence self inductance coefficient is also small and always constant. As against this for magnetic materials, as current ie. magnetic field strength H (NI/J) is changed, 1; also changes. Due to this change in current, cause change in value of self inductance. So for magnetic materials it is not constant but varies with current. 6) Since the relative permeability of iron varies with respect to flux density, the coefficient of self inductance varies with respect to flux density. 7) lf the conductor is bent back on itself, then magnetic fields produced by current through it will be opposite to each other and hence will neutralize each other. Hence inductance will be zero under such condition. ‘mp Example 4.3: If a coil has 500 turns is linked with a flux of 50 mWb, when carrying a current of 125 A. Calculate the inductance of the coil. If this current is reduced to zero uniformly in 0.1 sec, calculate the self induced emf. in the coil. Solution : The inductance is given by, = Ne bey Where N = 500, §=50 mWb=50x103 Wb, [=25A 500x50%10-% L= — Ts = 02H e = =! _ 1 [Final value of l-Initial value of I at Time 0-125 - 02x 5 }- 250 volts This is positive because current is decreased. So this ‘c’ will try to oppose this decrease, means will by to increase current and will help the growth of the current, im Example 4.4: A coil is wound uniformly on an iron core. The relative permeability of the iron is 1400. The length of the magnetic circuit is 70 em. The cross-sectional area of the core is 5 em?. The coil has 1000 turns, Calculate, i) Reluctance of magnetic cireuit i) Inductance of cail in henries. iti) E.MLE. induced in coil if a current of 10 A is uniformly reversed in 0.2 seconds. Solution : He = 1400, L=70cm =07m, N = 1000 A = San’ =5x104 m?, wo= 4nx10-7 i) s-— O27 =7.957%105 AT/Wb Hokra ~ dnx 0-7 x1400x5x104Basic Electrical Engineering 4-15 Electromagnetic Induction ‘i Nz _ (1000)? L= ~-i 2: 9 S 7.957105 12566 iii) A current of + 10 A is made - 10 A in 0.2 sec. dl _ -10-10 ae > oz = 7100 dl e = -Lyy = 71.2566x(-100) = 125.66 volts Again it is positive indicating that this em.f. opposes the reversal ie. decrease of current from +10 towards ~10 A. 4.8 Mutually Induced E.M.F. If the flux produced by one coil is getting linked with another coil and due to change in this flux produced by first coil, there is induced emf. in the second coil, then such an emf. is called mutually induced e.m.f. Consider two coils which. are placed adjacent to each other as shown in the Fig.4.12. The coil A has ‘Nj tums while coil B has N, number of turns. The coil A has switch 5, variable resistance R and battery of ‘E’ volts in series with it. A Fig. 4.12 Mutually induced e.m.f. galvanometer is connected across coil B to sense induced eam.f, and current because of it. Current through coil A is I, producing flux 6). Part of this flux will link with coil B i.e. will complete its path through coil B as shown in the Fig. 4.12. This is the mutual flux da. Now if current through coil A is changed by means of variable resistance R, then flux 1 changes. Due to this, flux associated with coil B, which is mutual flux $7 also changes. Due to Faraday's Jaw there will be induced emf. in.coil B which will set up a cwrent through coil B, which will be detected by galvanometer G. cg acatenets oes ty a — emp it ea St Sliae HESSBasic Electrical Engineering 4-16 Electromagnetic Induction 4.8.1 Magnitude of Mutually Induced E.M.F. Let Ni Number of turns of coil A N2 = Number of turns of coil B 1; = Current flowing through coil A o1 Flux produced due to current 1) in webers. $2 = Flux linking with coil B According to Faraday’s law, the induced e.m.f. in coil B is, d e = -N, Sh Negative sign indicates that this em.f. will set up a current which will oppose the change of flux linking with it. Now = Fxk If permeability of the surroundings is assumed constant then $2 » I) and hence $3 /1y is constant. Rate of change of $ = pe Rate of change of current [1 dg. aly dt ~ Ty "dt = -N>. #24. = Nn PS = [Nee a= -( \ar i called coefficient of mutual inductance denoted by M. Coefficient of mutual inductance is defined as the property by which emf. gets induced in the second coil because of change in current through first coil. Coefficient of mutual inductance is also called mutual inductance. It is measured in henries.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-17 Electromagnetic Induction 4.8.2 Definitions of Mutual Inductance and its Unit 1) The coefficient of mutual inductance is defined as the flux linkages of the coil per ampere current in other coil. 2) It can also be defined as equal to e.m-f. induced in volts in one coil when current in other coil changes uniformly at a rate of one ampere per second, Similarly its unit can be defined as follows : 1. Two coils which are magnetically coupled are said to have mutual inductance of one henry when a current of one ampere flowing through one coil produces a flux linkage of one weber tum in the other coil. 2. Two coils which are magnetically coupled are said to have mutual inductance of one henry when a current changing uniformly at the rate of one ampere per second in one coil, induces as e.m.f. of one volt in the other coil. 4.8.3 Expressions of the Mutual Inductance (M) N2o2 1 M= Ty 2) $9 is the part of the flux $, produced. due to I;. Let Kj be the fraction of ¢, which is linking with coil B. g2 = Kid 3) The flux $ can be expressed as, m.m.f. Ni ly “ Reluctance ~~ S Mm = Nok (“s") If all the flux produced by coil A links with coil B then K, = 1. _ NiN2 Mes I =_— id K)=1 4) Now s fa ar 1 Then M =Basic Electrical Engineering 4-18 Electromagnetic Induction N,N. I 5) If second coil carries current I, producing flux 4, the part of which links with coil A ie. 0) then, 1 = Ke and M= NLS M = “UAL Now bg = Mh m= “et M KyNy N s If entire flux produced by coil B, links with coil 1, K, = 1 hence, NiNz M = S 4.8.4 Coefficient of Coupling or Magnetic Coupling Coefficient Ni K We know that, M = Spr and m= Sate Multiplying the two expressions of M, Mam = N2kioi Nike 2 q qh 'N: N: w on But iti = Saif inductance of coil 1= Ly uh = Self inductance of coil 2 = Ly M2 = Ky Kp Ly Lo VEik: fil: = K/Tile MBasic Electrical Engineering 4-19 Electromagnetic Induction where K = /KiK The K is called coefficient of coupling. If entire flux produced by one coil links with other then K = Ky = Ky = 1 and maximum mutual inductance existing between the coil is M = K/LqLz. This gives an idea about magnetic coupling between the two coils, When entire flux produced by one coil links with other, this coefficient is maximum i.e. Unity. It can be defined as the ratio. of the actual mutual inductance present between the two coils to the maximum possible value of the mutual inductance. The expression for K is, heicoils:are ie fo. tell rey ase 4.9 Effective inductance of Series Connection Similar to the resistances, the two inductances can be coupled in series. The inductances can be connected in series either in series aiding mode called cumulatively coupled connection or series opposition mode called differentially coupled connection. 4.9.1 Series Aiding or Cumulatively Coupled Connection Two coils are said to be cumulatively coupled if their fluxes are always in the same direction at any instant. For this, winding direction of the two coils on the core must be the same so that both will carry current in same direction. The Fig. 4.13 shows cumulatively coupled connection. Coil 1 has self inductance L and Coil 2 has self inductance L2. While both. have a mutual inductance of M. Fig. 4.13 Series aidingBasic Electrical Engineering 4-20 Electromagnetic Induction 4.9.2 Equivalent Inductance of Series Aiding Connection Refer to Fig. 4.13 which shows two coil of self inductances L, and L, connected in series aiding mode. The mutual inductance between the two is M. IF current flow through the circuit is changing at the rate of St then total ems. induced will be due to self induced e-m.fs and due to mutually induced e.mfs. Due to flux linking with coil 1 itself, there is self induced e.m.f, a= a4 Due to flux produced by coil 2 linking with coil 1 there is mutually induced emf, e7 = ut Due to flux produced by coil 1 linking with coil 2 there is mutually induced emf, en = ug Due to flux produced by coil 2 linking with itself there is self induced e.m.f. e@, = -L2 a The total induced e.m-f. is addition of these e.m.fs as all are in the same direction, e = ete +eq24e2 =—Ly § -Mdi mgt “24 di di -[Li+L2 +2M)a= -L ap " u Where Lg = Equivalent inductance Leg Ly +Lz+2M 4.9.3 Series Opposition or Differentially Coupled Connection Two coils are said to be differently coupled if their fluxes are always in the opposite M direction at any instant. Colt Coil 2 Such a connection is shown in the Fig. 4.14. Fux | os & Coil 1 has self inductance L, — = ea * Coil 2 has self inductance Ly Winding direction opposite. and the mutual inductance Hence current direction opposite between the two is M. Fig. 4.14 Series oppositionBasic Electrical Engineering 4-21 Electromagnetic Induction 4.9.4 Equivalent Inductance of Series Opposition Connection In series opposition, flux produced by coil 2 is in opposite direction to the flux produced by coil 1. If current in the circuit is changed at a rate 4! then their self induced emfs will oppose the applied voltage but mutually induced e.m.f. will assist the applied voltage. Similar to the cumulative connection there will exist four e.m.f.s which are, di di a= ig, en = MG di di en = me and e =-Le 5 Hence the total e.m.f. is the addition of these four e.m.fs, @ = ejt ent eq2+ 2 di ..di_.,di_) di Lig +Mz ME -Ly a di di ~ fly +Lz-2M)P = Leg Where L,, = Equivalent inductance of the differentially coupled connection. ma Example 4.5 : Two coils A and B are kept in parallel planes, such that 70 % of the flux produced by coil A links with coil B . Coil A kas 10,000 turns. Coil B has 12,000 turns. A current of 4 A in coil A produces a flux of 0.04 mWb while a current of 4A in coil B produces a flux of 0.08 mWb. Calculate, #) Self inductances Ly and Lg ii) Mutual inductance M_ iii) Coupling coefficient, Solution : The given values are, Na = 10,000, Ng = 12,000, 65 = 0.7 d& = 207 Bs %% dy = 004x103 Wb forI, =4 A. 0.0810 Wb for Ip =4.A $BBasic Electrical Engineering 4-22 Electromagnetic Induction i) Self Inductance La = ate. = 10,000 00810 =01H and 1s Nats = 1000<008«10"8 iy ii) Mutual Inductance M= spa = Saket - HNO ROPE OOS = 00H iii) Coupling Coefficient Fea com vials V0ix024 410 Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field We know that energy is required to establish flux ie. magnetic field but it is not required to maintain it. This is similar to the fact that the energy is required to raise the water through a certain height (h) which is ‘mgh’ joules. But energy is not required to maintain the water at height “h'. This energy ‘mgh’ gets stored in it as its potential energy and can be utilized for many purposes. Key Point: The energy sealed tab Si : hs cf This can be explained as — below. Consider a solenoid, the Solenoid current through which can be controlled with the help of switch §, resistance R shown in the Fig, 4.15. u Initially switch ‘S' is open, so current through coil, I is zero. When switch is closed, current Fig. 4.15 Energy stored in magnetic field will try to built its value equal to L Neglect the resistance of coil. It will take some time to increase the current from ‘zero’ to ‘I’ say ‘dt’ seconds. In the mean time, flux linkages associated with the coil will change, due to which there will be self induced e.m-f. in the coil whose value is given by, dl e-= Lik Energy is er stored in. —~». i magnetic fieldBasic Electrical Engineering 4-23 Electromagnetic Induction So at every instant, coil will try to oppose the increase in the current. To overcome this opposition, supply has to provide the energy to the circuit. This is nothing but the energy required to establish the current ie. magnetic field or flux around the coil. Once current achieves its maximum value ‘I’ then change in current stops. Hence there can not be any induced e.m-f. in the coil and no energy will be drawn from the supply. So no energy is required to maintain the established flux. This is because, induced e.m-f. lasts as long as there is change in in flux lines associated with the coil, according to Faraday’s law. e y ‘supply i stored in the coll ‘the magnetic + field, ns its.potential energy. ~ ah When current is again reduced to zero by opening the switch then current through the coil starts decreasing and flux starts decreasing. So there is induced em.f. in the coil according to Faraday's law. But as per Lenz's law it will try to oppose cause producing it which is decrease in current. So this induced e.m.f. now will try to maintain current to its original value. So instantaneously this induced e.m.f. acts as a source and supplies the energy to the source. This is nothing but the same energy which is stored in the magnetic field which gets recovered while field collapses. So energy stored while increase in the current is returned back to the supply when current nt decreases i ie. when field collapses. Ee aAtug an edvRe The expression for this energy stored is derived below. 4.10.1 Expression for Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field Let the induced e.m-f. in a coil be, di est This opposes a supply voltage. So supply voltage “V' supplies energy to overcome this, which ultimately gets stored in the magnetic field. dl al ve-e = fad} - uf ' dl Power supplied = VxI = Ly », Energy supplied in time dt is, E = Powerx Time = Lolxixdt LdixI joules.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-24 Electromagnetic Induction This is energy supplied for change in current of dI but actually current changes from zero to I. « Integrating above total energy stored is, E juan = x parr o Q 4.10.2 Energy Stored Per Unit Volume’ ‘The above expression for the energy stored can be expressed in the different form as, 1 = tL y E= xLl joules Now L-% = LNop = 1 Nor E = 57 I2joules = ZNoTjoules Now Ni = Hi ampere-tums o= Ba E = i BaH! ~ 2 But axl = AreaxLength = Volume of magnetic circuit -. Energy stored per unit volume is, 4 = 58H But B= pH :. Energy per unit volume, ha H2 joules / m3 = Pol:Basic Electrical Engineering 4-25 Electromagnetic Induction In case of inductive circuit when circuit is opened with the help of switch then current decays and finally becomes zero. In such case energy stored is recovered and if there is resistance in the circuit, appears in the form of heat across the resistance. While if the resistance is not present then this energy appears in the form of an arc across the switch, when switch is opened. If the medium is air, jp; = 1 hence |t = [tg must be used in the above expressions of energy. ‘mm Example 4.6: A coil is wourd on an iron core to form a solenoid. A certain current is passed through the coil which is producing a flux of 40 Wb. The length of magnetic circuit is 75 cm while its cross-sectional area is 3 cm’ . Calculate the energy stored in the circuit. Assume relative permeability of iron as 1500. Solution : l= 7%om=075m, a=3cm'= 3x10+ m @ = 40 pWh= 40x10 Wb, pr= 1500 @_ 40x10-6 2 Bets = 0.133 Wb, 3x104 dim . Energy stored per unit volume, 2 2 1B wt 0883)" sg aise am 2h 2holr 2 4xx10-7 x1500 ~Total energy stored = Energy per unit volumexVolume = Ex(axi) u 4,7157x(3x1074 0.75) = 0.00106 joules 4.11 Lifting Power of Electromagnets Force of attraction between the two magnetized surfaces forms the basis of operation of devices like lifting magnets, solenoid valves, magnetically operated contactors, clutches etc. P newtons Final Consider two poles of two magnetized surface ul. “a N and S having an air gap of length Tim between them and a cross-sectional area of ‘; sqm. Let P newtons be the force of attraction T between them. This is shown in the Fig. 4.16. et oan The energy stored in a magnetic field in air Fig. ate per unit volume is, . 1B. , B=3,, /™ ve HeedBasic Electrical Engineering 4-26 Electromagnetic Induction Energy stored = 1B ant 3 2Ho If south pole is moved further by distance dx then energy stored will further increase by. 2 . 5 2 Ho axdx joules This increased energy must be equal to the mechanical work done to move pole by distance dx which is, Pxdx = (Forcex displacement) 2 Pda = © This is the force in newtons existing between two magnetized surfaces. Examples with Solutions ‘um Example 4.7: A square coil of 20 cm side is rotated about its axis at a speed of 200 revolutions per minute in a magnetic field of density 0.8 Whim? If the number of turns of coil is 25, determine maximum emf. induced in the coil. Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 4.17. Relation ' Fig. 4.17 As shown in the Fig. 4.17 (b) the active length responsible for cutting flux lines becomes | = 20cm = 0.2 m. Now N = 200 rp.m. We want the velocity of m/secBasic Electrical Engineering 4-27 Electromagnetic Induction vero t x22 fyhere N is in xp. and r= 10 em = 0.1 mJ 2nx 200 x ve Ol 7 = 2.094 m/sec. B = 08 Wb/m? and Active length = 0.2 m The maximum e.m.f. induced in conductor AB, shown in Fig. 4.17 (b) will be, e Blvsin6 For Cmax 0 = 50° e 0.8 x 0.2 2.094 = 0.335 volts The emf, induced in sides BC and AD is almost zero as their plane of rotation becomes parallel to plane of field. And maximum e.m-f. induced in conductor CD will be same as AB = 0.335 volts. -. eam.f. induced in one turn of the coil [AB + CD] = 2x 0.335 = 0.67 volts In all, there are 25 turns in that coil, «. Total e.m.f. induced in a coil is = 25% 0.67 = 16.75 volts im> Example 4.8 : A conductor has 50 cm length is mounted on the periphery of a rotating part of d.c. machine, The diameter of a rotating drum is 75 cm. The drum is rotated at a speed of 1500 r.p.m. The flux density through which conductor passes at right angles is LIT. Calculate the induced emf. in the conductor. Solution : The active length 1=50em=05m, N= 1500 rpm, B= 1.1 T, @ = 90° The rotating drum on which conductor is mounted is called armature of a dic. machine. The arrangement is as shown in Fig. 4.18. The linear velocity 2nN $—— Conductor vero srxa ) = 0.375 xZEGO" 58.9 m/sec. Fig. 4.18Basic Electrical Engineering 4- 8 Electromagnetic Induction nal r = 375 cm " Induced e.m.f in a conductor = Biv =11%05% 58.9 32.397 volts ma Example 4.9 : Find the inductance of a coil of 200 turns wound on a paper core tube of 25 cm length and 5 cm radius. Solution : Given values are, N = 200, 1 = 25 cm = 0.25 m,r =5 cm = 0,05 m c/s area = Td? where d = Diameter = Fay? -* 2 a= qi) qx (2%005) a = 7.853 x10-3 m? For paper, Br =1 s =e 5 i 533 x 107 ATW Hoa 4nx10~7 x7.853x10-9 2 2 Loe NA _ 000)? 1579 x10-3H S “2.533107 = 1579 mH tm Example 4.10: An electromagnet is wound with 800 turns. Find the value of average emf. induced and current through coil, if it is moved to that magnetic field is changed from 1 mWb to 0.25 mWb in 0.2 sec. The resistance of the coil is 500 2. Solution : Given values are, N = 800, $2 = 0.25 mWb, $, = 1 mWb, t = 0.2 sec., R = 5002 ~ nde. 2-01) _ _[0.25x10-3 -1x10-5 Induced emf enn ig? = - 00 [25 =-| 73 = 3 volts _ emf 3 _ 3A] Current I = R = apg = O10 A=6mA mm Example 4.11 : A solenoid is wound with 1000 turns having area of cross-section 25 cnt’. When 2.5 A current flows through the coil, the flux density is 0.8 Wh/n? and when current is increased to 5 A, the flux density becomes 1.2 Wh/m*. Find the average value of self inductance within given current limits. If this change in current is achieved within 0.04 sec., calculate the self induced e.m.f.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-29 Electromagnatic Induction Solution : Given values are, N = 1000, a = 25 cm? = 25 «10-4 m?, I, = 2.5.A, B, = 0.8 Wb/m?, I, = 5 A, By = 1.2 Wb/m,, t = 0.04 sec. _ No =n oe Les Tr ie. L=N a L=N 2-41 asB= 2 I,-) a $2 91 = Na ata B2-Bi Ty-1 Tz -ly L = Now e= Negative sign indicates that it opposes change in current. tum Example 4.12 : An iron ring of mean length of 100 cm and cross-sectional area of 10 cm™ has an air gap of 1 mm cut in it. It is wound with a coil of 100 turns. Assuming relative permeability of iron as 500, calculate the inductance of a coil. Solution : Given values are, N = 100, a = 10 cm? = 1010-4 m?, p= 500 Length of iron is [,= Mean length — Air gap length = 100 em- 1107! cm = 99.9 cm = 0.999 m Length of air gap is 1,= 1mm = 1x10-3 m ki 0.999 § = — = —_______. Hora 4nx10-? x500x10%10-4 = 15899«106 AT/Wb 5 - 5 1x10-3 Hoa ~ dnxi0-7 x10x10-4 = 7.9577 x105 AT/Wb. Total S = S, +S, = 238567 x10AT/Wb cs 2 be NL 000" gag x10-3 H S ~ 2.38597106 = 4191 mHBasic Electrical Engineering 4-30 Electromagnetic Induction tmp Example 4.13 : An iron cored toroid of relative permeability 980 has a mean length of 120 cm and core area of 100 mm?. A current of 0.3 A establishes a flux of 40 wWb, calculate i) the number of turns of coil ii) self inductance iii) energy stored in magnetic field. Solution : Given values are p.,= 980, | = 120 cm = 1.2m, a= 100 mm? = 100x10-@ m I = 034, 6 =40§ Wh = 40x 107° Wb i) Flux density Ba $. SHO 204 Wo Field strength He we = = = 324.8 AT/m “9 324.8 = Nets N = 1299.2 = 1300 tums No _ 1300x40x10-* ii) L= 73 i = 0.1733 H iii) Energy stored E=}L1 = = fx0a793% (0.9? = 7.81079 joules Otherwise alternatively energy stored can be calculated as, 2 E = 1 Volume = 4x04" _s(ax1) 2Wobr 2° 4nx10-? x 980 = $x 1299224%5 x(100%10-x1.2) = 7.8x10-3 J imp Example 4.14 : A coil of 200 turns having a mean diameter of 6 cm is placed coaxially at the centre of a solenoid of 50 cm long with 1500 turns and carrying current of 2.5 A. Calculate the mutual inductance between the two coils. Solution : Given values are, = 1500 (solenoid), N= 200, 1, =50cm=05m, 1,=25A4Electromagnetic Induction gooo0o0o00 0 Fig. 4.19 -. Flux density at centre is = B B ~. Flux linking with second coil is, " 2 Now magnetic field strength H at the centre of cail due to solenoid current is = Nah oar _ 1500%2.5 - 05 H HoH (@, = 1) 410-7 «7500 = 9.424 10-3 Wb/m? Bxag= 9.424 x10" 3 x Fx (d2)? = 9.424x10-3 x Fe(6x 10-2)? = 2.664 x10-5 Wb -. Mutual inductance between the coils is, M = Nate _ 200%2.664x107> y 25 = 2.1318 x10-3 H = 7500 AT/m im Example 4.15 : Two coils with a coefficient of coupling of 0.5 bekveen them are connected in series 0 as to magnetize a) in the same direction (series aiding), b) in the opposite direction (series opposition). The corresponding values of equivalent inductance for a) is 1.9H and b) 0.7 H. Find the self inductance of each coil, mutual inductance between the coil. Solution : Given values are, Now for series aiding, For series opposition, and Subtracting (2) from (1), Substituting in (3), K=05 rc & Bzg o 4 l)+l)-2M=19H Ly +l,-2M =07H KJEyLy = 05 JC Tz 12 ie M=03H 05 JjLz ie. LyLy = 0.36 036 Ly (May-2006) el) +2) -» (3)Basic Electrical Engineering 4-32 Electromagnetic Induction Substituting in (1), Ly + = +#2x03 = 19 o o 12 +036 -13 Ly 13+y(1. 0. 1, = Bak 36 2 Ly Ly ima» Example 4.16 : A coil of 800 turns of copper wire those diameter is of 0.375 mm, The length of the core is 90 cm. The diameter of core is 2.5 cm. Find the resistance and inductance of the coil. Assume specific resistance of copper as 1.73 x10~6 Q-cm. 0.9 H or Ly = 04H 04H orl, =0.9H Solution : => 25m } 90cm Fig. 4.20 Length of the coil = (xxd) x Number of turns As xd = Circumference of 1 turn And d = Diameter of the core :.Length of the coil = (mx 2.5%1072)x 800 = 62.83 m p = 1.73x10-§ Q-em = 1.73x1078 Om r= Pt a Where a= fd? where d = Diameter of coil d = 0.375 mm = 0.375 10-3 m as (0.375 x10- 3)? = 1.104 «10-7 m*Basic Electrical Engineering 4-33 Electromagnetic Induction 173«10-8 «6268 _ I r= Ef. = 9.94.0 a 11044x10-? F _ N While L= = L Reluctance S= ional where T= Length of core = 0.9 m a = c/s area of core = i P= Fx(2.5x10-2)? = 4.908 x10-4m? Assume Hr =1 09 S$ = ——_—""_______ = 145902 «10° AT/Wb 4x07? x1x4.908x1074 N2 _ (800)? = ———____. = 4.386x10-4 HH “S” ” 1,45902x107 = 0.4386 mH imp ~Example 4.17 : A length of an air cored solenoid is 1.7 m and aren of cross-section is 12cm”. The number of turns of coil is 1000. Calculate : i} The self inductance. ii) The energy stored in magnetic field when a current of 10 A flows through the coil. (Dec.-97) Solution :! = 1.7 m, a= 12 cm’ = 12x10-4m’ , po = 4nx10-7, N = 1000, 1 = 104 s-—-. 17 © Hoa” 4xx10-? x12x10-4 = 1.127310? AT/Wb vw. Hy, = 1 as air cored 2 2 Le NE _ 0000" = g.97x10-! H = 88.7 mH S 1.1273x109 Now if E= Jur = 2x(s8.7%10-9)x(10)2 = 0.0443 J im Example 4.18 : Two coils having 3000 and 2000 turns are wound on a magnetic ring. 60% of flux produced in first coil links with the second coil. A current of 3 A produces flux of 0.5 mWb in the first coil and 0.3 mWb in the second coil. Determine the mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling. (Dec.-98)Basic Electrical Engineering 4-4 Electromagnetic Induction Solution : N, = 3000, N, = 2000, 6 = 0.5 mWb, $7 = 0.3 mWb I, = h=3A and § =06% N22 _ 2000%0.3x10-3 _ M = =pR == = 02H -3 Ly = Nid - 3000x0.5x1079 gg ay Th 3 _ Nadz _ 2000x0.3%1073 _ ys pen = 02 = 0.6924 Jirtz 05x02 ‘=> Example 4.19 ; Two coils having 1000 and 300 turns are wound on a common magnetic path with perfect magnetic coupling. The reluctance of the path is 3x10° AT/Wb. Find the mutual inductance between thers. If the current in 1000 turns coil changes uniformly from 5 A to zero in 10 milliseconds, find the induced e.m,f. in the other coil. . (Dec. -99, Dec.-2000) Solution : N, = 1000, Nz = 300, K = 1,5 = 3x10°AT/Wb NiN2z 1000x 300 Now, M= axe o1H dl, 0-5 = -M-==-01 =50V & dt aca] This the induced e.m.f. in other coil. mm Example 4.20 : Two coils A and B are placed such that 40 % of flux produced by coil A links with coil B coils A and B have 2000 and 1000 turns respectively. A current of 2.5 A in coil A produces a flux of 0.035 mWb in coil B. For the above coil combination, find out () M, the mutual inductance and (ii) the coefficient of coupling Ka, Ky and K (iti) Self inductances L, and Ly. (May-2000) Solution: Ny = 2000, Ny = 1000, Ky = 04, 6g = 0.4 6, I,=25A and $g = 0.035 mWb Np bp _ 1000 x 0.035 x 10-5 Ta 75 = 0.014 (i) Mutual Inductance, M = " (ii) $3 = 0.035 mWb and gp = 04 4Basic Electrical Engineering 4-35 Electromagnetic Induction t= Ly = La = $8. 9035 _ 9.0875 mwb 04° 04 Nada _ 2000 x 0.0875 x 10-3 Ta 25 0.07 H Assuming that same current in coil B produces 0.035 mWb in coil B. lg = (ii) M = 0.014 = Ky = op = Ka = K 0 Na ¢p _ 1000 x 0.035 x 10-3 as OO Nata yy = Na Ko $n Ip 2000 x Kp x 0.035 x 10-3 25 0.5 Ka $a and it is given that 40% of 4 links with coil B, o4 [KaKp = [04x0.5 = 0.4972 ‘mi Example 4.21: Two windings connected in series are wound on a ferromagnetic ring having cross-sectional area of 750 mm? and a mean diameter of 175 mm. The two windings have 250 and 750 turns, white the relative permeability of material is 1500. Assuming no leakage of flux, calculate the self inductances of each winding and the mutual inductance as well. Calculate ef. induced in coil 2 if current is coil 1 in increased uniformly from zero to 5A in 0.01 sec. Solution : pes be as Ny = Self inductance, L = Le= (Dec.-2001) ‘Length of magnetic circuit = %X dimean 1x175x1073 = 0.5497 m 750 mm? = 750x 10-® m? =7.5x 10-4 m? = 250, Nz = 750, py, = 1500 No _NI T but 9= == N NIN? TSSBasic Electrical Engineering 4-36 Electromagnetic Induction We have, S= A z sg - —- Hole (4m«10-7 )(1500)(7.5% 10-4) = 388833.2 AT/Wb Nz (250)? = bate. Li = “3 = apgga3a = 1607 H N3 (70) = te = lo = 3 = 3egsaaa = 4466 A The mutual inductance between the two windings is given by, Ni No _ (250) (750) M = —"s” = "3gasa320 = 04822 4 M = 0.4822 H EMF, induced in coil 2 is, e = mit = -0.4822%: ce) =-M11V mm Example 4.22 : If a current of 5 A flowing in coil witk 1000 turns wound on a ring of ferromagnetic materiat produces a flux of 0.5 mWb in the ring. Calculate (i) self inductance of coil (ii) emf. induced in the coil when current is switched off and reaches zero value in 2 millisec. (iii) mutual inductance between the coils, if a second coil with 750 turns is wound uniformly over the first one. (May-2003) Solution : $= 0.5 mWb, N = 1000, 1=5A 3 9 L= Ne. 1000 0510 =01nt ' dt __ gf 0-38 )_ ii) e= Lae oaf 2% |-290¥ iti) Let Nz = 750 of other coil As other coil is wound on first, all the flux produced by coil 1 links with the second coil. $2 = Kigi=¢) as Kyp=1 M = Nata _ Naffiti] 1 1Basic Electrical Engineering 4-37 Electromagnetic Induction -3 = ae =0.075 H im> Example 4.23 : An electric conductor of effective length of 0.3 metre is made to move with a constant velocity of 5 metre per second perpendicular to a magnetic field of uniform flux density 0.5 tesla. Find the emf. induced in it. If this emf. is used to supply a current of 25 A, find the force on the conductor, and state its direction w.r.t. motion of conductor, ignoring friction. Find the power required to keep the conductor moving across the field. (Dec.-2003) Solution :}=03m, v=5m/s, B=05T e = Blv=0.3x5x0.5 = 0.75 V Now I= 2A F = BI/=05x25x0.3= 3.75 N The direction of this force is so as to oppose the motion of conductor, as per Len2’s law. The power required to keep the conductor moving is, P = exl=0.75x 3.75 = 2.8125 W tum Example 4.24 : Two identical coils P and Q, each with 1500 turns, are placed in parallel planes near to each other, so that 70% of the flux produced by current in coil P links with coil Q. if a current of 4 A is passed through any one coil, it produces a flux of 0.04 mWb linking with itself. Find the self inductances of the two coils, the mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling between ther. (Dec.-2003) Solution : Np =Ng = 1500, $9 =0.7 $p__... 70% linking Let Ip =4A and p = 0.04 mWb Np ¢p _ 1500x0.04%107 a5 ay Lp = Tp z Let Ig =4 A then ¢q = 0.04 mWb Neg $Q _1500x0.04x10- le = 5 + =15 mH -3. mw = Noto No 07 ¢p _ 1500x0.7x0.08x10 _ 195 mit Ip Tp 4 M____105x10-3 vip lo (sx103)’ =O7Basic Electrical Engineering 4-3 Electromagnetic Induction ‘a> =Example 4.25 : A coil of 450 turns is uniformly wound around a ring of an iron alloy of mean circumference of 100 cm and cross-sectional area 1.125 sq. cm. When a current of 0.5 ampere is linearly reduced to zero in 0.01 second, the emf. induced in the coil is 2 V. Find the relative permeability of the iron alloy. (May-2004) Solution : N = 450, Ij = 100 cm, a = 1.125 cm? e= a 7 dt dl = +05 to zeroie.0-05=-05 dt = O01sec, e=-2V (-05) 2 = -LS ie L=000H 2 1. Now t= NM ana s=—ii 8 Hora 2 aos = £150) hi HoHra 1 (430)? x(1.125x104 )x(4nx107 ) Br 10010"? x 0.04 hy = 1397245 = 1398 im Example 4.26: A straight conductor 1.5 m long lies in a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of flux density 1.2 tesla. When a current of ‘I’ ampere is passed through it, it makes the conductor move across the magnetic field with a velocity of 1 m/s. Ignoring resistance of the conductor and friction, find the current ‘I’, if the power of the moving conducter is 90 watt. Find the emf. induced in the conductor and the force on it. State the sense of the force w.r.t. the velocity, and sense of the emf. induced w.r4. current. (May-2004) Solution :/=15m, B=12T, v = 1m/s, P=90W Blv =12x15x1=18V P = exl 90 = 18x! l= 50A F = BIl=12x50x15=90N The force is so as to oppose the velocity while the sense of e.m.f. is so as to oppose the current.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-39 Electromagnetic Induction wp Example 4.27: Two coils A and B, have self inductances of 120 pH and 300 uH respectively. A current of 1 A through coil ‘A’ produces flux linkage of 100 yWb turns in coil 'B’. Calculate i) mutual inductance between the coil. ii) average e.m.f. induced in coil “BY if current of 1 A in coil ‘A’ is reversed at a uniform raté in 0.1 sec. Also find coefficient of coupling. (Dec.-2004) Solution : La = 120 pH, Lp = 300 pH Tq = 1A produces Npog = 100 1Wb 6 ) M = Rite, = OOO = 100 pH «Mutual inductance aa dl. ii) en = Ma The current in coil A is reversed ive. it is -1 A in 0.1 sec. Al = (New value — Original value) = (-1 -1) =-2 A and At = 01 sec a8 . 4 “ a = = 20 A/sec ep = —100x106 x(-20) = 2 mV we Induced emf. in B xe M_- 100x10-% vlals — fi20x10- x 300x10-° = 0.527 .-. Coefficient of coupling ump Example 4.28: A magnetic core is in the form of a closed ring of mean length 20 cm and cross-sectional area 1 cms?. Its relative permeability is 2400. A coil of 2000 turns és uniformly wound around it. Find the flux density set up in the core if a current of 66 mA is passed through the coil. Find the energy stored in the magnetic field set up. Find the inductance of the coil, if an air gap of 1 mun is cut in the ring perpendicular to the direction of the flux. (May-2005) Solution : Given / = 20 cm, a = 1 cm?, yu, = 2400,.N = 2000, I= 66 mA 2 Case 1: s-— 20x10 = 663.1455%103 AT/Wb obra ~ Gext0? x 2400x1104 manf = NI = 2000x66x10-3 = 132 AT NI___132 s == = 1.9905x 10-4 Wh 663.1455 103Basic Electrical Engineering 4-40 Electromagnetic Induction % _ 19905x104 B= == = 19905 Wb/m? ie, T +--Flux density a 1x104 2 2 t= NZ __@000)" __ «503185 HorL = Ne S$ 663.1455%103 I Es due = $x 6.08185%(66% 10-9)? = 13.1373 mJ _...Energy stored Case 2 : New air gap is cut of length J; = 1 mm in the ring. 4, = Iron length = I-I, = 20x10? -1x103 = 0.199 m = $45 -—i a . . S = S48, = otis wef = 1 for air gap 1{ii 1 0,199 = jt = | i x03 ait * | ‘oct? x1 x10 | 2400 ** ] = 8.6175 x10° AT/Wb .»Total reluctance 2 2 L = N2 , _(2000)" _ ones 8 ..New inductance. S 8.6175x108 mm» Example 4.29 : Two long, singie-layered solenoids "x" and 'y’ have the same length and the same number of turns. The cross-sectional areas of the two are ‘ay’ and ay’ respectively, with ‘ay’ < ‘ay". They are placed coaxially, with solenoid "y’ placed within the solenoid ‘x’. Show that the coefficient of coupling between them is equal to Jay / ax (May-2005) Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 4.21. oo 0 0 0 os area a, It is known that 7 ee ee oe = Nwoitea i cis area ay _—— eee we elf oo 0 6 0 Far eail x, -——_ :—__+| L, = N7Hobrax Same * I for both N@p ora Fig. 4.21 and Ly = _ z The number of turns N and p1, is same for both.Basic Electrical Engineering 4-41 Electromagnetic Induction Considering coil y, M = NiNessiobe where N, = N, = m = NiayHolts I The coefficient of coupling is given by, N@ay Hobe Mo. Vexly fntuousae, N2Hoiray 1 i 2, N?pobtr ay = ! = /?y (Ny “Vay (*] facay ay K= y= «Proved ax im Example 4.30: An iron ring wound with 500 turns solenoid produces a flux density of 0.94 tesla in the ring carrying a current of 2.4 Amp. The mean length of iron path is 80 cm and that of air gap is 1 mm. Determine i) the relative permeability of iron, ii) the self inductance and iii) energy stored in the above arrangement, if the aren of cross-section of ring is 20 cm?. (Dec.-2005) Solution :N = 500, 1=2.4 A, B= 0.941, a= 20cm? 4, = Length of iron path = 80 cm J, = Length of air gap = 1 mm Ke i $ = Bxa = 0.94x20x10~4 = 1.88x10-3 Wb _ mmf _NI * = Feluctance ~ “S g = 200%24 _ _ 699997.8723 AT/Wb 1.88x10- 3 But S = +8, =H 4 6 ou fe = 1 for air gap Hobra Hoa 638297.8723 80x10-? 4.1x1075 L Hr 1 4nx10-? x20«1074Basic Electrical Engineering 4-42 Electromagnetic Induction He = 1326.02 7 _ NZ G0? i) Ls “> * qisie7.s7ag = 03916 H iii) E= tur = Leoamexeay? = 1.1278 J im Example 4.31: An air cored solenoid 1 m in length and 10 cm in diameter has 5,000 turns. Calculate ; (i) the self inductance and (ii) the energy stored in the magnetic field when current of 2 A flows in solenoid. (Dee.-2006) Solution : i=1m, d= 10cm, N = 5000, = p19 as air cored 100 a= Ba? = <7 om? =7.854x10-3m? s = 2! 1.320910 a Boa 4mcl0-7 7.854109 2 2 i) Le Ne (9000)? = 02467 H S 101.3209 106 ii) I=2A 1 Beg Li? = $0246722 = 0.4934 J i> Example 4.32: An iron ring of 10 cm in diameter and 8 cm” in cross-section is wound with 300 turns of wire. For a flux density of 1.2 Wo/m® and relative permeability of 500, find the exciting current, the inductance and the energy stored. (May-2007) Solution : d=10cm, a=8cm’, N = 300, B= 12 Wb/m’,p, = 500 1 = mxd=axl0 em= 03141 m S 2 tS 694 582x103 AT/Wb © = Bxa = 12x8«10-4 = 96x10-4 Wh _ NI 96xtord = 0x1 _ 624.882 105 l=2A 2 2 t= MPL _ G00" es onaso2 H S ~ 624.862x103 E = 3 Le = $co1e402«(2)? = 0.288 JBasic Electrical Engineering 4-43 Electromagnetic Induction Review Questions 1, State the Faraday’s laws of electromagnetism. 2. What is the difference between dynamically induced emf. and statically induced em. ? 3. Derive the expression for the magnitude of the dynamically induced e.m,f. 4. Explain clearly the difference between self inductance and mutual inductance. State their units, 5. Derive the various expressions for the self inductance. 6. Explain the factors on which self inductances depends. 7. Derive the various expressions for the mutual inductance. 8. Derive the expression for coefficient of coupling. 9. Derive the expression for the equivalent inductance when two inductances are connected in i) Series aiding (cumulatively coupled) ii) Series opposition (differentially coupled). 10. How energy gets stored in the magnetic field ? 11. Derive the expression for energy stored in the magnetic field. . Write a note on lifting power of an electromagnet. . Two identical 1000 turn coils X and Y lie in parallel planes such that 60% of the flux produced by one coil links with the other. A current of 5 A in X produces a flux of 5x10-° Wh in itself. If the current in X changes from + 6 A to - 6 A in 0.01 sec, what will be the magnitude of the emf. induced in Y ? Calculate the self inductance of each cail. (Ans. : 0.72 V, 0.001 H) Find the inductance of a coil of 200 turns wound on a paper core tube of 25 cm length and § cm radius, Also calculate energy stored in it if current rises from zero to 5 A. (Ans. : 1.579 mH, 0.01973 J) . Two 200 turns, air cored solenoids, 25 cm long have a cross-sectional area of 3 cri? each. The mutual inductance between them is 0.5 LH. Find the self inductance of the coils and the coefficient of coupling. (Ans. : 60.31 1H, 0.00828) |. Two coils A and B having 5000 and 2500 turns respectively are wound on a magnetic ring. 60 % of the flux produced by coil A links with coil B. A current of 1A produces a flux of 0.25 mWb in coil A while same current produces a flux of 0.15 mWb in coil B. Find the mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling. (Ans. : 1.25 H, 0.375 H, 0.5477) A conductor has 1.9 m length. It moves at right angles to a uniform magnetic field. The flux density of the magnetic field is 0.9 tesla. The velocity of the conductor is 65 m/sec. Calculate the emf. induced in the conductor. (Ans, : 111.15 volts) 18. An air cored coil has 800 turns. Length of the coil is 6 cm while its diameter is 4 cm. Find the current required to establish flux density of 0.01 T in core and self inductance of the coil. (Ans: 0.5968 A, 16.644 mH)Basic Electrical Engineering 4-44 Electromagnetic Induction 19. A flux of 0.25 mWb is produced when a current of 2.5 a passes through a cail of 1000 tums. Calculate D Self inductance ii) E.MLF. induced in the coil if the current of 2.5 A is reduced to zero in 1 milliseconds. iti) If second coil of 190 turns is placed near to the first ont the same iron ring, calculate the mutual inductance between the coils. {Ans.: 0.1 H, 250 V, 0.01 H) 20. Two coils A and B having 180 and 275 number of turns respectioely are closely wound on an iron magnetic circuit, which has a mean length of 1.5 m and cross-sectional area of 150 cm. The relative permeability of iron is 1500. Determine mutual inductance between the coils. When will be the emf. induced in a coil B if the current in coil A changes uniformly from 0 to 2.5 a in 0.03 seconds? (Ans.: 0.933 H, - 77.75 Volts) Qo00Electrostatics 5.1 Introduction The branch of electrical engineering which deals with electricity at rest is called electrostatics. All the electric phenomena are produced due to the various types of charges. The moving charges produce current and magnetic effects. The accelerated charges produce radiation. Apart from moving and accelerated charges, there exists one more type of charges called stationary charges or static charges. Static charges are responsible for the generation of the forces on other charges which are called electrostatic forces, Electrostatics means the study of the static charges and the associated effects. Such static charges may be situated at a point when they are called point charges. When the static charges are distributed along the telephone lines or power lines, they are called line charges. When distributed over the surfaces such as surfaces of plates of capacitor, they are called surface charges. Static charges may exist in the entire volume in. the form of a charge cloud then they are called volume charges. In this chapter, we will discuss the behaviour of electricity due to the static charges, the laws governing such behaviour and concept of a capacitor. 5.2 Concept of an Electric Charge The matter on the earth which occupies the space may be solid, liquid or gaseous. The matter is made up of one or more elements, Each element is made up of many atoms which are of similar nature. Now a days, scientists are successful in breaking atoms and studying the resulting products. According to moder electron theory, atom is composed of the three fundamental particles, which are invisible to bare eyes. These are the neutron, the proton and the electron, The proton is positively charged while the electron is negatively charged. The neutron is electrically neutral ie. possessing no charge. The mass of neutron and proton is same which is 1.675 x 10° kg while the mass of electron is 9.107 x 10°! kg. The magnitude of positive charge on proton is same as the magnitude of negative charge on electron. Under normal conditions, number of protons is equal to number of electrons hence, the atom. as a whole is electrically neutral. All the protons and neutrons are bound together into a compact nucleus. Nucleus may be thought as a central sun, about which, (6-4) Premier12Basic Electrical Engineering 5-2 Electrostatics. the electrons revolve in a particular fashion. The electrons are arranged in different orbits ie. levels. The orbits are also called shells. The orbits are more or less elliptical. The electrons revolving in various orbits are held by force of attraction exerted by nucleus. The orbit which is closest to the nucleus is under tremendous force of attraction while orbit which is farthest is under very weak force of attraction. Hence, electrons revolving in farthest orbit are loosely held to the nucleus. Such a shell is called valence shell and the electrons in this shell are valence electrons. In some atoms, at room temperature only, these valence electrons gain an additional energy and they escape from the shell. Such electrons exist in an atom as free electrons. Now, if such electrons are removed from an atom, it will loose negative charge and will become positively charged. Such positively charged atom is called anion. As against this, if excess electrons are added to an atom, it will become negatively charged. Such negatively charged atom is called cation, ‘ons int an atom ts cht l t se of charge #8 coulom The deficiency or excess of electrons can be achieved by different methods. One of such methods is to rub two dissimilar materials against each other. When an ebonite rod is rubbed on a fur cloth, then the rod extracts electrons from fur cloth and behaves as negatively charged while fur cloth behaves as positively charged. This charged condition of rod cannot be sensed by eyes or by any sense organs. But, we can observe the effect of it by simple experiment. Such charged ebonite rod, when brought near light pieces of paper, attracts these pieces. This attraction is nothing but the effect of static charge present on the rod. This is the basic principle of the static electricity. Such phenomena due to static charges are governed by some laws called laws of electrostatics. Let us study these laws. 5.3 Laws of Electrostatics The two fundamental laws of electrostatics are as below :- 4) Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. The law can be demonstrated by another simple experiment. The ebonite rod becomes negatively charged when rubbed against fur cloth. Now, if glass rod is rubbed against fur cloth, it gets positively charged. And if they are brought near each other, they try to attract each other. While two ebonite rods after rubbing against fur cloth, brought nearby, try to repel each other. This shows that like charges repel while unlike charges attract each other. 2) Coulomb's Inverse Square Law. The law states that the mechanical force, attraction or repulsion, between the two small charged bodies is i) directly proportional to the product of the charges present on the bodies.Basic Electrical Engineering 5-3 Electrostatics inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies and iil) depends upon the nature of the medium surrounding the bodies. Force Force The Fig. 5.1 shows two wey at point charges, separated by Q;,_ earn: a, _fepuision a, distance ‘d’ metres. The charges Oud F dad 9 ~ For air, gel The concept of permittivity is discussed later in this chapter. If Q = Q,=1C and d=1m, 1 9 then, F = ————=9x10' N daxbaoixio-? eee be defined nee a x metre ateay from an equalBasic Electrical Engineering 5-4 Electrostatics mim Example §.1: The two equal charges Q; = 5 wC and Q, = 1 WC are seperated by 50 om, are kept in a vacuum. Find the force of repulsion. To have same force of repulsion, what should be the distance between them, if they are kept in a material having e, = 5? Solution : Case 1: Q)=5nC, Q,=1nC, d=50x10?m & ver a ef, = 1,6 =e) = 8.854 x 107? yy . P= 2102. Satine - 50 cm 4nx 8854x 10-1? = (50x10 Fig. 5.2 (a) = 0.1797 N Case 2 : The force must be same, 0.1797 N, but e = 5 Q1Q2 F=0.179N F=— 3 &=5 3 Anege,d? a . o797 = 5x10 x1x10-8 An 8.854x10712 x5x(d)" Fig. 5.2 (b) 2 d? = 0.05 © d= 0.2236 m = 22.36 em .. New distance 5.4 Electrostatic Field As we have seen in the previous section that unlike charges attract and like charges repel each other. Positively charged particle exerts a force of attraction on negatively charged while exerts a force of repulsion on positively charged particle. It must be kept in mind that the second charged particle also produces the electrostatic force on the first particle. So, it can be concluded that the space around the charge is always under the stress and exerts a force on another charge which is placed around it. The region or space around a charge or charged body in which the influence of electrostatic force or stress exists is called electric field or dielectric field or electrostatic field. 5.4.1 Electric Lines of Force The electric field around a charge is imagined in terms of presence of lines of force around it, The imaginary lines, distributed around a charge, representing the stress of the charge around it are called as electric or electrostatic lines of force. The pattern of lines of force around isolated positive charge is shown in Fig. 5.3 (a) while the pattern of lines of force around isolated negative charge is shown in Fig. 5.3 (b). Such lines of force originate from the positive charge and terminate on the negative charge, when these charges are placed near each other. They exert the force of attraction on each other. This is shown inBasic Electrical Engineering 5-5 Electrostaties Fig. 5.3 (c). While when two like charges are near each other, such lines will be in opposite direction as shown in Fig. 5.3 (d). There exists a force of repulsion between them, i AK Fig. 5.3 (a) Isolated positive charge Fig. 5.3 (b) Isolated negative charge \ Force of attraction - Force of repulsion 1 Fig. 5.3 (c) Two equal unlike charges. Fig. 5.3 (d) Two equal like charges. ae a alie pomit: erate re SAV PREP, af unit post 5.4.2 Properties of Electric Lines of Force The properties of electric lines of force are, 1) The lines of force always originate from a positive charge and terminate at negative charge. 2) They always enter or leave a conducting surface, normally. 3) They are always parallel and never cross each other. 4) The lines travelling in the same direction repel each other, while traveling in the opposite directions attract one another. 5) They behave like a stretched rubber band and always try to contract. 6) They pass only through the insulating medium between the charges and do not enter the charged. bodies. ERC ii ane 2 Key Point: Hence, Hey, car fa Cee af lahee ee Maen pepe: finial 5.5 Electric Flux Theoretically, the lines of force emanating from a charge are infinite, Faraday suggested that the electric field should be assumed to be composed of very small bunches containing a fixed number of electric lines of force. Such a bunch or a closed area is called a tube of flux. Sharks peaiey Key PeBasic Electrical Engineering 5-6 Electrostatics This is represented by the symbol y. Similar to charge, unit of electric flux is also coulomb C. ‘One coulomb of electric flux is defined as that flux which emanates from a positive charge of one Coulomb. In general, if the charge on a body is + Q Coulombs, then the number of tubes of flux or total electric flux, starting or terminating on it is also Q. So, for a charge of + Q coulombs, Electrie Flux, y Q coulombs (numerically) 5.6 Electric Flux Density This is defined as the flux passing at right angles through unit area of surface. It is represented by symbol D and measured in Coulomb per square metre. If a flux of y Coulombs passes normally (at right angles) through an area of Am’, then v Q = = 2 = Dex = RK Clm sas w=Q Let a point charge of Q coulombs placed at the centre of an imaginary sphere of radius ‘r’ metres. Total flux, y = Q This flux falls normally on a surface area of 4x1” (metre)* of sphere. So, electric flux density, v Q 2 D=e=e: Cfm’ A 4 nr? The flux density is also called displacement density. 5.6.1 Surface Charge Density If the charge is distributed over the surface, then the surface charge density is defined as the charge per unit area of the surface over which the charge is distributed. It is denoted as 5. §.7 Electric Field Strength or Field Intensity It is defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at any point in the electric field. It is represented by symbol E and measured in newton per coulomb. Suppose a charge of Q coulombs, placed at a point within an electric field, experiences a force of F newtons, then the intensity of the electric field at that point is given by,Basic Electrical Engineering 5-7 Electrostatics E=— N/Cc Higher the value of E, stronger is the electric field. Consider a positive charge of Q coulombs placed in a ac 1c medium as shown in the Fig. 54. @ @ Let a unit positive charge is placed at a distance of b——i——| d metres from the charge Q. The field intensity at the point where unit positive Fig. 5.4 charge is placed can be obtained from force experienced by unit positive charge. Now, E= a but here, Q=1C unit charge E=F QI ‘ B Fe by Coulomb’s law ws 4ned? 7 Q E = N/C 4ned? But, The similar concept can be used to obtain the relation between electric field intensity and electric flux density. 5.7.1 Relation between D and E Let there be a point charge of ‘Q’ coulombs placed at the centre of the sphere of radius ‘r’ a metres. The small positive charge ‘q’ coulombs is placed at a distance ‘r’ from ‘Q’ on the surface of the sphere as shown in Fig. 5.5. The force experienced on the charge ‘q’ due to ‘Q is given by Fig. 5.5 Relation between D and E Q.q Fe +» by Coulomb's law Ameo er r? Electric field strength is given by force per charge. FL Q 4 4reoer tr?Basic Electrical Engineering 5-8 Electrostatics Q E = —=— nic Ameo ey r? ‘ The flux density is, D = * Now, w=Q while a = surface area of the sphere = 4 x” m? _Q- D= ¢ 4x2 fae Substituting in the equation for ‘E’ we get, DL Eo Er and Ege C/m* 5.8 Permittivity From the relation derived above, we can say that electric flux density depends on electric field strength. Now the value of electric flux density depends on the value of electric field strength E along with the dielectric property of the medium which is known as permittivity. RETR ig aaRner Te ate ith PAU: 5.8.1 Absolute Permittivity The ratio of the electric flux density D to electric field strength E at any point is defined as the absolute permittivity. It is denoted by ¢ and measured in units farads/metre, (F/m). E F/m 5.8.2 Permittivity and Free Space It is also called as electric space constant. ieee eeu tana =: rie corresponding electric field iis fete ag: It is denoted by & and measured in unit farads/m (F/m). & = z F/m in vacuumBasic Electrical Engineering 5-9 Electrostatics The value of ¢ is less than the value of permittivity of any medium. Experimentally, its value has been derived as, 1 854x107? F/m 360x109 5.8.3 Relative Permittivity To define the permittivity of the dielectric medium, the vacuum or free space is considered to be a reference medium. So, relative permittivity of vacuum with respect to itself is unity. The ratio of electric flux density in a dielectric medium to that produced in a vacuum by the same electric field strength under identical conditions is called relative permittivity. It is denoted by e, and has no units. .-2 Do Now D=eE and Dg = E _ £E = GE € Eo & = Erk It can also be defined as the ratio of the absolute permittivity of the dielectric medium to the permittivity of the free space. The relative permittivity of the air is also taken as unity, though its actual value is 1.0006. Most of the other materials have value of relative permittivity between 1 to 10. Pe [rar Rare Priv | ee ee ee Ps | ratte | was ee eT Table 5,1 Material and ec,Basic Electrical Engineering 5-10 Electrostatics _ The relative permittivity of air is assumed to be one for all practical purposes. mE pig te a ee ets ms eae et: Seb PSE ne een 5.9 Electric Potential and Potential Difference When a mass is raised above the ground level, work is done against the force of gravity. This work done is stored in the mass as a potential energy (mgh). Hence, due to such potential energy, it is said that the mass, when raised above the ground level has a gravitational potential. Such potential of mass depends upon the position of the mass with respect to the ground. An electric charge gives rise to an electric field around it, analogous to gravitational field around the earth. If any charge is introduced in this field, it gets attracted or repelled, depending on the nature of the charge. At the time of movement of this charge, work is done against or by the force acting on the charge due to the electric field. This depends on the position of the charge in the electric field and is analogous to the potential of mass Directionof ‘we to gravitation field, when lifted upwards. <= ovement a A q Now, consider a small isolated positive charge ‘q’ placed at infinity with respect to another isolated positive charge ‘Q’ as shown in the Fig. 5.6. i eo. i Theoretically, the electric field of charge ‘Q’ extends Distance upto infinity but has a zero influence at infinity, Fig. 5.6 Electric potential © Where ‘q’ is placed. When charge ‘q’ is moved towards ‘Q’, work is done against the force of repulsion between these two like charges. Due to this work done, when charge ‘q’ reaches position A, it acquires a potential energy. If charge ’q’ is released, due to force of repulsion, it will go back to infinity ic. position of zero potential. So, at point A, charge ‘q’ has some potential exactly equal to work done in bringing it from infinity to the point A, called electric potential. It can be defined as the work done in joules, in moving a unit positive charge from infinity (position of zero potential) to the point against the electric field. It is denoted by symbol V and is measured in joule per coulomb or volt. Workdone (W) Thus, Electric Potential V ++ volts:Basic Electrical Engineering 5-411 Electrostatics Definition of 1 volt : The electric potential at a point in an electric field is said to be one volt when the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point from infinity against the electric field is one joule. 1 joule Twolt = [coulomb 5.9.1 Potential Difference Direction of Consider two points A and B in an electric field as movement shown in Fig. 5.7. The positive charge ‘tq’ is moved from ® BoA point A to B in an electric field. At point A, charge acquires a 44 certain electric potential say Va. Some additional work is Fig. 5.7 Potential done in bringing it to point B. At point B, it has an electric difference potential say V5. So, the potential difference between the two points in an electric field is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive charge from the point of lower potential to the higher potential. ie. Wa We volts q 5.9.2 Expressions for Potential and Potential Difference Consider a positive charge Q placed in a medium of A 5 relative permittivity 5. Consider a point P at a distance r from the charge Q. Now, a unit positive charge of 1 C is placed at point P, there will exist a force of repulsion between the two charges. This is shown in the Fig. 5.8. Fig. 5.8 The force of repulsion is given by, Fe Qa 2. 28 NN 4mer? Amey tr r? Now, electric field intensity at point P is the ratio of force to charge at point P. But charge at P is unit charge, F Q eo, = —S—N E 1¢ 4meg ey r2 fm Now, move the unit charge at point P towards charge Q against the force of repulsion.Basic Electrical Engineering 5-12 Electrostatics Work done : Let the distance moved by charge at P towards Q be dr and for this work is done against force of repulsion, given by, aW + -Edr = -—_2_. Ame &f r? The negative sign indicates that the work is done against the force of repulsion. Now, to find electrical potential at point P, consider that the unit positive charge is moved from infinity to the point P, Hence, total work done in moving unit positive charge from infinity to point P can be obtained by integrating dW as, t r r - = [2 =--—_2_ yh w= jaw - ITrep er? ar = Trepey Lye Now, Jae = -1 . Q yf. @ fli W = ~aaeye 4. ~ Rep er (F-s] - Q W" their - w- 2 Vp = Wega volts Thus, as r increases, potential decreases till it becomes zero at infinity. Potential difference : ‘Consider point A at a distance d, from charge Q. Hence, potential of point A is given by, = Q Ya = Fme €r dy While the potential of point B which is at a distance dy from the charge Q is, Vv, = —2—_ BO” Frey er dz Hence, the potential difference between the points A and B is given by, Vas = Va- Vp We know that field intensity at a distance ‘d’ due to charge Q is given by, Vas Freje: [dy dzBasic Electrical Engineering 5-13 Electrostatics Ee 2 4 mee, d2 While the potential of the same point is given by, = Q MG Trejerd Substituting V in expression for E, we can write, 5.10 Potential Gradient In practice, the electric field intensity is not uniform but varies from point to point in an electric field. Let the electric field strength at any point A in an electric field be E (N/C). Now, the unit positive charge at point A is displaced by distance dx metres in the direction of the field so that the electric field strength remains constant. Work done in moving this charge can be determined by force x displacement. Work done = +E x dx joules Let dV be the potential drop over this distance in the direction of the electric field. It is moved from point of higher potential to lower potential. So, by the definition of a potential difference, The term av in the above expression is called the potential gradient. Key | ‘int: Potential gradient i is defined as the drop in potential oe metre in the direction. of the electric field. It is measured in units volts/metre (V/m). If the change in potential is from lower potential to higher potential, ie. against the direction of the electric field then potential gradient is said to be negative ie. Key Point: Fron the above expression, it follows that numerically, | \Blectric Field Strength = Potential GradientBasic Electrical Engineering 5-14 Electrostatics §.11 Capacitor A capacitor is nothing but the two conducting surfaces, separated by an insulating medium called dielectric. These conducting surfaces could be in the form of rectangular, circular, spherical ot cylindrical in shape. A capacitor is also called condenser. The commonly used dielectrics in capacitors are ‘paper, mica, air etc. 5.12 Capacitance Capacitance is defined as the amount of charge required to create a unit potential difference between the plates : Key Point: The property of @ capacitor to stot static charges is called its capacitan 5.13 Action of a Capacitor Consider a capacitor formed by two flat metal plates X and Y, facing each other and separated by an air gap or other insulating material used as a dielectric medium. There’ is no electrical contact or connection between them. Such a capacitor is called parallel plate capacitor. Consider a circuit in which such a capacitor across/a S e battery with the help of a switch ’S’ and a galvanometer n 5 ‘G’ in series. The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 5.9. = Battery co Let us see what happens when the switch ‘S’ is closed. As soon as the switch ‘S’ is closed, the positive terminal of the battery attracts some of the free electrons from the plate “X’ of the capacitor. The electrons are then pumped from positive terminal of the battery to the negative terminal of the battery due to e.m-f. of the battery. Now, negative terminal and electrons are like charges and hence, 70 5s 04-0 electrons are repelled by the negative terminal to the plate ‘Y’ of the capacitor. , F Gavertiona The action is shown in Fig. 5.10. Fig. 5.9 A capacitor Galvanometer So, plate ‘X’ becomes positively charged while plate ‘Y’ becomes negatively charged. The flow of electrons constitutes a current, in the direction opposite to the flow of electrons. ‘This is the conventional current called ‘Conventional Fig. 5.10 Action of a capacitorBasic Electrical Engineering 5-15 Electrostatics charging current of the capacitor as shown in the Fig. 5.10. This can be experienced from the momentary deflection of the galvanometer ‘G’. Because of this, there builds a potential difference across the plates ‘xX’ and ‘Y’. There builds an electric field between the two fields. But this potential difference across the plates, acts as a counter emf, and starts opposing the movement of the electrons. The magnitude of this potential difference is proportional to the charge that accumulates on the plates. When this potential difference becomes equal to the battery e.m.f., the flow of electrons ceases. If under such condition, the battery is disconnected then the capacitor remains in the charged condition, for a long time. It stores an electrical energy and can be regarded as a reservoir of electricity. Now, if a conducting wire is connected across the two plates of capacitor, with the galvanometer in series, then galvanometer shows a momentary deflection again but in the opposite direction. This is due to the fact that electrons rush back to plate X from plate Y through the wire. So, there is a rush of current through the wire. This is called discharging current of a capacitor. Thus, the energy stored in the capacitor is released and is dissipated in the form of the heat energy in the resistance of the wire connected. The direction of the conventional current is always opposite to the flow of electrons. If the voltage of the battery is increased, the deflection of the galvanometer also increases at the time of charging and discharging. Beg So; charge. on 5.14 Relation between Charge and Applied Voltage As scen earlier, the charge on capacitor plates depends on the applied voltage. Let “V’ be the voltage applied to the capacitor and ‘Q’ be the charge accumulated on the capacitor plates, then mathematically, it can be written as, Qev ie. Q=cv ‘The constant of proportionality ‘C’ is called capacitance of the capacitor, defined earlier, AIO From the above expression, the capacitance is defined as | {}-—+ the ratio of charge acquired to attain the potential difference c between the plates. It is the charge required per unit potential Fig. 5.11 Symbol of difference. It is measured in unit farads. capacitanceBasic Electrical Engineering 5-16 Electrostatics One farad capacitance is defined as the capacitance of a capacitor which requires a charge of one coulomb to establish a potential difference of one volt between its plates. ‘The capacitance is symbolically denoted as shown in the Fig. 5.11. For practical use, the farad is too large unit and hence, micro farad (uF), nano farad (nF) and pico farad (pF) are commonly used. 5.15 Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor Dielectric prince Fig. 5.12 Charged capacitor The flux density, D Mv A The electric field intensity, Ez We know that D Q A g y But, g o al al > mi Key Point: When the capacitor is ful to the voltage applied fo it. Vv d Consider a parallel plate capacitor, fully charged, as shown in the Fig. 5.12. The area of each plate X and Y is say A m? and plates are separated by distance ‘d’. The relative permittivity of the dielectric used in between is say e,. Let Q be the charge accumulated on plate X, then the flux passing through the medium is w = Q.Basic Electrical Engineering 5-47 Electrostatics tm Example 5.2: A parallel plate capacitor has an area of 10 co? and distance between the plates is 2mm The dielectric used between the plates has relative permittivity of 3. Deiermine the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor. Solution : The capacitance can be calculated as, eA _egerA _ 3x8854x10-!2 x10x10-44 c= f4 d dq 2x103 = 1328x101 = 13.28 pF ump Exdmple 5.3: The potential gradient between the plates in the above capacitor is 12 kV/cm, determine the voltage across the plates, charge, electric flux density and electricity flux between the plates. Solution : Electric intensity = Potential gradient B= 12 kV/em = 2X! v/m = 1200x103 V/m be 10? And C = 13.28 pF .+ Calculated in Ex. 5.1. Now, E= 5 1200 x 10° = ie. V = 2400 V 2x 103 This is the voltage across capacitor plates. -2 cn y Q = CV = 1328 x10 x 2400 = 3187 x 10°C Charge = 31.87 nC Electric flux, w= Q =3187 nC QO _ 3187 10-5 A 10x 104 3187 pC / m? Electric flux density, D = 3.187 x 10° C/m* 5.16 Dielectric Strength We know that, E = 5 So, as the voltage on the capacitor is increased with a given thickness (d) or the thickness (d) is reduced with a given voltage (V), the electric intensity E increases.Basic Electrical Engineering 5-18 Electrostatics This intensity represents the force exerted on the charges on the molecules or the dielectric material. As E is increased, the centre of the positive charges is pushed in the direction of E and centre of the negative charges in the opposite direction. Now, every dielectric medium has its capacity to withstand the increasing E. If the applied voltage and Fig. 5.13 Dielectric strength hence £ is increased beyond a certain limit, then forces on the molecules become sufficiently large. The electrons break away from the molecules causing ionization and free charges. The material then conducts due to ionization and the charge recombine, thereby vanish from the capacitor plates. The capacitor can no more hold the charge and is said to be breakdown. The dielectric medium is said to be punctured and becomes useless from using it as a dielectric, The ability of an insulating medium to resist its breakdown when a voltage is increased across it, is called its dielectric strength. This depends upon the temperature of the material and presence of air pockets and imperfections in the molecular arrangement of that material. It is generally expressed in kV/cm of kV/mm. Key Point: The voltage at which the dielectric medium of the the capacitor, : ‘The factors affecting the dielectric strength are, 1, Temperature 2. Type of material 3. Size, thickness and shape of the plates. 4, Presence of air pockets in the material. 5. Moisture content of the material. 6. Molecular arrangement of the material. Dielectric strength and dielectric constants of some materials are quoted below from published literature. ‘Sr.No, Material Dielectric constant | Dielectric strength In kVimm 1 Air 1 3 2 Bakelite § 15 to 25 3 Mica 6 46 to 200 4 Dry paper 22 5 to 10 5 Ginss 6 6 to 26 Table 5.2 Dielectric strengthsBasic Electrical Engineering 5-19 Electrostatics The dielectric strength varies as thickness of dielectric material hence the range of values are given in the Table 5.2. The value indicates that if material is subjected to electric field more than specified dielectric strength then it will breakdown. 5.16.1 Dielectric Leakage and Losses If there is no leakage of current in the dielectric and the insulation is perfect, then the charge on the capacitor plates can be held on for hours. The fact however remains that the insulation resistance of most of the dielectric materials is only of the order of megachms and hence charge on the capacitor leaks away through the insulating material in a few minutes. P i it is dangeraus to touch a \ disconnected from the supply: ais charged: capacitor even after it is In case of d.c. a practical capacitor is considered to be a charge storing device in parallel with a leakage resistance Leakage CG — (R) as shown in the Fig. 5.14. resistance Further, when the voltage applied to the capacitor is alternating, due to molecular friction of dipoles created in Fig. 5.14 Practical capacitor to material, the value of R becomes frequency dependent. The loss due to such molecular friction is called dielectric loss. 5.17 Capacitors in Series Consider the three capacitors in series connected across the applied voltage V as shown in the Fig. 5.15. Suppose this pushes charge Q on C, then the opposite plate of C, must have the same charge. This charge which is negative must have been obtained from fhe connecting leads by the charge separation which means that the charge on the upper plate of C, is also Q. In short, all the three capacitors have the same charge Q. Equivalent, capacitance (a) Fig. 5.15 Capacitors in series (b)Basic Electrical Engineering 5-20 Electrostatics Q= aM = GW = &Vs3 Giving , VO & V2 = a, V3 = 2 If an equivalent capacitor also stores the same charge, when applied with the same voltage, then it is obvious that, = 2 -2 ¢, =F 8 Ven 4 Seq But, Vi= V+ Va4 V5 & - 842,282 Tq at a .ti,d ™ a'a’s It is easy to find V,, Vz and V; if Q is known. For ‘n’ capacitors in series, i = Coq 5.17.1 Voltage Distribution in Two Capacitors in Series Consider two capacitors Cy and C, connected in series. The voltage across them is say, V volts. This is shown in Fig. 5.16. ‘As capacitors are in series, the charge on them is same, say Q. QV, = OV, Fig, 5.16 Capacitors In where V, is voltage across C, and V, is voltage series across Cy Now, Ve Vt+V, From the expression of Q, we can write, VW Cp V2 . vi _& Adding 1 to both sides, yyth= atBasic Electrical Engineering 5-24 Electrostatics. Now, if the n plates are used, we can write that tum Example 5.6 : A multiple plate capacitor has ¢ plates in all and the distance between the plates is 1mm. If the area of the plates is effectively 5 cm” and the dielectric constant of material between the plates is 10, determine the capacitance. Solution : (n-1)Agper — (4-1)x6x10) 1 cs Se 2 =x ——__ x 10 d 1x10 36nx10 4 = RBA-IO™ 39x10 R= 132 pF 36nx10° 5.20 Composite Dielectric Capacitors A When a parallel plate capacitor has ] two dielectrics or more between the plates, c it is said to be composite capacitor. The various types of such composite capacitor SG exists in practice. Let us study few types of such composite capacitors. Type 1: In this type, number of dielectrics having different thicknesses and relative permittivities are filled in between the two parallel plates. The composite capacitor with three different dielectrics with permittivities €, & and &3 and thicknesses t, ty and ty is shown in Fig.5.19. Let ¥ be the voltage applied across the capacitor. Fig. 5.19 Composite capacitor It can be seen that there exists three capacitors in series. The values of three capacitors are different. Hence, the equivalent capacitance across the terminals A-B is, 1 lati Cq a*t fo en A Eo en A And Cc, = aes, GQ = arama G = Eofa A ts 1. weet 42. 2] Coq eo Alen es eg A c,, = ——oo _ [Ez ts eq, Ea Eo €3Basic Electrical Engineering 5-25 Electrostatics In general, for a composite capacitor with ‘n’ dielectrics, The voltage across each dielectric will be different, Viz VytW+Vy But, E= x ie. V=Et Vis Fit +E, t+ Esty where E,, E, and E, are the values of electric intensities in the different dielectrics. Type 2 : In this type, in the same thickness, ‘t', the two dielectrics are arranged as shown in the Fig. 5.20. Let the relative permittivity values for the two dielectrics be & and ¢. The thickness for both is same but the areas are different. It can be seen from the equivalent circuit that there exists two capacitors in parallel due to two different dielectrics. Fig. 5.20 Composite capacitor fo &n A £9 fy A e Coq = C+ Cy sph + oe =P (Ay en $A2 ea) If one of the two dielectrics is air, then the corresponding relative permittivity is one, to be used in the above expression. For 'n' dielectrics arranged in same thickness 't', Type 3: In practice we can have the capacitor which is combination of above two types. One such capacitor is shown in the Fig. 5.21. Basically it is Type 2 capacitor, consisting of Type 1 capacitor. So there are two capacitors in parallel. The C, is having thickness t,, relative permitivity £,, and area Aj. = Eo At G = thBasie Electrical Engineering 5-30 Electrostaties Voltage across capacitor increases fa) (b) Fig. 5.24 Variation of charging current and voltage Vo 5.24.1 Mathematical Analysis Let Vo = Voltage across capacitor at any instant. q = Charge on capacitor in coulombs at any instant. i = Charging current at any instant in amperes. By Kirchhoff's voltage law, Vo= Vet Ve = iR+Ve / dc but i= CaF = dVe Vs CR SE +Ve = aVe V- Vo = RCE at, Ve RC” V=Ve Integrating both sides of the above equation, t oR Tm W-VO+K where K = Constant of integration. Att =0, Vc = 0, substituting in above, 0 =-mM(V)+K K = n(V)Basic Electrical Engineering 5-31 -ln (V - Ve) + In (V) Vv MING = c at CR Vv = et/CR = Vet =2 Cc Similarly at any instant Vo =2 4. Qa ever crete YcR) q = Q1-e WER) Now V-Ve =iR V-Ve So at t = 0, i= } is maximum and in steady state it becomes zero. Thus capacitor acts as short circuit at start and acts as open circuit in steady state. 5.24.2 Time Constant The term CR in all the above equation is called the Time Constant of the R-C charging circuit and denoted by +, measured in seconds. When t= CRe=t then, Ve = V(l-et) Ve = 0632 V So time constant of the R-C series circuit is defined as time required by the capacitor voltage to rise from zero to 0.632 of its final steady state value during charging.Basic Electrical Engineering 5-32 Electrostatics Incidentally after t = 2t, 34, 4¢ the capacitor voltage attains the values as 0.863 V, 0.95 V, 0.982 V respectively and practically capacitor requires the time 4 to 5 times the time constant to charge fully. When Now (x) is starting charging current. From this time constant can be defined as below. Key Point: Time constant is the time required for the charging current of the capacitor ta fall to 0.368 of its initial maximum value, starting from its maximum vale, rere: §.24.3 Initial Rate of Rise of Capacitor Voltage The initial rate of rise of capacitor voltage is fast however when the capacitor charges this rate is reduced. Let us find initial oe) by differentiating the equation of Ve. If the same rate is maintained through out after t= uVe=V Thus the tangent to the initial part of Ve joins Ve = Vat t = tas shown in the graph. From the above discussion, the time constant of R-C series circuit can be defined as the time in seconds during which the voltage across the capacitor, starting from zero, would reach its final steady value if its rate of change was maintained constant at its initial value throughout the charging period. 0 T 1 2T 3 41 Time(sec) Fig. 5.25Basic Electrical Engineering 5-33 Electrostatics §.25 Discharging a Capacitor through a Resistance Now consider that a capacitor 'C’ is being Discharging discharged through a resistor R by closing the switch at t = 0. At the time of closing the switch the capacitor ‘C' is fully charged to V volts and it i discharges through resistance 'R' and current through resistance flows in opposite direction to R that at the time of charging. As time passes, charge and hence the capacitor voltage Vc decreases gradually and hence discharge current also gradually decreases exponentially from maximum to zero. Fig. 5.26 Discharging of a capacitor The variation of capacitor voltage and discharging current as a function of time is shown in the Fig. 5.27. Capacitor ot 2t 3r voltage t Vo 0.368 (VIR) 0.368 V] T=WIR Discharge 1 current 9 t at a i (a (by Fig. 5.27 Variation of discharge current and voltage As direction of current is opposite to that of charging current, it is mathematically considered as negative. Hence graph of current against time is in fourth quadrant. 5.25.1 Mathematical Analysis Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law, we had Vi= Ve+iR But V = 0, O = Vor+iR Ve = -iR But i= +c4¥e dtBasic Electrical Engineering 5-35 Electrostatics 5.25.2 Time Constant Similar to the previous definition, at the time of discharging also the term CR is-called as time constant denoted by +. 1 = t= CR seconds When t= CR Ve = Vel = 0.368 V u ' I a and i Vv 68 (e jam So time constant can be defined as i) The time required for capacitor voltage to fall to 0.368 of its initial maximum value on discharge from its initial maximum value. ii) The time required during which the capacitor discharge current falls to 0.368 of its initial maximum value. §,25,3 Significance of Time Constant The charging and discharging of a capacitor under the conditions discussed is said to be exponential. The ‘time constant’ (1) of the circuit has following significance. i) The whole charging or discharging process can be considered to be completed in a time equal to 4 times the time constant and the current falls to insignificant value (Theoretically the process takes infinite time). ii) The charging current falls to 36.8% of its initial value in a time equal to time constant (t) and to nearly 1.8% of initial value in t = 4 7 iii) The capacitor charges to nearly 63.2% of its final value in t = t and nearly 98.2% of the final value in t = 4 t provided it is initially uncharged. iv)The capacitor discharges to nearly 36.8% of its initial value in t = t and nearly 1.8% of its initial value in t = 4 v) If the initial rate of rise of voltage is maintained then the capacitor charges to its final value in a time = tBasic Electrical Engineering 5-36 Electrostatics 5.26 Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Terms - A Comparison Electrostatics Electromagnetism Term Symbol 1 Electric flux Magnetic flux 2 Electric flux density 3 | Electric fiold strangth Electromotive force: Magnetic flux density Magnetic field strength Magnetomotive force Permittivity of free space Permeability of free space Absolute permittivity Absolute permeability Relative permeability Table 5.3 Comparison of electrostatic and electromagnetic terms Examples with Solutions im Example 5.8: A parallel plate capacitor has plates 0.1 cm apart, a plate area of 100 cm? and a dielectric with relative permittivity of 4, Determine the electric flux, electric flux density, electric field intensity, voltage between the plates, value of capacitance and energy stored if the capacitor has a charge of 0.05 uC. Solution : Now electric flux y = charge on C ie. Q y = 0.05 pC 510-6 Electric flux density p = G2 0.0510 5 worm? A wox104 Now D=eE B= 2P-_P_._ Sxl = 141.179 kVim eee B54 10-12 Vv Beg Vo = 141.179x109 x0.1x10%= 141.179 V — &&rA ca 5a 10-12 -I _ 1071 410001071 54 96 op 0.1x10-2Basie Electrical Engineering 5-37 Electrostatics We ke Vz ; 354.16>¢10-12 (141.179)? = 3.53 pC jump Example 6.9: Three capacilors are connected in series across a 120 V supply, the voltage across them are 30, 40 and 50 and the charge on each is 4500 iC. What is the value of each capacitor and equivalent capacitor of the series combination 7 Solution : Q = 4500x10~ C Q= CW =v =G Vy _ Q _ 4500x106 Cy = ey SOE _ @ _ 4500%10-* Q = yay 7 2S HF _ @ _ $500x10-% G = v3 = 90 uF 1 toil 1 1 1 Now So GQ ts ~ ieox00-* 25.20% * 90x10 C = 375uF ii Example 5.10: Four capacitors are connected in parallel across a 250 V supply. The charges taken by them are 750, 1000, 1500 and 2000 C. What is the equivaient capacitance ? Solution: Q, = 750 uC, Q, = 1000 wC, Q, = 1500 wC, Qy = 2000 uC. V= 20V Q=aVv 750x10-° 1000% 10 a= ee G= S224 F 1500%10-6 2000x10-* G = &- 35 = 6nE, Cy = St = DORI” = BUF The equivalent C = C,)+C,+C,+Cy =21pF ‘wm Example 5.11: A capacitor is charged with 10 mC. if the energy stored in it is 1 joule, calculate the voltage across it and its capacitance. Solution : The energy stored = 5 cv?Basic Electrical Engineering 5-38 Electrostatics but Q=2CcCVv 1 w= 5QV 1 = pl0xt0FxVv Vi= 200V _ Q _ 10x03 | Now C = % = 9p = SUF im Example 5.12: 80 uF capacitor in series with a 1000 Q resistor is connected suddenly across a 110 V supply. Find : i) Initial value of current. ii) Time constant of the circuit. iti) Equation of the current. iv) Value of current at t = 0.08 sec. v) Rate at which current begins to decrease. Solution : Given : C= 80uF, R= 10009, V=110V i) Initially current Is maximum i= ii) Time constant + t = RC = 1000x80x10~ = 0.08 sec iii) Equation of the current ie eR) be ie Olle 25t a iv) At t = 0.08 sec i = O11 e7 125%0.08 = 9.0405 A v) a = 0.11 125) en 12.5¢ At start t= 0 Rate of decrease in current = - 1.375 Alsec. Negative sign indicates decrease.Basic Electrical Engineering 5-39 Electrostatics. ‘mm Example 5.13: A 80 uF capacitor is in series with, 10 KR resistance. The combination is connected sudderly across a 100 V supply. Find after 0.04 sec, i) Voltage across resistance. iv) Find current at this time. ii) Voltage across capacitor. iii) Find the time at which voltage across resistance becomes 40 V. u) What is charge on capacitor after 0.2 sec? Solution: Given: C= 80 pF and R = 10 2 = 10x1052 Vv Initial current = RK 100 10x103 =001A Time constant = t = RC = 80x10x10x103 = 0.8 sec i= se) i = O0Le 1-3 After t= 04 i = 6.0653x103 A i) Voltage across resistance ii) Voltage across capacitor iii) Voltage across resistance iv) Current at this time v) After t = 0.2 sec, i R = 6.0653 10x10 x10x103 60.653 V V— Vp = 100 - 60.653 = 39.34 V 40V 40V 40 = 4x103 A 10«103 0.01 e~ 1-254 0.733 sec 4x103 A V(L - em 1-25t) = 100 (1—e7 1250.2) 22.119 V Cx Ve = 80x 10-6 «22.119 1.7695x10"3 CBasic Electrical Engineering 5-40 Electrostatics ‘mp Example 5.14: A capacitor of 0.5 uF is charged to 500 V and then disconnected from the supply. it is then allowed to be discharged through its own insulation resistance. If the voltage is reduced to 300 valts int 20 sec, determine the insulation resistance of the capacitor. Solution : Let R be the insulation resistance of capacitor. The equation for the capacitor voltage at the time of discharging is, Ve = Vert/Re 300 = 500 e~20/Rx0.5x10-% (0.6) = e740 109/R 40x10° in (0.6) R — 0.5108 = - R = 78.30 MQ wm} Example 5.15: A capacitor is composed of two plates separated by a sheet of insulating material 3 mm thick and of relative permittivity = 4. The distance between plates is increased to allow the insertion of a second shect 5 mim thick and relative permittivity 'e,'. If the capacitance of the capacitor so formed is one half of the original capacitance, find the value of &,. (Dee. - 2003) Solution : Initially, t; = 3mm and e,,=4 thus e=e¢9t,) =4e5 EA e944 t 3x1073 q = =1333.333¢9 A » (Ql) With t; =Smmande; =a, Cz =0.5C, Ago AEo Now Cp = —Sfo_=-__4Afo___ @ 2 Try fe axi0 x10 ®) Ey Ez 4 ey Take ratio of (1) and (2), Cy _ __1333.333e0 A G * Ato 3x10 | 5103 4 én =3 = 1333333 [pax 42x10" 05 eg 3 5x10" 275x104 Ep ey = 6.667Basic Electrical Engineering 5-4 Electrostatics ima Example 5.16: A capacitor having capacitance of 4 uF is connected in series with a resistance of 1 MQ across 200 voit d.c. supply. Calculate i) The time constant. ii) The initial charging current. iii) The time taken by capacitor to raise upto 160 volt. (Dec. - 2003) Solution: C=4yF, R=1MO, V=200V The equation of charging current _ wv R i) Time constant = t=RC=1x10°x4x10- = 4 sec ii) Initial charging current at t = 0 is, v__200 en t/RC = Roepe 7 20H iii) Ve = V(1-e-/RC) and Vc = 160 V 160 = 200(1-e"t/4) RC =4 ett = 02 -t/4 = In (0.2) =- 1.6094 t = 6.4377 sec imp Example 5.17: The plate area of a parallel plate capacitor is 0.01-sq.m. The distance between the plates is 2.5 cm. The insulating medium is air. Find its capacitance. What would be its capacitance, if the space between the plates is filled with an insulating material of relative permittivity 5 ? (May - 2004) Solution: A =0.01 m?, d=25cm Case 1 : Dielectric is air C= 0A 88541012 0.01 d 25x10-2 = 3.5416x10- F = 3.5416 pF (Case 2: Dielectric €; = 5 c = fotrA 8.854 10-12 x5x0.01 = eS 25x07 ~ 172708 PE It is 5 times more than previous value.Basic Electrical Engineering 5-43 Electrostatics Eger A EGA? aay len] Coq = {1 =—k Ege A EpA seas 77 t Pc lteen +t] 1 2 t2 = Eg A Er = 6% 8854x101? 11104 [0.510 x 6+2x10-3] 5x 10-3 = 11.6872 pF um Example 5.20: A capacifor of 2 uF capacitance charged to p.d. of 200 V is discharged through a resistor of 2 MQ. Calculate : 1) The initial value of discharged current 2) Its value 4 seconds later, and 3) Initial rate of decay of the capacitar voltage. (May-2006) Solution : C = 2 1F, V = 200 V, R=2MQ i) The discharging current is given by i= -} en t/RC ‘ . v 200 Initially t=0, i = -y=- =-100nA ¥ Ro ax19¢ e ii) Att = 4 sec, i= — 200 e7 4/2 108% 2 10" © —_ 36.7879 LA 210° iii) Vo = Ven RC §Me 2 y (4) etree a v( x) Initial rate of decay is at t = 0, dVe v 200 eel Ys 50 Vi see at hea RC 3 10? x 2x 10-8 Negative sign indicates decay of voltage and current. ‘> Example 5.21; A capacitor consist of two parallel rectangular plates each 120 mun square separated by 1 mm in air, When a voltage of 1000 V is applied behween the plates, calculate : i) The charge on the capacitor, ii) The electric flux density and iii) The electric field strength in the dielectric. {(Dee.-2006)Basic Electrical Engineering 5-45 Electrostatics ———<—<—<—— CEO 1 -1 2. B= gQVi=5 4x10 x(100)? = 0.02 J The equivalent capacitance is, Coq = +O =24+4=60F ii) Series : The charge across them remains same. . | sp otait QC Y5Qv v=t00v Vz Cy =4yF and Vi+V. =V | Ty “ Vp = V-V,=100-V, Fig. 5.31 Cv, = &10-Vv) 5 2x10 Vv, = 4x 107% (00-Vy ie. 15 Vy = 100 Vi = 66,667V, V3 = 33.333 V Thus the energy stored in each is, 1 B+ CV} = 3x 20c10-6 x (66.667)? = 4.4444 mJ E = 5O2V2 = $x 4oe10-6 (93.383)? = 2.2222 mJ Cio 2x1076 x4x1076 And Cog = ease = Cr+Cz ~ 2x10 +4x10°6 uF Review Questions 1. Explain the concept of charge. What is its unit ? 2. Explain the laws of electrostatics. 3. What is electric field and electric lines of force ? State the properties of electric lines of force. 4. State and explain Coulomb's law. 5. Define the following terms stating their units. i) Electric flux ii) Electric field intensity iti) Electric flux density iv) Surface charge density ») Absolute permittivity vi) Relative permittivity . Derive the relation between electric field intensity and electric flux density. . What is electric potential ?What is its unit ? Define the unit. . Explain the concept of potential difference. 1. Derive the expressions for an electric potential and potential difference. . Explain what is potential gradient in an electric field.Basic Electrical Engineering 5-46 Electrostatics |. What is capacitor question? Define ils unit. . Obtain expressions for equivalent capacitance when the capacitors are connected in # Series and it) Parallel 1. Wilh usual notation derive an expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor. . Derive the equation for ihe capacitance of a multiple plate capacitor. . Derive the equation of the capacitance of a composite capacitor consisting of three different dielectric media with different thicknesses and relative permittivities. . Derive the expression for the energy stored in a capacitor. . Explain the action of a capacitor, when connected to a battery of V volts. |. A parallel plate capacitor has plates, each of area 100 ext”, separated by a distance of 3ems The dielectric between the plates has relative permittivity of 2.2. The potential difference between the plates is 10 kV. Find (i) Capacitance of the capacitor ; (ii) Surface charge density; (iit) Field intensity; (io) Energy stored. (Ans. : 6.498 pF, 6.493 106 Cim?, 3.3 x10 V/m, 3.246 10 J) |. Calculate the energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor which consists of ttoo metal plates 60 cm”, separated by a dielectric of 1.5 mem thick and of relative permittivity 3.5, if a potential difference of 1000 V is applied across it. (Ans. : 6.1978 x10 J) 1. A potential difference of 400 V is maintained across a capacitor of 25 pF. Calculate (i) charge; (ii) electric field strength ; (iti) electric flux density. The distance between the plates of a capacitor is 0.5 mm and area of cross-section of plates is 1.2 cmi®. Find also the energy stored in the capacitor. (Ans, :.01 C, 8105 V/m, 83.33 Cim?, 2p . The capacity of a parallel plate capacitor is 0.0005 uF. The capacitor is made up of plates having area 200 cni”, separated by a dielectric of 5 mm thickness. A p.d. of 10,000 V is applied across the condenser. Find (i) charge; (ii) potential gradient in the dielectric: (iii) relative permittivity end (i) eleciric flux density. (Ans. : 510-6 C, 2x10 Vim, 14.12, 2.5 240-4 Chm?) - Three capacitors of 5, 10 and 15 WF are connected in series across a 100 V supply. Find the equroaient capacitance and the voltage across each. If the capacitor, after being charged in series are disconnected and then connected in parallel, with plates of like polarity together, find the total charge of the parallel combination. (Ans. : 2.727 F, 54.54 V, 27.27 V, 18.18 V, 8.181 «10+ C) Three capacitors A, Band C are charged as follows : A = 10 pF, 100 V; B = 15 pF, 150 V and C = 25 pF, 200 V. They are now connected in parallel with terminals of like polarity together. Find the voltage across the combination. (Ans. : 50 LF, 165 V) A capacitor consists of two metallic plates, each 40 cm x 40 em and placed 6 mm apart. The space between plates is filled with a glass plate 5 mm thick and a layer of paper 1mm thick. The relative permittivities are 8 and 2 respectively. Calculate its capacitance. (Ans. : 1.26 nF)Basic Electrical Engineering 5-47 Electrostatics 25. A capacitor of 10 ywF is charged to a pul. of 200 V and then connected in parailel with an uncharged capacitor of 5 uF. Find the p.d. across the parallel combination and the energy stored in each capacitor. (Ans, : 133.33 V, 0.089 J, 0.044 J) 26. Determine the equivalent capacitance of the combination shown in Fig. 5.32. (Ans. :2.85 F) 6F ~ ar 2 ar Lio 6F Fig. 5.32 27. Three capacitors A, B and C are connected in series across 100 V dc. supply. The pd. across the capacitors are 20 V, 30 V and 50 V respectively. If the capacitance of A is 10 uF, calculate the capacitances of B and C. (Ans.: 6.67F, 40F) Qoo0a(5 - 48)A.C. Fundamentals 6.1 Introduction Uptill now, we have discussed about D.C. supply and D.C. circuits. But 90 % of electrical energy used now a days is a.c. in nature. Electrical supply used for commercial purposes is alternating. The d.c. supply has constant magnitude with respect to time. The Fig 6 ae) ease a a graph of such current with respect to time. alternating en (ae) is the eurrent whic nee periodic ae and | Such change in magnitude and direction is measured in terms of cycles. Each cycle of a.c. consists of two half cycles namely positive cycle and negative cycle. Current increases in magnitude, in one particular direction, attains maximum and starts decreasing, passing through zero it increases in opposite direction and behaves similarly. The Fig. 6.1 (b) shows a graph of alternating current against time. Magnitude changing but Gunent Current Magnitude and direction Current [ sossson same ‘changes with time aa fv [( .,, pa. magnitude and direction (a) Direct current (b) Alternating current (c) Pulsating d.c. Fig. 6.1 In practice some waveforms are available in which magnitude changes but its direction remains same as positive or negative. This is shown in the Fig. 6.1(c). Such waveform is called pulsating dic. The waveform obtained as output of full wave rectifier is an cxample of pulsating d.c. Let us see, why in practice, there is generation of a.c. Use of a.c. definitely offers certain advantages. (6-1)Basic Electrical Engineering 6-2 A.C. Fundamentals 6.2 Advantages of A.C. The various advantages of a.c. are, 1. The voltages in a.c. system can be raised or lowered with the help of a device called transformer. In d.c. system, raising and lowering of voltages is not so easy. 2. As the voltages can be raised, electrical transmission at high voltages is possible. Now, higher the voltage, lesser is the current flowing through transmission line. Less the current, lesser are the copper losses and lesser is the conducting material required. This makes a.c. transmission always economical and efficient. 3. It is possible to build up high a.c. voltage; high speed a.c. generators of large capacities. The construction and cost of such generators are very low. High a.c. voltages of about 11 kV can be generated and can be raised upto 220 kV for transmission purpose at sending end, while can be lowered down at 400 V at receiving end. This is not possible in case of d.c. 4. A.C. electrical motors are simple in construction, are cheaper and require less attention from maintenance point of view. 5, Whenever it is necessary, a.c. supply can be easily converted to obtain d.c. supply. This is required as d.c. is very much essential for the applications like cranes, printing process, battery charging, telephone system, etc. But, such requirement of d.c. is very small compared to ac. Due to these advantages, a.c. is used extensively in practice and hence, it is necessary to study a.c. fundamentals, 6.3 Types of A.C. Waveforms The waveform of alternating voltage or current is shown purely sinusoidal in the Fig. 6.1 (b). But, in practice, a quantity which undergoes variations in its instantaneous values, in magnitude as well as direction with respect to some zero reference is called an. alternating quantity. The graph of such quantity against time is called its waveform. Various types of alternating waveforms other than sinusoidal are shown in the Fig. 6.2 (a), (b) and (c). Quantity ‘Quantity (Quantity (a) Square {b) Triangular {c) Trapezoidal Fig. 6.2 Out of all these types of alternating waveforms, purely sinusoidal waveform is preferred for a.c. system. There are few advantages of selecting purely sinusoidal as the standard waveform.Basic Electrical Engineering 6-3 A.C, Fundamentals 6.3.1 Advantages of Purely Sinusoidal Waveform 1) Mathematically, it is very easy to write the equations for purely sinusoidal waveform. 2) Any other type of waveform can be resolved into a series of sine or cosine waves of fundamental and higher frequencies, sum of all these waves gives the original wave form. Hence, it is always better to have sinusoidal waveform as the standard waveform. 3) The sine and cosine waves are the only waves which can pass through linear circuits containing resistance, inductance and capacitance without distortion. In case of other waveforms, there is a possibility of distortion when it passes through a linear circuit. 4) The integration and derivative of a sinusoidal function is again a sinusoidal function. This makes the analysis of linear electrical networks with sinusoidal inputs, very casy. 6.4 Generation of A.C. Voltage The machines which are used to generate electrical voltages are called generators. The generators which generate purely sinusoidal a.c. voltages are called alternators. The basic principle of an alternator is the principle of electromagnetic induction. The sine wave is generated according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. It says that whenever there is a relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic field in which it is kept, an e.m-f. gets induced in the conductor. The relative motion may exist because of movement of conductors with respect to magnetic field or movement of magnetic field with respect to conductor. Such an induced emf. then can be used to supply the electrical load. ‘Let us see haw an alternator produces a sine wave, with the help of simplest form of an alternator called single turn or single loop alternator. 6.4.1 Single Turn Alternator Construction : It consists of a Connecto permanent magnet of two poles. A c . . single tum rectangular coil is kept in the vicinity of the permanent Conductor 1 Conductor 2 magnet. The coil is made up of same conducting material like copper or d b aluminium. The coil is made up of two conductors namely a-b and c-d. cy Cy Such two conductors are connected Tosi at one end to form a coil. This is © slipangs shown in the Fig. 6.3. Fig. 6.3 Single turn coilBasic Electrical Engineering 6-4 AC. Fundamentals The coil is so placed that it can be rotated about its own axis in clockwise or anticlockwise direction. The remaining two ends C1 and C2 of the coil are connected to the rings mounted on the shaft called slip rings. Slip rings are also rotating members of the alternator. The two brushes P and Q are resting on the slip rings. The brushes are stationary and just making contact with the slip rings. The slip rings and brush assembly is necessary to collect the current induced in the rotating coil and make it available to the stationary external resistance. The overall construction is shown in the Fig. 6.4. Shaft Axis of rotation Direction of rotation a v = Direction of instantaneous velocity Fig. 6.4 Single turn alternator Working : The coil is rotated in anticlockwise direction. While rotating, the conductors ab and cd cut the lines of flux of the permanent magnet. Due to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an e.m.f. gets induced in the conductors. This e.m-f. drives a current through resistance R connected across the brushes P and Q. The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. depends on the position of the coil in the magnetic field. Let us see the relation between magnitude of the induced emf. and the positions of the coil. Consider different instants and the different positions of the coil. Instant 1 : Let the initial position of the coil be as shown in the Fig. 6.4. The plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. The instantaneous component of velocity of conductors ab and cd, is parallel to the magnetic field as shown and there cannot be the cutting of the flux lines by the conductors. Hence, no emf. will be generated in the conductors ab and cd and no current will flow through the external resistance R. This position can be represented by considering the front view of the Fig. 6.4 as shown in the Fig. 6.5 (a).Basic Electrical Engineering 6-6 A.C. Fundamentals: Instant 6 ; As the coil rotates beyond @ = 180°, the conductor ab uptil now cutting flux lines in one particular direction reverses the direction of cutting the flux lines. Similar is the behaviour of conductor cd. So, direction of induced e.m.f. in conductor ab is opposite to the direction of induced emf. in it for the rotation of @ = 0° to 180° Similarly, the direction of induced emf. in conductor cd also reverses. This change in direction of induced e.m.f. occurs because the direction of rotation of conductors ab and cd reverses with respect to the field as 6 varies from 180° to 360°. This process continues as coil rotates further. At @ = 270° again, the induced e.m-f. achieves its maximum value but the direction of this e.m.f. in both the conductors is opposite to the previous maximum position i.e. at @ = 90% From 0 = 270° to 360°, induced e.m-f. decreases without change in direction and at @ = 360°, coil achieves the starting position with zero induced emf. So, as 0 varies from 0° to 360° the emf. in a conductor ab or cd varies in an alternating manner i.e. zero, increasing to achieve maximum in one direction, decreasing to To, increasing to achieve maximum in other direction and again decreasing to zero. This set of variation repeats for every revolution as the conductors rotate in a circular motion with a certain speed. This variation of e.m.f. in a conductor can be graphically represented. 6.4.2 Graphical Representation of the Induced E.M.F. The instantaneous values of the induced e.m.f. in any conductor, as it is rotated from 6=0° to 360°, ie. through one complete revolution can be represented as shown in the Fig. 6.6. Induced emf. +8 max Fig. 6.6 Graphical representation of the induced e.m.f. From the Fig. 6.6, it is clear that the waveform generated by the instantaneous values of the induced e.m.f. in any conductor (ab or ed) is purely sinusoidal in nature.Basic Electrical Engineering 6-9 A.C. Fundamentals: 6.6 Equation of an Alternating Quantity For the derivation of the equation of an alternating quantity, consider single turn, 2 pole alternator discussed earlier. The coil is rotated with constant angular velocity in the magnetic field. An alternating e.m.f. induced is purely sinusoidal in nature. Let B Flux density of the magnetic field in Wb/m? 1 = Active length of each conductor in metres © = Radius of circular path traced by conductors in metres, @ = Angular velocity of coil in radians / second y = linear velocity of each conductor in m / sec. Now, vera Consider an instant where coi] has rotated through angle @ from the position corresponding to @ = 0° i.e. from the instant when induced e.m-f. is zero. It requires time “to rotate through ©. So, @ in radians can be expressed as, The position of the coil is shown in the Fig. 69 (a). The instantaneous peripheral velocity of any conductor can be resolved into two components as shown in the Fig. 6.9 (b). AP =v cos 6 AR=wsind Fig. 6.9 instantaneous value of an induced e.m.f. The components of velocity, v are, 1) Parallel to the magnetic flux lines, (AP) = v cos 6 2) Perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines, (AR) = v sin 8Basic Electrical Engineering 6-10 A.C. Fundamentals Out of the two, due to the component parallel to the flux, there cannot be the generation of the emf. as there cannot be the cutting of the flux lines. Hence, the component which is acting perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines ie. v sin 6 is solely responsible for the generation of the e.m.f. According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the expression for the generated emf. in each conductor is, e = Bivsin® volts The active length ‘!’ means the length of the conductor which is under the influence of the magnetic field. Now, = Biv f = maximum value of induced e.m-f. in conductor This is achieved at 0 = 90° and is the peak value or amplitude of the sinusoidal induced e.m.f. Hence, equation giving instantaneous value of the generated e.m.f. can be expressed as, e = E,, sin @ volts 6.6.1 Different Forms of E.M.F. Equation ‘Now, 8 = ot radians e = E,, sin (ot) wa (1) But, @ = 2nf rad / sec. --®) But, Important Note : In all the above equations, the angle © is expressed in radians. Hence, while calculating the instantaneous value of the e.m.f., it is necessary to calculate the sine of the angle expressed in radians. i Sirunkate a Peclianatae atm a This alternating e.m.f. drives a current through the electrical load which also varies in similar manner.Basic Electrica! Engineering 6-11 A.C. Fundamentals. Its frequency is the same as the frequency of the generated em-f. Hence, it can be expressed as, where [,, = maximum or peak value of the current. This maximum value depends on the resistance of the electrical circuit to which an emf. is applied. The instantaneous value of this sinusoidal current set up by the e.m.f. can be expressed as, or or imp Example 6.1: Write the 4 ways of representing an a.c. voltage given by a magnitude of 5 V and frequency of 50 Hz. Solution : Given values are, E,,=5V and f=50 Hz So @ = 2nf=100m rad/sec and T= 1/f= 1/50 sce The voltage can be represented as, 5) e = E, sin (ot) =5sin (100 nt) V 2) e = E,sind=5sin0 V 3) e = E,,sin (2 aft) =5sin (100 nt) V 4) e= . (2mt) ... f ant Bp sin [25] = 5 sin 755) Note that, after substituting the values of E,,, f, «@ and T the resultant equation obtained remains same by all four ways. > Example 6.2: An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of RA: i) Write down the equation for instantaneous values. ii) Find the value of the current after 1/360 second. iii) Time taken to reach 9.6 A for the first time. In the above cases assume that time is reckoned as zero when current wave is passing through zero and increasing in the positive direction. (May - 98) Solution : f = 60Hz and I,=12 A @ = Inf 2nx60 = 377 rad/sec i) Equation of instantaneous value isBasic Electrical Engineering 6-12 A.C. Fundamentals i = I, sin ot i = 12 sin 377¢ i 1 ii) t el sec i u 12 sin 377 sty = 12 sin 1.0872 = 10.3924 A Note: sin of 1.0472 must be calculated in radian mode. iii) i= 96A 9.6 = 12sin 377t sin 377t = 0.8 377t = 0.9272 Note : find inverse of sin in radian mode. t = 2.459x1075 sec. ‘mp Example 6.3 : A sinusoidal voltage of 50 Hz has a maximum value of 200-2 vols. At what time measured from a positive maximum value will the instantaneous voltage be equal fo 141.4 volts ? Wee, - 2001) Solution :£=50 Hz, V,,=200VZV, v= 1414V The equation of the voltage is, v = Vm sin(2nft) = 200V2 sin(2xx50t) V For v =v, 1414 = 200V2sin(2nx50x ty) ty = 1666x1073 sec .» Use radian mode for sin But this time is measured from t = 0. At positive maximum, time iste 125x107 sec 80 t= t, =1.666%10- sec is before positive maximum. From Fig. 6.10. tm ~ty =5x 10-9 -1.666x103 = 3314x103 see As the waveform is symmetrical, at the time of 3.314x10%sec measured after positive maximum value, the instantaneous voltage will be again 1414 V.Basic Electrical Engineering 6-13 A.C. Fundamentals 6.7 Effective Value or R.M.S. Value An alternating current varies from instant to instant, while the direct current is constant, with respect to time. So, for the comparison of the two, there must be some common platform. Such platform can be the effect produced by the two currents. One of the such effects is heating of the resistance, due to current passing through it. The heating effect can be used to compare the alternating and direct current. From this, r.m.s. value of an alternating current can be defined as, The eave simple pena gives the clear ‘idertaciaing of the rms. value of an alternating current. The arrangement is shown in the Fig, 6.11. Same brightness Fig. 6.11 Experiment to demonstrate r.m.s. value A lamp is provided with double throw switch S. On position 1, it gets connected to an a.c. supply. The brightness of filament is observed. Then, switch is thrown in position 2 and using the rheostats, the dc. current is adjusted so as to achieve the same brightness of the filament. The reading on the ammeter on d.c. side gives the value of the direct current that produces the same heating effect as that produced by the alternating current. This ammeter reading is nothing but the r.m.s. value of the alternating current. RMS. value can be determined by two methods : 1) Graphical Method : This can be used for an alternating current having any wave form i.e. sinusoidal, triangular, square, etc. 2) Analytical Method : This is to be used for purely sinusoidally varying alternating current. 6.7.1 Graphical Method Consider sinusoidally varying current.The r.m.s. value is to be obtained by comparing heat produced. Heat produced is proportional to square of current @R) so heat produced in both positive and negative half cycles will be the same. Hence, consider only positive half cycle, which is divided into ‘n’ intervals as shown in the Fig. 6.12. The width of eachBasic Electrical Engineering 6-14 A.C. Fundamentals. interval is ‘t/n’ seconds and average height of each interval is assumed to be the average instantaneous values of current ie. iy, iz, .. iy. 2x Fig. 6.12 Determining r.m.s. value Let this current be passing through resistance 'R’ ohms. Hence, heat produced can be calculated as, joules Heat Produced = ® Rt joules Heat produced due to 1" interval = i? R4 joules n . . t . Heat produced due to 2™ interval = i2 R = joules Heat produced due to n'™ interval = ig Rt joules (i? +i3 +...+i2) n Total heat produced in ‘t’ seconds = Rxtx ‘Now, heat produced by direct current I amperes passing through same resistance ‘R’ for the same time ‘is =P Rt joules For | to be the rms. value of an alternating current, these two heats must be equal. (2 4id 44 i? PRt = Rxtx— n ind i2 442 Pa lit +id +. Iams. = Square root of the mean of the squares of ordinates of the current. This is called Effective value of an alternating current or Virtual value of an alternating current. This expression is equally applicable to sinusoidally varying alternating voltage as,Basic Electrical Engineering 6-15 A.C. Fundamentals 6.7.2 Analytical Method Consider sinusoidally varying alternating current and square of this current as shown in the Fig. 6.13. Fig. 6.13 Waveform of current and square of the current The current i= I,sin@ while square of current i? = I, sin’ @ ‘Area of curve over half a cycle can be calculated by considering an interval dO as shown. x Area of square curve over half cycle = [i? d0 and Length of the base is 1. a . Average value of square of the current over half cycle 5 fi? do _ Atea of curve over half cycle _ = Length of base over half cyde ~ =m 1f. Lire gs 12, [1-cos2@ = xP ae = ith sin? odo = 2) 40 Bf, sin29]* 3, lo z |; = ag ltl Th 2 . Hence, root mean square value ie. r.m.s. value can be calculated as,Basic Electrical Engineering 6-16 A.C. Fundamentals ee pee 2. Lpms, = Mean or average of square of current = -® _l v2 Tema, = 07071, The r.m.s. value of the sinusoidal alternating current is 0.707 times the maximum or peak value or amplitude of that alternating current. _ Key Point : The instantaneous values are denoted by snrall letiers like 1, ¢ etc. while rm,s. values are represented by slike LE etc. The above result is also applicable to sinusoidal alternating voltages. So, we can write, Vemns. = 0.707 Vin rn 6.7.3 Importance of R.M.S. Value 1. In case of alternating quantities, the rms. values are used for speci magnitudes of alternating quantities. The given values such as 230 V, 110 V are rm.s. values of alternating quatntities unless and otherwise specicied to beother than r.m.s. Key Point : In practice, everywhere, rams. values: quanti a os are “used to analyze alternating 2. The ammeters and voltmeters record the r.m.s. values of current and voltage respectively. 3. The heat produced due to a.c. is proportional to square of the r.m.s. value of the Steps to find r-m.s. value of an a.c. quantity : 1. Write the equation of an a.c, quantity. Observe its behaviour during various time intervals. 2. Find square of the a.c. quantity from its equation. 3, Find average value of square of an alternating quantity as, Area of curve over one cycle of squared waveform Length of the cycle Average = 4. Find square root of average value which gives rms. value of an alternating quantity.Basic Electrical Engineering 6-20 A.C. Fundamentals. Time period T = Time at A = 0.005 + 0.0025 = 0.0075 sec 14.1421 sin (314.159 x0.0075) = 10 A ii) ty = 0.01 + 0.0075 = 0.0175 sec “ i = 14.1421 sin (314.159 x0.0175) =- 10 A * Calculate sin in radian mode. jum» Example 6.5: Calculate the rms. value, average value, form factor, peak factor of a periodic current having following values for equal time intervals changing suddenly from one value to next as 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 0, -2, ~4, -6, -8, -10, -8,.... (May - 2001) Solution : The waveform can be represented as shown in the Fig. 6.16. Current i 10 8 6 4 2 ° Time -2 —4 4 8 -10 Fig. 6.16 The average value of the current is given by, Average value = Se riser ereer eres? -5A = 5.8309 A rms. _ 5.8309 Form factor K; = = 11661 average 5Basic Electrical Engineering 6-21 A.C. Fundamentals maximum 10 Peak factor Ke Sms "agg = L715 ‘mp Example 6.6 : A sinusoidally varying alternating current has r.ms. value of 20 A and periodic time of 20 milliseconds, If the waveform of this current enters into its positive half cycle at t=0, find the instantaneous values of the current at t,=6 milliseconds and t, =12 milliseconds. (May - 2002) Solution : Ipns = 20 A, T = 20 ms Im = V2 Ipms = 28.2842 A -1L f = = 50 Hz So. @ = 2 nf = 314.1592 rad/sec Hence equation for the current is, i = I,, sin wt = 282842 sin [314.1592 t]A At t)=6ms, 1=26899A — ... Use radian mode At t,=12ms, i=-16625 A ... Use radian mode 6.11 R.M.S. Value of Combined Waveform Consider a wire carrying simultaneously more than one alternating current of different magnitudes and frequencies alongwith certain d.c. current. It is required to calculate resultant ram.s. value ie. effective value of the current. Let the wire carries three different currents as shown in the Fig. 6.17 It is required to obtain resultant I, through the wire. 1 = lee Wire mom t Se es Resultant lime ~ ig ig = Ig Sin (wot + 4) I Fig. 6.17 Wire carrying 3 different currents simultaneously Method : It is based on heating effect of various currents. Let Ips = Resultant rms. value of currentBasic Electrical Engineering 6-23 A.C. Fundamentals 2 2 Tus RXt = 12. xRxt+ = wnat +a Pat +) xRxt Note that heat produced = (rms value)? xRxt =im and r.m.s. of a.c. = 7 2 2 12, 6 4 T2ns = 10? +/ =} +/— =| =198 mma) a) a] Iyms = 14.0712 A . Effective value of the resultant 6.12 Phasor Representation of an Alternating Quantity In the analysis of a.c. circuits, it is very difficult to deal with alternating quantities in terms of their waveforms and mathematical equations. The job of adding, subtracting, etc. of the two altemating quantities is tedious and time consuming in terms of their mathematical equations. Hence, it is necessary to study a method which gives an easier way of representing an alternating quantity. Such a representation is called phasor representation of an alternating quantity. The sinusoidally varying alternating quantity can be represented graphically by a straight line with an arrow in this method. The length of the line represents the magnitude of the quantity and arrow indicates its direction. This is similar to a vector representation. ‘Such a line is called a phasor. ‘One complete cycle of a sine wave is represented by one complete rotation of a phasor. The anticlockwise direction of rotation is purely a conventional direction which has been universally adopted. ‘Consider a phasor, rotating in anticlockwise direction, with uniform angular velocity, with its starting position ‘a’ as shown in the Fig. 6.18. If the projections of this phasor on y-axis are plotted against the angle turned through ‘@, (or time as 0 = @ t), we get a sine waveform. Consider the various positions shown in the Fig. 6.18. Fig. 6.18 Phasor representation of an alternating quantity