WAVEMAKER G3 LEVEL 1 TRAINING COURSE

BASIC KNOWLEDGE
REQUIRED FOR ENTRY
Revision 2 (Nov 2008)
Important information enclosed please read carefully

Copyright 2007 by Guided Ultrasonics Ltd.

All rights reserved.

Guided Ultrasonics Ltd

17 Doverbeck Close
Ravenshead
Nottingham, NG15 9ER, UK
+44 (0) 1623 491 093

Author:
Thomas Vogt
[email protected]
www.guided-ultrasonics.com

 2007 by Guided Ultrasonics Ltd

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1 THE LEVEL 1 TRAINING COURSE

1.1 Overview
Guided Ultrasonics Ltd (GUL) provides training for the Wavemaker G3
Pipe Screening System. The guided wave ultrasonic technique is advanced
and, compared to other NDE techniques, a relatively new technology. For
this reason, it is GUL practice that the first purchase of such a system is
linked to a compulsory Level 1 training course, in order to ensure the
inspectors are properly qualified in the use of the system.
Consequently, the expectations from the trainees relating to physical,
practical and academic abilities are high. While GUL is committed to
support trainees to successfully complete the training course, it is possible
to fail the final examinations. The trainees are encouraged to review the
material taught each day thoroughly, to ask questions at any time, and to
practise using the software as much as possible.
Detailed information about the GUL training scheme can be found in the
document Training and Qualification Scheme for the Wavemaker Pipe
Screening System, which has been sent out together with this document. It
can also be downloaded from www.guided-ultrasonics.com.
1.2 Joining Instructions
It is important that all trainees have a certain basic and common knowledge
before the training starts because the course will build on this knowledge.
At the beginning of the training course, the basic knowledge contained in
this booklet will be tested in a simple entry exam. It is therefore
essential that the prospective candidate reads, understands, and reviews the
information given in Sections 2 5. Important information is, throughout
this booklet, highlighted in bold font.

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For the training course, the trainee must bring:

- 1 laptop/computer each.
1.3 Course schedule and examination format
The course timetable can be found in Appendix A. The last day of the
course is reserved for examinations, consisting of the following elements:
1. a practical exam;
2. a written exam (multiple choice test);
3. an interpretation/computer exam.
A minimum of 80% must be achieved in each individual exam.
1.4 Course Certification
On successful completion of the course, the candidate will be issued with
the following items:
1. a GUL Level 1 Temporary Operator Certificate;
2. a GUL Level 1 Operator ID Key (I-button);
and, after a period 3 months, following proven on-site work with the
WPSS by the candidate, reviewed by GUL:
3. a GUL Level 1 Operator ID Card.
For periods of validity, revalidation and advanced qualifications please
refer to the Training and Qualification Scheme for the Wavemaker Pipe
Screening System.

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WHAT DOES THE WAVEMAKER PIPE SCREENING

SYSTEM (WPSS) DO?
As the name suggests, the WPSS can be used to screen pipes for defects. It
does this by sending ultrasonic guided waves along the length of the pipe
and receiving reflections from any change in the cross-section of the pipe.
Screening means primarily to check for the presence of defects or
defective areas only. The WPSS can give a good estimate of the size of
the defect, but does not give an exact measure of the remaining wall
thickness at any given point. The objective is to identify the exact
location of problem areas using this screening tool, and then use
secondary exact defect sizing methods at the location of the defect.
Because ultrasonic guided waves can travel a long way in a pipe, the
WPSS is often used for long range testing. There are, however, many
other uses in pipe testing (e.g. road crossings) and other application areas
(e.g. heat exchanger tubes, rails etc).

Figure 2.1. An ideal application for long range testing in steel pipes.

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3 REVIEW OF THE BASICS OF ULTRASOUND

This section contains a review of bulk wave ultrasound. It presents basic
information, which is necessary for understanding guided wave ultrasonic
testing. Guided waves will be introduced in Section x.
3.1 Basic understanding
Sound waves
Every material supports particle vibrations in the form of waves,
which move through the material. This is known as sound, and the
waves are said to propagate through the material. Generally they
can propagate in any direction within the material.
In a volume of material, sound waves exist only in two different
types if the effect of the surfaces and boundaries is ignored:
longitudinal (or compressional) and transverse (or shear) waves.
They are also called compressional and shear bulk wave modes.

Figure 3.1. Schematic of shear and longitudinal wave motion in bulk

material. Particle positions at rest shown in gray colour.

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In gases and liquids, such as air and water, the sound can only
propagate in the form of a compressional mode because they cannot
transmit shear forces. In solids, such as steel, both longitudinal and
shear waves can propagate.
Wavelength
Because a wave is an oscillation, the particles in the material move
in cycles. During one cycle, the particle returns to the position at
the beginning of the cycle.
At any moment in time, one complete cycle corresponds to the
wavelength, (see diagram below). The wavelength is usually
given in millimetres (mm). The maximum deviation from the zero
position is called the amplitude.

Figure 3.2. A continuous wave at a given point in time.

Frequency
A wave can also be visualised in time at a given point in space. The
picture describing this is the same as that of the wavelength, but
showing the cycles over time t rather than position x. The number
of cycles per second s is called the frequency, f. The unit of the
frequency is the Hertz (Hz = 1/s).

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Ultrasound
Sound is called ultrasound for frequencies greater than
approximately 20,000 Hz (starting at the upper limit of human
hearing). The WPSS uses ultrasonic frequencies up to about
100,000 Hz. It is therefore convenient to use kHz instead of Hz.
Velocity
The velocity, c, with which these waves propagate, can be regarded
as roughly constant, but is different for each material. The velocity
and the wavelength are related to the frequency by the following
fundamental formula:

c= f .
This means that, for a given velocity c, the higher the frequency,
the smaller is the wavelength, and vice versa.
For example, the wavelength of the shear mode in steel (c =
3260m/s) at a frequency of 100kHz is

c 3260m / s
=
= 32.60mm .
f
100kHz
At 50kHz, it is 65.20mm, and at 25kHz it is 130.40mm.

Attenuation
A wave loses energy with distance propagated, which causes the
amplitude of the wave to decrease. This is called attenuation, or
decay. A bulk wave can lose energy in three ways:
- The material itself can be attenuative. In this case, the
decay is exponential. For example bitumen is highly
attenuative, steel is not.
- The propagating wave can be partly reflected from material
discontinuities, for example defects. In this case, the

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amplitude of the transmitted wave drops instantly.

- Beam spreading. Because a bulk wave can propagate in any
direction, it will spread out (for example think about a wave
on a water surface when a stone is thrown into the water it
will spread in all directions forming circles). Because the
energy is also spread over a larger space, the further the wave
propagates, the smaller its amplitude will be a certain point.
All mechanisms can appear together, and are generally frequency
dependent.

Figure 3.3. A decaying continuous wave at a given point in time.

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3.2 Practical application

Transducers
A ultrasound transducer is a device, which converts electrical
signals into acoustic waves. Similarly it converts acoustic waves
back into electrical signals to receive waves. To do this, the WPSS
uses piezo-electric elements in its transducers.
Conventional UT
In conventional ultrasound testing, a wave is transmitted by a
transducer into the material. These waves are reflected from any
discontinuity and received by a transducer. If the wave is not 100%
reflected, some wave energy is also transmitted and can be reflected
further away on the path.

Figure 3.4. Conventional UT measuring remaining wall thickness.

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Signals
A continuous wave (like a sine wave with an infinite number of
cycles) has a single frequency. But in practice, the electrical
signals, and therefore the ultrasonic waves, have a limited number
of cycles and a certain wave-form. This is called a tone-burst or
wave-packet. An example of such a tone-burst is shown in Figure
3.5.

Figure 3.5. A typical tone-burst.

Bandwidth
The bandwidth is a measure of frequency range. The more
cycles there are in a toneburst, the smaller is the range of
frequencies (narrow band) it contains. In the limit, a signal with
an infinite number of cycles, called a continuous wave, contains
only one single frequency. This can be plotted in a graph of
amplitude against frequency (rather than amplitude against time).
On the other hand, the less cycles there are in a tone burst, the
larger is the range of frequencies contained in the signal (broad
band). The frequency with the maximum amplitude is called the
centre-frequency.

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Figure 3.5. Relation between bandwidth and number of cycles.

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Time-traces
A time-trace is a record of the signals over a certain time interval
from a transducer. The time-trace is shown as a graph of the
amplitude of the signals against the time. If the velocity is known,
the time-axis can be directly converted into a distance axis. This
type of graph is also known as an A-Scan. In general, the signals in
the time-trace are not shown in the original form (raw time trace),
but instead their envelope. Do not confuse the envelope of a toneburst as a function of time with the representation of a tone-burst as
a function of frequency (as shown in the bandwidth section)
because of its similar shape!

Figure 3.6. Orignal time-trace and its envelope.

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Resolution
Note that, because at a higher frequency, a certain number of
cycles take less time to complete and the wavelength is smaller, so
the width of the signals is smaller. This means that the resolution
of the signals in the time-trace is higher.
Higher resolution can, for a certain centre-frequency, also be
obtained by using a smaller number of cycles. Changing the width
of the signals this way is called changing the bandwidth of the
signal.

Figure 3.7. Changing resolution by changing frequency and bandwidth.

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Pulse-Echo vs. Pitch-Catch

Several transducers located in different positions can be used to
transmit and receive waves. The time-trace obtained when
transmitting and receiving with the same transducer is called a
pulse-echo time-trace. A time-trace received by a transducer,
which is different from the transmitting transducer, is called a
pitch-catch time-trace.

Figure 3.8. Schematic example of pulse-echo and pitch-catch

configurations.
dB-Scale
The amplitudes of the signals can be shown either on a linear or
on a logarithmic scale. The decibel scale (dB-scale) is a
logarithmic scale. It is very useful when a time-trace contains both
small and large signals, and compares the amplitude A of a signal to
reference amplitude A0 (e.g. 100% of the original transmitted signal
amplitude):
dB = 20 log( A / A0 )
A dB-value of 0 means that the amplitude A is equal to the
reference amplitude. A negative dB-value means that the amplitude

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is smaller than the reference amplitude. For example, a signal

amplitude of -6dB means that the amplitude is of that of the
reference. Note also that exponential decay looks linear on a dBscale.

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4 PIPES - A FEW IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

This section contains important definitions, which are necessary for the
correct understanding of guided waves ultrasonic testing of pipes.
Pipe features
A pipe feature is any object of installed pipe-work apart from the
pipe itself. Features may be fittings, valves, and other items as
shown in Figure 4.1, but also anomalies.
Anomaly
An anomaly is a possible deviation from sound pipe material or
weld, for example corrosion.

 2007 by Guided Ultrasonics Ltd

Figure 4.1. Typical pipe features.

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Directions
The axial direction coincides with the direction along the main
axis of the pipe.
The circumferential direction is the direction around the
circumference of the pipe.

Axial direction.

Circumferential direction.

Figure 4.2. Definition of axial and circumferential direction

Symmetry
A pipe itself is axisymmetric (or axially symmetric, symmetric
about the axis). That means that every point on a circle around the
pipe axis as the centre looks the same. Similarly, a pipe feature is
axisymmetric if it looks the same all around the pipe. For example,
a good weld is largely, apart from small variations, axisymmetric.
Non-axisymmetric means that the axisymmetry is broken. For
example if there is a hole in the pipe, the pipe does not look the
same all around the circumference. Even if there is the same hole
on exactly the opposite side, the pipe is not axisymmetric because it
must look the same at every point.

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Cross-section
Imagine the pipe cut open in a plane perpendicular (= at a right
angle) to the main axis. The cross-section is the entire area
between the inner and the outer radius of the pipe. It is the gray area
in the diagrams in Figures 4.2 and 4.3. In a simple pipe without
features the cross-section is constant along the main axis.
Change in cross-section
A change in cross-section is either a decrease (removal of wall
material) or an increase (addition of material) in cross-section
area. A decrease in cross-section can be caused, for example, by
material loss due to corrosion. A weld, for example, increases the
cross-section. The change in cross-section is commonly given as a
percentage of the normal cross-section. The WPSS measures
changes in cross-section.
Wall loss
Unlike cross-section change, which is a change in total pipe wall
area, wall loss is simply a change in the pipe wall thickness. The
WPSS does not directly measure absolute wall loss.

Definition of crosssection; 0% change.

Approximately 15%
change in cross-section

An exact 25% change

in cross-section

0% wall loss.

Approximately 95%
maximum wall loss.

100% maximum wall

loss.

Figure 4.3. Examples of cross-section loss versus wall loss.

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Circumferential extent
The length over which a pipe feature is distributed around the
circumference of the pipe is called the circumferential extent. It is
commonly given as a percentage of the pipe circumference. A weld
has a circumferential extent of 100%.

Figure 4.4. Definition of circumferential extent

Axial extent
The length of a feature in the axial direction is called the axial
extent.

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5 WHAT ARE ULTRASONIC GUIDED WAVES?

The purpose of this section is to give a short introduction of guided waves.
The Level 1 training course will give more information on this
Guided Waves
If the effect of the surfaces and boundaries of a material or
structure are taken into account, there can be many different types
of wave modes, not just compressional and shear waves. The
properties of the modes then depend on the exact geometry and the
material properties of the structure.
The key with guided waves is that the wave modes are guided by
the boundaries of the structure, and can therefore propagate in
certain directions along the structure only. In pipes, the guided
waves can only propagate in the axial or the circumferential
direction.
Guided Waves in Pipes
For pipe testing we use the guided waves which propagate in the
axial direction. All the modes propagating in the axial direction can
be classified in three families of modes, each family containing
many modes themselves:
- Torsional (twisting of the pipe);
- Longitudinal (compression of the pipe in axial direction);
- Flexural (bending of the pipe).
The WPSS can use all of these wave modes for testing. Some may
be familiar with Rayleigh or surface waves. These are also types of
guided waves, but the WPSS does not use these wave modes. At
any point along the length of the pipe, the guided wave is
distributed over the entire cross-section.

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GWUT
Abreviation for Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing. The term
LRUT (Long Range Ultrasonic Testing) is also often used.
However, while long range testing is one of the major screening
applications for guided waves, the term LRUT does not account for
numerous other applications where the propagation distance is not
the important factor. In GWUT of pipes, a wave is transmitted into
the pipe using an array of transducers arranged in a transducer ring.
The guided wave propagates in both directions (at the same time)
along the pipe. Guided waves are reflected from changes in the
cross-section. These reflections are then generally received in a
pulse-echo arrangement, but a pitch-catch arrangement is also
possible.

Figure 5.1. Principle of GWUT in pipes.

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Velocity
Unlike the bulk wave modes, the velocity of each guided wave
mode is different and, in general, changes with frequency. This
phenomenon, the frequency dependence of acoustic properties, is
called dispersion. The velocity is still related to wavelength and
frequency by the formula
c= f .
Attenuation
A guided wave can lose energy by three mechanisms:
- attenuation because of the material properties (exponential);
- loss of energy because of reflections (instant);
- leakage of energy into surrounding materials (exponential).
When there is another material inside and/or outside in contact
with the pipe, the guided wave can excite bulk waves in this
material. These bulk waves carry energy away, and the guided
wave in the pipe loses this energy. This is called leakage (the
guided wave is leaking energy into the surrounding material).
Attenuation because of leakage causes exponential decay. The
above three factors together determine the range of the guided
wave test. Note that there is no beam spreading for the guided
wave propagating in the axial direction, because the wave is guided
by the boundaries.

Figure 5.2. Schematic presentation of attenuation caused by leakage.

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