Unit 2

Ch.4
Origins of life
Natural selection is a process where survival traits become more prevalent in
future populations of species
We know which organisms have lived in the past because of fossils. Fossils are
mineralized or petrified replicas of skeletons, bones, teeth, shells, leaves, and seeds, or
impressions of such items found in rocks. It also can provide physical evidence of
ancient organisms and reveal which still remain today.
Evolution and natural selection and adaptation
Biological evolution by natural selection involves the change in a populations
genetic make up two successive generations
Genetic variability occurs in populations through mutations. Mutations are
random changes in the structure a number of DNA molecules and sell that can be
inherited by offspring.
Natural selection occurs when some individuals of a population of genetically
based treats increase their chances of survival and their ability to produce offspring with
the same traits
Geologic processes, climate change, catastrophes, and evolution
Tectonic plates are gigantic salad plates within the earths interior breakOver
thousands of years these plates of mood very very sLowly
There are many effects of these a tech tonic plates: the locations of continents
and oceanic basins greatly influenced earths climate in this help determine where plants
and animals can live, the movement of continents has allowed species to move, adapt to
new environments, and form new species through natural selection.
Ecological niches and adaptations
A niche is a species way of life Arola community or ecosystem includes
everything that affects its survival and reproduction. A fundamental niche consists of the
full potential range of physical, chemical, and biological conditions and resources it could
theoretically use if you could avoid direct competition from other species. Realized
nicheIs when a species usually occupies only one part of its fundamental niche in a
particular community in order to survive and avoid competition for the same resources
Speciation, extinction, and bio diversity
Speciation is natural selection that can lead to an entirely new species
Extension is the process affecting the number and types of species on earth and
which an entire species ceases to exist. Species that are found in only one area are
called endemic species and they are especially susceptible to extinction
Genetic engineering in the future of evolution
Artificial selection is what we have used to change the genetic characteristics of
populations with similar genes, this is also called selective breeding

 Genetic engineering is the alteration of an organisms genetic material through

adding, deleting, or changing segments of its dna to produce desirable traits or eliminate
negative ones
Summary
The origins of life come from original species that lived thousands of years ago. Species now
have actually come from those organisms through process called evolution. And this process
the species that we have now have changed over thousands of thousands of years and small
ways through mutations and adaptations Over and over again in order to survive. Organisms in
their environments also find themselves in niches. In these niches, organisms choose to fight for
certain resources to live in certain ways in order so that they have to compete the least and give
themselves the best survivability. Evolution does not occur as much today because humans
have taken in animals going into extension so that they cannot perform natural selection.
However, this is usually because humans are the reason for the species Extinction in the first
place. Even so, this means that evolution has come into our own hands. Scientists use genetic
engineering to create new species, altering them in ways to add or delete or change segments
of DNA to produce desirable traits or eliminate
Negative ones.

In this picture, we see the process of adaptation,

where one wolf in the colder areas have a white
coat to help with hunting and the other has a
brown coat to more easily blend in with trees and
woods areas.

Ch.7
Community structure and species diversity

 Species diversity is the number of different species it contains combined with the
abundance of individuals within each of the species
Species diversity is one characteristic of a community, another characteristic is
the niche structure which is how many potential ecological niches occur, the last factor is
a communities geographical location
Types of species
Native species are those species that normally live in thrive in a particular
community
Species are often labeled as native, non-native, indicator, Keystone, or
foundation species
Indicator species service warnings of damage to a community or any ecosystem
Keystone species are species that have a much larger affect on the types and
abundances of other species in a community than the numbers would suggest
Foundation species play a major role in shaping communities by creating and
enhancing their habitats in ways that benefit other species
Species interactions competition and predation
There are five basic types of interactions between species: interspecific
competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
Over a time scalelong enough first natural selection to occur some species
competing for the same resources evolve adaptations to reduce or avoid competition this
can happen to resource partitioning where species competing for similar scars resources
says evolve my specialist treats allow them to use shared resources at different times
Two kinds of organisms such as the predator or Hunter and pray or hunted form
predator prey relationships
Species interactions
Parasitism occurs when one species feeds on the part of another organism
Mutualism is when two species or a network of species interact in a way that
benefits all of them
Commensalism occurs between two species when one organism benefits but the
other does not
Ecological succession
Ecological succession is a gradual change in species composition of a given
area
Primary succession of balls the gradual Salish made a very biotic communities in
lifeless areas
Secondary succession is when a series of communities with different species
develop and places containing soil or bottom sediment

Summary
Communities are structures of many organisms usually found in ecosystems. There are many
ways in which species interact with one another. First there are actually many species that can

exist in these communities, these include: native species,Indicator species, keystone species,
and foundation species. The types of relationships that the species can have up with one
another include five basic types of interactions. These include: interspecific competition,
predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. As humans we should protect natural
systems because we often are the reasons for their degradation. Other than that we also ruined
many species because we destroy the ecosystems because of that we must protect others in
order to Right our wrongs.

In this chapter, community is a great part of the discussion, and this picture describes the many
different examples of inter-community relations between organisms and gives several examples

Ch.8
Population dynamics and carrying capacity

 There are three general patterns of population distribution, these are: clumping,
uniform dispersion, and random dispersion
Therefore variables that change population, these include: birth, death,
immigration, and emigration
Age structure is proportion of individuals at various ages
Populations very in their capacity for growth also known as there biotic potential
Individuals and populations with a high intrinsic rate of growth typically reproduce
early in life, have short generation times, can reproduce many times, and have many
offspring each time they reproduce
Environmental resistance consists of all factors that back to limit the growth of a
population
Carrying capacity is the biotic potential and environmental resistance working
together to predict the maximum population of a given species that a particular habitat
can sustain indefinitely without degrading the habitat
Population density is the number of individuals in a population found in a
particular area or volume
Reproductive patterns
There are two types of reproduction, asexual reproduction and sexual
reproduction
Sexual reproduction has three disadvantages: males do not give birth, and
increased chance of genetic errors and defects, courtship and mating rituals consume
time and energy, can transmit disease, and can inflict injury on mails of some species as
they compete for sexual partners
Species with the capacity for a high rate of population increase are called r
selected species
An example of a are selected species include cockroaches. Their characteristics
include many small offspring, little or no parental care and protection of the offspring,
early reproductive age, most offspring die before reaching reproductive age, small
adults, adopted too unstable climate environmental conditions,hi population growth rate,
population size fluctuates wildly above or below carrying capacity, generalist niche, well
ability to compete, early successional species
K selected species 10 to reproduce later in life and have a small number of
offspring with fairly long lifespans
Characteristics of the K selected species include fewer larger offspring, high
parental care and protection of offspring, later reproductive age, most offspring survive to
reproductive age, larger adults, adapted to stable Clement and environmental
conditions, lower population growth rate, population size fairly stable and usually close to
Carrying capacity, specialist niche, Highvilla be to compete, late successional species
A survivorship curve is one way to represent the age structure of a population

Summary
There are many different types of population dynamics in an ecosystem. Two types of
population growth rates include r selected species and K selected species. These two species
are opposites. The first type has many offspring at once and has a low ability to compete with

other organisms and has an early reproductive age. The other type on the other hand has only
few offspring and has a high ability to compete and Have an older reproductive age. The second
type of species is much more capable of surviving because of their large bodies and
longevity.these are different types of reproductive patterns, however there are other limitations
to population size of species. This includes caring the Passey. Carrying capacity is when a
species uses a specific resource and because there's only so much of that resource at one
point the population size can't increase any further because of the limitations of this resource.

In this picture, it describes the different population growth rates different organisms take. This
majoritively includes r species and k species.

Ch. 9
Human population growth
The history of human population growth includes three major factors to explain it,
these include: humans develop the ability to expand into diverse new habitats and

different climates owns, the emergence of early and modern agriculture allowed more
people to be fed per unit of land area, we developed sanitation systems, antibiotics, and
vaccines to help control infectious disease agents, and we talked into concentrated
sources of energy
10,000 years ago when agriculture began there is about 5 million humans on the
planet, now there is six .6 billion of us. It took from the time we arrived until about 1927
two at the first 2 billion people to the planet, less than 50 years had the next 2 billion in
1974, and just 25 years dad the next 2 billion, and illustration of the power of exponential
growth
Factors affecting human population size
Population change is calculated by subtracting the number of people leaving a
population to death or immigration for the number entering it to birth or immigration
during a specific time.
Instead of using total numbers of births and deaths per year population experts
use the birthrate or crude birth rate which is the number of live births per 1000 people,
the same is for death rate
Fertility is the number of children born to a woman during her lifetime, there are
two types of fertility rates that affect a country's population size and growth rate
These two types are: replacement level fertility which is the number of children a
couple must bear to replace themselves, and. Total fertility rate which is the average
number of children a woman typically has during her reproductive years
There are many factors that affect the average birthrate, one is the importance of
children as a part of the labor force, another is an active economic factor including the
cost of raising and educating children, another is the availability of private and public
pension systems, another is urbanization, anotherIs the education and employment
opportunities available for women, another is infant mortality rate, another is average
age of marriage, another is the ability of legal abortions, another is the availability of
reliable birth control methods
Population age structure
Age structure is the distribution of males and females in each age group in the
world population
There are many methods of reducing birthrate, some of these include family
planning, empowering women, hoping countries develop and implement national
population policies, provide universal axis to be productive healthcare, and sharply
reduce poverty

Summary
The human population growth has been expanding for centuries in a rapid exponential rate. This
is mostly because of our advancements in technology such as an agriculture, and health, and
urbanization, and our ability to expand into diverse new habitats and different climates than our

own. In present-day, many factors that affect human population size. The easiest is obviously
birthrates and death rates and immigration and emigration rates. However, those who study
population growth rates mostly look at birthrates. Is because there are many different factors
can affect birthrates. Some of these include family planning pier, empowering women, national
population policies, reproductive health care,Poverty, and the ability to use children and a labor
force. In developed countries such as the US, we look mainly towards Third World countries that
are expanding in populations rapidly because of their need to use children to create money and
for their lack of birth control methods and family-planning facilities.

This picture describes the patterns of human populations over history.It shows that for a long
time, birthrate did not greatly increase population because so many people were dying due to
disease. However, over time, we have cured many of those death threatening diseases, but
people were still used to having many babies because it was that way for so long. After enough
time though, people begin to have less children and the population will slowly decrease or stay
about the same.