Photovoltaics: Basic Design

Principles and Components

If you are thinking of generating your
own electricity, you should consider a
photovoltaic (PV) systema way to generate electricity by using energy from the
sun. These systems have several advantages: they are cost-effective alternatives in
areas where extending a utility power line
is very expensive; they have no moving
parts and require little maintenance; and
they produce electricity without polluting
the environment.
This publication will introduce you to the
basic design principles and components of
PV systems. It will also help you discuss
these systems knowledgeably with an
equipment supplier or system installer.
Because this publication is not intended to
cover everything about designing and
installing a PV system, a list of additional
PV resources is provided at the end.

Introduction to PV Technology
Single PV cells (also known as solar
cells) are connected electrically to form
PV modules, which are the building blocks
of PV systems. The module is the smallest
PV unit that can be used to generate substantial amounts of PV power. Although
individual PV cells produce only small
amounts of electricity, PV modules are
manufactured with varying electrical outputs ranging from a few watts to more
than 100 watts of direct current (DC) electricity. The modules can be connected into
PV arrays for powering a wide variety of
electrical equipment.
Two primary types of PV technologies
available commercially are crystalline silicon and thin film. In crystalline-silicon
technologies, individual PV cells are cut
from large single crystals or from ingots of
crystalline silicon. In thinfilm PV technologies, the
PV material is deposited
on glass or thin metal
that mechanically supports the cell or module.
Thin-film-based modules
are produced in sheets
that are sized for specified electrical outputs.

Jim Yost / PIX01809

CLEARINGHOUSE

ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
AND
RENEWABLE
ENERGY

DOE/GO-10097-377
FS 231
March 1997

T
MEN OF EN
RT

ER
IC

ED

This document was produced for the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), a DOE national laboratory.
The document was produced by the Information Services Program, under the DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. The Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy Clearinghouse (EREC) is operated by NCI Information Systems, Inc., for NREL / DOE. The statements contained herein are based on
information known to EREC and NREL at the time of printing. No recommendation or endorsement of any product or service is implied if mentioned by EREC.

UN I T

GY
ER

DEP
A

This stand-alone PV system consists of four modules, each with

36 cells. It provides power for lights, radios, televisions, and other
loads at remote homes in New Mexico.

In addition to PV modules, the components

needed to complete a PV
system may include a
battery charge controller,
batteries, an inverter or
power control unit (for
alternating-current
loads), safety disconnects
and fuses, a grounding
circuit, and wiring. (See
Balance-of-System Equipment section.)

ST
AT ES OF A

Printed with a renewable-source ink on paper containing at least 50% wastepaper, including 20% postconsumer waste

PV System Applications
Many people are familiar with PV-powered calculators and watches, the most
common small-scale applications of PV.
However, there are numerous large-scale,
cost-effective PV applications, including:

Hundreds of costeffective applications

for PV systems have
been developed.

Water pumping for small-scale remote

irrigation, stock watering, residential
uses, remote villages, and marine sump
pumps;
Lighting for residential needs, billboards, security, highway signs, streets
and parking lots, pathways, recreational
vehicles, remote villages and schools,
and marine navigational buoys;
Communications by remote relay stations, emergency radios, orbiting satellites, and cellular telephones;
Refrigeration for medical and recreational uses;
Corrosion protection for pipelines and
docks, petroleum and water wells, and
underground tanks;
Utility grids that produce utility- or
commercial-scale electricity; and
Household appliances such as ventilation fans, swamp coolers, televisions,
blenders, stereos, and other appliances.
The decreasing cost of PV systems and the
increasing number of manufacturers and
dealers for PV equipment have contributed to widespread use of the technology. In PVs early days, do-it-yourselfers
had to search for companies that manufactured PV modules and often had to adapt
or reconfigure components from other
non-PV systems. Today, dealers offer
ready-to-use systems and state-of-the-art
equipment designed specifically for PV
systems. Many dealers have computer
software that helps to design systems and
specify appropriate components. As PV
markets expand, dealers are gaining
greater experience with PV applications,
making it cheaper and easier to purchase
PV systems.

How Do I Select a PV Dealer?

Choosing a PV professional will be one of
your most important decisions. If you
choose a competent dealer, you wont
need to know all the details of designing,
purchasing, and installing your PV sys-

tem. Instead, you can rely on the dealers

expertise to design and install a system
that meets your needs. However, just like
buying a car or a television, you must
have confidence in the dealers products
and services and be an informed consumer. With the growth of the PV industry, the number of regional dealers,
mail-order businesses, and local distributors has expanded rapidly. Many telephone directories contain listings for PV
dealers under the Solar heading.
Professional credentials are one indication
of a PV dealers knowledge and qualifications. Ask dealers what PV-related courses
they have taken, certifications they have
earned, and licenses they have received.
A second consideration is the dealers
experience in the field. How long has the
company been in business? The local Better Business Bureau can advise you
whether any customers have registered
complaints about the dealer. You should
also ask the dealer how many systems like
yours he or she has designed and
installed. Ask to see installations, and talk
with owners of systems similar to the one
you want to purchase.
A third consideration in selecting a system
installer is the variety and quality of products offered for each component of the
system. Because PV systems are often
designed for a specific site, one companys
products may not be appropriate for all
applications. Competent dealers will stock
components manufactured by several
companies. A variety of product options
will help ensure that the most appropriate
components are available for your system.
When a dealer recommends a product, ask
what the recommendation is based on,
whether there are consumer or independent testing facility reports you can read,
and whether the products are listed with
Underwriters Laboratories (UL).
Fourth, consider the service agreements
and performance guarantees the dealer
provides and the warranties given by the
product manufacturers. No system is
maintenance-free, nor will all components
function flawlessly forever. When problems emerge with your system, what services will the dealer provide? What

warranties do the manufacturers provide?

What costs should you expect to pay, and
which costs will be assumed by the dealer
and/or the manufacturer?

In the United States,

PV systems must
have unobstructed
southern exposure.

Finally, you should compare prices from

different dealers. Because distribution
channels and dealer networks have
expanded dramatically, the opportunity to
shop around is much greater today. If
possible, approach more than one dealer
about a draft design and cost estimate for
your system.

When Are PV Systems

Appropriate?
People select PV systems for a variety of
reasons. Some common reasons for selecting a PV system include:
CostWhen the cost is high for extending the utility power line or using
another electricity-generating system in a
remote location, a PV system is often the
most cost-effective source of electricity.
ReliabilityPV modules have no moving parts and require little maintenance

Suns Path in the Sky

June 21

West

North

December 21

PV modules

South

East

The suns noontime height above the horizon changes seasonally. This is
important to consider when siting and positioning a PV array.

compared to other electricity-generating

systems.
ModularityPV systems can be
expanded to meet increased power
requirements by adding more modules
to an existing system.
EnvironmentPV systems generate
electricity without polluting the environment and without creating noise.
Ability to combine systemsPV systems can be combined with other types
of electric generators (wind, hydro, and
diesel, for example) to charge batteries
and provide power on demand.
PV systems are not cost-effective for all
applications. The following discussion
gives some general guidelines to consider
when deciding whether a PV system is
appropriate for your situation.
First, if your site is already connected to a
utility grid, or within one-quarter mile of
the grid, a PV system will probably not be
cost-effective. Each utility company
spreads the cost of its power plants and
fuel costs among all its customers. Most
utilities can provide electricity to consumers for about 6 cents to 14 cents per
kilowatt-hour. When you install a PV system, you are essentially installing your own
mini-utility system. You pay all the costs of
generating the electricity you consume.
Although the suns energy is free, the PV
equipment is not free. The electricity generated by PV systems at current module and
balance-of-system prices can cost 20 cents
to 40 cents per kilowatt-hour, depending
on the installation cost and intensity and
duration of the sunlight at the site.
Second, small PV systems are not practical
for powering space-heating systems,
water heaters, air conditioners, electric
stoves, or electric clothes dryers. These
loads require a large amount of energy to
operate, which will increase the size and
cost of your PV system. Therefore, select
the most energy-efficient loads available.
For example, if your PV system will
power lights, look for the most energyefficient light bulbs. If your system will
pump water for toilets and showers, look
for the most water-conserving fixtures.

Where you live will

Annual Average Daily Peak Sun Hours

determine the number

4.5

of PV modules your
system will need.

4
4
4

4.5
6
5
3

4.7
4.7

This diagram illustrates the annual average daily peak sun hours for the United States.

Is My Site Adequate for PV?

Make sure you have

selected the most
energy-efficient loads
possible.

A PV system designer can conduct a

detailed site assessment for you. To save
the dealer time (and possibly save yourself
some money), you can conduct a preliminary assessment to determine whether your
site has potential for a PV system. Contact
the Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy Clearinghouse (ERECsee Source
List) for more information on conducting a
detailed site feasibility assessment.
There are three factors to consider when
determining whether your site is appropriate.
First, systems installed in the United States
must have a southern exposure. For maximum daily power output, PV modules
should be exposed to the sun for as much
of the day as possible, especially during
the peak sun hours of 10 a.m. to 3 p.m.
Second, the southern exposure must be
free of obstructions such as trees, mountains, and buildings that might shade the
modules. Consider both summer and

winter paths of the sun, as well as the

growth of trees and future construction
that may cause shading problems.
Finally, the unobstructed southern exposure must also have appropriate terrain
and sufficient space to install the PV system. A flat, grassy site is appropriate terrain, whereas a steep, rocky hillside is not.

How Does Weather Affect PV

Module Output?
Unlike utility power plants, which produce electricity constantly despite the time
of day and year or the weather, the output
of PV modules is directly related to these
two factors.
Where you live will affect the number of
PV modules you will need for power,
because different geographic regions experience different weather patterns. Seasonal
variations affect the amount of sunlight
available to power a PV system. The above
map shows annual average peak sun
hours for regions in the United States.

How to Size Your PV System

To size your PV system, you must first know your energy needs, which you
figure by listing all your daily loads. A load includes anything that uses electricity from your power source, such as lights, televisions, radios, or batteries.
Some loads need electricity all the time, such as refrigerators, whereas others
use electricity less often, such as power saws. To determine your total energy
consumption, multiply the wattage of the appliance by the number of hours it
is used in a day. Some appliances do not give the wattage, so you may have to
calculate the wattage by multiplying the amperes times the volts. After adding
the totals for each appliance, you can decide what power output you need for
your PV system.

Example
Load

Daily Use
(hrs)

Wattage

Total Energy
Consumption (watt-hrs)

Radio

25

50

Lamps
(fluorescent)

27

81

VCR

0.5

30

15

Television

60

360

Total Daily Energy Consumption

506 watt-hrs

For the items listed above, you would need a system that produces an average
daily energy output of 506 watt-hours. Obviously, different parts of the country receive varying amounts of sunlight. Because sunlight is the source of
power for PV, you must determine the daily amount of sunlight in your
region. Remember that PV systems are rated by peak watt, which is the
amount of power produced when the module receives 1,000 watts per square
meter of exposure to the sun (insolation).
Lets examine two locations: Albuquerque, New Mexico, and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Albuquerque is a fairly sunny area. In Albuquerque, for each peak
watt that a PV module is rated, it will produce a yearly average of 6.2 watthrs* of electricity daily. In Pittsburgh, a cloudier area, the same module will
produce an average of 2.4 watt-hrs* of electricity daily.
If you wanted to use a PV system in Albuquerque for the appliances listed in
the table, you would divide 506 watt-hrs by 6.2, divide that by 0.8 to account
for inefficiency of the batteries and, finally, multiply by 1.2 to cover anything
that may have been overlooked. You find that you would need a PV system
rated at 124 peak watts. If you were buying 50-watt modules, you would need
three modules, because you round up to the next highest number.
506 6.2 = 82
82 0.8 = 103
103 x 1.2 = 124
124 50 = 3 modules
For Pittsburgh, you would divide 506 watt-hrs by 2.4, divide by 0.8, and multiply by 1.2, which yields 317 peak watts, or seven modules at 50 watts each.
506 2.4 = 211
211 0.8 = 264
264 x 1.2 = 317
317 50 = 7 modules
Determining your daily energy consumption can be done through simple calculations like the example above or with the aid of sophisticated computer
programs. If you are seriously considering purchasing a PV system, there are
also other factors to consider. You may want to refer to other sources (see
Source List) for more precise ways to make your calculations.
*This is based on the winter average. For more precise calculations, consult month-bymonth averages and use the lowest monthly average.

Module temperature also affects output.

The conversion efficiency of crystallinesilicon modules falls significantly at
elevated module temperatures.
When designing a PV system, be sure your
PV installer obtains data specific to your
area, rather than relying on general data.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration began collecting solar data
nearly 20 years ago. The National Renewable Energy Laboratorys Renewable
Resource Data Center (see Source List) can
provide solar radiation information, as can
EREC. Some state energy offices also have
solar data-collection programs to assist
solar designers. Finally, books are available that contain solar data on most major
cities in the United States, and a few of
these are listed in the Reading List.

Sizing the System to Meet

Your Needs
After you have assessed the appropriateness of your site, you need to determine
how much electricity your PV system
must generate. This depends on how
much electricity your loads require. Again,
your dealer can help you with sizing a system that will meet your needs. The sidebar
illustrates the steps involved in sizing a
PV system. You can also contact EREC for
more specific information on sizing.

Balance-of-System Equipment
In addition to the PV modules, you must
purchase balance-of-system (BOS) equipment. This includes battery charge controllers, batteries, inverters (for loads
requiring alternating current), wires, conduit, a grounding circuit, fuses, safety disconnects, outlets, metal structures for
supporting the modules, and any additional components that are part of the PV
system. Below, well discuss PV and BOS
configurations first for loads requiring
direct current, then for loads needing
alternating current.
Note that, in many systems, the cost of
BOS equipment can equal or exceed the
cost of the PV modules. When examining
the costs of PV modules, remember that
these costs do not include the cost of BOS
equipment. Ask your PV dealer about the
BOS equipment required by your system.

Direct-Current (DC) System

Charge controller

PV
modules

Grounding circuit

Electric load (DC)

Grounding circuit
Battery

This figure illustrates the configuration of the PV modules and BOS

equipment in a basic direct-current system with battery storage. (Circuit
breakers and safety fuses are not shown.)

lead-acid, are designed to gradually discharge and recharge 80% of their capacity
hundreds of times. Automotive batteries
are shallow-cycle batteries and should not
be used in PV systems because they are
designed to discharge only about 20% of
their capacity. If drawn much below 20%
capacity more than a few dozen times, the
battery will be damaged and will no
longer be able to take a charge.
Deep-cycle batteries cost from about $65
up to $3,000. The cost depends on the
type, capacity (ampere-hours), the climatic
conditions in which it will operate, how
frequently it will receive maintenance, and
the types of chemicals it uses to store and
release electricity. A PV system may have
to be sized to store a sufficient amount of
power in the batteries to meet power
demand during several days of cloudy
weather. This is known as days of autonomy. Consult with your PV dealer before
selecting batteries for your system.

Direct-Current System Equipment

In addition to the
PV modules, you will
need to purchase
balance-of-system
(BOS) equipment.

Charge Controller. The charge controller

regulates the flow of electricity from the
PV modules to the battery and the load.
The controller keeps the battery fully
charged without overcharging it. When
the load is drawing power, the controller
allows charge to flow from the modules
into the battery, the load, or both. When
the controller senses that the battery is
fully charged, it stops the flow of charge
from the modules. Many controllers will
also sense when loads have taken too
much electricity from batteries and will
stop the flow until sufficient charge is
restored to the batteries. This last feature
can greatly extend the batterys lifetime.

Most types of batteries contain toxic materials that may pose serious health and
safety problems. The National Electric
Code (NEC), battery companies, and PV
system designers recommend that leadacid and wet cell batteries, which give off
explosive hydrogen gas when recharging,
be located in a well-ventilated space isolated from the other electrical components
of the system and away from living
spaces. Allow enough space for easy
access during maintenance, repair, and
replacement. Most important, maintain
the battery according to the manufacturers instructions, and recycle the batteries properly when they wear out.

Controllers generally cost between $20

and $400, depending on the ampere capacity at which your PV system will operate
and the monitoring features you want.
When selecting a controller, make sure it
has the features you need; cost should be a
secondary consideration.

Alternating-Current System
Equipment

Battery. The battery stores electricity for

use at night or for meeting loads during
the day when the modules are not generating sufficient power to meet load
requirements. To provide electricity over
long periods, PV systems require deepcycle batteries. These batteries, usually
6

Inverter. AC systems also require an

inverter, which changes the DC electricity
produced by PV modules and stored in
batteries into AC electricity. Different types
of inverters produce a different quality of
electricity. For example, lights, televisions,
and power tools can operate on lowerquality electricity, but computers, laser
printers, and other sophisticated electronic
equipment require the highest-quality
electricity. So, you must match the power
quality required by your loads with the
power quality produced by the inverter.

The National

Inverters for most stand-alone applications (i.e., those systems not connected to
the utility grid) cost less than $1 per rated
output watt. The cost is affected by several
factors, including the quality of the electricity it needs to produce; whether the
incoming DC voltage is 12, 24, 36, or 48
volts; the number of AC watts your loads
require when they are operating normally;
the amount of extra surge power your AC
loads need for short periods; and whether
the inverter has any additional features
such as meters and indicator lights.

Electric Code
contains provisions
and requirements
for PV systems.

Tell your PV dealer if you plan to add

additional AC loads in the future. If you
are considering building another room
onto your house or adding electrical loads,
consider purchasing an inverter with a
larger input and output rating than you
currently need. This may be less costly
than replacing it with a larger one later.

Alternating-Current (AC) System

Charge controller

However, many local code officials are not

familiar with PV systems. Though you follow the provisions of NEC, you may have
difficulty convincing a code official that
you have installed a code-approved system. Contact and educate (if necessary)
local code officials before you purchase
and install the system. Throughout the
installation process, invite them to observe
what you or your dealer have done before
you build any enclosure around wiring,
connections, or other components. This
will help ensure that your system receives
approval and will also help future PV
installers to get code approval.
Local insurance providers and lenders
may also need to be educated about the
safety, reliability, and cost-effectiveness of
PV systems. Obtaining insurance will be
easier in states where PV systems are more
common.

What Else Do I Need to Consider?

No PV system is maintenance-free. Schedule regular inspections of your system to
ensure that the wiring and contacts are
free from corrosion, the modules are clear
of debris, and the mounting equipment
has tight fasteners.

PV
modules

Grounding circuit
Inverter

Grounding circuit
Electric load (AC)

Battery

Most household appliances operate on alternating current (AC). This illustrates a

basic configuration of the PV modules and BOS equipment in an AC system.
(Circuit breakers and safety fuses are not shown.)

The National Electric Code

The National Electric Code (NEC) was
established in 1897 to ensure safety in all
systems that generate, store, transport, and
consume electricity. You or the dealer who
installs your PV system should be careful
to follow NECs equipment requirements
so that the PV system can be approved by
local electric code officials. Be aware that
many states require all electrical equipment
to be installed by a licensed electrician.
7

You should also monitor the power output

of your PV modules, the state-of-charge
and electrolyte level of your batteries, and
the actual amount of power that your
loads use. Writing this information in a
notebook is a good way to track your systems performance and help you determine whether your system is operating as
designed. Monitoring will also help you
understand the relationships between
your systems power production, storage
capability, and load requirements.

PV Can Power Your Future

PV systems can be cost-effective options
for providing electricity to your home or
remote site. However, they are not appropriate for all situations. Deciding whether
a PV system is right for you depends on
many factors. Therefore, conduct careful
research and consult with PV equipment
dealers and others who have installed these
systems. If you then decide that a PV system is right for you, the power of the sun
will take on a new meaning in your life.

Source List
The following are just a few of the many organizations
that can help you with locating PV equipment dealers in
your area and designing and installing PV systems.

Solar Energy International (SEI)

P.O. Box 715
Carbondale, CO 81623
(970) 963-8855
Fax: (970) 963-8866

The Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Clearinghouse (EREC)
P.O. Box 3048
Merrifield, VA 22116
(800) 363-3732
Fax (703) 893-0400
E-mail: [email protected]

SEI offers training programs on PV system design and installation, as well as on wind energy, mini-hydro systems, and solar
home design. SEI also sells books on a variety of renewable
energy topics.

On-Line Renewable Energy Information

EREC provides free general and technical information to the

public on the many topics and technologies pertaining to
energy efficiency and renewable energy, including PV systems,
solar energy, and solar radiation data.

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network

(EREN)
http://www.eren.doe.gov
EREN is the Department of Energys premier resource for
information about renewable energy and energy efficiency
technologies, including solar radiation and photovoltaic data.

Equipment, Dealers, and Installers

Renewable Energy & Efficiency Training
Institute (RETI)
1800 M Street, NW
Suite 300
Washington, DC 20036
(202) 496-1417
Fax: (202) 496-1494

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

http://www.nrel.gov
NREL, one of the Department of Energys national laboratories, leads the nation toward a sustainable energy future by
developing renewable energy technologies. Its Web site
includes information on many renewable energy topics. See
NRELs Renewable Resource Data Center, at
http://www.rredc.nrel.gov, for solar radiation information.

RETI offers customized PV design, installation, and maintenance programs to meet the needs of a wide range of customer
groups.

Reading List

Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA)

122 C Street, NW
4th Floor
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 383-2600
Fax: (202) 383-2670

Periodicals, Books, Pamphlets, and Reports

Consumer Guide to Solar Energy, S. Sklar, Bonus Books,
Chicago, 1991.
Home Power Magazine: The Hands-On Journal of HomeMade Power, Home Power, Inc., P.O. Box 520, Ashland,
OR 97520; (916) 475-3179; www. homepower.com.

SEIA is the national trade organization of PV and solar thermal

manufacturers and component suppliers.

Training Programs

Photovoltaic Fundamentals, National Renewable Energy

Laboratory, Document No. DE-91015001, available from
National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department
of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA
22161, 1991.

Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC)

Photovoltaic System Design Assistance and
Training Center
1679 Clearlake Road
Cocoa, FL 32922-5703
(407) 638-1000
Fax: (407) 638-1010

The Solar Electric House, S. Strong, Sustainability Press,

Still River, MA, 1993.

FSEC offers workshops on a variety of topics related to

PV system design and use.

Solar Electricity: A Practical Guide to Designing and

Installing Small Photovoltaic Systems, S. Roberts, Prentice
Hall, NJ, 1991.

Siemens Solar Industries (formerly Arco Solar)

Photovoltaic Technology and System Design
Training Course
4650 Adohr Lane
Camarillo, CA 93012
(805) 388-6561
Fax: (805) 388-6395

Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems: Handbook of Recommended Design Practices, Sandia National Laboratory,
Document No. SAND87-7023, available from National
Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161,
1991 (revised).

Siemens offers a one-week training program on PV technology

and system design.