Adapting to Climate Change:

A Planning Guide for

State Coastal Managers

NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management

www.noaa.gov

Adapting to Climate Change

http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/adaptation.html

2010
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Ocean Service
Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management
1305 East West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910
(301) 713-3155
Suggested Citation: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 2010. Adapting to
Climate Change: A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers. NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal
Resource Management. http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/climate/adaptation.html

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Climate change is real. It is here, and it is happening now,

in our backyards and around the globe.

Jane Lubchenco, Ph.D.

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere
Administrator, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Individuals and decision makers across widely diverse sectorsfrom energy to transportation to
natural resource managementare increasingly asking NOAA for information about climate change in
order to make the best choices for their families, communities, and businesses. This guide, Adapting to
Climate Change: A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers, offers a framework for state coastal managers
to follow as they develop and implement climate change adaptation plans in their own states. State
coastal managers, and their counterparts in local governments, are at the forefront of adapting to
climate change. Issues that coastal managers face every daysuch as coastal erosion, stormwater
management, habitat protection, and aging Great Lake infrastructureare being exacerbated by
climate change. This guide is one of the many products and services that NOAA is offering to help the
nation prepare for and address the impacts of climate change.

This guide benefited greatly from the input of individuals from several organizations within and outside NOAA,
including NOAAs Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, Coastal Services Center, National Sea Grant
College Program, Climate Program Office, and National Marine Fisheries Service Office of Habitat Conservation;
members of the Coastal States Organization; and others.

Adapting to Climate Change

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................1
Overview.........................................................................................................................................................1
Methodology...................................................................................................................................................3
Structure.........................................................................................................................................................4
Chapter 2 Climate Change and the Coast...............................................................................................................5
The Value of Our Coasts...............................................................................................................................................5
Impacts and Consequences of Climate Change on the Coast..................................................................................6
Increasing Air Temperature..................................................................................................................................12
Rising Sea Levels....................................................................................................................................................12
Declining Lake Levels...........................................................................................................................................13
Storm Intensity and Frequency............................................................................................................................13
Changing Precipitation Patterns..........................................................................................................................14
Increasing Water Temperature.............................................................................................................................14
Ocean Acidification...............................................................................................................................................14
Key Resources..................................................................................................................................................................15
Chapter 3 Planning Process......................................................................................................................................16
Step 1.1: Scope Out Level of Effort and Responsibility..............................................................................................17
Step 1.2: Assess Resource Needs and Availability....................................................................................................19
Step 1.3: Assemble Planning Team and Establish Responsibilities.......................................................................19
Step 1.4: Educate, Engage, and Involve Stakeholders.............................................................................................23
Key Resources..................................................................................................................................................................25
Chapter 4 Vulnerability Assessment........................................................................................................................26
Step 2.1: Identify Climate Change Phenomena..........................................................................................................28
Step 2.2: Identify Climate Change Impacts and Consequences...............................................................................29
Step 2.3: Assess Physical Characteristics and Exposure............................................................................................30
Physical Characteristics.........................................................................................................................................30
Exposure.........................................................................................................................................................31
Socially Vulnerable Populations..........................................................................................................................33
Vulnerable Ecosystems and Habitats...............................................................................................................34
Step 2.4: Consider Adaptive Capacities........................................................................................................................35
Step 2.5: Develop Scenarios and Simulate Change....................................................................................................36
Climate Modeling...................................................................................................................................................37
Mapping and Visualization..................................................................................................................................39
Step 2.6: Summarize Vulnerability and Identify Focus Areas....................................................................................40
Key Resources..................................................................................................................................................................42

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Chapter 5 Adaptation Strategy...................................................................................................................................45

Step 3.1: Set Goals...........................................................................................................................................................46
Step 3.2: Identify Actions...............................................................................................................................................46
Planning, Law Making, and Regulating...............................................................................................................48
Other Adaptation Measures..................................................................................................................................50
Step 3.3: Evaluate, Select, and Prioritize Actions........................................................................................................52
Step 3.4: Write Action Plans...........................................................................................................................................54
Adaptation Measure Descriptions..................................................................................................................................54
Impact Identification and Assessment................................................................................................................54
Awareness and Assistance.....................................................................................................................................58
Growth and Development Management............................................................................................................64
Loss Reduction.......................................................................................................................................................69
Shoreline Management..........................................................................................................................................78
Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Management....................................................................................................85
Water Resource Management and Protection...................................................................................................93
Key Resources...................................................................................................................................................................97
Chapter 6 Plan Implementation and Maintenance..........................................................................................102
Step 4.1: Adopt the Plan...............................................................................................................................................103
Step 4.2: Implement the Plan.......................................................................................................................................103
Sources of Federal Funding.................................................................................................................................103
Sources of State and Local Funding...................................................................................................................104
Step 4.3: Integrate Plan into Other State Planning Efforts and Programs...........................................................104
Step 4.4: Track, Evaluate, and Communicate Plan Progress...................................................................................104
Step 4.5: Update the Plan.............................................................................................................................................105
Key Resources................................................................................................................................................................106
Appendix A: Potential Funding Sources ............................................................................................................107
Appendix B: Federal Laws and Executive Orders Relevant to Climate Change on the Coast ..........114
Appendix C: Regional Climate Change Summaries.........................................................................................119
Select Bibliography.....................................................................................................................................................124
Photo Credits................................................................................................................................................................132

Adapting to Climate Change

Chapter 1
Introduction

Overview
The climate is changing, affecting global temperatures,
extreme weather patterns, precipitation, and the
oceans. The effects of climate change are already being
observed. These impacts are expected to increase in
scale and scope over time. Scientists report that at
least half of the increases in temperature observed
since 1951 are likely attributable to human activity,
primarily emission of heat-trapping or greenhouse
gases (CCSP 2008c). Because of the influence of
greenhouse gas emissions on climate change, humans
may be able to reduce the rate and severity of climate

change by reducing the rate at which carbon and other

heat-trapping gases are added to the atmosphere. Some
states are already addressing how they can mitigate
climate change, primarily by reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. However, how successful these efforts will
be is unknown, and some level of climate change is
inevitable based on past emissions (Solomon et al.
2009). So, while federal, state, and local governments
continue to attend to climate change mitigation,
they must also develop strategies for adapting to the
impacts of climate change they will not be able to
avoid.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

The following definitions are from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report and will
be used in this guide (IPCC 2007a). While this guide focuses on adaptation, it is important to understand the role of
mitigation in addressing climate change and, ultimately, what it means for adaptation.
AdaptationAdjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects,
which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.1
MitigationAn anthropogenic intervention to reduce the anthropogenic forcing of the climate system; it includes
strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks.

The purpose of this guide is to help U.S. state and

territorial (state) coastal managers develop and
implement adaptation plans to reduce the impacts
and consequences of climate change and climate
variability (climate change) in their purview.2 It was
written in response to a request from state coastal
managers for guidance from the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on adaptation
planning in the coastal zone. It is intended as an aid,
not as a prescriptive directive, and a state may choose
to use individual steps or chapters or the entire guide,
depending on where they are in their planning process.
A climate change adaptation plan identifies and assesses
the impacts that are likely to affect the planning area,
develops goals and actions to best minimize these
impacts, and establishes a process to implement those
actions. While an adaptation plan for the coast or the
larger state may stand alone, planning to adapt to climate
change should be incorporated to varying degrees in all
statewide planning efforts (as well as regional and local
planning efforts). However you choose to move forward,
the ultimate goal is coastal states and communities
that are organized to take action, have the tools to take
action, and are taking action to plan for and adapt to the
impacts of climate change.
As illustrated by its mission goals to protect, restore,
and manage the use of coastal and ocean resources

through an ecosystem approach to management

and understand climate variability and change to
enhance societys ability to plan and respond, NOAA
is committed to helping coastal communities prepare
for and respond to climate change (NOAA 2008). This
includes protecting and managing coastal resources to
meet social, environmental, and economic needs.
NOAAs Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource
Management (OCRM), part of the National Ocean
Service, provides national leadership, strategic
direction, and guidance to state coastal management
programs. OCRM has a particular interest in climate
change because of its role in administering the Coastal
Zone Management Act of 1972 as amended. The act,
which finds that because global warming may result in
a substantial sea level rise with serious adverse effects
in the coastal zone, coastal states must anticipate and
plan for such an occurrence, declares it national policy
to preserve, protect, develop, and, where possible,
restore and enhance the resources of the Nations
coastal zone for this and succeeding generations
(16 U.S.C. 1451, et seq.). Specifically, it calls for states
to protect natural resources and manage coastal
development to minimize the loss of life and property
caused by improper development in hazardous areas as
well as those areas likely to be affected by sea level rise
and other impacts of climate change.

1 While some coastal communities may experience benefits from a changing climate change, adapting to and capitalizing on these benefits is
outside the scope of this document.
2 This guide is only one of a number of guides to adaptation planning. It is not intended to be definitive, and NOAA encourages states to

explore and use other guides and frameworks as they see fit to best meet their individual needs.

Adapting to Climate Change

The intent of this document is to help guide

coastal managers at the state level in their initial and
ongoing climate change adaptation planning efforts.
Planning is not a one-time event, and as the science
and tools to understand and address climate change
evolve, so should the associated plans and strategies.

Methodology

Coastal inundation resulting from sea level rise or storm surge, as

illustrated here, is one of the likely impacts of climate change on
U.S. coasts.

Coastal managers have been asking NOAA and other

federal agencies to provide increased and improved
information about how climate change will affect
their human and natural communities (e.g., regional
impacts, site-specific data) and what can be done to
prevent or adapt to the negative impacts. In 2008,
the Coastal States Organization surveyed states to
help inform members of Congress, federal agencies,
and others about the anticipated costs and needs of
the coastal states in regard to the impacts of climate
change (Climate Change Work Group 2008). The
survey found that several states have begun to take
action on climate change adaptation (as many of
the examples in this guide illustrate) and that lack of
data, or uncoordinated data collection, was a limiting
factor. Nevertheless, despite the data limitations and
the uncertainty of climate change, managers should
be planning for climate change now.

Information in this guide is based on needs

assessments and a wide variety of resources
specific to climate change, sustainability, resilience,
general hazard mitigation, and natural resource
management. This information is synthesized
so it is specific to state coastal managers, their
responsibilities, and the impacts and consequences
of climate change on our nations coasts. Key
resources include:
Global Climate Change Impacts in the U.S. (2009)
(and associated reports, 2006-2009)U.S.
Global Change Research Program (formerly
the U.S. Climate Change Science Program)
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth
Assessment Report (2007)
The Federal Emergency Management
Agencys Mitigation Planning How-To
Guides (2001-2008)
Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook
for Local, Regional, and State Governments
(2007)ICLEILocal Governments for
Sustainability
Synthesis of Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas
(2008)U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Climate Ready Estuaries Program
Coastal No Adverse Impact Handbook
(2007)Association of State Floodplain

The high degree of uncertainty inherent in assessments of climate change impacts can make it difficult for a manager to
translate results from those assessments into practical management action. However, uncertainty is not the same thing
as ignorance or lack of informationit simply means that there is more than one outcome possible as a result of climate
change (CCSP 2008b).

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Managers and the NOAA Coastal Services

Center
Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook
for Development Planners (2009)U.S. Agency
for International Development

Structure
This document is structured to help guide managers
through the planning process from establishing
the planning team to implementing the plan. This
chapter, Chapter 1, introduced the guide, its purpose,
intended audience, methodology, and structure. The
remainder of the guide is organized as follows:
Chapter 2 Climate Change and the Coast
provides a brief and general overview of the
value of our coasts and how they may be
affected by climate change to establish the
importance of adaptation planning.
Chapter 3 Planning Process describes the
steps to take to create a plan and bring it to
life.
Chapter 4 Vulnerability Assessment
explains the elements involved in a
vulnerability assessment for the purposes of
guiding adaptation efforts.
Chapter 5 Adaptation Strategy discusses
how to establish goals and identify actions
that may be able to reduce the negative
impacts associated with climate change and
introduces a framework to help users choose
and prioritize actions that will aid them in
achieving their goals.
Chapter 6 Plan Implementation and
Maintenance suggests ways to implement
a plan; track, evaluate, and communicate its
progress; and update it to reflect completed

Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States

is the most comprehensive and authoritative report on the
current and future impacts of climate change on the United
States.

actions, changing circumstances, and new

science, data, tools, and techniques.
Appendix A Potential Federal Funding
Sources provides information about some of
the existing programs, which may not target
climate change specifically, that may provide
funding for climate change adaption planning
or project implementation.
Appendix B Federal Laws and Executive
Orders Relevant to Climate Change on
the Coast lists some of the federal laws and
executive orders that support climate change
adaptation.
Appendix C Regional Climate Summaries
provides brief summaries of how climate
change may affect the different regions of the
United States.

Key Resources are noted at the end of each chapter. Additional resources can be found on the NOAA Coastal Services
Center Coastal Climate Adaptation web site at http://collaborate.csc.noaa.gov/climateadaptation/ and on NOAAs
Climate Portal at www.climate.gov/.

Adapting to Climate Change

Chapter 2
Climate Change
and the Coast

This purpose of this chapter is to set the context for

adaptation planning by providing an overview of
the value of our nations coastal resources and how
they may be affected by climate change. As a coastal
manager, you already appreciate the importance and
value (market as well as nonmarket) of your coasts.
Understanding these values and how they may be
affected by climate change will play a significant role
in adaptation planning, providing a basis for informed
decision making and helping to tell the story and gain
stakeholder support. While this chapter looks at our
coasts and climate change from a national perspective,
it can be adapted to tell your state-specific story.

The Value of Our Coasts

Our coasts are critically important to our nation,
supporting a large percentage of its population as well
as its economy. In 2007, According to the National
Ocean Economics Program (NOEP), the coastal
zone was home to an estimated 127 million people,
supported 57 million jobs, and contributed $6.7 trillion
to the U.S. economy, accounting for 42 percent of
the U.S. population and 49 percent of its national
economic output (NOEP 2009a).
In its 2009 State of the U.S. Ocean and Coastal Economies
report, the NOEP provided a snapshot of the

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

ocean economy. The ocean economy consists

of economic activities that are tied to the ocean or
Great Lakes, or that are partially related to the ocean
or Great Lakes, and are located in a shore-adjacent
zip code. In 2004 (the most recent year for which
the information is available), the ocean economy
contributed $138 billion to the U.S. economy:

Tourism and recreation: $70 billion

Marine transportation: $28 billion
Offshore minerals: $20 billion
Ship and boat building: $11 billion
Living resources: $7 billion
Marine construction: $3 billion

Measuring the ocean economy is complicated, and

data are limited. In order to make data compatible and
comparable across all six sectors, some sector data
were excluded in the NOEP study. Sector-specific
reports from other sources, which use different
definitions, methodologies, and parameters, can
provide greater detail. For example, NOAAs National
Marine Fisheries Service reported that the commercial
fishing industry generated over $103 billion in sales
and $44 billion in income in 2006. That same year,
recreational fishing contributed $82 million in sales
(largely in durable equipment) to the U.S. economy
and generated $38 billion in value-added impacts
(NOAA n.d. Fisheries).
The coasts also provide a number of services that do
not have traditional market values but in total may
be even more valuable than those that do. The value
of coastal wetlands, for example, has been estimated
to be between $3 and 13 million per km2 (Knogge
et al. 2004). And, additional research suggests that
the storm protection services they provide are worth
$23.2 billion annually (Costanza et al. 2008). The total
nonmarket value for U.S. coastal and ocean resources
is at minimum tens of billions of dollars per year
and likely much more (NOEP 2009b).
According to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,
coastal ecosystemscoastal lands, areas where
fresh water and salt water mix, and nearshore
marine areasare among the most productive yet

highly threatened systems in the world. These

ecosystems produce disproportionately more
services relating to human well-being than most
other systems (Hassan et al. 2005). Some of the
nonmarket services provided by coastal ecosystems
(e.g., estuaries, marshes, coral reefs, mangroves,
lagoons, salt ponds, seagrass) include flood and
storm protection, erosion control, water quality
maintenance, biological productivity, fish and
wildlife habitat, recreational opportunities, and
aesthetic values.

Impacts and Consequences of

Climate Change on the Coast
Our nations coasts are particularly susceptible
to climate change. They are already subject to
an array of social and environmental stressors
that have resulted in habitat loss and conversion,
habitat degradation, and overexploitation. Key
stressors include coastal development, storms
and other natural processes (e.g., erosion
and subsidence), deforestation, pollution,
invasive species, unsustainable and destructive
fishing practices, recreational activities, energy
development, etc. Climate change, defined by
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) as any change in climate over time,
whether due to natural variability or as result of
human activity, will exacerbate these stressors
(IPCC 2007a). Implications are expected to be far
reaching for coastal communities, economies, and
ecosystems (Karl et al. 2009).
Since 1900, the global average surface temperature
of the Earth has risen by about 1.5F (Karl et al.
2009). And, the 2000s decade (2000-09) was the
warmest on record, with 9 of its 10 years (200109) ranking among the top 10 warmest years on
record (NOAA 2010a). Significantly, it was the
global warming that occurred over the last 50 years
that accounts for the majority of the increase,
which is largely attributable to human activities (i.e.,
greenhouse gas emissions). In the United States, the
average temperature has risen more than 2F over
the last 50 years (Karl et al. 2009).

Adapting to Climate Change

projections are considered reliable enough to warrant

and support adaptation planning (Karl et al. 2009).

The cumulative and secondary impacts from development in the

coastal zone can threaten coastal resources and exacerbate impacts
of climate change.

The IPCC has projected a likely rise in the average

global surface temperature of an additional 2 to 11.5F
by 2100 (relative to the 1980-99 time period) based on
an assumption of no changes in climate policy. In the
United States, the average temperature is projected to
increase by approximately 7 to 11F under a higher
emissions scenario and by approximately 4 to 6.5F
under a lower emissions scenario (Karl et al. 2009).
In addition to increases in air temperature, there is
evidence that other associated changes are taking place.
Some of these climate change phenomena, which are
discussed throughout this guide, include rising sea levels,
declining Great Lake levels, increasing storm intensity/
frequency (tropical and cold-season storms), changing
precipitation patterns, increasing water temperature, and
ocean acidification. The effects of these changes are
being observed across all sectors in the United States and
around the world (Karl et al. 2009).
Our understanding of the effects of climate change
on the United States is still evolving. According to the
U.S. Global Change Research Program, future changes
in some phenomena are more difficult to project than
others (e.g., changes in precipitation are more difficult to
project than changes in temperature) (Karl et al. 2009).
A lot remains uncertain and depends on the success of
our efforts to mitigate climate change. Nevertheless,
despite the uncertainties, current climate change
7

The Summary of Climate Change Phenomena:

Observed and Projected Changes table summarizes
how climate change may affectand in some
cases is already affectingcoastal communities.
It presents a general overview of the issues with
national-level observations and projections and
offers a starting point for discussions. Specifically,
the table calls out the key climate change
phenomena and their associated impacts and
consequences that may fall, albeit possibly in a very
limited way, within the purview of state coastal
management programs and that are addressed
further in this guide. (The public health discussion
is largely limited to consequences of extreme
weather events/conditions. Agriculture, forestry,
and emergency preparedness and response are
not included.) The table also includes observed
and projected changes, which are for the United
States and taken from the Global Climate Change
Impacts in the United States (Karl et al. 2009) report
unless specified otherwise. Brief descriptions of
the potential impacts and consequences of the
phenomena follow the table. It should be noted that
while these descriptions are written in the future
tense, some of the impacts and consequences are
already being felt.
It is vitally important to recognize that these
phenomena and their resultant impacts and
consequences will not occur in isolation. They will
interact with the stressors discussed above as well as
other social and economic stressors. The possibility
of cumulative and secondary impacts should be
considered, as this combination of phenomena and
stressors will likely result in more severe impacts
than those caused by individual factors. And, for
some systems, these impacts may be irreversible.
The general nature of the guide does not allow
for a more thorough examination of how these
phenomena may vary by region, although strong
regional variations in most of these phenomena
are expected. For more information about some of
these regional variations, see Appendix C.

Rising Sea Levels

Coastal inundation
Erosion
Storm surge flooding
Rising water tables
Saltwater intrusion
Nonpoint source pollution
Introduction of toxics

Heat waves
Drought
Wildfire
Invasive species
Shift in species range
Changes in timing of
ecological events
Loss of sea ice
Reduction in snowpack

Note: With the exception

of ocean acidification, all
phenomena listed here are
driven by increasing air
temperature.

Associated
Potential Impacts

Increasing Air Temperature

Climate Change Phenomenon

By 2100, the average

temperature is projected to
increase by approximately
7 to 11F under a higher
emissions scenario and by
approximately 4 to 6.5F
under a lower emissions
scenario

Recent estimates
substantially exceed IPCC
estimates, suggesting global
sea level rise between 3 and
4 feet by 2100
Global average sea level
is projected to rise from 8
to 24 inches by the end of
the century (this excludes
contributions to sea level
rise due to changes in ice
sheet dynamics)
During the last 50 years,
sea level has risen up to 8
inches or more along some
areas of the U.S. coast and
has fallen in others
Global average sea level
rose 1.7 mm (~.067 in)/year
during the 20th century,
1.8 mm (~.071 in)/year
between 1961 and 2003,
and 3.1 mm (~.122 in)/year
between 1993 and 2003 (it
is unknown if the increase
in the latter reflects natural
variability or a long-term
trend) (IPCC 2007b)

Illnesses, injuries, and loss of life

Destruction and damage
to coastal property and
infrastructure
Loss/degradation/alteration/
migration of coastal ecosystems
and the goods and services
they provide
Loss of beach access
Decline in quantity and quality
of freshwater
Loss of cultural resources
Population displacement/
migration
Economic losses

Projected Changes*
(to mid to late 21st century)

The average temperature

has risen more than 2F
over the past 50 years,
generally resulting in
longer warm seasons and
shorter, less intense cold
seasons
The number of days
with high temperatures
above 90F is projected to
increase throughout the
country

Observed Changes

Illnesses, injuries, and loss of life

Loss/degradation/alteration/
migration of coastal ecosystems
and the goods and services
they provide
Decline in quantity and quality
of freshwater
Destruction and damage
to coastal property and
infrastructure
Economic losses

Associated
Potential Consequences

Summary of Climate Change Phenomena: Observed and Projected Changes

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Increasing Storm
Intensity/Frequency*

Water loss
Bluff erosion
Hypoxia
Harmful algal blooms
Invasive species

Associated
Potential Impacts

* This includes both tropical and cold-season storms (extratropical).

Flooding
High wind
High waves
Erosion
Salinity shifts
Nonpoint source
pollution
Introduction of toxics

Declining Great Lake

Levels

Climate Change
Phenomenon
Under lower emissions
scenarios, Great Lakes
water levels will fall no
more than 1 foot by 2100,
but under high emissions
scenarios, they will fall
between 1 and 2 feet

The intensity of Atlantic

hurricanes is likely to
increase, but more slowly
than observed in recent
decades
The strongest hurricanes
are likely to get stronger in
both the eastern Pacific and
the Atlantic oceans
Cold-season storms
will continue to track
northward; strong cold
season storms are likely to
become stronger and more
frequent
The power and frequency of
Atlantic hurricanes has increased
in recent decades, but there
has been little increase in the
number of hurricanes that make
landfall
Since the 1980s, the number of
tropical storms in the eastern
Pacific has decreased, but the
strongest storms have become
stronger
Cold-season storm tracks have
shifted northward and the
strongest storms have become
stronger

Injuries and loss of life

Destruction and damage to coastal
property and infrastructure
Loss/degradation/alteration of coastal
and marine ecosystems and the goods
and services they provide
Decline in quality of freshwater
Economic losses

Projected Changes*
(to mid to late 21st century)

Since 1961, with the exception

of Lake Superior, Great Lakes
water levels have dropped
almost .25 feet, on average
Since the early 1970s, there has
been a decrease in extent of
Great Lakes ice coverage, which
leads to more evaporation

Observed Changes

Decline in quantity and quality of

freshwater
Water dependent coastal
infrastructure impairment
Navigational challenges
Loss/degradation/alteration of coastal
ecosystems and the goods and
services they provide
Destruction and damage to coastal
property and infrastructure
Reduced access to waterfront facilities
Public trust conflicts
Economic losses

Associated
Potential Consequences

Adapting to Climate Change

Changing
Precipitation
Patterns

Climate Change
Phenomenon

Drought
Wildfire
Nonpoint source
pollution
Salinity shifts

Decreasing Precipitation

Flooding
Erosion
Nonpoint source
pollution
Introduction of toxics
Salinity shifts

Increasing Precipitation

Associated
Potential Impacts

Illnesses, injuries, and loss of life

Loss/degradation/alteration/
migration of coastal
ecosystems and the goods and
services they provide
Decline in quantity and quality
of freshwater
Destruction and damage
to coastal property and
infrastructure
Economic losses

Illnesses, injuries, and loss of life

Destruction and damage
to coastal property and
infrastructure
Loss/degradation/alteration
of coastal ecosystems and
the goods and services they
provide
Decline in quality of freshwater
Economic losses

Associated
Potential Consequences

Droughts have become more

frequent and intense during the
past 40 to 50 years

Total average precipitation

increased by about 7% during the
20th century (5% in the last 50
years)
The amount of rain in the heaviest
1% of downpours increased about
20% in the last century
Regional patterns indicate that
precipitation increased the most in
the wettest areas

Observed Changes

Droughts are likely to become

more frequent and severe in
some regions

The widespread trend toward

more heavy downpours
is expected to continue;
precipitation will be less
frequent but more intense
Regional patterns will
continue

Projected Changes*
(to mid to late 21st century)

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

10

11

Dissolution of calcium
carbonate in marine shellforming organisms

Ocean Acidification

Coral bleaching
Hypoxia
Pathogens and disease
Harmful algal blooms
Invasive species
Shift in species range
Changes in timing of
ecological events

Associated
Potential Impacts

Increasing Water
Temperature

Climate Change
Phenomenon

Projected Changes*
(to mid to late 21st century)
Increases in water
temperature will accompany
increases in air temperature

Globally, the pH of seawater

will drop much more
dramatically (0.14-0.35 units)
by 2100 if carbon dioxide
concentrations continue to
increase (IPCC 2007c)

Observed Changes

Since the 1970s, coastal water

temperatures have risen by about
2F in several regions

Globally, the pH of seawater has

decreased significantly (0.1 units)
since 1750, making it more acidic
(IPCC 2007c)

Loss/degradation/
alteration/migration
of coastal and marine
ecosystems and the
goods and services they
provide
Decreased water quality
Economic losses

Loss/degradation/
alteration/migration
of coastal and marine
ecosystems and the
goods and services they
provide
Economic losses

Associated
Potential Consequences

Adapting to Climate Change

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Increasing Air Temperature

With the exception of ocean acidification, all of
the phenomena discussed in this chapter can be
attributed to increasing air temperature. Increasing
temperatures will also mean more droughts,
wildfires, and heat waves, which are expected to
threaten human and other populations and strain
infrastructure and its capacity to provide the services
we have grown accustomed to. Within ecosystems,
native species may leave or die-off if they cannot
handle the higher temperatures. Invasive species may
replace them or take advantage of their weakness
and force them out. And, changes in the timing of
ecological events (i.e., lifecycle stages) as a result of
warmer air may cause disruptions in the food web,
further stressing ecosystems and local economies that
depend on them.
Increasing temperatures will also cause more
precipitation to fall as rain than snow and shift the
timing of the melting of snowpack to earlier in the
year. In areas where snowpack runoff is a critical
source of water, reduced snowpack and earlier snow
melt (which means reduced stream flows later in the
year) will pose significant challenges.
In the Arctic, warming will reduce sea ice and cause
permafrost to thaw. As sea ice melts, the coast will
be more prone to damage and destruction. Thawing
permafrost will damage buildings, roads, airstrips,
pipelines, and other infrastructure. It will also have
impacts on drainage, ground water, river runoffs, and
ecosystems and will release carbon sequestered in the
frozen soil (NOAA n.d. Arctic).

Rising Sea Levels

Global sea level rise is largely attributable to the
thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting
of glaciers and polar ice sheets resulting from a
warming atmosphere (Karl et al. 2009). Relative sea
level, which is the sea level measured against land
elevation at a given particular location, is influenced
by these as well as localized processes such as plate
tectonics (e.g., earthquakes), postglacial rebound,
and land subsidence. Atmospheric and oceanic

Storm surge on a Louisiana highway shows the potential effects of

rising sea levels.

circulation, which will be altered by climate change,

will also influence relative sea levels. As a result of
the variability of these processes, relative sea level
rise, and its impacts and consequences, will vary by
location.
In general, rising sea levels will inundate coastal
wetlands, barrier islands, and other low-lying lands
and intensify erosion and flooding as new areas are
exposed to storm surges, waves, currents, and tides.
Inundation, erosion, and flooding will threaten human
health, coastal property, and infrastructure as well
as coastal ecosystems, especially those that cannot
migrate inland or are sediment-starved. Any changes
to these ecosystems will, in turn, affect the biological,
ecological, and physical services they provide.
Human and ecosystem populations will also suffer
from a loss in quantity and quality of freshwater
as saltwater inundates estuaries, marshes, rivers,
and aquifers; water tables rise; and inundated lands
and infrastructure introduce more nonpoint source
pollutants and toxic substances into the rising seas.
Ultimately, rising sea levels mean land and ecosystem
loss. Some degree of economic loss is inevitable. In
1991, the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) estimated that a one-foot rise in sea level by
2100 would increase annual flood damage to insured
property by 36-58 percent and a three-foot rise would
increase annual damage by 102-200 percent. Recent
estimates indicate that a sea level rise of nearly 20
12

Adapting to Climate Change

inches by 2100 would cause $23-170 billion in

damage to U.S. coastal property (Ruth et al. 2007).
In addition, as land and ecosystems are inundated,
associated cultural resources may also be lost,
especially where populations, both human and
otherwise, are forced to relocate.

Declining Great Lake Levels

In the Great Lakes, water levels may drop as a result
of a warming climate. Average lake levels depend
on a balance between precipitation and runoff and
evaporation and outflow. While precipitation is
expected to increase in the winter and spring, with
more precipitation falling as rain and less as snow,
evaporation is due to increase because of higher
temperatures and reduced lake ice and is expected
to outpace precipitation (Karl et al. 2009).
Declining lake levels will impact water supplies and
utilities, hydroelectric and nuclear power plants,
commercial navigation, property owners, marine
recreation and tourism, marinas, beaches, and more.
Navigation will be impeded, water quantity and
quality will be diminished, and lakefront property
and water dependent infrastructure will be farther
away from the waters edge, reducing accessibility
and raising issues of public trust. In general,
erosion will be less of a problem, but bluff failure
may result from decreased hydrostatic pressure.
Water level decreases will also have broad impacts
on lake ecosystems. Coastal wetlands fronted by

As Great Lakes water levels decline, ports and marinas will

be increasingly ill-equipped to meet the needs of shipping and
fishing vessels.
13

barrier beaches will be cut off from the lakes, and as

water levels drop, wetlands may dry up. In addition,
lower water levels may result in an increase in the
concentration of nutrients and pollutants and a
decrease in dissolved oxygen concentrations, which
in conjunction with associated warmer air and water
temperatures may exacerbate harmful algal blooms and
hypoxia. Changing ecological conditions may facilitate
invasion by new species or encourage expansion of
previously established invaders.

Storm Intensity and Frequency

As coastal storms become more intense, and these
stronger storms become more frequent in the case of
cold-season storms (e.g., noreasters), damage to the
built and natural environments from flooding, erosion,
and high winds will become more commonplace.
Consequences of these storms may include injuries
and loss of life as well as damage to and destruction of
coastal property and infrastructure.
In recent decades, coastal storms have accounted
for the majority of U.S. annual disaster losses (Heinz
Center 1999; NOAA 2010a). Thus, in coastal areas,
where real estate values may be very high, the potential
economic impacts of natural disasters, which will be
exacerbated by climate change, could be significant.
The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season caused damage and
incurred associated costs estimated at more than $50
billion. One year later, Hurricane Katrina alone cost
approximately $134 billion, becoming the costliest U.S.
storm on record (NOAA 2010a).
In addition to the physical damage caused by flooding,
erosion, and high winds, shifts in salinity (excess
freshwater as well as saltwater) and the introduction
of pollutants and toxic substances from stormwater
runoff will likely stress habitats. Some will bounce
back, but others, under the weight of cumulative
impacts (e.g., multiple storms, rising sea levels,
preexisting stressors, etc.), will be degraded or lost,
which will lead to diminished or loss of productivity,
temporarily or permanently. And, damage to and
loss of natural protective features such as coral reefs,
barrier islands, beaches, dunes, and wetlands will leave
coastal communities more vulnerable to future storms.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Changing Precipitation Patterns

The overall effect of changing precipitation patterns,
which will have strong regional variations, is that
there will be too much or too little water, either
seasonally or throughout the year (Karl et al. 2009).
Some regions may experience the impacts and
consequences of both extremes.
In either case, water quality will be negatively
impacted. Increased runoff associated with heavy
rains will further pollute coastal waters with nitrogen
and phosphorous, sediments, and other, sometimes
toxic, contaminants and negatively impact dissolved
oxygen levels. Conversely, diminished water supplies
will be threatened by increased concentrations of
pollutants. Shifts in the salinity gradient as a result of
too much freshwater, or not enough, will also stress
coastal ecosystems.
Heavy downpours will likely cause flooding and
erosion that could damage or destroy property and
infrastructure and harm ecosystems along the coasts
and throughout watersheds. Existing water/flood
management systems and structures (e.g., drainage
systems, combined sewer overflow systems, dams) were
likely not planned and designed with climate change in
mind and will likely be taxed by, and possibly unable to
handle, increased quantities of water.
While these heavy downpours are likely to be more
frequent, longer periods of time between rainfalls
are also expected (i.e., precipitation will become less
frequent but more intense) (Karl et al. 2009). This
lack of regular precipitation, combined with higher air
temperatures, may lead to drought. Similarly, increased
runoff could reduce infiltration, limiting the amount
of water available for groundwater recharge and also
resulting in drought. Drought conditions would limit
water availability for all sectors and stress human and
ecosystem health and could also result in increased
incidence of wildfire and losses to both the built and
natural environments.

Increasing Water Temperature

Increasing air temperatures are leading to warmer
conditions in both marine and fresh water systems

Harmful algal blooms, which can have toxic or harmful effects on

people, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, and birds, will be exacerbated
as water temperatures rise.

(Karl et al. 2009). In addition to their role in sea level

rise, increases in water temperature, and associated
changes to coastal currents that moderate ocean
temperatures and increased stratification, will impact
the quality of coastal and marine waters and their living
resources, affecting species distribution and biological
productivity and connectivity.
Warming seas will likely be accompanied by more
incidences of coral bleaching, hypoxia, pathogens and
disease, harmful algal blooms, and invasive species.
Ecosystems, habitats, and species will be weakened or
lost (although some may just relocate). Consequences
may be severe where fisheries, ecosystems, and coastal
communities depend on a vulnerable resource for
sustenance, livelihoods, tourism, etc.

Ocean Acidification
In addition to global warming, the buildup of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere has also been linked to
changes in the chemistry of the oceans, changes
that are essentially irreversible over a time scale of
centuries (Karl et al. 2009). Ocean acidification is the
result of an increase in carbon dioxide absorption by
ocean water and the corresponding decrease in pH.
As seawater becomes less alkaline (more acidic), less
calcium carbonate is available for corals, shellfish, and
other sea life to build their shells and skeletons. Threats
to these ecosystems and species will be wide-ranging
across the marine food web and associated coastal
communities.
14

Adapting to Climate Change

Key Resources

15

Climate ChangeScience, EPA. http://epa.gov/climatechange/science/

Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, IPCC. www.ipcc.ch/
Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, IPCC. www.ipcc.ch/
Climate Change: Fitting the Pieces Together (online training), University Corporation for Atmospheric
Research, Cooperative Program for Operational Meteorology, Education and Training.
www.meted.ucar.edu/broadcastmet/climate/
Climate Change Impacts on the United States: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and
Change, National Assessment Synthesis Team, U.S. Global Change Research Program (2000, includes
regional and sectoral assessments).
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/first-national-assessment
Climate Change Indicators in the United States, EPA Climate Change Division.
www.epa.gov/climatechange/indicators.html
Climate LiteracyThe Essential Principles of Climate Science: A Guide for Communities and
Individuals, U.S. Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/resources/educators/climate-literacy
Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region, U.S. Climate Change Science
Program. www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
Fisheries Economics and Sociocultural Status and Trends Series, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
Service. www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st5/publication/
Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States, U.S. Global Change Research Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/us-impacts
National Ocean Economics Program Web Site (includes state summaries).
www.oceaneconomics.org/
NOAA Climate Service. www.climate.gov/
NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. www.glerl.noaa.gov/
PMEL Ocean Acidification Home Page, NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory.
www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/OA/
Preliminary Review of Adaptation Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems and Resources, U.S.
Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
State of the U.S. Ocean and Coastal Economies2009, National Ocean Economics Program.
www.oceaneconomics.org/nationalreport/
Thresholds of Climate Change in Ecosystems, U.S. Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
Weather and Climate Extremes in a Changing Climate: Regions of Focus: North America, Hawaii,
Caribbean, and U.S. Pacific Islands, U.S. Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
U.S. Global Change Research Program Web Site. www.globalchange.gov/

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Chapter 3
Planning Process

The first two chapters of this guide explain why

coastal managers need to begin planning for the effects
of climate change in the coastal zone. This chapter
discusses the framework for the planning process,
focusing primarily on where to begin.

The framework presented here follows the steps of

a traditional planning process. However, adaptation
planning is neither purely linear nor cyclical in nature.
While some tasks will need to be completed before
others, it is important to build flexibility into the

Planning: The act or process of making or carrying out plans; specifically: the establishment of goals, policies, and
procedures for a social or economic unit (Merriam-Webster).
Planning works to improve the welfare of people and their communities by creating more convenient, equitable,
healthful, efficient, and attractive places for present and future generations (American Planning Association).

16

Adapting to Climate Change

Create an Adaptation Strategy

Step 3.1: Set Goals
Step 3.2: Identify Actions
Step 3.3: Evaluate, Select, and Prioritize
Actions
Step 3.4: Write Action Plans

Planning is a partnership- and consensus-building exercise that requires a

variety of skills and expertise.

process that will allow for accommodation of new

data, perceptions, realizations, and vulnerabilities.
The primary tasks associated with climate change
adaptation planning as suggested in this guide are as
follows:
Establish the Planning Process
Step 1.1: Scope out Level of Effort and
Responsibility
Step 1.2: Assess Resource Needs and
Availability
Step 1.3: Assemble Planning Team and
Establish Responsibilities
Step 1.4: Educate, Engage, and Involve
Stakeholders
Assess Vulnerability
Step 2.1: Identify Climate Change
Phenomena
Step 2.2: Identify Climate Change Impacts
and Consequences
Step 2.3: Assess Physical Characteristics
and Exposure
Step 2.4: Consider Adaptive Capacities
Step 2.5: Develop Scenarios and Simulate
Change
Step 2.6: Summarize Vulnerability and
Identify Focus Areas
17

Design a Plan Implementation and

Maintenance Process
Step 4.1: Adopt the Plan
Step 4.2: Implement the Plan
Step 4.3: Integrate Plan Findings into
Other State Planning Efforts and
Programs
Step 4.4: Track, Evaluate, and
Communicate Plan Progress
Step 4.5: Update the Plan
The rest of this chapter elaborates on establishing
the planning process. The other steps are addressed
in the chapters that follow.

Step 1.1: Scope Out Level of

Effort and Responsibility
Before initiating planning activities, you will need to
decide on the scope of your planning efforts. While
this guide is written for coastal managers at the state
level and focuses largely on activities for which they
have responsibilities, your state may want to address
adaptation at a larger scale. In that case, you may be
the lead, or you may be one of many planning team
members.
The process described in this guide can be scaled
up to incorporate impacts, consequences, and
sectors not discussed here (e.g., those not under the
jurisdiction of the coastal management program)
or can be scaled down to focus on a single impact,
consequence, or region. Conducted on its own, a
coastal adaptation plan could easily be integrated
into larger planning efforts, which may or may not
yet have begun.
Consider whether a stand-alone adaptation plan
is really necessary. What other ongoing planning

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Hazard mitigation is defined as sustained action taken to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to people and their
property from hazards. (FEMA n.d.). A hazard mitigation plan is a long-term strategy to reduce disaster losses and break
the cycle of disaster damage, reconstruction, and repeated damage. The Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, an amendment
to the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, requires states and local governments to develop
hazard mitigation plans as a condition for receiving certain types of nonemergency disaster assistance, including
funding for hazard mitigation projects. www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/

efforts is your state engaged in? Some states are

including climate change adaptation planning along
with climate change mitigation planning or in their
hazard mitigation plans, which may give short shrift to
ecological systems and needs. Others are including it in
wildlife action plans, which, in turn, will likely exclude
impacts on the built environment. Other plans that
may relate to climate change adaptation include coastal
management, watershed management, emergency
operations, transportation, economic development, and
growth plans. These plans are also excellent resources
for the adaptation plans vulnerability assessment and
adaptation strategy.

Know what your state is thinking about climate

change adaptation planning, both short and long
term, and where your program best fits into the
process. Also, look into how adaptation planning
is being handled at the local level in your state and
consider how to incorporate existing efforts into your
plan and/or how your plan can be used to guide and
support local planning.
A new state law or executive order authorizing the
climate change adaptation planning process would
help ensure it has adequate resources, support, and
legitimacy. This may require educating elected officials,

Learning from othersConnecticut Integrates Adaptation into Hazards Mitigation

Connecticuts Department of Environmental Protection included climate change in the 2007-2010 update to the
states Natural Hazards Mitigation Plan. The issue of climate change is addressed throughout, and a special section is
dedicated to the potential impacts from climate change and sea level rise. One of the plans three goals is to Increase
research and planning activities for natural hazards mitigation on a state and local level particularly with regard to
climate change and associated adaptation strategies. Related activities include enhanced climate change research and
adaptation planning. www.ct.gov/dep/cwp/view.asp?a=2720&q=325652&depNav_GID=1654

Learning from othersWashington Executive Order and Law Call for Action on Climate Change
In Washington State, the governor signed an executive order (95-05) on climate change that includes a charge to
state agencies to protect the states vulnerable coastal areas. Specifically, it tasks the director of the Department of
Ecology, in collaboration with the Washington State Association of Counties and the Association of Washington Cities,
with evaluating the potential impacts of sea level rise on the states shoreline and developing recommendations for
addressing them. A complementary state law (SB 5560) directs the departments of ecology; agriculture; community,
trade, and economic development; fish and wildlife; natural resources; and transportation (in consultation with other
stakeholders as specified) to develop an integrated climate change response strategy. It calls for the Department of
Ecology to compile a strategy, based on a range of scenarios, summarizing climate change impacts to Washington,
assessing Washingtons vulnerability to those impacts, prioritizing solutions, and identifying funding and technical
resources to support implementation. The law also encourages state agencies to consider the strategy when planning
and designing new policies and programs. www.ecy.wa.gov/climatechange/laws.htm

18

Adapting to Climate Change

which should be done early in the planning process.

See the discussion beginning on page 23 about
educating, engaging, and involving stakeholders.

Step 1.2: Assess Resource Needs

and Availability
After reading through this guide, you will have a good
understanding of what it will take to develop and
implement an adaptation plan. Once you know what
the scope of your plan will be, you can begin to assess
resource availability. Planning efforts will require three
primary types of resources:
Human resourcesThis category includes
anyone who will help with plan development
and implementation. This is a planning team
effort, as is described in the next step, and
responsibilities should be distributed across
participants and other stakeholders. By
engaging multiple agencies, sectors, and levels
of government, the plan will become less of
a burden on any one entity and will benefit
from access to more information and points of
view, as well as financial and technical resources
and greater acceptance and buy-in to the idea
of climate change adaptation and the climate
change adaptation plan.
Technical resourcesClimate change
adaptation planning and implementation will
require a lot of technical data and know-how.
Much of the expertise can be secured when
building the planning team. You will need
people who understand and track the science
as well as people who can take the science and
state-specific data and help decipher what it
may mean for your coastal areas. This will likely
require information technology ranging from
basic geographic information systems (GIS) to
sophisticated modeling programs. Understand

the limitations of your states computing

capacity before acquiring the latter. If you do
not have access to the technical expertise or
the necessary computing capacity, you may
want to consider contracting with a university,
consulting firm, or other technical partner.
Finally, you will likely need to involve social
scientists and technical experts (e.g., engineers,
biologists, geologists) when you identify and
implement adaptation actions.
Financial resourcesYou will need financial
resources to support both human and technical
resources as well as general planning activities
(e.g., public meeting notices, meeting space,
office supplies, etc.). A number of federal
agencies provide grants for planning and
implementation activities, most of which, at
this point in time, indirectly support climate
change adaptation. A list of possible federal
funding sources can be found in Appendix A.
Other sources of funding may include private
foundations and nonprofit organizations.

Step 1.3: Assemble Planning Team

and Establish Responsibilities
There are numerous agencies and organizations with
vested interest in climate change adaptation, and
others who may have technical and human resources
to support it. Coordination and collaboration with
these entities is vital to the success of the adaptation
plan. You may prefer to conduct your vulnerability
assessment before you build the planning team, but
having the team in place first means more resources,
and likely better information, are available for the
assessment.
Note: The Coastal Zone Enhancement Program
conducted under Section 309 of the Coastal Zone

Planning is a time and resource consuming endeavor. Think about where you may be able to get graduate students
to help, particularly with collecting data for the vulnerability assessment. Or, consider hiring a NOAA Coastal Services
Center Fellow. The Coastal Management Fellowship program matches postgraduate students with state coastal
management programs for two years to work on projects proposed by the state, which may include climate change
adaptation. www.csc.noaa.gov/fellowships/

19

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Management Act provides a mechanism to convene

a climate change adaptation planning team backed by
federal funding to conduct operations.
Who you invite to participate on the planning
team, and who you choose to involve in more of a
supporting role, will depend on state-specific needs
and circumstances. Nevertheless, involvement of
a diverse set of stakeholders will be critical to the
process. More information about how to involve
stakeholders, including the general public, who may
not be directly involved as part of the planning team,
is presented in the next section. Most of the state
and federal partners on the planning team will likely
already be aware of the need to adapt to climate
change impacts. If not, be sure to educate them as
you would other stakeholders as discussed in the next
step.
Planning is a partnership- and consensus-building
exercise that requires a variety of skills and expertise.
It will allow coordination and integration of activities
across agencies, organizations, and jurisdictions,
capitalizing on human, technical, and financial
resources and avoiding unnecessary redundancies.
It should be an inclusive process that allows
diverse concerns to be addressed, considered, and
incorporated. And, it will also require creativity and
compromise.
Your climate change adaptation planning team will
be responsible for overseeing, coordinating, and
advocating climate change adaptation from planning
through implementation and beyond. Ideally,
members of the planning team will be engaged in
climate change issues or be willing to become so, be
able to provide needed input to the process, and have
the support of their employers.
It may be necessary to have a formal invitation
process, which could include asking agency and
department heads (or other figures of authority)
to designate appropriate representatives to serve
on the planning team. This can help ensure the
representative has some level of authority to act on
behalf of the organization. Such a request could
be sent as a letter explaining the need for the plan,

the planning process, and the role of planning team

members, which could include:
Participating in planning meetings
Providing input and information for the
vulnerability assessment
Participating in goal setting
Identifying adaptation actions for the plan
Reviewing and commenting on plan drafts
Assisting with outreach activities
Monitoring implementation of activities
specific to their organizations
Contributing to plan review and updating
activities
Working to mainstream climate change
adaptation into other agency activities
Your climate change adaptation planning team will
cross levels of government and sectors. Inclusion of
a wide variety of partners will result in a coast better
prepared for the impacts of climate change. As you
structure the planning team, some of the questions for
consideration include:
What entities engage in activities that might
impact or stress coastal systems and activities
managed by the coastal management program?
What other agencies and organizations have
investments or management responsibilities in
the coastal zone?

Coordination and collaboration with agencies and organizations with

vested interest in climate change adaptation, and others who may
have technical and human resources to support it, is vital to successful
adaptation planning.
20

Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersMaryland Climate Action Plan Benefits from Diversity of Interests and Expertise
In August 2008, the Maryland Commission on Climate Change released the states Climate Action Plan. Formed in 2007
by executive order, the commission, made up of 16 state agency heads and six members of the general assembly, was
charged with developing a plan addressing both climate change mitigation and adaptation. The commission was
supported by three working groupsScientific and Technical, Greenhouse Gas and Carbon Mitigation, and Adaptation
and Responsewhich were supported by technical work groups. Chaired by the secretary of the Department of Natural
Resources, the Adaptation and Response Working Group was supported by four technical work groups: Existing Built
Environment and Infrastructure; Human Health, Safety and Welfare; Future Built Environment and Infrastructure; and
Resources and Resource-Based Industries. Together, the commission and the groups that supported it represented diverse
stakeholder interests and lent broad perspective and expertise to the project. www.mde.state.md.us/Air/climatechange/

Who is already, or planning to be, engaged in

planning for climate change adaptation, directly
or indirectly?
Who is involved in climate change mitigation?
What kind of experience and expertise is
needed on the planning team?
Who might be able to provide additional
human or technical resources?
Following is a list of entities from which potential
climate change adaptation planning team members may
be recruited. Based on the number of people you plan
to include on the team, as well as the issues and sectors
you choose to address, you may decide to create
workgroups to handle individual tasks and issues. Some
of the entities listed below may serve the planning
team better in a supporting role (e.g., providing
resources, expertise, and experience) rather than in a
decision-making role as a team member.

State Agencies/Departments
Environment and Agriculture
Agriculture
Coastal Management
Environmental Protection
Fish and Wildlife
Forestry
Geological Survey
Marine Resources
Natural Resources
Parks and Recreation
State Climatologist
State Lands and Public Trust Area Trustee
21

Planning and Public Safety

Building Code
Emergency Management
Fire
Flood Control
Hazard Mitigation
Homeland Security
Local Affairs
National Guard
Planning
Public Health
Housing and Infrastructure
Energy
Engineering
Housing
Public Works
Stormwater Management
Transportation
Utilities
Water Resources
Economic Development
Commerce
Economic Development
Insurance
Other
Education
Historic Preservation
Tourism

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Federal Agencies/Departments
U.S. Department of Commerce
Economic Development Administration
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Information Service
National Marine Fisheries Service
National Ocean Service
National Weather Service
Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric
Research
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
National Institute of Food and Agriculture
National Resources Conservation Service
U.S. Forest Service
U.S. Department of Defense
U.S. Army
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
U.S. Air Force
U.S. Marine Corps
U.S. Navy
U.S. Department of Energy
Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy
Reliability
U.S. Department of Homeland Security
Federal Emergency Management Agency
U.S. Coast Guard
U.S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Indian Affairs
Bureau of Water Reclamation
National Park Service
U.S. Bureau of Land Management
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development
Community Planning and Development
Housing
Public and Indian Housing

U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety
Administration
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air and Radiation
Office of Policy, Economics, and
Innovation
Office of Water

Other

Elected officials
Universities/research institutions
Regional governments/organizations/programs
Local governments, coastal management
programs in particular
Regional planning organizations
Native American tribal organizations
Nonprofit organizations and associations
Civic groups
Neighboring states
Infrastructure managers
Industries
Contractors/engineers
Developers
General public

The planning team, as well as the entire planning

process, should be flexible. As the planning progresses,
additional team members may be needed as new issues
and questions arise.
Once planning team members are identified, consider
holding a kick-off meeting(s) to:

Designate a planning team leader/leadership team

Identify a climate science advisor
Create a common understanding of climate change
Communicate process goals and parameters
(e.g., scope and planning timeframe)
Create workgroups and designate leaders
Establish roles and responsibilities and set
expectations
Set a schedule
22

Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersIssue Identification Workshop Launched Planning Process in Delaware

To kickoff the planning process for Delawares Statewide Sea Level Rise Adaptation Plan, the Delaware Coastal Program
hosted an issue identification workshop that attracted approximately 100 stakeholders, including representatives from
all levels of government, nonprofit organizations, academia, and business interests. The goals of the workshop were
to raise awareness about how sea level rise may impact Delaware and to initiate a dialog about these impacts among
stakeholders. Workshop participants identified and described sea level rise issues for the purpose of establishing the
plans priority issues and determining data gaps and strategies for management and adaptation to sea level rise. Results
from the workshop also served as the basis for the formation of a coordination committee, technical working groups,
and research and monitoring projects. www.swc.dnrec.delaware.gov/coastal/Pages/SeaLevelRiseAdaptation.aspx

Step 1.4: Educate, Engage, and

Involve Stakeholders

out planning partners with expertise in communication

and participatory planning.

Central to a successful planning effort is a well-crafted

plan to educate, engage, and involve stakeholders.
Stakeholders include individuals who can effect
change, have relevant knowledge or skills, represent
the interests of particular groups, and/or will be
affected by climate change. They will include the
members of the planning team, elected officials (state
and local), coastal landowners, the general public,
educators, the media, and everyone else identified in
the previous step.

You are encouraged to identify stakeholders and bring

them into the process early to get them interested in
the idea of climate change adaptation and secure their
support. Efforts to adapt to climate change will be
more effective the better stakeholders are educated,
prepared, and committed to the cause. Think about
what vehicles are already being used by planning team
members and their organizations to reach out to
stakeholders. For more information about outreach
and education, see Chapter 5.

These efforts will be ongoing and may be quite

challenging. For a more thorough discussion of how
to integrate stakeholder participation, a number of
useful Key Resources are suggested at the end of this
chapter. Additionally, you may find it beneficial to seek

Each step in the planning process provides

opportunities for stakeholder participation, and there
are many methods and techniques that can be used
to facilitate this critical part of the planning effort;
examples include, but are not limited to, charrettes,

According to the NOAA Coastal Services Centers Introduction to Stakeholder Participation, including stakeholders in the
planning process can help (NOAA 2007a):

Produce better outcomes or decisions

Garner public support for agencies and their decisions
Bring to light important local knowledge about natural resources
Increase public understanding of natural resource issues or management decisions
Reduce or resolve conflicts between stakeholders
Ensure implementation of new programs or policies
Increase compliance with new laws and regulations
Help agencies understand flaws in existing management strategies
Create new relationships among stakeholders

www.csc.noaa.gov/stakeholder/

23

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersOregon Assists Local Adaptation through

Strategy Guidance
Climate Ready Communities: A Strategy for Adapting to Impacts of Climate
Change on the Oregon Coast from the Oregon Coastal Management Program
was created to help coastal decision makers, legislators, and the public prepare
for climate change. Specifically, the document makes a case for adaptation, looks
at the likely effects of climate change on Oregon coasts, and promotes a strategy
that consists of coordinated planning and action by coastal cities and counties,
state agencies, businesses, individuals, and nongovernmental organizations,
framing the basic steps needed to prepare adaptation plans and to implement
them over time. www.oregon.gov/LCD/OCMP/

focus groups, open houses, workshops, and public

meetings. There is no one size fits all solution
for stakeholder participation. You will need to
review and choose those methods and techniques
that are most likely to result in effective and
efficient stakeholder participation in your state
(NOAA 2007a).
As the plan takes shape, ask for stakeholder input
on the vulnerability assessment (stakeholders may
have knowledge about past events and exposure
and have opinions about which community
assets should be protected), brief them on the
vulnerability assessment findings and invite
comment, involve them in goal setting and action
selection, get their feedback on the final plan, and
engage them in implementation and monitoring
activities, as appropriate.

Stakeholders play an important role in adaptation planning and

should be identified and brought into the process early.

Learning from othersMaryland Uses Role Playing to Engage Stakeholders on Climate Change
When Maryland launched its Coast-Smart Communities Initiative, it did so with an interactive summit jointly created by
the Maryland Department of Natural Resources (DNR), the Consensus Building Institute, and the Massachusetts Institute
of TechnologyU.S. Geological Survey Science Impact Collaborative. Over 170 participants, including state and local
elected officials, city planners, emergency managers, and other community stakeholders, gathered to work through a
simulated consensus-building exercise. Climate change adaptation measures were debated using a scorecard based on
real-world actions that Marylands coastal communities can take to protect their people, infrastructure, and investments
from future risk. The DNR encourages communities in Maryland and across the country to use the simulation to raise
awareness about the challenges local governments face from a changing climate and to demonstrate the value of a
facilitated negotiation. Materials are available free online. http://maryland.coastsmart.org/

24

Adapting to Climate Change

Key Resources

Publications and Web Sites

Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook for Development Planners, U.S. Agency for
International Development. www.crc.uri.edu/index.php?actid=366
Best Practice Approaches for Characterizing, Communicating, and Incorporating Scientific Uncertainty in
Decisionmaking, U.S. Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
Building Public Support for Floodplain Management, Association of State Floodplain Managers.
www.floods.org/ace-files/documentlibrary/Publications/BPS_Guidebook_2_1_10.pdf
Climate LiteracyThe Essential Principles of Climate Science: A Guide for Communities and
Individuals, U.S. Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/resources/educators/climate-literacy
Engaging Stakeholders in the Adaptation Process (from Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate
Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures), United Nations Development Programme.
www.undp.org/gef/documents/publications/apf-technical-paper02.pdf
Getting Started: Building Support for [Hazard] Mitigation Planning, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/resources.shtm
Introduction to Stakeholder Participation, NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/stakeholder/
Multi-Hazard Mitigation Planning, FEMA. www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/
Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local, Regional, and State Governments, ICLEILocal
Governments for Sustainability. www.icleiusa.org/action-center/planning/adaptation-guidebook/
Seven Cardinal Rules of Communication, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
www.epa.gov/CARE/library/7_cardinal_rules.pdf
Voluntary Guidance for States to Incorporate Climate Change into State Wildlife Action Plans & Other
Management Plans, Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies.
www.fishwildlife.org/pdfs/ClimateChangeGuidance%20Document_Final_December2009.pdf

Training
Coastal Training Program, National Estuarine Research Reserve System.
www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Training.aspx
Education and Outreach Training, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Conservation Training Center.
http://nctc.fws.gov/
Introduction to Hazard Mitigation (online), FEMA. http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/IS/
Negotiating for Coastal Resources, NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/cms/cls/negotiating_coastal.html
Public Issues and Conflict Management, NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/cms/cls/public_issues_conflict.html

25

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Chapter 4
Vulnerability
Assessment

The vulnerability assessment will lay the foundation for

the adaptation strategy. It will help the planning team
understand what could happen as climate changes and
will help focus attention on the areas, or the specific
assets (people, places/buildings/infrastructure, and
natural resources) that are most vulnerable as well as the
phenomena and associated impacts that could cause the
greatest losses. There are numerous definitions for the
term vulnerability, and it is often used interchangeably
with, or as a part of, risk. For the purpose of
simplicity, this guide captures the intent of both risk and
vulnerability assessments into a vulnerability assessment
and defines vulnerability as the potential for loss of or
harm/damage to exposed assets largely due to complex

interactions among natural processes, land use decisions,

and community resilience.1
The process described in this chapter for conducting a
vulnerability assessment is structured as follows:
Research and Information Collection
Step 2.1: Identify Climate Change Phenomena
Step 2.2: Identify Climate Change Impacts and
Consequences
Step 2.3: Assess Physical Characteristics and
Exposure
Step 2.4: Consider Adaptive Capacities

1 According to the IPCC, vulnerability is the degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change,

including climate variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate change and variation to which a
system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity (IPCC 2007a).

26

Adapting to Climate Change

Simulation and Analysis

Step 2.5: Develop Scenarios and Simulate
Change
Step 2.6: Summarize Vulnerability and Identify
Focus Areas
Steps 2.1 through 2.4 largely involve collecting existing
information to set the context. In Steps 2.5 and 2.6,
the planning team will use the information collected
to fine tune projections, simulate climate change in the
planning area, and integrate exposure data (and adaptive
capacity as appropriate) into the simulations in order to
summarize vulnerability.
Critical to this process will be data about the
phenomena, potential impacts, existing stressors,
your states physical geography, and exposed assets
(exposure). As the planning team moves through the
steps, and to the extent possible, members should collect
relevant maps and datasets in a geographic information
system (GIS).2 GIS will play an important role in this
assessment, allowing you to store, manage, analyze, and
display spatial data. GIS will allow the planning team to
compare the extent of impacts and consequences across

scenarios and better understand where vulnerability

is greatest, which will support decision making.
While the vulnerability assessment task may
be assigned to a working group (or groups),
contributions to the assessment by planning team
members and other key stakeholders (see Chapter
3 for suggestions) who might be able to provide
resources and valuable information to better
inform the assessment will be fundamental to the
process. Key Resources for data, information, and
tools to help conduct a vulnerability assessment are
included at the end of this chapter.
Note: This is a baseline assessment and should
be based on best available data. State and local
hazard mitigation plans and natural resource
plans are good resources for information about
existing stressors that are likely to be exacerbated
by climate change as well as exposure information.
Other plans may also have useful information. You
should not put off adaptation planning efforts
because you do not have all the information
you need. This could increase vulnerability and
result in high social, natural, and economic costs.
Adaptation planning is an adaptive process, and
the planning team will need to revisit and adjust
the vulnerability assessment, as well as the goals
and actions that are based on its assumptions, as
new data and capacities are acquired. Take note of
where critical data are missing. As a result of this
assessment, the planning team may want to include
data acquisition and capacity building as actions in
the adaptation strategy.
As a public document, the adaptation plan is an
educational tool. For this reason, and for ease
of updating, the plan should fully document the
vulnerability assessment process. In particular, it
should explain how the assessment was conducted
and its limitations, describe (and illustrate, where
possible) the changes that may take place, and
capture the data sources.

GIS uses layers of overlapping spatial information to

aid in analysis and decision making.

27

2 Your state may already have some of this information centralized in a geospatial clearinghouse.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersCalifornia Studies Evaluate Potential Impacts of Climate Change

In 2005, through Executive Order S-03-05, the governor of California required biennial science reports on potential
climate change impacts in the state. The report released in 2009 synthesizes the findings of more than 30 technical
papers and includes information on the impacts and consequences of climate change on Californias public health,
infrastructure, and natural resources; identifies economic impacts of climate change on California; provides an overview
of climate change research in California; and describes state efforts to adapt to current and future effects of climate
change. Based on the outputs from six global climate models run for the recent IPCC Fourth Assessment using the A2
and B1 emissions scenarios, the report and its background papers served as the scientific foundation upon which the
state developed its climate adaptation strategy. www.climatechange.ca.gov/publications/cat/

Step 2.1: Identify Climate Change

Phenomena
The climate change phenomena expected to impact your
state, including those that impacted your state in the
past, will form the base of the vulnerability assessment.
The table of phenomena, impacts, and consequences
in Chapter 2 provides a national overview of the
climate change phenomena expected to be of greatest
importance in coastal regions.
These phenomena are:

Rising Sea Levels

Declining Great Lake Levels
Increasing Storm Intensity/Frequency
Changing Precipitation Patterns
Increasing Air Temperature
Increasing Water Temperature
Ocean Acidification

Because of the strong regional variations in most of

these phenomena, and based on the scope of the
plan, the planning team will need to decide which
phenomena to include in its vulnerability assessment.
There are a number of resources available to help with
this decision and to provide input into other steps of
this assessment. The U.S. Global Climate Research
Programs Global Climate Change Impacts in the United
States, which contains information about potential
impacts by region and is the authoritative source on
climate change science and impacts in the United States,
provides a good starting point. Other good resources
for existing projections include research institutions
(especially Sea Grant institutions), regional climate
centers, state climatologists, and NOAA Regional
Integrated Sciences and Assessments programs.
From this research, the planning team should be able
to collect preliminary information about the climate
change phenomena that may affect the states coast in
the future. Note observed and projected changes. This
information will prove useful in later steps, where you
will have the opportunity to further refine projections.

Learning from othersNorth Carolina Synthesizes Science on Sea Level Rise

The North Carolina Coastal Resources Commissions Science Panel on Coastal Hazards produced a report synthesizing
the best available science on sea level rise in the state. Released at an expert and stakeholder forum, the intent of the
report is to provide North Carolinas planners and policy makers with a scientific assessment of the amount of rise
likely to occur in this century, which was determined to be one meter (39 inches), for policy development and planning
purposes. www.nccoastalmanagement.net/

28

Adapting to Climate Change

Sea Levels Online from NOAAs Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services illustrates regional
trends in sea level. The trends are based on data collected from tide stations in NOAAs National Water Level
Observation Network (NWLON). The NWLON also tracks water level trends in the Great Lakes. The graphic below
illustrates the sea level trends for Eugene Island, Louisiana, one of the most severe examples of sea level rise
captured by the network.
The mean sea level rise trend is
9.65 mm (~.380 in)/year with a
95 percent confidence interval
of +/- 1.24 mm (~.049 in)/year
based on monthly mean sea
level data from 1939 to 1974,
which is equivalent to a change
of 3.17 feet in 100 years. http://
tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/

Step 2.2: Identify Climate Change

Impacts and Consequences
Climate change impacts and consequences are the
changes to the physical, biological, and social systems
that occur as a result of climate change phenomena.
There are a number of ways to categorize and address
these potential impacts and consequences. While this
guide categorizes them by phenomenon, you may
choose to approach them differently (e.g., by impact,
sector, or type of environmentnatural vs. built).
Based on the phenomena identified in Step 2.1, the
planning team will identify the associated impacts and

consequences. The resources consulted in Step 2.1

and the information in Chapter 2 and Appendix C can
provide an idea of these impacts. Many, if not all, of
these impacts will have been experienced in the past
and are likely to be exacerbated by climate change.
The planning team may choose to address all of these
impacts, and others, or may choose to limit them based
on the scope of the plan.
By establishing a baseline that shows how climate
change-associated hazards and other stressors have
affected the planning area in the past, the team will
be better able to envision how they might affect it in
the future and will also be well-positioned to monitor

Digital Flood Insurance Rate Maps (DFIRM) are risk-based maps from FEMA that depict areas likely to be flooded by
storms with a 1 percent chance and a 0.2 percent chance of occurring in a single year (known as a 100-year and 500-year
flood, respectively). Flood hazard information is determined from engineering studies, which include hydrologic and
hydraulic models, flood profiles, data tables, digital elevation models, and structure-specific data (e.g., digital elevation
certificates and digital photographs of bridges and culverts) overlain on a base map. DFIRMs do not typically consider
future conditions. However, communities can elect to include a 100-year floodplain based on future-conditions land use
and hydrology on their DFIRM based on their own studies and ordinances and in accordance with FEMAs Final Guidelines
for Using Future-Conditions Hydrology. http://msc.fema.gov/; www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/fhm/ft_futur.shtm

29

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

FIRMettes are full-scale sections of Digital

Flood Insurance Rate Maps that can be
generated for free online.

and respond to changes as they occur. The baseline

should be based on trends and observed changes to
the climate phenomena compiled in Step 2.1 and a
review of historical and present day impacts (e.g.,
storms, floods, droughts, invasive species, harmful
algal blooms, hypoxia, ocean acidification, etc.) and
their consequences, as well as related cumulative and
secondary impacts. Relevant data and maps (e.g.,
Digital Flood Insurance Rate Maps, shoreline change
maps) may already be available from state (and local)
agencies involved in planning for managing such events
(e.g., in hazard mitigation and natural resource plans).
Impact characteristics the planning team may want to
collect include existing stressors, timing/seasonality,
magnitude, and persistence/reversibility.

planning, at the state and local level. These plans

should provide a good starting point for this step,
and the data should be accessible through the
authoring agencies or a central state clearinghouse for
geospatial data.

Physical Characteristics
Awareness of your coasts physical characteristics
is vital to understanding how it may be affected by
the impacts of climate change. Generally, physical
characteristics include features and processes of
the natural environment (which may be altered by

Step 2.3: Assess Physical

Characteristics and Exposure
In this step, the planning team will assess what it is
about the planning area that might affect your states
vulnerability to climate change. This could include
elevation, the health of wetlands, or the number
of buildings repetitively damaged by storm surge
flooding. Information about your coastal zones
physical geography and exposure (including social
and economic characteristics), and associated datasets,
has likely already been collected for similar planning
efforts, such as hazard mitigation and natural resource

Land cover maps illustrate how much of an area is covered by

wetlands, forests, agriculture, impervious surfaces, and other features.
30

Adapting to Climate Change

To use data successfully, coastal organizations need more than just data. They need tools, information, and training to
turn these data into useful information. NOAAs Digital Coast offers a diverse selection of data (e.g., elevation, land cover,
shoreline, benthic, orthoimagery, socioeconomics, etc.) and companion resources. The Coastal Inundation Toolkit shows
users how spatial information can be used to help address their inundation issues and includes basic information about
inundation, simple visualization tools, easy access to county-level data, and a guidebook and training for creating local
inundation maps. Web site content continues to grow with contributions and guidance from Digital Coast partners and
users. www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/

changes in the climate and human activities and should

be kept current and monitored over time), such as:

Topography
Bathymetry
Coastal geomorphology
Hydrography
Hydrology
Geology
Soil characteristics
Soil saturation
Land cover
Land use

Exposure
Exposure is an inventory of the assetspeople,
property, systems, and functionsthat could be lost,
injured, or damaged due to an impact of climate
change. In this section, the planning team will consider:
What is in the area that the impacts could affect
(the coastal zone)?

What are the specific assets your state and its

stakeholders want to protect?
How are these assets projected to change in the
future?
Assets the planning team may want to inventory and
map, based on best available data, include the following:
Population (numbers, densities, percentage of
state population, social vulnerability (see page
33))
Potential sources: State demographer, U.S. Census,
HAZUS-MH, local governments
Buildings (exclusive of infrastructure, see
below) (numbers and densities, purpose, type
of construction, elevation, values; specific
vulnerabilities, e.g., mobile homes, repetitive
losses, structures in hazard zones)
Potential sources: State department of finance,
HAZUS-MH, FEMA (repetitive losses), local
governments
Infrastructure (numbers, types, values; specific
vulnerabilities, e.g., structurally deficient
bridges, levees, shore protection structures; see
definition on next page)3

If you need to purchase data, such as lidar, consider using the contracting vehicle the NOAA Coastal Services Center has
established with geospatial industry leaders. State and local agencies use the existing contracts to collect coastal data
and obtain other GIS services. Fund transfers are coordinated through an established memorandum of understanding
process. This provides an easy way to get data, and since the center does not charge overhead, 100 percent of state and
local dollars applied to the contracts goes to the service requested. [email protected]

Infrastructure should also be assessed for how it might exacerbate the impacts of climate change (e.g., impermeable roads, shore protection structures
that interrupt natural processes, etc.). Additionally, infrastructure associated with hazardous materials and pollutants needs to be protected not just for
the services it provides but also for the negative impacts it could have on the environment if it were damaged and contaminants were released.

31

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

There are a number of definitions for critical infrastructure. For the purposes of homeland security and emergency
management, your state may have its own. For the purposes of this guide, infrastructure means the basic facilities,
services, networks, and systems needed for the functioning of a community that if lost or damaged could cause
significant disruption (physically, functionally, and economically). This includes:
Water supplies
Wastewater systems
Transportation systems (e.g., roads,
highways, bridges, tunnels, railways, airports,
ports, harbors, canals, ferries, evacuation
routes)
Electrical systems
Communications networks
Medical facilities
Police and fire stations
Emergency operations centers
Government buildings
Schools
Shore protection and flood control structures
Oil and gas production, storage, and
transportation

Potential sources: State agencies, HAZUSMH, U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S.

Department of Energy, National Atlas, local
governments
Natural Resources (numbers, types, values
(quantitative or qualitative, if available); e.g.,
wetlands, beaches, barrier islands, coral reefs,
marine protected areas, refuges, reserves,
protected species, essential fish habitat,
migration corridors, etc.)
Potential sources: State natural resource agencies,
National Wetlands Inventory, National Marine
Fisheries Service regional offices and science centers,
National Marine Protected Areas Center, National
Wetlands Research Center, regional Endangered
Species Program offices, local governments, nonprofit
organizations, academia
Historical Resources (numbers, names,
values (quantitative or qualitative, if available))
Potential sources: State historic preservation office/
register, National Register of Historic Places, local
governments

Hazardous material facilities (including those that

handle nuclear materials)
Military bases
Prisons

Cultural Resources (numbers, names/

types, values (quantitative or qualitative, if
available); e.g., museums, parks, public access
facilities, recreational resources, tourist
attractions, etc.)
Potential resources: State departments of culture,
parks and recreation, natural resources, tourism;
tourism bureaus; National Park Service; local
governments
Economic Resources (names, types,
values (quantitative or qualitative), number
employed; e.g., major employers, industries,
etc.)
Potential resources: State departments of finance
and labor, chambers of commerce, U.S. Census,
National Ocean Economics Program, local
governments
It is important, where possible, to estimate the value
(market and nonmarket) of exposed assets. This
will prove useful when determining where to focus
adaptation efforts as well as in making the case to
32

Adapting to Climate Change

FEMAs GIS-based loss-estimation software, Hazards U.S. Multihazard (HAZUS-MH) is a software program for analyzing
potential losses from floods, hurricane winds, and earthquakes. In HAZUS-MH, current scientific and engineering
knowledge is coupled with the latest GIS technology to produce estimates of hazard-related damage before, or after,
a disaster occurs. The software package contains national datasets, including select boundary maps (states, counties,
census tracts), aggregated building information (square footage, building count by occupancy), essential and high
potential loss facilities, transportation systems, lifeline utility systems, hazardous materials, and demographic data, which
are useful in inventorying exposure. www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/hazus/

decision makers and the public regarding the need

for adaptation planning. For the built environment,
the most accurate value will include replacement cost,
contents value, function value (value of services), and
displacement cost (cost associated with temporary
relocation). FEMAs HAZUS-MH can help the
planning team estimate these values for different types
of buildings (i.e., occupancy classes).4
It is also important to consider how these assets are
projected to change in the future and what that might
mean in the context of climate change. For example,
what are the projections for growth and development,
and where is it expected to occur? Are plans for
economic development based on resources that might
be threatened by climate change? Are there plans to
conduct activities that may stress natural resources that
may be further stressed by changes in the climate?

Socially Vulnerable Populations

Not everyone will be equally able to respond
to climate change. Some groups of people
are inherently more vulnerable than others.
It is important to understand how social and
economic characteristics may affect vulnerability.
Socially vulnerable populations will likely need
more assistance preparing for, responding to,
and recovering from the impacts of climate
change.
Characteristics that influence social vulnerability
include personal wealth, age, health, density of
the built environment, single-sector economic
dependence, housing stock and tenancy,
race, ethnicity, occupation, and infrastructure
dependence. The planning team should identify

State and Local Governments Plan for Development of Most Land Vulnerable to Rising Sea Level along the U.S. Atlantic
Coast examines where shore protection is likely to be constructed to protect development from rising seas while at the
same time limiting the inland migration of wetlands. It classifies coastal lands vulnerable to sea level rise according to
the likelihood of shore protection based on existing coastal policies, zoning, and land use and incorporates discussions
with local planners to approximate where efforts are likely to be made to hold back the sea. Supplementary material,
including state-specific discussions, maps, and GIS data are available online. Studies such as this can help set the stage
for creating an adaptation strategy to address sea level rise and other inundation threats. http://risingsea.net/ERL/

4 If using building values provided by HAZUS-MH, note that these values do not account for total land loss. These values will need to be determined

separately for losses attributable to erosion and sea level rise.

33

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

The Social Vulnerability Index from the Hazards and

Vulnerability Research Institute in the Department of
Geography at the University of South Carolina measures
the social vulnerability of U.S. counties to environmental
hazards. The index synthesizes 42 socioeconomic and built
environment variables that research literature suggests
contribute to social vulnerability. http://webra.cas.sc.edu/
hvri/products/sovi.aspx

where there may be high concentrations of these

socially vulnerable populations so it understands the
level of support they may need as the climate changes.
Also, consider native populations, whose unique
social, economic, and cultural characteristics may
make them particularly vulnerable.

Vulnerable Ecosystems and Habitats

The extent to which a natural system (e.g., ecosystem
or habitat) will be affected by climate change will
depend on the degree of change, the sensitivity of
the system, and the systems ability to respond. As
with human populations, not every system will be
equally positioned to respond. As data are collected
about natural resources, the planning team may want
to consider attributes of these systems that provide
a sense of how vulnerable they may be to climate
change and, thus, which systems may need the most
assistance preparing for and responding to climate
change.
To gauge the potential vulnerability of your coastal
and marine ecosystems and habitats, consider the
following:
HealthHealthy systems may be less
vulnerable to the added stress of climate
change.
Management planResources that are
well-managed lead to improved biodiversity,
shore protection, and food security; a more

sustainable income; continuity of fish nursery

and breeding; continuity of feeding grounds;
and more attractive areas for visitors.
Monitoring programPrograms that
monitor systems for health, stress, and change
allow potential problems in those systems to
be identified and addressed early.
Space to migrateSystems with adequate
and appropriate space to migrate may be less
vulnerable and better able to adapt to sea level
rise and other climate change phenomena.
ConnectivitySystems that are connected
to other systems with similar community
structures can migrate if threatened.
Management integrationCoordination
of management efforts across jurisdictions
and owners allows systems to be managed
for common goals and objectives and can
promote connectivity.
Threatened, endangered, and other
protected speciesSystems with high
numbers of protected species may be more
sensitive and vulnerable to climate change.
StressorsSystems already threatened
by stressors such as coastal development,
invasive species, pollution, etc. may be more
vulnerable to climate change.
Impact thresholdsSystems at or
near their impact threshold (after which
their vulnerability increases) will be more
vulnerable to climate change.
34

Adapting to Climate Change

According to the IPCC, adaptive capacity is the

ability of a system to adjust to climate change
(including climate variability and extremes) to
moderate potential damages, to take advantage of
opportunities, or to cope with the consequences
(IPCC 2007a). In general, coastal areas or systems
with higher adaptive capacities will be better able to
react and accommodate to the changes associated
with climate change.
Healthy systems may be less vulnerable to the added stress of
climate change.

Any assessment of the vulnerability of ecosystems

to climate change should include evaluation of the
potential impacts on the goods and services they
provide and the cascading effects that could result
if the systems were damaged or destroyed. By
understanding the vulnerability and value of coastal
systems, the planning team will be prepared to make
decisions about where to focus protection and
adaptation efforts once there is a clearer picture of
how they may be affected by climate change.

Step 2.4: Consider Adaptive

Capacities
The vulnerability of coastal areas to climate change
will depend not only on the physical stressors to the
environment, but also on the ability of the affected
areas to adapt to those changes. Thus, another key
factor in assessing vulnerability is adaptive capacity.

Capacity can be described in terms of the ability

of your states governments and their populations
to prepare for, respond to, and recover from the
impacts of climate change. Due to regional variability,
capacity may vary significantly along your coast. In
addition to support from elected officials and other
leaders, which will be critical to successful adaptation,
examples of existing tools and resources that can
support the ability of governments to address climate
change include, but are not limited to:
Regulatory and planning capabilities (e.g.,
building codes, development restrictions,
real estate disclosure requirements,
coastal management regulations, and
hazard mitigation, natural resource, land
conservation, climate change mitigation,
sustainability, sediment management, special
area management, shoreline management,
capital improvement, transportation
improvement, and postdisaster recovery
plans)5

An example of a tool to assess the vulnerability of a given species of plant or animal to climate change is NatureServes
Climate Change Vulnerability Index. The index allows scientists, natural resource managers, planners, and conservation
practitioners to perform rapid assessments of the relative vulnerability of species to the effects of predicted climate
change. The scoring system considers a species predicted exposure to climate change within a defined geographic area
and its sensitivity to climate change. Each species is scored on a detailed set of factors, such as dispersal ability, natural
and manmade barriers to dispersal, sensitivity to changes in temperature and precipitation, physical habitat requirements,
and genetic variation. Total scores reflect whether a given species will likely suffer a contraction in range, reduction in
population, or both in coming decades and are rated as extremely vulnerable, highly vulnerable, moderately vulnerable,
not vulnerablepresumed stable, not vulnerableincrease likely, and insufficient evidence. The index and guidance are
available for free download. www.natureserve.org/prodServices/climatechange/ClimateChange.jsp

5 Federal laws and executive orders that may also contribute to states adaptive capacity are included in Appendix B.

35

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersGOMA Aims to Inventory Hazards Resilience Capabilities Gulfwide

The Gulf of Mexico Alliances (GOMA) Governors Action Plan II includes the preparation of an inventory of existing
capabilities and tools to address coastal hazards in the Gulf region, identify important gaps, and, where needed, develop
new methods to enhance regional and local resilience. Action steps include compiling and maintaining an inventory of
existing resilience-related data, projects, tools, and policies from across the Gulf region; developing a Resilience Index
self-assessment tool for coastal communities; creating and packaging planning and hazard mitigation tools for use in
management at the local and state levels; and researching existing policies guiding coastal development and making
recommendations to enhance resilience. http://gulfofmexicoalliance.org/pdfs/ap2_final2.pdf

Administrative and technical capabilities

(e.g., dedicated staff, climate change experts/
champions, planners, engineers, and GIS and
mapping and modeling resources (staff and
equipment))
Fiscal capabilities (e.g., taxes, bonds, grants,
impact fees, withholding spending in hazard
zones, and insurance)
Infrastructure (e.g., flood and erosion control
structures, evacuation routes, and redundant
water, wastewater, and power systems)
To improve capacity, think about how the effects of
climate change can be better integrated into these
existing tools and resources. In addition, consider how
some of them may work at cross purposes, hindering
climate change adaptation, and how conflicts could be
resolved.
Your states adaptive capacity will also depend on
the adaptive capacity of its natural systems. As has
been demonstrated in the past, given time, natural
systems can adjust to changes in climate by relocating
or changing the timing of life cycle events. However,
anticipated changes may happen more quickly than
in the past, and nonclimate stressors will present
obstacles to adaptation. Humans will need to be
prepared to address the needs of natural systems,
which will include altering their activities. Natural
systems with the greatest capacity to adapt to change
will be those that are healthy, are able to migrate (based
on space and elevation), and/or are connected to other
systems, which allows for species migration.

Determining your states overall adaptive capacity

is largely a subjective exercise, but it can help the
planning team identify strengths and weaknesses as
well as existing mechanisms that can be leveraged
to increase capacity. Once the planning team has an
understanding of where capacity needs to be built or
enhanced, this information can be combined with the
other vulnerability information compiled in this process
to identify where adaptation efforts should be focused.
Actions to build adaptive capacity can then be included in
the adaptation strategy, which is discussed in Chapter 5.

Step 2.5: Develop Scenarios and

Simulate Change
So far, the planning team has identified the
phenomena likely to affect the coast, examined the
associated impacts, and assessed what it is about the
coast that may affect its vulnerability to climate change
(physical characteristics, exposure, and capacity).
In this step, based on the information collected in
Steps 2.1 through 2.4, the planning team will develop
scenarios that illustrate potential projected impacts and
consequences of climate change.
Scenario planning is a tool for developing a sciencebased decision-making framework in an environment
of uncertainty. The goal is to develop a range of
plausible climate change outcomes (impacts and
consequences) based on multiple points of time and
on multiple emissions levels that can provide the basis
for further analysis and decision making. For example,
the planning team could establish and define low,
moderate, and high emissions levels (which would
correspond to low, moderate, and high degrees of
36

Adapting to Climate Change

The future is not a static continuation of the past; scenarios recognize that several potential futures are feasible from
any particular point in time. Scenario studies commonly target issues which are sensitive to stakeholders and they
provide the means by which decision makers can anticipate coming change and prepare for it in a responsive and timely
manner. Through exploration and evaluation of feasible future conditions, scenario studies enable assessment of system
vulnerabilities and possibilities for adaptation measures (Mahmouda et al. 2009).

climate change) and project each of them out to 20, 50,

and 100 years from now (see Washington example on
the next page).6 This would result in nine scenarios as
indicated in the table below (additional scenarios may
be developed to account for regional differences within
your state).
Each completed scenario should include quantitative
projections of the climate change phenomena and
descriptions of the potential associated impacts and
consequences (qualitative if not quantitative) relevant
to the plan (e.g., if the planning team is focusing
adaptation planning on specific management issues, it
may choose to only include a subset of the impacts in
the scenarios). Consider seasonality and extremes, not
just annual averages. More robust scenarios will include
consideration of cumulative impacts (e.g., a wetland
threatened by sea level rise will also be more vulnerable
to storms) and adaptation actions already planned for.
For the purposes of this plan, it may be easiest to
evaluate event-related consequences based on a single
event (e.g., a 100-year flood), keeping in mind that
these events may occur more than once, with the
potential to cause repetitive damage and losses. The

baseline established in Step 2.2 can help the planning

team envision what the consequences might be at lowlevel emissions.
Note: The baseline was largely based on current and
historical trends. Changes are likely even if emissions
are decreased, so the low-level emissions scenario
at 20 years may show incremental changes from the
baseline. In addition, the review of your states physical
characteristics and assets was also based on current
conditions. Where possible, the scenarios should
reflect expected changes over time (e.g., changes in
population, development, land cover, etc.). Similarly,
when projecting out into the future, adjust dollar values
to account for inflation.

Climate Modeling
Scenarios based on global climate models will
likely be the most reliable. Global climate models
use mathematical equations to simulate how, on
a global scale, the earths physical processes will
react to changes. It must be emphasized that while
models are extremely valuable tools for simulating
and understanding climate change, shortcomings

Examples of Scenarios for Assessing Vulnerability

Low-Level Emissions

Moderate-Level Emissions

High-Level Emissions

20 years

Scenario 1

Scenario 4

Scenario 7

50 years

Scenario 2

Scenario 5

Scenario 8

100 years

Scenario 3

Scenario 6

Scenario 9

While there is much more uncertainty associated with the longer time horizon, it is important to acknowledge that many of your current decision
processes (land use, transportation, infrastructure, conservation) have a longer design life and should consider projected conditions much further out
than 20 years. Much of the literature and research, including that conducted by the IPCC, provide projections through 2100.

37

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersWashington Projects Sea Level Rise for Use in Scenario Planning
Sea Level Rise in the Coastal Waters of Washington State, a report from the University of Washington Climate Impacts
Group and the Washington Department of Ecology, features scenarios for sea level rise based on the IPCCs projections
for global sea level rise. The following table from the report shows very low, medium, and very high estimates of
Washington sea level change for 2050 and 2100, accounting for local variability in vertical land movement (VLM) and
atmospheric dynamics, for the northwest Olympic Peninsula, the central and southern Washington coast, and Puget
Sound. Negative VLMs represent vertical uplift and negative totals represent sea level drop. The very low and very high
estimates are considered low probability scenarios. www.cses.washington.edu/db/pdf/moteetalslr579.pdf
SLR
Estimate

Components

2050
NW Olympic
Peninsula

Very Low

Medium

Very High

2100

Central &
Southern

Puget Sound

Coast

NW Olympic
Peninsula

Central &
Southern

Puget Sound

Coast

Global SLR

9 cm

18 cm

Atm. Dynamics

-1 cm

2 cm

VLM

-20 cm

-5 cm

0 cm

- 40 cm

- 10 cm

0 cm

Total

- 12 cm(- 5)

3 cm (1)

8 cm (3)

- 24 cm (-9)

6 cm (2)

16 cm (6)

Global SLR

15 cm

34 cm

Atm.Dynamics

0 cm

0 cm

VLM

-15 cm

-2.5 cm

0 cm

- 30 cm

- 5 cm

0 cm

Total

0 cm(- 5)

12.5 cm( 5)

15 cm(6)

4 cm(2)

29 cm(11)

34 cm(13)

Global SLR

38 cm

93 cm

Atm. Dynamic

7 cm

15 cm

VLM

- 10 cm

0 cm

10 cm

- 20 cm

0 cm

20 cm

Total

35 cm(14)

45 cm(18)

55 cm(22)

88 cm(35)

108 cm(43)

128cm(50)

remain. Their main shortcomings are limited

observations, incomplete understanding of climate
processes and their interrelationships, imperfect model
representations of the processes, and relatively large
grid boxes that dont represent smaller terrain features
(Meted 2009). It is important to recognize these
deficiencies, understand the uncertainties, and consider
results from multiple models, as well as how results
track with observations, to account for the range of
uncertainty and variability among them.
To model climate change in your state, consider
1) using the results of the scenarios generated for
2100 for the IPCCs Fourth Assessment Report7

and adjusting global projections to account for local

conditions (e.g., add local subsidence projections
to global sea level rise projections) and to estimate
shorter-term projections or 2) downscaling global
climate data.
Since global climate models have relatively coarse
spatial resolution, downscaling is required to achieve
the finer spatial resolution needed to understand
regional impacts. Downscaling should result in better
projections of how the phenomena may change in your
state and thus better inputs for other models and maps
to illustrate the potential impacts and consequences on
your coast.

The IPCC based its six scenarios on four storylines that represent different assumptions about demographic, social, economic, technological, and
environmental change (in the absence of new climate policies).

38

Adapting to Climate Change

Scenarios are also useful in project planning to determine the level of protection an individual project needs to provide.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is now incorporating direct and indirect physical effects of projected future sea level
change in managing, planning, engineering, designing, constructing, operating, and maintaining Corps coastal projects
and systems of projects. They use a multiple scenario approach that considers low, intermediate, and high rates of
change.
These activities are guided by Water Resource Policies and Authorities Incorporating Sea-Level Change Considerations In
Civil Works Programs, which also recommends determining how sensitive alternative plans and designs are to these rates
of future sea level change, how this sensitivity affects calculated risks, and what measures should be implemented to
minimize adverse consequences while maximizing beneficial effects. It instructs project designers to consider planning
for adaptive management, designing to facilitate future modifications, and designing for a more aggressive future sea
level change scenario. http://140.194.76.129/publications/eng-circulars/

If the planning team has access to the capacity,

downscaling could be incorporated into the
vulnerability assessment. However, experts are
still cautious about making regional predictions
and stress the need to accept the limitations
of downscaled climate models and understand
potential sources of errors, which include the
potential to compound errors in global models.
Consider results from a number of models, and
if they diverge from each other or from observed
trends, be careful about how they are used in
decision making (Schiermeier 2010). It will be up to
the planning team to decide how much uncertainty
the state is willing to accept, and this may differ by
phenomenon/impact/consequence.

and increase the effectiveness of the planning process.

While modeling is the set of rules and procedures for
representing a phenomenon or predicting an outcome,
mapping is the process of graphically depicting that
outcome, or other spatial information.
By using GIS, the data collected throughout this
assessment and the outputs from the scenarios or other
modeling efforts, the planning team will be able to
map projected future conditions, decide where to focus
adaptation efforts, and, later, evaluate the results of
these efforts. These visuals, which will clearly illustrate
what is vulnerable, should also be useful in outreach

Note: Modeling activities require extensive resources.

They can be costly and complicated, and they require
a robust information technology infrastructure (highperformance, fast, dedicated computer systems).
Make sure your state has the technical capacity to run
these applications before acquiring them. Research
institutions may have the necessary capacity and may
be able to assist in these efforts. Alternatively, the
planning team could propose developing the capacity
as an action in the adaptation strategy (see Chapter 5).

Mapping and Visualization

The use of mapping (both simple and interactive)
and other visualization techniques to illustrate the
potential impacts of climate change will greatly ease
39

Inundation mapping can be used to visualize where flooding may occur as

climate changes.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Coastal inundation maps are based on model outputs and can be used to simulate inundation from a variety of
processes. There are a number of models available, which may also be coupled with other models (e.g., wave models);
each has its own applications and limitations, both of which should be well-understood. Modeling experts can help
select and run models and educate the planning team about the limitations. The following are some of the most
commonly used inundation models, however other models are also available or under development that may be more
appropriate based on your states circumstances and needs.
The Advanced Circulation Model for Oceanic, Coastal, and Estuarine Waters (ADCIRC) is a hydrodynamic
model, which means it projects the motion of water. It can be used to model (in two or three dimensions) tide
and wind driven circulation, to project storm surge and flooding, and for other applications. The model can also
be used to predict wave height and run-up, particularly when seamless bathymetric and topographic data are
available.
The Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges from Hurricanes model (SLOSH) is a scenario-based model developed
by the NOAA National Hurricane Center. It is used to estimate storm surge heights and winds resulting from
historical, predicted, or potential hurricanes by taking into account storm pressure, size, forward speed, track,
and winds. The model also considers characteristics specific to a locales shoreline, incorporating the unique bay
and river configurations, water depths, bridges, roads, and other physical features.
The Sea Level Affecting Marshes Model (SLAMM) simulates the dominant processes involved in wetland
conversions and shoreline modifications during long-term sea level rise. It can account for inundation, erosion,
accretion, overwash, and even wetland migration to adjacent upland areas (saturation).
The Sea-Level Rise Rectification Program (SLRRP) is a software program designed to generate a suite of future
sea level projections from various Global Circulation Models (GCM) and emissions scenario options. The model
allows users to select a region-based tide station, GCM model, and emissions scenario to generate a graph and
output file of future sea level change. SLRRP also shows the inundation process and period for which sea level
will overtop a given landscape feature or elevation under a future changing climate.

efforts to help secure political and public support for

the need to adapt to climate change.

Step 2.6: Summarize Vulnerability

and Identify Focus Areas
At this point, the planning team should have a good
understanding of how climate change may affect the coast.
The final step of the assessment process is summarizing

vulnerability based on your findings. This step is critical,

as this summary will be used to identify where to focus
adaptation efforts and to set goals and select the actions
your state will take to meet them (see Chapter 5).
This step provides a good opportunity for the
planning team to re-engage the stakeholders identified
in Step 1.4 (see Chapter 3). Present them with the
results of the scenarios and involve them in deciding

Learning from othersMaryland Visualizes Sea Level Rise to Support Planning

The Maryland Coastal Program and local partners acquired high resolution topographic lidar data for the majority of the
states coastal counties. These data have been used to develop models that demonstrate both the impact of gradual sea
level rise inundation over time, as well as impacts associated with increased storm surge from episodic flood events. Sea
level rise modeling has been completed for some of the states most vulnerable areas. The models are already proving
useful to state and county planners and emergency responders as they plan for a coastal region faced with a high likelihood
of damaging coastal storms and rising sea level. The project partners are exploring ways to integrate the models into future
research efforts and land use decision making. Sea level inundation maps are integrated into Marylands online interactive
shoreline mapping program. www.dnr.state.md.us/ccp/coastalatlas/shorelines.asp

40

Adapting to Climate Change

which consequences are of greatest concern and where

the state should invest its climate adaptation resources.
This summary should reflect the outcomes the
planning team thinks are most realistic and
best reflect the extent of acceptable impacts in
the planning area. If the planning team develops
scenarios based on three levels of emissions, it is not
likely it will plan for all three (although it should still
plan for multiple points in time). It is also not likely it
will focus all adaptation activities based on the possible
outcomes projected by one level of emissions. It may
be determined that the potential losses to one sector
projected at the highest level of emissions are too
great to risk, but that other potential losses at that
level are acceptable. In other words, when the stakes
are low, the planning team may want to plan based on
the outcomes of a low-emissions scenario, but when
the stakes are high (e.g., significant losses, irreversible
consequences), it may want to consider planning for a
higher-emissions scenario. The potential consequences
of low probability, high consequence impacts should
be recognized so that they can be adequately addressed.
The summary should highlight areas, systems, sectors,
or assets that the planning team has determined to
be most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change
(i.e., potential damage/losses that would have most
the significant impact). Criteria that may help prioritize
where to focus adaptation efforts include:
Importance or value of a system, asset, or
sector
Magnitude of impacts
Timing of impacts
Persistence and reversibility of impacts
Certainty of projected impacts
Threats from existing stressors
It may help to ask questions such as the following:
What locations along the coast are most
vulnerable to climate change impacts?
What environments (natural, built) are most
vulnerable to climate change impacts?

41

What assets are most important to your states

coastal values, identity, culture, and economy?
Which impacts of climate change are likely to
inflict the greatest losses (economically, socially,
environmentally, etc.)?
It may also be useful to include the associated
phenomena and impacts, as there may be actions
that can be taken to alleviate the consequences that
may cross sectors and/or protect multiple assets.
In addition, for each potential loss, indicate which
scenarios the decisions were based on and why. This
will be useful in future plan updates.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Key Resources

General
Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook for Development Planners, U.S. Agency for
International Development. www.crc.uri.edu/index.php?actid=366
ArcGIS Online Resource Center, ESRI. http://resources.esri.com/arcgisonlineservices/index.cfm
Climate Ready Estuaries Coastal Toolkit, EPA Climate Ready Estuaries.
www.epa.gov/cre/toolkit.html
NOAA Climate Service. www.climate.gov/
Digital Coast, NOAA Coastal Services Center. www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/
eCoastal, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. http://ecoastal.usace.army.mil/
Handbook on Methods for Climate Change Impact Assessment and Adaptation Strategies, United
Nations Environment Programme. http://dare.ubvu.vu.nl/bitstream/1871/10440/1/f1.pdf
HAZUS-MH, FEMA. www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/hazus/
Introduction to Hazard Mitigation (online training), FEMA. http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/IS/
National State Geographic Information Council. www.nsgic.org/
Planning for Climate Change, NOAA Estuarine Reserves Division.
http://nerrs.noaa.gov/CTPIndex.aspx?ID=455
Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local, Regional, and State Governments, ICLEI
Local Governments for Sustainability.
www.icleiusa.org/action-center/planning/adaptation-guidebook/
Regional Integrated Science and Assessment Program, NOAA Climate Program Office.
www.climate.noaa.gov/cpo_pa/risa/
Road Map for Adapting to Coastal Risk (training), NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/training/coastalrisk.html
Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and Estimating Losses, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/resources.shtm

Identify Climate Change Phenomena

Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, IPCC. www.ipcc.ch/
Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, IPCC. www.ipcc.ch/
Climate Change Impacts on the United States: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability
and Change, National Assessment Synthesis Team, U.S. Global Change Research Program (2000,
includes regional and sectoral assessments).
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/first-national-assessment
Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States, U.S. Global Change Research Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/us-impacts
Great Lakes Water Levels, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Detroit District.
www.lre.usace.army.mil/greatlakes/hh/greatlakeswaterlevels/
Synthesis and Assessment Products, Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
Tides and Currents, NOAA Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services.
http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/
42

Adapting to Climate Change

Identify Climate Change Impacts and Consequences

Climate Monitoring, NOAA National Climatic Data Center.
http://lwf.ncdc.noaa.gov/climate-monitoring/
The Economic Impacts of Climate Change and the Costs of Inaction, Center for Integrative
Environmental Research, University of Maryland. www.cier.umd.edu/climateadaptation/
FEMA Mapping Information Platform, FEMA. https://hazards.fema.gov/
FEMA Map Service Center, FEMA. http://msc.fema.gov/
Multi-Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=2214
National Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise, U.S. Geological Survey.
http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/cvi/
The NatureServe Climate Change Vulnerability Index, NatureServe.
www.natureserve.org/prodServices/climatechange/ClimateChange.jsp
NCDC Storm Events, NOAA National Climatic Data Center.
www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwEvent~Storms
NOAA Regional Climate Centers, NOAA National Climatic Data Center.
www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/regionalclimatecenters.html
PERI Presidential Disaster Declaration Web Site, Public Entity Risk Institute.
www.peripresdecusa.org/
Spatial Hazard Events and Losses Database for the United States, Hazards and
Vulnerability Research Institute, Department of Geography, University of South Carolina.
http://webra.cas.sc.edu/hvri/products/sheldus.aspx
United States Historical Climatology Network, NOAA National Climatic Data Center.
http://cdiac.ornl.gov/epubs/ndp/ushcn/ushcn.html

Assess Physical Characteristics and Exposure

Bathymetry and Global Relief. NOAA National Geophysical Data Center.
www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/bathymetry/relief.html
Coastal Change Analysis Program Land Cover, NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/landcover/
Data Basin Climate Center, Conservation Biology Institute. www.databasin.org/climate-center
Demographic Baseline Report of U.S. Territories and Counties Adjacent to Coral Reef Habitats,
NOAA NOS Special Projects Office. www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/coral_demographics/
Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. www.fws.gov/endangered/
Geospatial One Stop. www.geodata.gov/
Likelihood of Shore Protection Data Set. http://risingsea.net/ERL/data.html
Mapping Socio-Economic Variables Using 2000 Census Data, NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/inundation/_pdf/census_methodology.pdf
MPA Inventory, NOAA National Marine Protected Areas Center.
http://mpa.gov/dataanalysis/mpainventory/
National Atlas. www.nationalatlas.gov/
National Land Cover Database, Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium.
www.mrlc.gov/nlcd.php
43

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

The National Map Seamless Server, U.S. Geological Survey. http://seamless.usgs.gov/

National Ocean Economics Program. http://noep.mbari.org/
National Register of Historic Places, National Park Service. www.nps.gov/history/nr/
National Wetlands Inventory, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. www.fws.gov/wetlands/
National Wetlands Research Center, U.S. Geological Survey. www.nwrc.usgs.gov/
NOAA Shoreline Website, NOAA Coastal Services Center. http://shoreline.noaa.gov/
NOAAs State of the Coast, NOAA. http://stateofthecoast.noaa.gov/
Resilience Assessment of Coral Reefs, International Union for Conservation of Nature Climate
Change and Coral Reefs Marine Working Group. http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2009-020.pdf
Social Vulnerability Index, Hazards and Vulnerability Research Institute, Department of Geography,
University of South Carolina. http://webra.cas.sc.edu/hvri/products/sovi.aspx
Spatial Trends in Coastal Socioeconomics, NOAA Coastal and Ocean Resource Economics
Program. http://marineeconomics.noaa.gov/socioeconomics/
Species Protected under the Endangered Species Act, NOAA Office of Protected Resources.
www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/esa/
U.S. Census Bureau, www.census.gov/

Develop Scenarios and Simulate Change

Best Practice Approaches for Characterizing, Communicating, and Incorporating Scientific
Uncertainty in Decisionmaking, U.S. Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
CanVis, NOAA Coastal Services Center. www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/tools/canvis/
Climate Modeling, Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. www.gfdl.gov/climate-modeling/
Climate Models: An Assessment of Strengths and Limitations, Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
Coastal Inundation Mapping (training), NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/training/inundationmap.html
Coastal Inundation Mapping Toolkit, NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/inundation/
Final Guidelines for Using Future-Conditions Hydrology, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/fhm/ft_futur.shtm
GIS Climate Change Scenarios, National Center for Atmospheric Research.
www.gisclimatechange.org/
HAZUS Training, FEMA. http://training.fema.gov/EMICourses/
IPCC Data Distribution Centre, IPCC. www.ipcc-data.org/
NCAR Models & Modeling, National Center for Atmospheric Research.
www.ncar.ucar.edu/tools/models/
Special Report on Emissions Scenarios, IPCC.
www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.htm
U.S. National Assessment of the Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change
Scenarios & Data, U.S. Global Change Research Program.
www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/nacc/background/scenarios/
Vertical Datum Transformation, NOAA National Ocean Service. http://vdatum.noaa.gov/
44

Adapting to Climate Change

Chapter 5
Adaptation
Strategy

Upon completion of the vulnerability assessment, the

planning team should know where it wants to direct
preliminary adaptation efforts. The adaptation strategy
consists of establishing goals and identifying and
prioritizing actions that can help meet them. These
goals and actions may change over time based on new
scientific findings, improved vulnerability assessments,
observed climate change impacts and consequences,
and implementation successes and failures. As is
discussed further in Chapter 6, goals and actions will
need to be revisited and revised over time.
The basic steps involved in creating an adaptation
strategy are as follows:1
Step 3.1: Set Goals
Step 3.2: Identify Actions

Step 3.3: Evaluate, Select, and Prioritize Actions

Step 3.4: Write Action Plans
The following definitions are based on those provided
in FEMAs hazard mitigation planning guidance
(FEMA 2002):
Goals are general guidelines that explain what
the planning team wants to accomplish. They are
usually long-term (but may also be short-term),
broad statements.
Actions explain how measures (laws, regulations,
projects, programs, plans, etc.) will be implemented
to help achieve the goals.
It is recommended that all stakeholders be invited to
participate in setting goals and choosing actions. This

1 Some strategic planning processes are more involved and recommend visions, objectives, and alternative definitions. The process offered here is just

45

a basic example of a how an adaptation strategy may be crafted.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

keeps them engaged, allows for incorporation of

their input, and increases the likelihood that they
will be supportive of the plan and the actions
chosen for implementation.

Step 3.1: Set Goals

There is no one set of goals that can be applied to
all coastal zones. They will vary based on a number
of factors, such as the type and magnitude of
projected climate change impacts and the vulnerable
assets as identified in the vulnerability assessment.
Other important factors include the availability of
financial, technical, and human resources and the
states acceptable level of impacts. Goals should
be clearly written, attainable, and measurable
(qualitatively or quantitatively).
After reviewing the vulnerability assessment
findings, a good starting point for goal setting is
to review goals established in other state plans/
programs (e.g., those for coastal management,
hazard mitigation2, emergency operations,
environmental preservation, economic development,
resource management, transportation, etc.).
Adaptation plans from other governments, state and
local, are also useful resources. Some of these plans
can be accessed online at http://collaborate.csc
.noaa.gov/climateadaptation/.
Examples of potential goals include:
Reduce the vulnerability of the built
environment to sea level rise
Monitor and maintain functioning and
healthy coastal ecosystems
Reduce the costs associated with disaster
response and recovery
Protect critical infrastructure from the
impacts of climate change
Minimize economic losses attributable to the
impacts of climate change
Adapt to climate change in a manner that
minimizes harm to the natural environment
and loss of public access

Plan goals should be clearly written, attainable, and measurable.

Increase public awareness about climate change

and how it may affect the coast
Reduce the impact of climatic and nonclimatic
stressors on natural systems
Increase and improve technical capacity to
project impacts of climate change
Provide leadership and support to local
governments for climate change adaptation
planning
Enhance the states ability to detect climate
change impacts
Improve coordination and collaboration among
relevant agencies and organizations

Step 3.2: Identify Actions

Since many of the impacts and consequences of
climate change are not new, simply exacerbated or
accelerated, actions to reduce them already exist and
are being implemented outside the context of climate
change. This chapter illustrates how familiar actions
can also be used to support climate change adaptation.
However, some of these actions are likely insufficient
for addressing the scale of the potential changes. It
will take a combination of existing, reconfigured, and
new actions to meet the challenges of climate change.
Importantly, the potential impacts of climate change on
the coast should be considered in all related planning,
law and policy making, and investment activities.

2 Note: Federal funding for hazard mitigation (which in many cases includes climate change adaptation actions) from FEMA is tied to goals set in

federally approved hazard mitigation plans. To be eligible for these funds, where appropriate, state hazard mitigation and climate change adaptation
goals should be aligned.

46

Adapting to Climate Change

While reviewing state plans for possible goals,

also look at the actions and consider the following
questions in regard to actions along the coast as well
as elsewhere in the watershed:
Are there any actions that directly address
climate change impacts along the coast?
Are there any actions that indirectly address
climate change impacts along the coast?
Are there any actions that could or should
be modified to help meet the goals of the
adaptation plan?
Are there any actions that are in direct conflict
with the goals of the adaptation plan?
To ensure the plan is inclusive of all actions that
may affect your coast and to avoid duplication, you
may want to consider incorporating ongoing and
already planned activities in your plan. Additionally,
there may be actions that could be modified to meet
multiple purposes with shared resources. If there are
actions that might hinder efforts to meet adaptation
goals, try to work with the entity responsible for that
action to reach a mutually beneficial solution. As
mentioned before, coordination and collaboration
among other state agencies and stakeholders is
critical, both to capitalize on each others efforts
and to avoid conflicts that could prove difficult and
expensive to overcome in the future.
Think broadly and do not be afraid to think big. Do
not worry about resource or technology constraints,
these issues will be raised during the evaluation
process, which will help the planning team narrow
down the list and prioritize the agreed upon actions.
Hold on to the list of actions that do not make the

Action identification is a creative and collaborative process that

should involve all stakeholders.

initial cut. In the future, some of these actions may be

more appropriate and/or feasible. Finally, be creative.
Actions can be built to encompass one or more
measures (see examples in the table on page 51) and
should be crafted so they can be clearly understood
(e.g., does the action involve planning, promoting,
encouraging, mandating, constructing, etc.). While not
all of the measures included here can be implemented
at the state level, they are examples of activities states
can support and promote to local governments. A
lot of climate change adaptation will take place at the
local level, and financial and technical assistance from
higher levels of government, as well as mandates, in
some instances, will be vital to secure the necessary
level of local commitment.
Not all actions included in this guide will be suitable
for every situation. One action may be appropriate
in one location but not in another. Suitability will
depend on circumstances specific to each state and its

Learning from othersBCDC Seeks Sea Level Rise Solutions through Design Competition
The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission (BCDC) held an international design competition
to identify innovative climate change adaptation strategies for coastal communities. Planning and design professionals,
consultants, developers, students, and the public were invited to submit entries, which were required to solve a
meaningful sea level rise problem, while being environmentally smart, simply designed, and transferable to other
estuaries beyond San Francisco Bay. Six winners, from among 131 entries representing 18 countries, were awarded
stipends to further refine their ideas. www.risingtidescompetition.com/risingtides/

47

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersRhode Island Policy Accommodates for Sea Level Rise
In January 2008, the Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council (CRMC) adopted a new coastal policy to
explain the science of sea level rise in the state and help manage the states coastal resources and property and protect
life and property from sea level rise. For planning and management purposes, the policy calls for an accommodation of a
base rate of expected three- to five-foot rise in sea level by 2100 in the siting, design, and implementation of public and
private coastal activities. The CRMC is in the process of developing guidance that will promote the application of this
policy. www.crmc.ri.gov/regulations.html

coastal zone and may require additional research, study,

legal review, and legislative or regulatory change.

the planning team may decide a measure requires its

own plan (e.g., because of scope or complexity).

Planning, Law Making, and Regulating

One type of plan encouraged by the Coastal Zone

Management Act is the Special Area Management
Plan (SAMP). SAMPs are broadly defined in the act
as plans which provide for increased specificity in
protecting significant natural resources, reasonable
coastal dependent economic growth, improved
protection of life and property in hazardous areas,
including those areas likely to be affected by land
subsidence, sea level rise, or fluctuating water levels
of the Great Lakes, and improved predictability in
governmental decision making (CZMA 1972). SAMPs
and other plans with similar intents are especially
appropriate in areas where authorities overlap and
coordination and cooperation is required to effectively
address the multitude of needs that have arisen along
the coasts.

A number of measures can be used to alleviate many

of the impacts and consequences of climate change
and will be critical to successful climate change
adaptation efforts. Importantly, these measures include
planning, law making, and regulating. Adaptation
will require new, and modifications to existing, plans,
laws, and regulations. Going forward, all planning and
rulemaking activities should consider climate change
and future conditions so outcomes support, and do not
deter, adaptation efforts.
Measures listed in the table on page 51 and discussed
further at the end of the chapter are more likely to be
acceptable and effective if they result from a traditional
planning process such as the one presented in this
guide. These measures can be incorporated into the
adaptation planning process or that of an existing plan
(e.g., comprehensive, hazard mitigation, watershed
management, capital improvement, etc.). Alternatively,

Many local governments, and some states, have

comprehensive plans to guide development. Some
states require local governments to have such plans;
others provide incentives that encourage them. In

Learning from othersOregon Protects Estuaries with Estuary Management Plans

Oregons Statewide Planning Goal 16, Estuarine Resources, establishes detailed requirements for the planning and
management of the states estuaries. The overall objective is to recognize and protect the unique environmental,
economic and social values of each estuary and associated wetlands and to protect, maintain, and, where appropriate,
develop and restore the long-term environmental, economic, and social values, diversity and benefits of Oregons
estuaries. To accomplish this, Goal 16 sets broad requirements for individual estuary plans, which are prepared by
affected cities and counties with input from the public and other interested units of government, and for review of
individual projects. www.oregon.gov/LCD/OCMP/Est_Intro.shtml

48

Adapting to Climate Change

either case, states typically specify the elements that

should be included in local comprehensive plans. For
the purposes of adaptation, a new adaptation element
could be specified, adaptation measures could be
incorporated into existing elements (e.g., land use,
transportation, environment, natural hazards, etc.),
as appropriate, or local adaptation plans could be
incorporated by reference. In addition, to address
climate change, the timeframe of comprehensive
plans may need to extend further into the future.
Incorporating adaptation into local comprehensive
plans in some way lends them the strength of internal
consistency, which is required by some states, to ensure
local actions are taken based upon and consistent with
the legally adopted comprehensive plan.
Research on local comprehensive plans as vehicles
for reducing insured losses in natural disasters
suggests that comprehensive plans that include hazard
mitigation can reduce such losses: losses are lower
in states that require comprehensive plans and even
more so in those that require comprehensive plans
to address hazards. However, research also suggests
that in the absence of a state mandate to prepare a
comprehensive plan and address hazards, the planning
efforts of many local governments are inadequate
(Burby 2005).
While mandates may result in plans, they may not
have the desired effect if they do not consider existing
barriers to effective planning and/or if the plans are
not effectively implemented.3 When issuing or revising
a state mandate, consider the role of the state in the

oversight process and how it can enforce and monitor

plan implementation as well as development and content
(while maintaining flexibility for local decision making).
Since plans are typically not legally binding,
governments may pass laws and ordinances and issue
implementing regulations to best achieve the desired
outcomes identified through the planning process,
especially when it comes to land use. The Second
National Assessment on Natural and Related Technological
Hazards states No single approach to bringing
sustainable hazard mitigation into existence shows
more promise at this time than increased use of sound
and equitable land-use management (Mileti 1999).
The same is likely to hold true for climate change
adaptation as well.
Examples of actions that benefit from force of law,
some of which are discussed in more detail later in this
chapter, include:
Refining permitting programs to account for
climate change
Zoning development away from sensitive and
hazard-prone areas
Creating setbacks or rolling easements
Restricting the use of shore protection
structures
Minimizing extent of impervious surfaces
Establishing buffers around natural features
Instituting or strengthening building codes in
flood- and erosion-prone areas

Learning from othersWashington Requires Local Shoreline Master Programs

Under the State of Washingtons Shoreline Management Act, local governments must develop shoreline master
programs to balance land use and preservation along shorelines. Essentially, these programs are comprehensive plans
and zoning ordinances with distinct environmental orientations that are applicable to shoreline areas and customized
to local circumstances. Required environmental designations dictate how much and what types of development and
land use are allowed, including what type of shoreline stabilization structures (if any) are permissible. The Department of
Ecology provides technical and financial assistance for plan updates. www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/shorelines/

A number of journal articles have been published that examine the effectiveness of state planning mandates. A recent article that references other
relevant research is The Proof of the Planning is in the Platting: An Evaluation of Floridas Hurricane Exposure Mitigation Planning Mandate published
in the Journal of the American Planning Association (74, no. 3 (2008): 349-70).

49

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersFlorida Coastal Communities Plan for Post-Disaster Redevelopment

The State of Florida requires all coastal counties and communities to produce post-disaster redevelopment plans. The
plans are expected to cover policies, operational strategies, and roles and responsibilities for implementation to guide
decisions for long-term recovery and redevelopment. They should also integrate hazard mitigation and community
improvement in line with the goals of the local comprehensive plan. The Florida Coastal Management Program
and Department of Community Affairs are completing a pilot planning initiative to create a best practices guide for
development of local post-disaster redevelopment plans, which is scheduled to be released in 2010. www.dca.state.fl.us/
fdcp/DCP/PDRP/

Regardless of your states role in regulating or planning

for local land use, the state can still make efforts to
guide development to help achieve adaptation goals
by providing local governments with incentives and
recommendations supported by education, model
ordinances, and other technical assistance. These
incentives should be tied to actual plan implementation
and planning outcomes assessed through an evaluation
process.

Other Adaptation Measures

The Climate Change Adaptation Measures table
introduces measures that can be taken to reduce the
impacts and consequences of climate change on the
coast. It is not a comprehensive list and is largely
limited to measures that coastal managers may have a
significant role in. Adaptation measures are organized
into categories that describe their primary purpose. In
many cases, they serve multiple purposes and could

fit into multiple categories (e.g., acquisition could fit

under Growth and Development Management, Coastal
and Marine Ecosystem Management, and Shoreline
Management in addition to Loss Reduction). Some
of them also support climate change mitigation (e.g.,
through carbon sequestration).
It may be useful to reorganize, add, or delete
measures in this table when discussing options within
the planning team and with stakeholders or when
presenting options to local governments. The table also
cross references the measures with the phenomena (as
introduced in Chapter 2) they may be used to address
and the environment (natural and built) they protect,
which illustrates that a measure designed to protect one
type of environment may also provide protection for
the other. The individual measures are discussed, by
category, in further detail at the end of the chapter prior
to the Key Resources.

Recognizing the benefits of mainstreaming climate change with development, Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A
Guidebook for Development Planners, published by the U.S. Agency for International Development, contains an annex
that organizes adaptation measures by development goals (as they pertain to climate change adaptation). The goals are:

Functioning and healthy coastal ecosystems

The built environment is less exposed and less vulnerable to damages from natural hazards
Livelihood opportunities are maintained or strengthened in the face of climate change impacts
Impacts of climate change to human health and safety are minimized
Governance, policy, and planning capacities for planned adaptation are strengthened

Practitioner briefs describe each measures relevance, purpose, and application to climate change; information and data
requirements; design considerations; and suggestions for improving likelihood of success and provide a list of resources.
www.crc.uri.edu/index.php?actid=366

50

Adapting to Climate Change

Climate Change Adaptation Measures

Phenomenon

Declining Lake Levels

Increased Storm Intensity/Frequency

IIncreased Precipitation

Decreased Precipitation

Increased Water Temperature*

Ocean Acidification*

Monitoring

Modeling and Mapping

x
x

Built Environment

Rising Sea Levels

Research and Data Collection

Natural Environment

Increased Air Temperature

Environment

Impact Identification and Assessment

Awareness and Assistance

Outreach and Education
Real Estate Disclosure
Financial and Technical Assistance

Growth and Development Management

Zoning

Redevelopment Restrictions

Conservation Easements

Compact Community Design

Loss Reduction
Acquisition, Demolition, and Relocation

Setbacks

Building Codes

Retrofitting

Infrastructure Protection

Regulation and Removal of Shore Protection Structures

Rolling Easements

Living Shorelines

Beach Nourishment

Dune Management

Sediment Management

Shore Protection Structures

Shoreline Management

Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Management

Ecological Buffer Zones

Open Space Preservation and Conservation

Ecosystem Protection and Maintenance

Ecosystem Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement

Aquatic Invasive Species Management

Water Resource Management and Protection

51

Stormwater Management

Green Infrastructure

Water Supply Management

x
x

* The impacts of increased water temperature and ocean acidification are best managed by reducing the impacts of existing stressors and supporting healthy ecosystems.

Measure

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Step 3.3: Evaluate, Select, and

Prioritize Actions
Unfortunately, there will be more things the
planning team wants to do than it will be able to,
for a variety of reasons. In this task, the planning
team will decide which of the actions identified in
the previous step are actually suitable for the states
unique set of circumstances and then prioritize them
for implementation. Decisions will need to be made;
difficult tradeoffs may be required. Much of this
discussion is based on FEMAs Developing the Mitigation
Plan: Identifying Actions and Implementing Strategies (2003).
One way to evaluate the proposed actions is to
use a method that considers the Social, Technical,
Administrative, Political, Legal, Economic, and
Environmental (STAPLEE) opportunities and
constraints of each action. The information the
planning team generates from this evaluation process
will help them weigh the pros and cons of each action
to determine which are best for the state. There are
no right or wrong answers. The criteria are defined as
follows:
SocialThe action should be socially
acceptable.
Will the proposed action
disproportionately affect (positively or
negatively) one segment of the population?

Actions will need to be evaluated based on criteria established

by the planning team and, once selected, prioritized for
implementation.

Is the action compatible with present and

future community values?
TechnicalThe action should be technically
feasible, help to reduce losses in the long term,
and have minimal cumulative and secondary
impacts.
How effective is the action in avoiding or
reducing future losses?
Will it create more problems than it solves?
Does it solve the problem or only address a
symptom?
AdministrativeThe action should be
implementable by the state. Can the state meet
the staffing and funding needs of the action or
will it need outside assistance?
Does the state have the capacity (staff,
technical expertise, and funding) to
implement and maintain the action, or can
it be realistically obtained elsewhere?
PoliticalThe action should be politically
acceptable.
Is there political support to implement and
maintain this action?
Is there a champion willing to help see the
action to completion?
Is there enough public support to ensure
the success of the action?
LegalThe state must have the legal authority
to implement/enforce the action.
Does the state have the authority to
implement/enforce the action?
Are the proper laws and regulations in place
to implement/enforce the action?
Are there any potential legal consequences?
Will the state be liable for the action or lack
of action?
Is the action likely to be challenged by
stakeholders who may be negatively
affected?
EconomicThe action should be costeffective and be likely to pass a benefit-cost
analysis.
Are there currently sources of funds that
can be used to implement the action?
52

Adapting to Climate Change

Coastal No Adverse Impact is based on the concept of No Adverse Impact from the Association of State Floodplain
Managers, which advocates that the actions of any community or property owner should not adversely impact others. It
aims to help communities in the coastal zone manage development and growth to avoid activities that might increase
flooding or erosion on or off site, degrade the environment, or increase the need for public services such as emergency
response and stormwater management. Coastal No Adverse Impact promotes community-based decision making and
responsible land use that exceeds minimum requirements established by the federal government. www.floods.org/
index.asp?menuid=340&firstlevelmenuid=187&siteid=1

What benefits (market and nonmarket)

will the action provide?
Does the cost seem reasonable for the
size of the problem and likely benefits?
What burden will be placed on the tax
base or local economy to implement this
action?
Does the action contribute to or detract
from other community economic
goals, such as capital improvements or
economic development?
What are the economic consequences of
not implementing the action?
EnvironmentalThe action should meet
statutory considerations and public desire
for sustainable and environmentally healthy
communities.

How will the action affect the

environment (land, water, protected
species)?
Will the action comply with state
and federal environmental laws and
regulations?
Is the action consistent with state
environmental goals?
Once the planning team has decided on the
acceptable actions given review of the criteria above
(or a different set of criteria), it should prioritize the
actions for implementation. As part of this exercise,
it may want to consider answers to the questions
above as well as:
How well the action meets the adaptation
goals

The following terms (as defined by the United Nations 2009 Guidance on Water and Adaptation to Climate Change)
are found throughout the climate change adaptation literature and may be useful in prioritizing actions given the
uncertainties of climate change:
Win-win optionsCost-effective adaptation measures that minimize climate risks or exploit potential
opportunities but also have other social, environmental, or economic benefits. In this context, win-win options
are often associated with those measures or activities that address climate impacts but which also contribute to
climate change mitigation or meet other social and environmental objectives.
No-regrets optionsCost-effective adaptation measures that are worthwhile (i.e., they bring net socioeconomic
benefits) whatever the extent of future climate change. These types of measures include those which are justified
(cost-effective) under current climate conditions (including those addressing its variability and extremes) and are
also consistent with addressing risks associated with projected climate changes.
Low-regrets (or limited-regrets) optionsAdaptation measures where the associated costs are relatively low
and where the benefits, although mainly met under projected future climate change, may be relatively large.
Flexible adaptation optionsMeasures which are designed with the capacity to be modified at a future date as
climate changes.

53

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersMaine BCA Favors Retreat over Protection

In a sea level rise study conducted for the Maine State Planning Office and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) in 1995, benefit-cost analysis (BCA) was used to evaluate four potential options for adapting to sea level rise at a
specific study site. The researchers concluded, in that particular case, that it would be more cost-effective to use rolling
easements to retreat from the shoreline as sea level rises than to impose setbacks for new development or to protect
development and maintain the shoreline. www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/coastal/SLRAnticipatory.html

How urgent the need is for implementation of

the action
How easy the action is to implement
If the action meets multiple objectives
(maximizes benefits)
If the action also helps mitigate climate change
How reliable the projections the action is based
on are
How flexible the action can be under a range
of climate change scenarios

Step 3.4: Write Action Plans

Once the planning team has agreed upon the actions
to move forward with, it is highly recommended that
brief action plans are written for EACH individual
action. Among other things, these plans will establish
accountability and ease tracking and evaluating as
further described in Chapter 6. Information that could
be captured in these action plans includes:
Title

Description

Responsible Party(s) Other Players

Priority

Cost

Benefit-Cost Analysis Potential Funding Source(s)

Schedule/Milestones Maintenance Needs
Evaluation Plan

Goals Addressed

Adaptation Measure Descriptions

The text that follows provides brief descriptions of
the adaptation measures listed in the Climate Change
Adaptation Measures table on page 51. As previously
stated, the measures are roughly organized into categories

that describe their primary purpose, yet not necessarily

their only purpose, as some could fit into multiple
categories. It is outside the scope of this document to
provide all the information needed to implement each
measure. Key Resources are provided at the end of
the chapter.

Impact Identification and Assessment

Research and Data Collection
Monitoring
Modeling and Mapping
It is likely that when the planning team embarked
on the vulnerability assessment it did not have as
much information as it would have liked. And,
even if it did, circumstances will change, science
and technology will evolve, and more information
will become available. Adaptation is an ongoing
process that will continue to rely on new and
better information about climate change as well
as your states communities needs, strengths, and
weaknesses. Informed decision making supported
by an ongoing vulnerability assessment program
that incorporates research and data collection,
monitoring, and modeling and mapping should
result in coastal communities that are better
prepared to adapt to a changing climate.

Research and Data Collection

There is still a lot to be learned about climate
change, its impacts and consequences, and how
we can reduce our vulnerability to them. The
better the planning team understands what climate
change means for coastal communities, the better

54

Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersSouth Carolina Assesses Management of Shoreline Change

In 2007, the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control established an external advisory
committee made up of 23 experts from academia, government, and the private sector to examine science and policy
issues related to beachfront and estuarine shoreline management in South Carolina. Specifically, the intent was to
help the state address future social, economic, and natural resource impacts of shoreline changes that may result
from continued (or accelerated) rise in sea level, development encroachment into the beach/dune system, shoreline
alterations, and coastal storms. The committees report, Adapting to Shoreline Change, reflects on over 20 years of
shoreline management in South Carolina and makes suggestions for the coming decades. The goals and policy and
management recommendations presented in the committees final report are intended to provide a new foundation for
continued shoreline planning, policy development, and program implementation at the federal, state, and local levels.
www.scdhec.gov/environment/ocrm/

positioned they will be to address it. A research agenda

could include:
Monitoring academic and public news media to
keep informed about changes in climate change
science and adaptation tools, technologies, and
success stories
Collecting physical and socioeconomic data to
better understand vulnerabilities
Documenting events and impacts associated
with climate variability and change
Projecting climate and nonclimate changes
(e.g., population growth, loss/gain of open
space, etc.)
Coordinating research agendas and partnering
with other state and local governments as well

as academic institutions, federal agencies, and

nongovernmental organizations
While research activities can stand alone, they
will also support other assessment measures (e.g.,
modeling and mapping) as well as the selection
and design of other adaptation actions. Research
will likely need to be undertaken to examine the
feasibility and cost-effectiveness (benefit-cost
analyses) of potential actions.

Monitoring
Monitoring plays a vital role in climate change
adaptation. It can alert you to changes in the climate
and associated impacts and consequences and

Learning from othersDelaware Shares Lessons Learned in Lidar Acquisition

In 2005, a coalition composed of the Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, and Delaware Geological Survey contracted with the U.S. Geological Survey and the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration to collect lidar for Sussex County. In 2007, the lidar for the remaining two
counties, Kent and New Castle, was collected by a commercial contractor. As a result, Delaware is one of the few states
with statewide lidar coverage. However, the acquisition and use of the data have posed great challenges, which the state
has made great strides in overcoming. To other states seeking to obtain statewide lidar coverage, Delaware offers the
following lessons learned:

Agree on data standards

Know the end users technical capacity
Use a common format for the entire state
Ensure all data and products are contract deliverables
Capture metadata and incorporate quality assurance and control

www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/inundation/_pdf/de_lessons.pdf

55

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Elevation change can be monitored with surface elevation

tables placed on benchmarks installed in wetlands.

track ecological and socioeconomic responses. If

properly planned and implemented, a comprehensive
monitoring program that incorporates multiple tools
and considers a variety of systems and processes can
provide input to the vulnerability assessment and
adaptation strategy. Such a program can document
changes and their effects, enabling timely preventive
or corrective action and illustrating the effectiveness
of adaptation actions. Monitoring can also be an
effective way to engage community members and
raise climate change awareness.

Learning from OthersConnecticut and New York Team Up to Monitor Long Island Sound
Sentinel Monitoring for Climate Change in Long Island Sound began in 2008 as a partnership between Connecticuts
Department of Environmental Protection and the University of Connecticut. With the addition of the Long Island Sound
Study (a bi-state partnership of federal and state agencies, user groups, concerned organizations, and individuals
dedicated to restoring and protecting the sound), New York has also joined the monitoring effort. The goal of the
program is to design and develop a dynamic climate change monitoring program for the ecosystems of the sound and
its coastal ecoregions. The long-term monitoring program will identify resources in the sound that are most vulnerable
to climate change and most critical to protect and will ultimately enable the partners to develop appropriate adaptation
strategies to protect the sounds biodiversity and significant natural resources. [email protected]

Learning from othersOregon Monitors Beach and Shoreline Change

The Oregon Beach and Shoreline Mapping Analysis Program maintained by the Oregon Department of Geology and
Mineral Industries is a monitoring program designed to document the response of Oregons beaches to both shortterm climate variability (e.g., El Nios, extreme storms) and longer-term effects associated with climate change (e.g.,
increasing wave heights, changes to storm tracks, and sea level rise). The broad purpose of the program is to provide
high-quality scientific information about changes along the Oregon coast to coastal managers, city and county planners,
the geotechnical community, and other stakeholders to support responsible land use and development, both today and
into the future. www.oregongeology.com/sub/news&events/archives/press-release-2009-02-25.pdf

NOAAs National Estuarine Research Reserve Systems System-Wide Monitoring Program (SWMP) tracks short-term
variability and long-term changes in estuarine waters to understand how human activities and natural events can
affect ecosystems. SWMP focuses on three related environmental measures: abiotic monitoring, including atmospheric
conditions, nutrients and contaminants, and physical water quality factors (e.g., salinity, dissolved oxygen, and tidal
range); biological monitoring, including biodiversity, habitat, and population characteristics; and watershed and
land cover/land use classification, including changes over time in coastal and estuarine habitat and land use. Coastal
managers can use these data to make informed decisions on local and regional issues, which include climate change
adaptation. www.nerrs.noaa.gov/RCDefault.aspx?ID=18

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Adapting to Climate Change

A number of tools already exist for monitoring

climate variability and ecological health that could
be incorporated into a climate change monitoring
program. Some of these tools are listed as Key
Resources at the end of this chapter.

Modeling and Mapping

Modeling and mapping, which were discussed in Chapter
4, provide valuable input to climate change adaptation
planning and implementation. Specifically, models
and maps provide information about how climate
change might affect a planning area, lending support
to vulnerability assessments and communications
tools. They may also be used to illustrate the potential
outcomes of adaptation actions.
Models simulate reality to better understand how
changes in climate may impact natural and built
environments. Maps illustrate model outputs but
may also be basic graphic representations of certain
characteristics (e.g., social, physical, environmental) in
a geographic area. Model-based maps may be riskbased, event-based, or scenario-based. Risk-based maps
illustrate an event that has a specific probability of
occurring over a specific time frame (e.g., Digital Flood
Insurance Rate Maps). Event-based maps depict events
that have already occurred and their impacts. Scenario-

Visually integrating ecosystem, infrastructure, and inundation data

helps planners make more informed decisions.

based maps illustrate the outcomes of a projected

event (or events). All can provide useful information
for climate change adaptation planning and project
implementation.
These measures, modeling in particular, can be
extremely resource intensive and complex and
may require engaging experts, such as academics,
nongovernmental organizations, consultants, or
federal partners. Alternatively, pre-existing models
and maps can be used in their original form, or they
could be downscaled or improved upon through

As part of its activities related to the National Flood Insurance Program, FEMA has begun the transition from Flood Map
Modernization to Risk Mapping, Assessment, and Planning (Risk MAP). The vision for Risk MAP is to work collaboratively
with state, local, and tribal entities to deliver quality information that increases public awareness and leads to actions
that reduce threats to life and property. FEMA is updating Digital Flood Insurance Rate Maps to address gaps in required
engineering and mapping, based on current conditions, for high flood risk areas impacted by coastal flooding, levees,
and other flood hazards. www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/fhm/rm_main.shtm

Learning from othersBCDC Updates Sea Level Rise Maps

In 2006, the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission (BCDC) released a series of maps depicting
the lands most vulnerable to sea level rise. To improve the accuracy and precision of the maps, in 2009, using funds from
the California Energy Commissions Public Interest Energy Research Program, BCDC released new maps based on sea
level rise data from the U.S. Geological Survey. The maps show areas vulnerable to 16 inches of sea level rise at midcentury and 55 inches at the end of the century (scenarios that are generally consistent with other state sea level rise
estimates). www.bcdc.ca.gov/planning/climate_change/index_map.shtml

57

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

the addition of data (e.g., Digital Flood Insurance

Rate Maps could be enhanced by adding future
conditions hydrology, erosion zones, or areas that may
be inundated by sea level rise). In any case, models
and maps will need to be updated to reflect observed
changes, new projections, improved data, and changes
in exposure.

Awareness and Assistance

Outreach and Education
Real Estate Disclosure
Financial and Technical Assistance
Effective climate change adaptation relies on an
informed stakeholder base, from elected officials
to the general public. In addition, since a number
of the measures discussed in this guide are best
implemented at the local level, providing financial
and technical assistance to local governments, as
well as individual home and business owners, will be
critical to overall success. Increasing awareness and
providing assistance enhances adaptive capacity and
can better prepare your states coast to withstand the
impacts and consequences of climate change.

Outreach and Education

Outreach and education are distinct but related
activities, and both are vitally important for effective
climate change adaptation. In this guide, outreach
is the provision of information to all stakeholders
(anyone who will be affected by climate change
in your state), and education involves the formal
education system (typically kindergarten through
grade 12).
Purposes of outreach can include engaging
stakeholders in the planning effort, gaining support
for planning and action implementation, informing
the public about climate change and their role in
adaptation, communicating the benefits of natural
resources and ways to protect them, and changing
attitudes and behaviors. Outreach is not a one-time
activity. It should begin with the launching of the
adaptation planning effort and continue throughout
the process (as introduced in Chapter 3) and as

Using visuals to explain how coastal areas may be impacted

by climate change can build support for adaptation.

new information becomes available, milestones are

met, successes become evident, and whenever an
appropriate opportunity presents itself (e.g., when
the plan is released or when adaptation actions are
implemented that require support, adherence, or
assistance).
There are numerous challenges to communicating
about climate change. The uncertainty of the
science and the presence of more immediate issues
are perhaps the biggest. While a few resources for
helping conduct outreach and craft and deliver
adaptation messages are noted at the end of the
chapter, the planning team should consider enlisting
communications specialists to help in this endeavor.
An outreach strategy can help guide climate change
adaptation communications and, similar to the
strategy for an adaptation plan, should identify goals
and actions to ensure stakeholders are being reached
in an effective manner. An outreach strategy involves
identifying the target population, conducting a
population profile (so the best way to communicate
with them is understood), crafting the message, and
then deciding how to disseminate it. There will likely
be multiple stakeholder groups/target populations
(e.g., planning team members and other participating
stakeholders, the general public, state and local elected
officials and other decision makers, developers,
resource managers, etc.) who may require tailored
messages and different delivery formats.

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Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersHawaii Guide Informs Buyers about Purchasing Coastal Real Estate
Recognizing the increasing rates of rapid residential growth and development along the waterfront of the main
Hawaiian Islands, the University of Hawaii Sea Grant College Program, with support from the State of Hawaii
Department of Land and Natural Resources and the Coastal Zone Management Program, published the Natural
Hazard Considerations for Purchasing Coastal Real Estate in HawaiiA Practical Guide of Common Questions. The
publication provides basic information on coastal hazards that waterfront property investors and developers should
consider when purchasing coastal land. The guide also addresses common concerns and questions and provides
options and resources to protect coastal real estate and safeguard the lives of residents. www.soest.hawaii.edu/
SEAGRANT/communication/publications.php

As the strategy is drafted, the planning team should

consider what is already being done to reach the
target populations. Can climate change adaptation
be incorporated into existing government programs
for climate change mitigation, coastal management,
emergency management, public health, water
conservation, stormwater management, etc.? What
communications vehicles are planning team members
already using? Are there lessons learned that the
planning team can benefit from? As appropriate,
coordinate outreach efforts with federal activities,
including National Flood Safety Awareness Week,
Hurricane Preparedness Week, American Wetlands
Month, and others. Be prepared to take advantage of
windows of opportunity, which may come in the form
of extreme weather events (in your state or elsewhere);
the arrival of climate conditions that may affect your
state (e.g., annual storm seasons, El Nio, La Nia);
national media attention, etc.
Effective communication has to achieve a match
between message content, framing, and the concerns

and values with which audiences resonate (Bostrom

and Lashof 2007). When communicating with the
public, consider geographic, socioeconomic, and
cultural differences. Who is most vulnerable? What
languages do they speak? What are their interests?
Surveys can help inform the planning team about
how stakeholders feel about climate change and
adaptation and what they value most and may help it
better understand how to engage them on the subject.
For instance, if some stakeholders have doubts about
climate change, or the term itself is too politically
charged, taking an approach that focuses on the impacts
and consequences, many of which they may have
already experienced or are familiar with, may be more
effective.4 A demonstration of the trends can illustrate
the need to take action.
Initial outreach efforts to engage and involve
stakeholders (see Chapter 3) may simply include an
introduction to climate change and the planning process
and information about how to get involved. In crafting

A number of resources are available to help develop and conduct effective outreach. One of these resources is the
NOAA Sea Grant program. Sea Grants network of extension agents links university resources and expertise with local
communities and user groups, taking complex information and showing people how to use it to solve problems. This
includes developing new information through original applied research, gathering existing information to meet user
needs, and transmitting information through pamphlets, courses, workshops, lectures, and meetings. www.seagrant
.noaa.gov/

4 While this may help adaptations cause, it should be noted that such an approach does not support climate change mitigation. And, since mitigation

59

is essential to addressing climate change, this kind of approach should be used with caution.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

If individuals are to be involved in mitigating and adapting to climate and other global changes, the problems need to
be meaningful and relevant; people need help to understand both causes and solutions; communicators mustdespite
uncertaintycreate a sense of appropriate urgency (but not irrational fear); and they must enable and empower people
to act in sustainable ways and support relevant public policy (Vogel 2007).

Learning from othersMaine and Oregon Sea Grant Programs Advance Outreach through Social Science
Since 2007, Maine and Oregon Sea Grant Programs have been working together to understand how best to educate
the public about climate change and motivate them to act. Specifically, the project used focus groups and surveys of
coastal landowners and decision makers to better understand their concerns, knowledge, motivations, and decisionmaking processes and aims to, ultimately, develop a test model of public outreach about climate change that is
transferable to coastal managers in other states. Videos were produced for both states based on the results. In Maine, a
five-year outreach plan includes projects to address identified information gaps, including a hazard mitigation guide, an
interactive web site, and a series of workshops for coastal property owners and municipal officials.
www.seagrant.umaine.edu/extension/coastal-community-resilience; http://seagrant.oregonstate.edu/research/
ClimateChange/index.html

the message, the planning team should consider what

it wants the target population to take away from the
message and/or how it would like them to respond (i.e.,
what it would like them to do).

Convey the need for action but balance the

challenges with optimism
Develop a course of action
Acknowledge that questions remain

Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local,

Regional, and State Governments offers the following
suggestions, which should be localized and made
relevant for your target population(s), for developing a
general climate change adaptation message (Snover et
al. 2007):

Also, think about illustrating the message, either

with images, maps, or success stories. Convey the
importance of recognizing that the needs of humans
and nature are complementary. Emphasize how, in
some instances, adaptation will provide benefits with
or without climate change. And, explain the potential
costs of inaction or delayed action. As the plan evolves,
so will the level and type of information that can be
provided and that stakeholders will require.

Describe changes that have already been

observed
Describe changes that are expected
Describe the potential impacts and
consequences

A variety of traditional and nontraditional ways exist

to communicate the message. These include, but are

Learning from othersFact Sheets Support Adaptation Planning in Connecticut

The Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection has developed a series of initial climate adaptation fact
sheets, Facing Our Future, detailing current observations and providing cursory recommendations for alternative
approaches to foster adaptation at the local and regional level. These fact sheets address overlapping technical areas
or categories: biodiversity and habitat, fisheries, forestry, infrastructure, natural coastal shoreline environment,outdoor
recreation, water resources, and wildlife. www.ct.gov/dep/cwp/view.asp?a=2684&q=436600&depNav_GID=1619

60

Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersTexas Brings Climate Change to the Classroom

The University of Texas Austins Bureau of Economic Geology and the Harte Research Institute for Gulf of Mexico Studies
at Texas A&M University Corpus Christi have developed a 3-D virtual model of the Gulf of Mexico and Texas coastal
environments for use in the classroom and for the general public to explore how relative sea level change may impact
the coastal zone. The project, sponsored in part by the Texas State Energy Conservation Office and the Texas Coastal
Coordination Council, also includes a lesson plan titled Sea Level Changes and the Texas Coastal Environment, a
PowerPoint presentation for teachers to use to introduce the lesson in their classrooms, and a short video explaining
how to use the virtual model. http://coastal.beg.utexas.edu/thscmp/vbi.htm

not limited to, print, broadcast, online, and social

media; events and meetings; internal governmental
communications; billboards; and direct mail, such
as newsletters, brochures, utility bills, flyers, and
surveys (which can be used to inform as well as gather
information). Museums, libraries, nature centers and
preserves, and other informal education providers can
also serve as effective venues for dissemination of
information about climate change.
In addition to the education provided via the outreach
program, the planning team may want to work with the
states department of education to create programs to
educate teachers about climate change and to develop
curricula for the classroom. The primary goals of
these efforts should be to equip students with basic
information about climate change and to empower
them to take action and to build awareness among their
family and friends. Your state research institutions can
also provide input to these efforts.

Real Estate Disclosure

According to FEMA, most prospective buyers do not
factor in hazards when they are considering purchasing
property (CRS 2007). The disclosure of an individual
propertys vulnerability to coastal hazards enables
potential buyers to make informed decisions reflecting
the level of impacts they are willing and able to accept.
States can require disclosures that include information
about known flood, erosion, and subsidence hazards
and may even suggest that a given property may
become more vulnerable as the climate changes
(e.g., rising sea levels, increasing storm intensity).
States can also provide information about hazard
mitigation to help new homeowners willing to accept
the potential impacts and consequences. Information
about rolling easements, setbacks, buffers, wetlands,
redevelopment restrictions, shore protection structures
(prohibition, restrictions, maintenance requirements),
beach nourishment, and other coastal zone and
environmental laws, regulations, and policies that may
affect the property could also be disclosed.

Learning from othersSouth Carolina Real Estate Disclosure Protects Interests of Buyers
South Carolinas Coastal Tidelands and Wetlands Act requires contracts of sale or transfers of real property to contain
disclosure statements if a beachfront property is located seaward of the setback or jurisdictional line. The statement
must indicate that the property is or could be affected by the lines and must include the local erosion rate most recently
made available by the South Carolina Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management (SC OCRM) for that zone. SC
OCRM has developed an educational brochure for real estate workshops, and the states Real Estate Commission has
developed an addendum for contracts of sale that addresses the disclosure requirement and also includes information
about the width of the flood zone (V-Zone). In addition, per the Residential Property Condition Disclosure Act, South
Carolinas Residential Property Condition Disclosure Statement includes information about flood hazards.
www.scstatehouse.gov/code/statmast.htm; www.scdhec.gov/environment/ocrm/pubs/docs/qa_realestate.pdf;
www.llr.state.sc.us/POL/REC/index.asp?file=pub.htm

61

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersLouisiana Funds Resiliency Projects in Coastal Parishes

With $10 million from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Developments Community Development Block Grant
program, the Louisiana Recovery Authority is helping communities affected by Hurricanes Gustav and Ike create plans to
increase resiliency. The competitive Comprehensive Resiliency Program will fund nonconstruction projects, such as the
development of forward-thinking plans related to land use, economic development, resiliency, and water management;
development of local zoning ordinances that will help prevent or dramatically minimize business, housing, and
infrastructure damage from future storm events; and augmentation of local code enforcement staffs. http://lra.louisiana
.gov/index.cfm?md=newsroom&tmp=detail&articleID=608

Information could be provided in property listings,

in contracts to purchase, or at settlement and should
be recorded in deeds and other appropriate legal
documents; mapped hazard areas could be shown
on lot surveys. Brochures that provide more detailed
information about the hazards and associated
regulations would also benefit potential buyers and may
be part of a larger outreach strategy as described above.
Best practices for hazard disclosure include providing
notification as early in the process as possible, crafting
clear and direct notices, educating professionals involved
in the disclosure process, and establishing strong and
clear enforcement provisions (Godschalk et al. 2000).

Financial and Technical Assistance

to build the capacity of local governments to respond

through both financial and technical assistance.
Financial support could be provided as competitive
or formula grants or could be targeted to specific
projects and pilots, which may also be accompanied
by technical assistance. By supporting pilot projects,
the state will be able to test out adaptation measures
in a limited number of communities before applying
them statewide. Financial assistance could also be
provided through incentives, where special funds are
only available where prerequisites established by the
state have been met. An example of a related incentive
program is the National Flood Insurance Programs
Community Rating System, which offers discounts on
flood insurance in participating communities.

Since a lot of climate change adaptation will be taking

place at the local level, it is in your states best interest

Technical assistance could also take a number of

forms. It could include the provision of training, data,

The National Flood Insurance Programs (NFIP) Community Rating System (CRS) is a voluntary incentive program that
recognizes and encourages community floodplain management activities that exceed the minimum NFIP requirements.
Participating communities receive flood insurance discounts that reflect reduced vulnerability to flooding. Other benefits
of participation include enhanced public safety, reduction in damage to built and natural environments, avoidance of
economic disruption/losses, reduction of suffering, and access to technical assistance. In addition, some activities can
help a community qualify for federal assistance programs (e.g., hazard mitigation planning). There are 18 floodplain
management activities credited by the CRS, organized under four series:
Public Information
Mapping and Regulations
Flood Damage Reduction
Flood Preparedness
Each CRS activity has criteria that must be met in order for communities to receive credit. Encourage local governments
to review these criteria when designing and implementing adaptation measures to ensure they do so in a way that will
earn them maximum credit. Additionally, consider how the activities of state agencies can support local governments
in their efforts to improve their ratings, including through uniform minimum credits, which communities can earn for
activities implemented by regional or state agencies. www.fema.gov/business/nfip/crs.shtm

62

Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersConnecticut Helps Town with Climate Change Adaptation

With funding from the EPAs Climate Ready Estuaries Program, the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protections
Office of Long Island Sound Programs partnered with ICLEILocal Governments for Sustainability through the Long Island
Sound Study to host a series of coastal climate change adaptation workshops for the Town of Groton. The three-part
series was designed to engage representatives from federal, state, and local governments in climate change adaptation
efforts and provide them with the understanding and tools needed to effectively adapt to climate change. The results
of the workshops, including an adaptation report with recommendations for future actions, will be presented to town
officials and other agency leaders in fall 2010. www.icleiusa.org/action-center/planning/climate-adaptation-planning
-resources/groton-connecticut-coastal-climate-adaptation-workshop-presentations; www.ctclimatechange.com/

maps, models, GIS support, planning guidebooks,

model ordinances, and outreach materials. Once again,
survey the planning team to see what programs already
exist. Could adaptation be incorporated into them or
could their focus be shifted?
Training advances outreach efforts and, as with
outreach, will likely have multiple target populations
and messages. Each program should address the
individual needs of the target population, which
could be elected officials; state and local planners,
natural resource managers, or building code officials;
developers; marine contractors; the general public; etc.
For example, a training program to educate elected
officials about their role in climate change adaptation
would look very different from a program designed to
teach marine contractors about living shorelines.
Many local governments already provide map
information services, where they respond to inquiries
regarding the location of a property in relation to
special flood hazard areas as well as its base flood
elevation. However, due to both financial and
technical constraints, this information may be limited

to information on a Digital Flood Insurance Rate

Map. Should the state expand mapping activities to
better capture the location of natural resources and
identify areas susceptible to other coastal hazards,
this information could be passed along (e.g., as GIS
overlays) to local governments to better inform their
map information service as well as their planning
efforts. In addition, this information could be used as
input to a coast-wide web mapping application that
would allow local governments and other stakeholders
to view the location of hazard-prone and natural areas.
In addition to providing data, maps, and models,
which will help lay the foundation for an adaptation
plan, the state can further support the planning
activities of local governments by providing
planning guidance, such as a local version of this
document customized for your state. Consistent
information provided all along your coast in the
form of vulnerability assessment tools and planning
requirements and standards can help compare needs
across communities and better assess how to allocate
limited resources.

Learning from othersOhio Coastal Atlas Supports Coastal Decision Making and More
The Ohio Coastal Atlas Project is a suite of resources developed by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources Office
of Coastal Management. The atlas provides coastal decision makers, professionals, educators, interest groups, and the
public with information about Lake Erie and its watershed. The atlas project consists of a 240-page printed edition,
a DVD, and two online componentsan interactive Lake Erie map viewer and static map library. Topics range from
Lake Erie bathymetry, elevation contour lines, coastal barrier resources, wetlands, land cover, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers project locations, flood hazards, sand resources, nearshore substrates, and more. www.ohiodnr.com/AtlasGIS/
tabid/19562/Default.aspx

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

NOAAs National Estuarine Research Reserve Systems Coastal Training Program offers a number of trainings relevant
to meeting the challenges of climate change. Programs focus on issues such as living shorelines, Coastal No Adverse
Impact, effective science communication, wetland restoration, and more.
In 2009, the Planning for Climate Change workshop, geared primarily toward shoreline planners, was developed
for Coastal Training Programs at National Estuarine Research Reserves (and other programs/agencies) to customize
and use as part of their climate change educational efforts. It was piloted twice in Washington State and, while it lays
a foundation in current climate research, it primarily addresses the fundamentals of how to prepare and adapt to
the anticipated impacts of climate change. The workshop has already been modified for the San Francisco area, and
a number of other reserves plan to offer similarly customized workshops in 2010. Workshop materials, evaluation
results, lessons learned, PowerPoint presentations, and streaming video of the training sessions are available online.
Project partners include the Padilla Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Washington State Department of Ecology,
Washington Sea Grant, the University of Washingtons Climate Impacts Group, and the King County Executive Office.
http://nerrs.noaa.gov/Training.aspx

Growth and Development Management

Zoning
Redevelopment Restrictions
Conservation Easements
Compact Community Design

As development and redevelopment along our coasts

continues, there are a number of ways growth can be
managed to guide it away from hazard-prone areas and
valuable or sensitive natural resources. While growth
is often desirable and necessary, it must be managed in
a way that addresses the needs of the population and
also offers protection to natural resources and supports
the services they provide.

A robust planning program is essential to effectively

manage growth and development, and it is widely
recognized that land use planning is an effective way
to reduce risks associated with natural hazards (Burby
1998). While most growth will be managed locally,
there is still a role for the state to play, including
restricting growth where it affects state lands and
offering assistance and disincentives (e.g., not providing
funding for infrastructure or other services that will
encourage growth in inappropriate areas) to local
governments.
The greatest opportunity to protect land is before it is
developed. It is much easier and cheaper to direct new
construction away from sensitive and hazard-prone

In consultation with the Smart Growth Network, NOAA, EPA, the International City/County Management Association,
and Rhode Island Sea Grant drafted coastal and waterfront smart growth elements to address the unique growthrelated issues of waterfront communities. The elements augment the existing smart growth principles to reflect the
specific challenges and opportunities characterizing the coast and waterfront. Smart Growth for Coastal and Waterfront
Communities is a guidance document for planners, government officials, developers, nonprofit groups, and coastal
and waterfront residents that describes the coastal and waterfront smart growth elements to help communities plan
for growth while protecting their natural and economic resources, maritime heritage, and traditional sense of place.
The guide includes an overview of growth-related challenges and opportunities faced by coastal and waterfront
communities, a description of tools and techniques for applying smart growth elements, and case studies illustrating
smart growth in action. A number of the suggestions can be applied to climate change adaptation.
http://coastalsmartgrowth.noaa.gov/

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Adapting to Climate Change

The Coastal Barrier Resources Act (CBRA) was passed in 1982 to minimize the loss of human life, wasteful expenditure
of federal revenues, and the damage to fish, wildlife, and other natural resources associated with the coastal barriers.
It does so through a free-market approach that restricts federal expenditures that might encourage or support
development, including flood insurance, within the Coastal Barrier Resources System, which consists of undeveloped
coastal barriers along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Great Lakes coasts. The law does not prohibit development; it simply assigns
the burdens associated with the potential hazards directly to those who choose to accept them and away from the
American taxpayers. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, which administers the program, CBRA has saved over
$1 billion and will save millions more in the future. www.fws.gov/habitatconservation/coastal_barrier.html

areas than it is to restore disturbed and degraded land

and to retrofit or move existing structures. A number
of the measures discussed in this guide can be used
to restrict unwise development. Vulnerability is best
reduced by limiting exposure. However, even if land
is allowed to be developed, measures that can help
reduce the impacts of climate change (e.g., easements
and building design) are more feasible before
development than after.
Growth and development management also includes
loss reduction and shoreline management measures.
These measures are discussed in more detail later in
this chapter.

Zoning
Intended to create a healthy, safe, and orderly
community while balancing a diversity of interests,
ideally as envisioned by a comprehensive plan, zoning is
one of the most commonly used methods of regulating
land use. A number of the measures discussed in this
guide can be implemented through zoning.

Zoning can be used to regulate parcel use, density of

development, building dimensions, setbacks, impervious
surfaces, type of construction (e.g., easily movable),
shore protection structures, landscaping, etc. It can also
be used to regulate where development can and cannot
take place, making it an invaluable tool in efforts to
protect natural resources and environmentally sensitive
areas and guide development away from hazard-prone
areas. Permissible uses and standards vary by zoning
district. Types of districts include general use districts;
overlay districts, where provisions in addition to those
on the underlying districts apply; and special use
districts, in which all uses require permits.
Floodplain zoning is an example of a zoning application
that, if thoughtfully drafted, can provide multiple
benefits. In addition to protecting life and property,
benefits of floodplain zoning can include resource
conservation, open space preservation, public access,
and water-quality protection. Floodplain regulations that
just meet the minimum requirements of the National
Flood Insurance Program are more focused on how to
build safely in the floodplain and may not provide the
additional benefits.

Learning from othersRhode Island Restricts Development on Coastal Barriers

At the state level, Rhode Island classifies its barrier islands into three categories based on the level of development
present: developed, moderately developed, and undeveloped. In the 1980s, the state banned any new residential
and commercial buildings on moderately and undeveloped barrier beaches, 82 percent of the states barrier beaches,
to prevent additional development in these high hazard areas. The states Coastal Resources Management Program
regulations also prohibit the expansion of construction of new public infrastructure such as water, gas, and sewer lines
on all the states barrier islands. www.crmc.ri.gov/regulations.html

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersShoreland Zoning Ordinances Required in Wisconsin

Wisconsin requires counties to administer shoreland zoning ordinances that meet the minimum standards of Wisconsins
Shoreland Management Program. These standards are designed to further safe and healthful conditions; prevent and
control water pollution; protect spawning grounds, fish and aquatic life; control building sites, placement of structures
and land uses; and reserve shore cover and natural beauty. A model ordinance and Creating an Effective Shoreland
Zoning Ordinance: A Summary of Wisconsin Shoreland Zoning Ordinances are available online. http://dnr.wi.gov/org/water/
wm/dsfm/shore/local.htm

As the climate changes, adjustments will need to be

made. Zoning regulations will need to be adaptive.
Current regulations may need to be revised to
accommodate for new conditions. For example,
regulations that limit building height may need to be
altered in light of changing elevation requirements.
Your state may want to encourage local governments
to review the adequacy of their zoning, make changes
and additions as appropriate, and to consider climate
change in future zoning decisions. As the need for
new districts arises, model language can help ease the
process and advance state interests.
Subdivision regulations, which are typically linked to
zoning regulations but often separate, are also useful
tools in limiting development in hazard-prone and
sensitive areas. Subdivision regulations go beyond
zoning regulations, establishing requirements for lot
creation and development. Regulations may limit the

Zoning is a regulatory tool that communities can use to implement

growth and development management measures.

subdivision of land in inappropriate areas; specify

characteristics such as size, shape, orientation, and
layout; set standards for infrastructure, open space,
buffers, landscaping, and access/egress; and require
hazard assessments and the consideration of impacts
on neighboring lands.

Redevelopment Restrictions
The most likely places to be affected by the impacts
of climate change are those that have been affected
by related events in the past. A building lost to one
storm is likely to be lost to another if built back
on its prestorm footprint and without significant
structural improvements. Despite the desire to
return to prestorm conditions, it is important
to build back right. Combining restrictions with
acquisition/demolition/relocation programs
provides safer options to property owners in the
wake of the loss of or damage to their homes or
businesses. Such restrictions will likely be more
acceptable if adopted prior to a disaster rather than
during recovery.
Restrictions could apply to repetitive losses or
severe repetitive losses as defined by FEMA, or
they could apply to any structure in a particular
area (e.g., the 100- or 500-year floodplain) that is
destroyed or substantially damaged. A prohibition
on redevelopment of structures destroyed or
substantially damaged by storms or chronic erosion
would serve multiple purposes. It would protect
life and property by removing them from harms
way and allow the natural and beneficial functions
of the floodplain to return. However, an outright
prohibition is often politically and practically
difficult to implement (though less so when public
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Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersMaine Restricts Reconstruction of Wave-Damaged Buildings

Maines Coastal Sand Dune Rules set standards for reconstruction of buildings severely damaged (damage that exceeds
50 percent of a buildings value) by ocean waves. Any reconstructed building must meet restrictions on building size,
height, and elevation as well as setback requirements, to the extent practicable. However, projects within the coastal
sand dune system may not be permitted if the property may reasonably be expected to be eroded as a result of
changes in the shoreline such that the project is likely to be severely damaged after allowing for a two-foot rise in sea
level over 100 years. A building located in a V-Zone may not be reconstructed more than once. www.maine.gov/sos/cec/
rules/06/chaps06.htm

Conservation Easements
A conservation easement is a legal agreement between
a landowner and a land trust or government agency
that can be used to restrict development in sensitive
and hazard-prone areas. Unlike acquisition and open
space preservation and conservation, which are also
useful tools for managing where development takes
place and are discussed in the Loss Reduction and
Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Management categories,
respectively, easements may not preclude other land
uses and allow property to remain in private ownership.
Combining redevelopment restrictions with acquisition, demolition,
relocation programs enables communities to build back better
after a disaster.

health or access is at stake). Restrictions that attach

provisions to reconstruction, such as siting, design, and
construction requirements, are often more achievable.
At a minimum, where rebuilding is allowed, general
permitting requirements for new construction
should be enforced, including for those structures
that were nonconforming prior to their loss.
In addition, rebuilding after a loss provides an
opportunity to include additional measures that will
better protect the building and the land on which it
resides.

Landowners can sell or donate their easement.

Easements that are sold are also known as PDRs
(purchase of development rights). Landowners who
donate their easement may be eligible for federal
or state tax breaks. Easements typically apply in
perpetuity and are passed on from owner to owner.
Most are placed on individual properties, but they
may also be placed on subdivisions or coordinated
at a regional scale (e.g., to more effectively manage a
strip of shoreline or accommodate beach and wetland
migration).
Conservation easements can be placed on the entire
property or on select areas and can be written to
prohibit all types of development or to impose
restrictions and requirements in regard to size,
construction, etc.5 Easements can also be used to
ban or set standards for shore protection and restrict

5 Rolling easements are a type of conservation easement that may or may not be voluntary. For more information, see the Shoreline Management

category.

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersMaryland Program Protects

Land through Easements
Marylands Rural Legacy Program aims to protect
large, contiguous tracts of land and other strategic
areas from sprawl development and to enhance
natural resource, agricultural, forestry and
environmental protection. It does so through the
acquisition of easements and fee estates from willing
landowners and the supporting activities of Rural
Legacy Sponsors and local governments. Through
the program, 7,200 acres of land have been protected
to date in the Coastal Bays Rural Legacy Area through

activities that may impair natural processes. And,

as appropriate, they can be used to secure public
access.
Conservation easements are typically voluntary.
As such, landowners have input on their
restrictiveness. The voluntary and flexible nature
of easements makes them more attractive
to landowners but often less effective than
regulatory approaches such as setbacks, zoning,
etc.6 A conservation easement program is likely
to be most effective when it has strong planning
and outreach components that identify lands
that would benefit from easements and inform
property owners about easements and their
benefits.

Compact Community Design

Compact community design7 allows development
to occur while protecting natural resources. It is
a pattern of development that aims to use land

the purchase of easements. www.dnr.state.md.us/land/

rurallegacy/

more efficiently by grouping a mixed-use of buildings

together, minimizing their collective footprint, and
leaving undeveloped land in its natural state.8 More
open space and fewer impervious surfaces means
reduced runoff and flooding. It also means reduced
investments in services and infrastructure design,
construction, and maintenance. Compact communities
are also known for their walkability, thus compact
community design also helps mitigate climate change.
The high density development suggested by compact
community design can allow for more opportunities
to guide development away from sensitive and hazardprone areas, but without proper planning, it can lead
to increased susceptibility to hazards. Any such design
must still consider the location of hazard-prone
areas as well as the location and carrying capacity of
evacuation routes. Compact community design is best
implemented in conjunction with zoning ordinances
that regulate development in hazard-prone areas and
strong building codes.

6 An alternative to a conservation easement that still allows for development is a transfer of development rights, which is a voluntary, market-based

land use mechanism that transfers development rights from sending zones, parcels designated unsafe or in need of protection, to receiving parcels,
areas deemed acceptable for additional growth.

7 Other related concepts include compact building design, conservation design, and clustered development.
8 Open space preserved through compact community design should be done so in conjunction with plans for green infrastructure and wetland

migration corridors, which are discussed later in this chapter.

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Adapting to Climate Change

climate change, primarily the exacerbation of existing

hazards, such as storms, floods, and high winds. Some
of the measures are more permanent than others,
and some more controversial. Some require moving
development away from hazard-prone areas, and
others provide for protection where development in
these areas is allowed or already in place. And, some
provide benefits to the natural environment as well
as the built environment, while others can negatively
affect the natural resources we are also trying to
bolster and preserve.
Compact community design, when combined with protected open space,
can provide a natural buffer from coastal hazards, such as storms and
sea level rise.

Along heavily developed coastlines, compact

community design may be difficult to implement
since little undeveloped open land will be available.
Nonetheless, there are times when opportunities
may present themselves, including when planning
economic redevelopment projects, when previous
uses on large tracts of land are no longer supported
(e.g., military facilities are closed down), and in the
aftermath of a disaster.

Loss Reduction

Acquisition, Demolition, and Relocation

Setbacks
Building Codes
Retrofitting
Infrastructure Protection
Shore Protection Structures

The intent of the measures in this category is largely

to reduce losses to life and property (e.g., homes,
businesses, infrastructure) from the impacts of

Acquisition, Demolition, and Relocation

The most effective way to reduce losses is to acquire
hazard-prone properties, both land and structures,
demolish or relocate structures, and restrict all future
development on the land. Generally, acquisition is
the best and most cost-effective hazard mitigation
alternative because it permanently removes people
and their homes from harms way (FEMA 1998). In
addition, it can reduce the emotional and financial
costs associated with response and recovery from
future storms, reduce flooding by restoring natural
floodplain functions and increasing flood storage
area, and support environmental and public access/
recreational goals.
While acquisition serves multiple purposes, this
discussion focuses on the acquisition of land
and associated structures that are vulnerable to
natural hazards. The open space preservation and
conservation discussion later in the chapter examines
the acquisition of property primarily for natural
resource protection.
Acquisition programs, also known as buyout
programs, typically acquire land and structures and

Learning from othersPuerto Rico Families Relocated after Hurricane Georges

Following Hurricane Georges in 1998, the Office of the Governor of Puerto Rico created the New Secure Housing
Program to relocate families whose homes had been damaged or destroyed by flooding. As part of the programs
Toa Baja project, and with funds provided by FEMAs Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, 223 families were relocated.
Following acquisition, the City of Toa Baja demolished the remaining structures and cleaned up the site. www.fema.gov/
mitigationbp/brief.do?mitssId=748

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersTwo Hundred+ Mississippi Homes Removed from Harms Way
Following Hurricanes Georges in 1998, Gulfport, Mississippi, implemented a $19 million acquisition project as a result of
repetitive coastal flood losses in the Brickyard Bayou neighborhood. With funding from FEMA (and local match), the city
acquired and demolished approximately 230 residential buildings, a number of which were repetitive loss properties.
After Hurricane Katrina, damage assessments conducted by FEMA indicated that the majority of the acquired homes
would have been flooded by up to six feet of water had they not been removed. Houses just outside the project area
sustained significant flood damage. FEMA concluded that the project essentially paid for itself with losses avoided in
this one event. www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1857

require structures to be demolished or relocated

and the land to be deeded as open space in
perpetuity and restored to its natural condition to
allow for more appropriate uses. Factors involved
in the decision to demolish or relocate may include
cost-effectiveness (some structures are easier and
cheaper to move than others), condition of the
structures, property owner interests, availability of
land for relocation, etc. Acquisition/demolition
projects are typically easier to implement than
acquisition/relocation projects.
It is a good idea to plan for acquisition by identifying
and prioritizing properties and structures for
acquisition. Target properties may include:
Properties that have suffered multiple losses
(e.g., repetitive loss and severe repetitive loss
properties)
Properties with structures that are
substantially damaged or destroyed
Properties (with and without structures) that
are in an identified hazard-prone area (e.g.,

A buyout program can be an effective tool for removing people and

development from hazard-prone areas.

floodway, sea level rise inundation area, special

flood hazard area, erosion hazard area)
Hazard-prone properties for which retrofitting
(e.g., elevating) is not cost-effective
Properties in potential wetland migration
corridors

Learning from othersAlaska Village Plans for Relocation

In 1994, in response to severe erosion problems, now aggravated by climate change, the Village of Newtok, Alaska,
began planning for relocation. With input and commitment from village residents, a site approximately nine miles
southeast of Newtok was selected and approved by Congress as part of a land exchange with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. In May 2006, the Newtok Planning Group, consisting of federal, state, village, regional, and nongovernmental
partners, was formed to accelerate the process by identifying resources and establishing a relocation strategy. While
significant progress has been made by the group, including characterizing the site and developing an infrastructure
plan, obstacles remain. Funding, in particular, remains a major challenge. www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/planning/
Newtok_Planning_Group_Webpage.htm

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Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersTexas Program Offered Financial Assistance for Removal

Under the Texas Open Beaches Act, the state may petition the courts to authorize the removal of any structure on
the public beach to ensure the publics access. In 2006, the Texas General Land Office offered financial assistance to
homeowners for reimbursement of expenses (up to $50,000) for relocation or demolition of structures that had become
located on the public beach easement as a result of weather events or erosion. Priority was given to structures that
posed a threat to public health and safety or prevented the public from accessing the beach. In Surfside, Texas, 34
properties were identified as eligible for assistance. Most of the 34 owners accepted assistance from the state or were
bought out by FEMA. In September 2008, 10 of the 14 properties still engaged in litigation with the state were destroyed
by Hurricane Ike. www.glo.state.tx.us/news/archive/2006/events/beachplan.html

While buyout programs are typically voluntary, where

property owners are not required to sell, other tools
for acquiring structures and property in hazard-prone
areas include exactions and eminent domain. In all
cases, a concerted planning effort, involving potential
sellers where applicable, should be undertaken to help
avoid piecemeal acquisition that might result in coastal
blight or a checkerboard pattern of homes and vacant
lots that would still require public services and may
diminish property values. The actual acquisition may
take place in advance of a hazard event or in the wake
of one, when funding, and willingness to sell, may be
easier to come by and when eminent domain may come
into play.
Typically, relocation involves acquiring land and
relocating structures out of harms way rather than
demolishing them. Some relocation projects, for
example, where the majority of the structures are
substantially damaged or destroyed, may involve
demolition along with active efforts to relocate people
into new homes in safer areas. Relocation may occur
at different scales. It may involve moving individual
structures or moving neighborhoods. In some cases, it
may even involve moving entire communities.
A plan for relocation that identifies potential structures
for relocation as well as sites that can accommodate
them will ease the process in the context of postdisaster
recoveryor in advance of sea level rise inundation. In
instances where a homeowner of a habitable structure
(i.e., not substantially damaged or destroyed) is interested
in acquisition but not relocation, there may be other uses
for the building that would justify its relocation (e.g., for
71

local government usage, Habitat for Humanity, domestic

violence shelter, etc.).

Setbacks
While setback and buffer regulations as described
in this guide are similar in effect, they differ in
purpose. The discussion here focuses on the use
of setbacks largely for the purpose of protecting
structures from hazards by keeping the structures
away from a propertys most vulnerable areas. As
such, they are closely tied to other regulations that
manage development in hazard-prone areas, such
as redevelopment, floodplain management, and
shore protection structure regulations. Subdivision
regulations can require lots to be deep enough
to accommodate initial setbacks as well as future
relocations. And, building codes can ensure
structures can be moved with relative ease.
Setbacks may be regulated at the state or local level, or
both, and may be based on size or use. Typically, they
require structures to be sited at a distance measured
inland from a specific shoreline feature, such as a high
water mark, vegetation line, dune toe, or bluff crest.
This distance may be a fixed number of feet (e.g., 100
feet) or may be based on the long-term annual rate of
erosion (e.g., 30 times the long-term annual rate of
erosion). Fixed numbers may not be adequate in highly
erosive areas and may be too restrictive in others; and
setbacks based on long-term average annual rates of
erosion do not currently account for how erosion
rates will change as sea level rises. Neither allow for
catastrophic storms.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersSetbacks Prove Effective following Hurricane Floyd

A study conducted for FEMA in North Carolina after Hurricane Floyd illustrated the benefit of setbacks. It examined the
cost of flood damage to oceanfront buildings with similar structural characteristics and found flood losses to be highest
for structures located directly on the open beach or setback 030 feet from the first line of vegetation. The average loss
to these structures was twice as high as to those in the 31100 foot setback area and more than three times the loss
experienced by structures 100 feet or more from the shorefront. www.ncfloodmaps.com/pubdocs/pfloydrpt.pdf

A 1990 report from the National Academies

recommended minimum development standards for
areas experiencing significant erosion based on local
rates of erosion (NRC 1990). Specifically, it suggested
that no new development should be permitted seaward
of 10 times the annual rate of erosion and only readily
movable structures should be permitted seaward of 60

times the annual rate of erosion (and even then, most

should be landward of 30 times the annual rate of
erosion).
These recommendations did not factor in sea or lake
level change. New and updated setback regulations
could benefit from the following:
Consideration of a range of sea level rise
scenarios and the possibility of catastrophic
storms
Establishment of policies to address the
potential for future land loss
Establishment of policies to address how
setbacks and property lines may be affected
by declining lake levels
Selection of multipliers reflecting estimated
physical life of structures rather than
economic life (length of a 30-year mortgage)
Examination of vertical (i.e., based on
elevation) rather than horizontal setbacks

Setbacks help to protect shorefront structures by requiring them to be

built outside of a propertys most hazard-prone areas.

Learning from othersNorth Carolina Bases Erosion Setbacks on Size

In 2009, new setback rules took effect in North Carolina. The new rules, which are administered by the North Carolina
Division of Coastal Management, are based solely on size and do away with an exemption in the previous rules treating
single-family homes larger than 5,000 square feet differently than other similarly sized structures. The new minimum
setback remains 30 times the long-term average annual erosion rate, as measured from the vegetation line, for all
structures less than 5,000 square feet. The setback for ALL structures between 5,000 and 9,999 square feet is 60 times
the erosion rate. For structures 10,000 square feet and larger, the setback increases incrementally with structure size,
reaching a maximum setback of 90 times the erosion rate for structures 100,000 square feet and larger. http://dcm2.ehnr
.state.nc.us/News/2009%20releases/setbacks.html; http://dcm2.ehnr.state.nc.us/setbacks.htm

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Adapting to Climate Change

Disclosure of setback-related threats and what

they mean for future property owners (e.g.,
redevelopment restrictions)
Regularly scheduled evaluations and updates
of requirements and allowance for emergency
action if warranted

Building Codes
When a structure is going to be built in a hazard-prone
area, it should be done so in a manner that considers
the potential impacts of that hazard (e.g., flood, wind)
and how best they can be avoided. Building codes
that regulate design, construction, and landscaping of
new structures can improve the ability of structures
in hazard-prone areas to withstand hazard events
and can also reduce the effects of high temperatures.
They also indirectly protect neighboring structures
and natural resources. Building codes that consider
future conditions and the potential for climate change
and are regularly reviewed and updated based on new
information will provide even greater protection.
According to the Institute for Business and Home
Safety (IBHS 2005):
A building code is the minimum acceptable standard used
to regulate the design, construction, and maintenance of

buildings for the purpose of protecting the health, safety,

and general welfare of the buildings users. The purpose of
building codes is to build safe buildings, thereby reducing
deaths, injuries and property damage. This preserves the
built environment, both residential and commercial, reduces
public and private disaster aid, and maintains employment
in businesses and institutions that otherwise might be
forced to close following a catastrophe.
The level of protection provided by building codes
depends on the provisions of the codes as adopted
and enforced by state and local governments. Stateimposed building codes can help ensure a minimum
level of protection. They may apply statewide, with
more stringent requirements in hazard-prone areas,
or they may apply only in areas susceptible to hazards
such as hurricanes. To provide even more protection
and address specific needs, states can allow local
governments to supplement the states minimum
requirements with additional provisions.
Many states and local building codes are based on
model codes founded on established scientific and
engineering principles. These model building codes
can be modified to better address specific needs and
hazards. The International Code Council maintains the
most up-to-date and widely adopted model building
codes, which incorporate multihazard disaster-resistant

The Institute for Business and Home Safetys (IBHS)

Fortified for Safer Living single-family residential
construction program is a package of code-plus
upgrades that greatly increase a new homes resistance
to hazards such as hurricanes, floods, and more.
Specifically, the programs requirements strengthen a
homes outer envelope (roof and wall systems, doors,
glazed openings, and the foundation).
Prior to Hurricane Ike, IBHS had designated 13 homes
in Gilchrest, Texas, as Fortified. In general, the Fortified
homes performed better than others in the area, most
of which were destroyed. Following the storm, all but
3 of the 13 Fortified homes survived, and the 3 that

73

failed did so because they were struck by un-Fortified

neighboring houses that had been washed off their
foundations. http://disastersafety.org/text.asp?id=fortified

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

construction standards. These codes include the

International Residential Code (single- and twofamily structures) and the International Building
Code (commercial and multifamily structures). Two
consensus standards from the American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE) are referenced in the
International Codes and are also useful resources:
ASCE 24-05 Flood Resistant Design and Construction
and ASCE 7-05 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and Other Structures.
Post-disaster assessments have proven that, in most
cases, the use and enforcement of stricter building codes
produce buildings that are more resistant to disasters
(FEMA 2000). However, the enforcement of these codes
is critical to their success. Local building departments are
typically responsible for ensuring builders comply with the
codes so structures provide the base-level of protection
required by the state or local government. Enforcement
activities include permit approval, design and plan review,
and site visits. A successful building code program will
include regular continual training of enforcement agents
as well as education of the building community and
property owners.

Flood

In Special Flood Hazard Areas (100-year floodplain),

the minimum requirements of the National Flood
Insurance Program (NFIP) include requiring permits
for new and substantially improved development,
elevating the lowest floor of all buildings to or
above the Base Flood Elevation (BFE) (alternatively,
nonresidential buildings outside of the V-Zone can be
dry-floodproofed to the BFE); anchoring structures
to prevent flotation, collapse, or lateral movement;

Elevating existing structures can help protect them from storm surge
and other flood events.

restricting development in the regulatory floodway;

using flood-resistant construction materials and
methods that minimize flood damage; and treating
substantially improved structures like new buildings
that must meet the minimum NFIP standards.
Additional rules apply to the construction of the
space below the BFE and limit its use to parking,
building access, and storage. Buildings constructed in
the V-Zone, which is subject to coastal high hazard
flooding where waves during the base flood are at
least three feet, must also be elevated on pilings or
columns (i.e., fill is prohibited), and the bottom of
the lowest horizontal structural member must be
elevated to or above the BFE.
Since the Digital Flood Insurance Rate Maps that
identify where these requirements apply may be
out of date, and because they do not reflect future
conditions (e.g., sea level rise, growth, etc.), codes

Learning from othersMassachusetts Protects Safety and Natural Resources through Building Codes
The Massachusetts Departments of Environmental Protection and Public Safety worked together to improve public
safety and protect natural resource areas through revisions to the Massachusetts Basic Building Code. The revised code
establishes special administrative, design, and construction requirements for new and existing buildings and structures
located in A-Zones, V-Zones, and coastal wetland resource areas with coastal dunes that provide protection from storms
and floods. Changes to the code include requiring two feet of freeboard in the V-Zone and design and construction
requirements in coastal dunes that eliminate conflicts between the Wetlands Protection Act regulations and the previous
code. www.mass.gov/dep/water/resources/bcbro.htm

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Adapting to Climate Change

that only mimic the NFIPs minimum requirements

for construction in the currently mapped flood
hazard areas may not be enough to protect people
and property from future or present day storms.9 To
provide a higher level of protection and better prepare
coastal communities for climate change, state and
local governments are encouraged to adopt codes that
consider sea level rise and include higher regulatory
standards. Examples include:
Adding freeboard (an additional height
requirement above the BFE)10,11
Applying V-Zone requirements to the Coastal
A-Zone (area landward of V-Zone that is still
subject to storm surge and damaging waves
(1.5-3 feet)) or the entire Special Flood Hazard
Area
Applying codes outside of the Special Flood
Hazard Area (e.g., to a point landward of the
limit of the Special Flood Hazard Area where
the ground elevation is equal to that of the
adjacent A-Zones BFE plus freeboard)
Applying codes to all structures undergoing
improvements and repairs

High Winds

Buildings can also be constructed to withstand the

direct and indirect impacts of high winds, which are
associated with storm intensity. Where high winds are

a concern, building codes typically require structures

to meet certain performance standards. Roofs, exterior
walls, doors (including garage doors), windows, and
skylights should be constructed/installed to maintain
the integrity of the building envelope and reduce the
potential for damage and collapse from wind and windborne debris. Increased structural wind-resistance can
be achieved by adhering to special design techniques,
using stronger, more wind-resistant materials and
connections, such as hurricane clips and the bracing
of gabled roofs; and protecting openings with impactresistant materials or shutters.

Hurricane clips help anchor roofs to their main structure to prevent

detachment during severe winds.

Learning from othersFlorida Building Code Proves Successful

Following Hurricane Andrew, coastal areas of Florida began to use and enforce high wind design provisions for
residential housing. When the hurricane season of 2004 struck, the Florida Building Code, which contains the windrelated provisions, had only been in force since 2002, but Charlotte County had been observing them since 1996. A
study conducted by the Institute for Business and Home Safety found the frequency and severity of claims in Charlotte
County were reduced (60 and 42 percent, respectively) for homes built after the adoption of the modern codes. It also
found that the new requirements allowed homeowners to return to their homes more quickly, reducing the disruption
to their lives. www.disastersafety.org/text.asp?id=hurricane_charley; www.dca.state.fl.us/fbc/commission/FBC_0606/
Report_SurveyProject_Gurley_33006.pdf

9 One of the objectives of FEMAs Risk Mapping, Assessment, and Planning (Risk MAP) initiative is to provide updated flood hazard data for 100 percent

of the nations populated coastal areas (based on current conditions).

10 The 2009 edition of the International Residential Code requires one foot of freeboard in the V-Zone and Coastal A- Zone (if delineated).
11 In a 2006 report, the American Institutes for Research found that that adding freeboard during construction is cost-effective and that reduced flood

insurance premiums pay for the cost of freeboard in one to three years in a V-Zone house and in six years in an A-Zone house (Jones et al. 2006).

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Retrofitting
Although recent improvements in construction
practices and regulations have made new structures
less hazard-prone, many existing structures remain
vulnerable and will likely be more so as climate
changes. And, as these changes are realized and codes
evolve to keep up with them, even structures built to or
above current codes are likely to become threatened.
Existing structures can be protected from hazards
through retrofitting.12 While retrofitting may not
bring a structure up to code (unless required during
a substantial improvement), it does help existing
structures better withstand hazard events and may
reduce insurance premiums. Retrofitting techniques
exist for a number of hazards, including floods and
high winds, and many of them are similar to those
required in the construction of new structures.
Examples include:
Elevating or floodproofing flood-prone
structures
Reinforcing and bracing roofs and garage doors
Anchoring homes to their foundations
Installing shutters on windows and other glass
openings
Removing impervious surfaces
Replacing exterior building components with
stronger, more hazard-resistant alternatives

Hurricane shutters can be added to existing structures to reduce the

damage caused by wind and water.

Since retrofitting is typically not required, homeowners

may not be aware of what they can do to protect
their homes and themselves. Regular improvement
and maintenance projects provide good opportunities
for homeowners to strengthen their homes as well
as improve the structure and increase its value. An
outreach program can help inform the public about
how to incorporate retrofitting into these projects,
using the building codes as a guidewith the goal of
retrofitting existing structures up to code.

Infrastructure Protection
As described in Chapter 4, infrastructure includes the
basic facilities, services, networks, and systems needed
for the functioning of a community that if lost or

Learning from othersFlorida Program Funded Home Inspections and Retrofitting

In 2006, Florida state lawmakers appropriated funds to create the My Safe Florida Home program to help Floridians
identify and make improvements to strengthen their homes against hurricanes through free wind inspections and grant
funds. Between 2006 and 2009, when the program expired, the program provided inspections to more than 400,000
homeowners and retrofitted nearly 33,000 homes. An analysis of the program found that for every grant dollar provided,
hurricane losses are expected to be reduced by as much as $1.50. This equates to a drop of around $140 million in total
losses for the retrofitted homes. www.mysafefloridahome.com/; www.rms.com/Publications/RMS_MSFH_Report
_May_2009.pdf

12 Retrofitting programs that target mitigating climate change (e.g., energy efficiency/weatherization) can be expanded to also consider adaptation.

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Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersMassachusetts Considers

Sea Level Rise in Infrastructure Siting
In the 1990s, the Massachusetts Water Resources
Agency designed and built Bostons Deer Island
wastewater treatment plant in consideration of sea
level rise. Specifically, the plant was built 1.9 feet
higher than required at the time to accommodate
the amount of sea level rise projected to occur over
the expected lifetime of the facility (~50 years). And,
in a nod to climate change mitigation, the plant
gets approximately one-quarter of its power needs

damaged could cause significant disruption (physically,

functionally, and economically). Since infrastructure is
critical to the functioning of a healthy community, it
must be sited, designed, constructed, and maintained
so the provision of services continues uninterrupted.
Infrastructure protection entails fortification against
the impacts of climate change and, in some cases,
shoring up of capacity.
While many of the ideas discussed under building
codes and retrofitting also apply to infrastructure, the
value of infrastructure, both socially and economically,
suggests the need for stricter requirements for new
infrastructure construction (e.g., plan for the 500-year
event, rather than the 100-year event) and a more
concerted effort to retrofit existing facilities and
systems. Roads, bridges, water and power utilities,
stormwater systems, and other infrastructure that
are already worn or overcapacity are likely to be
most vulnerable to climate change.13 Addressing and
correcting existing deficiencies needs to be a priority
and should be handled concurrently with adjustments
necessary to meet projected future conditions and
needs. Similarly, adaptation should be considered and
incorporated into regular maintenance and upgrade
activities.
In general, designing for the future is less expensive
than retrofitting, rebuilding, or moving infrastructure.
When planning for new infrastructure, siting should
be the first consideration. Facilities and system
components should not be constructed in hazard-

77

through on-site renewable energy sources.

www.mwra.com/03sewer/html/sewditp.htm

prone (current or projected) or valuable natural

resource areas, where possible, or in areas that would
encourage undesirable growth. When avoiding these
areas is not possible, efforts should be made to design
and construct facilities and system components to the
highest level of protection feasible in a manner that
allows for flexibility and future modifications.

Shore Protection Structures

Shore protection structures protect existing
development allowing it to stay in place. However,
they often damage or destroy other valuable coastal
resources (economic, ecological, recreational, and
aesthetic), require substantial expenditure (initial
design and construction and maintenance), and create
a false sense of security. They may also encourage
additional development. Shore protection structures
provide an immediate fix that may not be sustainable.
Nevertheless, it is understood that in some cases,
for the purposes of protecting existing (not future)
development, there may be no other acceptable or
practical options. Alternatives to shore protection
structures are discussed in the Shoreline Management
category that follows.
Shore protection structures are designed to reduce
flooding/inundation and erosion of land and protect
structures and infrastructure. Despite the name, the
intent is to protect the built environment and the land
it sits on rather than the shore itself.

13 Onsite sewage disposal systems will also be vulnerable as sea levels rise and their separation from groundwater becomes inadequate.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Most shore protection structures are built parallel or

perpendicular to the shoreline:
Shore parallel (seawalls, revetments, bulkheads,
breakwaters, rip rap)These structures help
hold the land back from the sea and the sea
back from the land and/or dissipate wave
energy.
Shore perpendicular (groins, jetties)These
structures interrupt sediment transport and
trap sediment to build/rebuild beaches and/or
stabilize navigational channels and inlets.
While they may be successful at meeting the level of
protection they are designed for, all of these structures
disrupt the natural flow of sediment, which may result
in the loss of the natural shoreline, coastal habitat, and
the associated ecosystem services and amenities, either
directly in front of the structure or in adjacent areas.
With the exception of breakwaters, which are built
offshore, shore parallel structures also inhibit the ability
of wetlands to migrate inland as sea level rises and may
interfere with public access. In most cases, protection in
one area will lead to losses in another (or the demand for
more shore protection structures), both to the built and
the natural environment.
Large flood control systems like dikes (levees) and
movable gates and barriers (e.g., Maeslantkering in
the Netherlands and the Thames River Barrier in the
United Kingdom) are also being considered as viable
defenses against sea level rise. These structures require
significant investment and come with their own set of
concerns and adverse impacts.
When there are no suitable alternatives, future
shore protection structures should be designed

Offshore breakwaters can keep sand onshore, reducing the rate of

shoreline erosion.

and constructed to minimize adverse impacts at

the site of the structure as well as to the broader
coastal system, based on future climate change
projections, and so they are flexible enough
to allow for modifications. Existing structures
will likely require upgrading, replacement, or
removal. All structures will require monitoring and
maintenance to ensure they continue to function
as planned.

Shoreline Management
Regulation/Removal of Shore Protection
Structures
Rolling Easements
Living Shorelines
Beach Nourishment
Dune Management
Sediment Management
Shoreline management activities aim to preserve
the natural shoreline, which in turn provides
protection to property, supports coastal habitat
and public access, and enhances aesthetic and

Learning from othersCalifornia Ties Impact Mitigation to Shoreline Armoring Projects

The California Coastal Act allows for shore protection structures if existing development is in jeopardy of being lost
to erosion and no other alternative solution is possible. The California Coastal Commission, which administers the act,
requires the negative impacts (i.e., loss of public access) be mitigated when shore protection structures are allowed.
While the exact mitigation requirements are site-specific, the commission commonly requires the property owner to
dedicate a public access easement seaward of the approved structure to compensate for any loss of the public beach.
http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/initiatives/shoreline_ppr_mitigation.html

78

Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersMaine Manages Beaches through Scoring System

The Maine Geological Survey, with support from the Maine Coastal Program, developed a beach scoring system to help
manage the states sandy shoreline along Saco Bay. The study enabled managers to identify beaches where erosion
control efforts are needed, prioritize sites, and determine the appropriate action (e.g., beach renourishment, dune
restoration, or a combination). Inputs to the scoring system included historical shoreline change data and other physical
beach characteristics. http://maine.gov/doc/nrimc/mgs/explore/marine/virtual/scoring/slides.htm

recreational amenities. The measures in this

category are mutually reinforcing and could
be integrated into a comprehensive shoreline
management strategy that identifies needs and
explores, combines, and prioritizes actions. While
these measures are preferable to shore protection
structures, they are not as effective at protecting
buildings and infrastructure along the coast as
some of the measures described in the Loss
Reduction category above, since natural shorelines
are more vulnerable to the forces of nature.

require the removal of existing structures given

specified circumstances (e.g., no longer maintained,
substantially damaged, need to return land to
natural functions, etc.). The size, design, and
placement of shoreline stabilization structures can
also be regulated to minimize environmental and
public access impacts. Regulations that severely
restrict the use of shore protection structures or
require their removal should also require disclosure
of such restrictions in real estate transactions.

Regulation and Removal of Shore Protection

Structures
As previously discussed, the use of shore protection
structures is only supported as an action of last resort
to protect valuable real estate and infrastructure. They
often do more harm to the natural shoreline than
good. To protect the natural shoreline and the benefits
it provides, states can use regulations to limit shoreline
hardening as well as to promote alternative forms of
protection and to encourage development that reduces
the needs for shore protection structures.
Regulations can specify allowable uses, locations,
and structures, prohibit new structures, and/or

Removing or breaching manmade levees can be an effective way to

restore natural processes.

Learning from othersNorth Carolina Prohibits Oceanfront Erosion Control Structures

In North Carolina, permanent erosion control structures are prohibited on the oceanfront since they may cause
significant adverse impacts on the value and enjoyment of adjacent properties or public access to and use of the ocean
beach. Included in this ban are bulkheads, seawalls, revetments, jetties, groins, and breakwaters. Such structures may
be permitted only under certain circumstances, such as to protect an erosion-threatened bridge that provides the only
existing road access to a substantial population on a barrier island or to maintain an existing commercial navigation
channel of regional significance. In such cases, the erosion-control structure must not adversely affect adjacent private
properties, coastal resources, or public use of the beach. http://dcm2.ehnr.state.nc.us/Rules/Text/t15a-07h.0300.pdf

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersRhode Island Prohibits Structural Shoreline Protection along Barriers and Oceanfront
To protect the sediment source of its beaches and preserve natural sand transport, the Rhode Island Coastal Resources
Management Council has banned the installation of revetments, bulkheads, seawalls, groins, breakwaters, jetties, and
other erosion control structures along all barriers and ocean facing coastline. Structures predating the regulations are
allowed to remain, but any structure that is more than 50 percent damaged by a storm or other process must comply
with current programmatic requirements and may not be rebuilt. www.crmc.ri.gov/regulations.html

Rolling Easements
Rolling easements are shoreline easements designed to
promote the natural migration of shorelines. Typically,
rolling easements prohibit shore protection structures,
which interfere with natural shoreline processes and
movement, but allow other types of development
and activities. As the sea rises, the easement, which
is usually delineated by a physical characteristic such
as the line of vegetation, moves or rolls landward,
sediment transport and wetland migration occur as
nature intended, and public access to the shore is
preserved. Since rolling easements reflect changing
conditions, they are likely to be a more effective
response to the impacts of climate change than
traditional zoning, which is based on conditions at the
time of the rule making.
Rolling easements, which may be donated, purchased,
or regulated, place no restrictions on development.
They allow landowners to build anywhere on their

Learning from othersTexas Protects Public

Beach through Rolling Easements
The Texas Open Beaches Act (OBA) aims to protect
access to the public beach, which is the area
between the mean low tide line and the line of
vegetation (including privately owned land) along
the Gulf of Mexico. It does so through a rolling
public beach easement. As the line of vegetation
moves inland due to erosion, so does the public
beach. The commissioner of the General Land Office
may call for the removal of buildings that end up on
the public beach if they interfere with public access
or threaten public safety, health, or welfare. The OBA

property with the understanding that they will not be

able to hold back the sea by armoring their shoreline
or deny public access. Once the shoreline has eroded
to a point where a privately owned structure is on
public land, a threat to human health and safety,
and/or threatened by flooding and erosion, that
structure should be relocated. The possible need for
relocation may encourage the building of smaller,
more mobile structures that will likely cause less
environmental disruption.

Living Shorelines
In low- to medium-energy coastal and estuarine
environments and tidally influenced creeks,
streams, and rivers, living shorelines can be
effective alternatives to shore protection structures
in efforts to restore, protect, and enhance the
natural shoreline and its environment. Living
shorelines use stabilization techniques that rely on
vegetative plantings, other organic materials (e.g.,

also prohibits structures that would block public access,

effectively disallowing shore protection structures.
www.glo.state.tx.us/coastal/beachdune.html

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Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersVirginia Promotes Living Shorelines

The Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program is working with partners to promote living shorelines. The states
Living Shoreline Strategy, funded through Section 309 of the Coastal Zone Management Act, includes a Living Shoreline
Summit (in conjunction with the Maryland Coastal Zone Management Program), revisions to the states wetlands
guidelines, research to further document the habitat value and refine the design of living shorelines, a protocol for
determining the feasibility of living shorelines on a reach (shoreline segment) basis, additional shoreline situation reports
and shoreline evolution studies to better inform local shoreline management decisions, a shoreline planning guidance
document to help localities proactively address shoreline management issues and meet comprehensive planning
requirements, a brochure and web site for landowners, and a design manual and training program for contractors.
www.deq.virginia.gov/coastal/livingshore.html

biologs, matting), and sand fill or a hybrid approach

combining vegetative planting with low rock sills or
footers, living breakwaters (e.g., oysters), or other
shore protection structures designed to keep sediment
in place or reduce wave energy. The techniques and
materials used will depend on site-specific needs and
characteristics. There are a number of benefits to
living shorelines. Specifically, they:
Maintain natural shoreline dynamics and sand
movement
Trap sand to rebuild eroded shorelines or
maintain the current shoreline
Provide important shoreline habitat
Reduce wave energy and coastal erosion
Absorb storm surge and flood waters

Filter nutrients and pollutants from the

water
Maintain beach and intertidal areas that
offer public access
Are aesthetically pleasing
Allow for landward migration as sea levels
rise
Absorb atmospheric carbon dioxide
Are less costly than shore protection
structures
In some states, the regulatory framework makes
it more difficult to implement living shorelines
projects than the traditional shore protection
structures previously discussed. Regulations should
be reviewed and revised to encourage the use of
living shorelines where appropriate.

Beach Nourishment

Hybrid shoreline stabilization structures that employ marsh

plantings and low rock sills (to protect the vegetation) can help
stabilize eroding banks.
81

Beach nourishment is the process of placing sand

on an eroding beach, typically making it higher
and wider, to provide a buffer against wave action
and flooding and/or to improve the recreational
value of the beach. In the United States, beach
nourishment is preferred over shore protection
structures because it preserves the aesthetic
and recreational values of protected beaches by
mimicking the characteristics of natural beach
and dune systems. In addition to protecting the
nourished shoreline and landward property and
infrastructure, beach nourishment generally
benefits, rather than negatively impacts, adjacent

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersNew Jersey Protects Shorefront with Beach Nourishment

In New Jersey, beach nourishment is the preferred approach to dealing with beach erosion and shorefront protection.
The New Jersey Department of Environmental Protections Bureau of Coastal Engineering, in cooperation with the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, provides beach nourishment and renourishment projects for the purpose of restoring
New Jerseys beaches. State funding comes from the Shore Protection Fund, which ensures the availability of funds
needed to continue the beach nourishment program and protect New Jerseys coastal communities. www.nj.gov/dep/
shoreprotection/nourishment.htm

beaches (e.g., by adding sediment to the system) and

may also create, restore, and protect habitat.
Beach nourishment projects require large volumes of
sediment compatible with the natural beach. These
sediments may come from onshore or offshore
sources and may be beneficial use sediments from
dredging projects. Some projects may include shore
protection structures to help retain/protect the added
sand (e.g., groins and breakwaters).
Since nourished beaches will be susceptible to the
same natural forces as the beaches before them, they
will require periodic renourishment. Renourishment
intervals typically range from 2 to 10 years but will
vary by project, shoreline characteristics, number and
intensity of storms, and sea level rise (NRC 1995).
Despite the benefits of beach nourishment, there
are some drawbacks to consider. Beach nourishment
projects:
Are very expensive and require regular
maintenance at additional costs
Require large amounts of suitable sediment
that may be difficult to come by
Are difficult to evaluate in terms of benefits
and costs due to the uncertainty of project
lifetime
Create a false sense of security that may
encourage unwise development
Can have serious long- and short-term
environmental effects at the project and
source sites and in nearby areas of the water
column and the water bottom

By adding sand to an eroding beach, beach nourishment can protect

shorefronts against wave action and flooding.

Dune Management
Sand dunes are important shoreline features and are
an environmentally friendly form of shore protection.
In addition to serving as buffers against erosion and
flooding, which they do by trapping windblown sand,
storing excess beach sand, and protecting inland
areas against wave runup and overwash, they also
provide habitat for wildlife. Dunes, however, are
not permanent. So, to retain, enhance, or facilitate
the provision of their valuable services, they may
be restored or created in conjunction with a beach
nourishment project as discussed above or may be
managed as part of a separate effort. Since dunes and
beaches are interdependent, dune management should
be incorporated into a strategy that considers the
broader coastal system.
Dune restoration is relatively inexpensive and entails
the use of dune grass and other types of native
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Adapting to Climate Change

Learning from othersConnecticut Program Supports Dune Restoration

Connecticuts Department of Environmental Protection provides technical support to towns and citizens for dune
restoration and has restored a number of dune areas on state beaches. Planting American beach grass to replace
vegetation that has been lost is the primary method used to restore dunes. www.ct.gov/dep/cwp/view.asp?A
=2705&Q=323538

A number of other measures discussed in this guide

can be used to manage and protect dunes, vegetation,
and associated habitat, including laws and regulations
(e.g., zoning, buffers, setbacks, etc.) that restrict
development and other harmful activities (e.g., sand
mining, foot and vehicular traffic). To continue to
allow for public access, dune walkovers or fenced
pedestrian paths could be considered in planning and
project design.

Sediment Management
Sand dunes serve as buffers against erosion and flooding and
provide habitat for wildlife. Vegetation and sand fences can help
stabilize dunes.

vegetation and sand fences to capture shifting and

blowing sands and stabilize dunes. The use of
vegetation and sand fences to build and stabilize
dunes is not a quick fix, will only be effective under
certain conditions, and may not be effective as a way
of encouraging the growth of new dunes where
dunes did not exist in the past.

Sediment management is an important aspect of

shoreline management and supports some of the
other measures discussed in this category and the
next. It requires an understanding of sedimentation
processes in the management area, recognizes
the importance of sand and other sediments
in protecting, maintaining, and restoring the
shoreline and its associated waters and ecosystems,
and incorporates activities affecting the erosion,
transport, deposition, and removal of sediment.
These activities include dredging and placing
sediment, building shore protection structures and
other structures that trap or divert sediment, and
mining.

Learning from othersMichigan Program Protects Unique and Fragile Dunes

Michigans Sand Dunes Protection and Management Program, administered by the states Department of Environmental
Quality, aims to protect the states sand dunes by minimizing the impacts of development within designated critical
dune areas along the shorelines of Lake Michigan and Superior. It does so through a permit program that regulates
earthmoving, vegetation removal, and construction activities within legally defined critical dune areas. Among other
things, the standards require new uses to be set back behind the crest of a critical dune, limit the amount of grading and
vegetation removal allowed, and prohibit construction on steep slopes. www.michigan.gov/deq/0,1607,7-135-3311
_4114---,00.html

83

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersCalifornia Regionalizes Sediment Management

The California Coastal Sediment Management Master Plan is an ongoing, collaborative effort by the Coastal Sediment
Management Workgroup, a partnership of federal and state agencies, to evaluate Californias coastal sediment
management needs and promote regional, systemwide solutions. The intent of the plan is the conservation, restoration,
and preservation of the valuable sediment resources along the coast of California to reduce shoreline erosion and coastal
storm damages, provide for environmental restoration and protection, increase natural sediment supply to the coast,
restore and preserve beaches, improve water quality along coastal beaches, and optimize the beneficial use of material
dredged from ports, harbors, and other opportunistic sediment sources. It is implemented through region-specific
coastal regional sediment management plans, which are prepared by regional entities with oversight and assistance
from the workgroup. http://dbw.ca.gov/csmw/default.aspx

Sediment management is best accomplished through

a regional effort involving all levels of government
and other stakeholders (coastal as well as inland) who
share an interest in a sediment system (i.e., a system
within which sediment exchange occurs naturally).
Regional sediment management includes the entire
environment, from the watershed to the sea; accounts
for the effect of human activities on sediment
erosion as well as its transport in streams, lakes, bays,
and oceans; and protects and enhances the nations
natural resources while balancing national security and
economic needs (Corps n.d.).
Any regional sediment management effort should
include an emphasis on the beneficial use of dredged
material. A sediment management program that
recognizes sediment as a valuable resource and links
needs with appropriate opportunities will be the most
effective at reducing economic and environmental
losses associated with climate change. Beneficial
use of dredged material involves using sediment

Sediment dredged from navigation and diversion channels can be

used to restore and create wetlands.

dredged from waterways for a productive purpose,

such as beach nourishment, habitat restoration and
development, public access facilities, and shore
protection structures (e.g., levees and dikes), among
other things.

Learning from othersLouisiana Regulates Beneficial Use of Dredged Material

In 2009, the Louisiana Department of Natural Resources Office of Coastal Management enacted new rules on the
beneficial use of material dredged in projects requiring a coastal use permit. The new rules include four options: 1)
implementing a project that makes beneficial use of the dredged material, 2) providing for the use of the dredged
material on an approved coastal restoration project, 3) using dredged material at another location that creates the
same amount of beneficial use, or 4) making a voluntary contribution to the Coastal Resources Trust Fund (based on the
amount of material dredged). http://dnr.louisiana.gov/crm/coastmgt/rules/2009-10.pdf

84

Adapting to Climate Change

The EPAs Climate Ready Estuaries program works with National Estuary Programs to help assess climate change
vulnerabilities, engage and educate stakeholders, develop and implement adaptation strategies, and share lessons
learned with other coastal managers. The Climate Ready Estuaries web site offers information on climate change impacts
to different estuary regions, access to tools and resources to monitor changes, and information to help managers
develop adaptation plans for estuaries and coastal communities. The programs 2009 progress report describes
accomplishments to date, including activities being managed by partners, lessons learned in the adaptation planning
process, challenges encountered, and next steps. www.epa.gov/cre/

Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Management

Ecological Buffer Zones

Open Space Preservation and Conservation
Ecosystem Protection and Maintenance
Ecosystem Restoration, Creation, and
Enhancement
Aquatic Invasive Species Management
Coastal and marine ecosystem management
encompasses a number of measures to conserve (or
preserve) and restore ecosystems. While many of the
measures discussed in other categories can also play
a role in ecosystem management (and vice versa),
the measures featured in this category are primarily
focused on managing for ecological structure and
function and protection of biological diversity.14
Generally, they include activities that create and
accommodate new natural areas, refocus management
of existing ecosystems, and restore degraded
ecosystems.
It is unlikely that ecosystems can be effectively
managed to address climate change through a single
measure. Traditional activities, adjusted to consider
climate change, along with best management practices
that reduce existing stressors and a plan that identifies,
integrates, and prioritizes related activities, will be

pivotal in helping coastal and marine ecosystems adapt

to the changing climate. Nevertheless, because of the
remaining gaps in our knowledge about ecosystem
processes and how they may react to climate change, it
is important to include monitoring and remain flexible
in any ecosystem management program.

Ecological Buffer Zones

Ecological buffer zones (buffers) are similar to setbacks
(and may be included within setbacks), but are typically
designed to protect the natural, rather than the built,
environment. By protecting natural resources, buffers
protect the natural and beneficial functions those
resources provide. Protective services include providing
habitat and connectivity; minimizing erosion and
flooding by stabilizing soil, providing flood storage, and
reducing flood velocities; and improving water quality
through filtration of harmful sediment, pollutants, and
nutrients.
Specifically, buffers are land use regulations designed
to reduce the impacts of land uses (e.g., development)
on natural resources by providing a transition zone
between a resource and human activities. Typically,
buffers are maintained in their natural vegetative
state and activities such as vegetation removal, soil

Ecosystem-based management is an innovative approach to addressing the many challenges faced by coastal and
marine ecosystems. It considers the whole ecosystem, regardless of political boundaries, including humans and the
environment, rather than managing one issue or resource in isolation and is concerned with the sustainability of both
human and ecological systems. www.ebmtools.org/

14 Among other things, healthy ecosystems such as wetlands also protect upland areas from storms and flooding, filter pollutants, and serve to

85

mitigate climate change by enhancing carbon sequestration and reducing emissions that result from degradation.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Learning from othersRhode Island Uses Buffers to Protect Ecological Systems

The Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Program defines its coastal buffer zone as a land area adjacent
to a shoreline (coastal) feature that is, or will be, vegetated with native shoreline species and which acts as a natural
transition zone between the coast and adjacent upland development. State regulations generally require buffers for
new residential, commercial, and industrial development. The vegetation in the buffer must be retained in a natural,
undisturbed condition or managed in accordance with a buffer management plan. For residential developments, buffer
widths range from 15 to 200 feet and depend on the designated water use category and lot size. Commercial and
industrial development buffer requirements are determined on a case-by-case basis. Minimum vegetated buffers of 200
feet are required on all properties adjacent to designated critical habitat areas. In some more developed areas, such as
the Metro Bay region, Rhode Island employs an Urban Coastal Greenway that allows for a narrower buffer in return for
providing public access and more stormwater control on the site. www.crmc.ri.gov/regulations.html

disturbance, and construction are restricted or

prohibited. As climate changes, buffers will also be
able to support inland wetland migration as well as
carbon sequestration.
The effectiveness of any buffer will depend on
several factors, including size, elevation, vegetation,
slope, soil, permitted activities, adjacent land uses,
stormwater flow, and erosion rate. In addition,
effectiveness will also be dependent on property
owner compliance and the monitoring and
enforcement of buffer regulations. If drafting
new or revised buffer regulations, consider these
characteristics as well as how buffers, and the natural
resources they protect, might be affected by climate
change in the next century.

Open Space Preservation and Conservation

There are a number of benefits to preserving open
space. Open spaces can improve the environment
and a communitys quality of life and contribute to
economic well-being. Specifically, open spaces:

Protect and provide habitat

Reduce flooding and stormwater runoff
Support water quality maintenance
Promote groundwater recharge
Provide opportunities for recreation
Enhance natural and cultural resources
Sequester carbon
Allow for evaporative cooling

Open space preservation and conservation can be

accomplished through the management of lands
dedicated as open space through a number of the
measures previously discussed, such as zoning,
redevelopment restrictions, acquisition, easements,
setbacks, and buffers. While there are costs associated
with the management of open space, the public
expenditures may be lower than if the land was
developed and the provision of full services was
required. Management costs could be defrayed by
transferring the title to a nonprofit conservation
organization.
Maintaining natural buffers along shorelines can help protect
coastal and marine resources from polluted runoff and homes from
erosion. (Note where buffer ends and mowed grass begins.)

Open space management plans can be developed

to guide the acquisition and use of open space in a
manner that fulfills multiple community objectives
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Learning from othersNew Jersey Land Conservation Targets Hazard-Prone and Protective Lands
New Jerseys Coastal Blue Acres Program, part of the Department of Environmental Protections Green Acres Program,
is designed to provide grants and loans to municipalities or counties to acquire important coastal lands for recreational
and conservation purposes. To be eligible for acquisition through the Blue Acres Program, the land must have been
severely damaged by storms, threatened by future storms, or serve as a buffer to protect other land from storm damage.
The 1995 bond act that created the program appropriated funds for the purchase of undeveloped land in high-risk
erosion areas or property that serves important buffering roles (75 percent grant/25 percent loan) and land severely
damaged by storms (50 percent grant/50 percent loan). www.state.nj.us/dep/greenacres/

well as use and amenity placement). Open space

management should also consider the key role of
open space in green infrastructure and wetland
migration programs (see more on these measures in
the pages that follow).

Ecosystem Protection and Maintenance

Ecosystems are difficult and costly to repair and
replace. It is more desirable to maintain and protect
resilient systems. This largely involves reducing the
impacts of nonclimate stressors and may include:
Open spaces can improve the environment and a communitys
quality of life and contribute to economic well-being.

(e.g., trails, athletic fields, campgrounds, community

gardens, wildlife refuges, environmental education
centers, etc.). Any such plan should consider the
impacts and consequences of climate change, sea
level rise and flooding in particular, to ensure that
investments are wisely made (land purchase as

Restricting activities (through regulations if

necessary)
Restoring natural processes, such as water
flow and sedimentation (e.g., by removing
shore protection structures or upstream
dams)
Encouraging stricter nutrient management
Reducing land-based pollution
Modifying harvest or use rates

Learning from othersFlorida Considers Climate Change in Land Conservation

Florida Forever, Floridas state land acquisition and conservation program, provides a blueprint for conserving the states
natural and cultural heritage. Administered by Florida Department of Environmental Protections Division of State Lands,
program goals include environmental restoration, water resource development and supply, increased public access,
public lands management and maintenance, and increased protection of land through conservation easements. Project
prioritization includes consideration of climate-change lands, which are defined as lands where acquisition or other
conservation measures will address the challenges of global climate change, such as through protection, restoration,
mitigation, and strengthening of Floridas land, water, and coastal resources. These lands sequester carbon, provide
habitat, protect coastal lands or barrier islands, and otherwise mitigate and help adapt to the effects of sea level rise.
www.dep.state.fl.us/lands/fl_forever.htm

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are valuable tools for conserving the nations natural and cultural marine resources as
part of an ecosystem approach to management. MPAs conserve natural heritage, cultural heritage, and sustainable
production and are designed to maintain ecosystems natural states and to absorb shocks, particularly in the face of
large-scale and long-term changes such as climate change. The National System of MPAs provides benefits to the nation,
to participating MPAs, and to ocean stakeholders, including enhanced stewardship, partnership building, and increased
support for marine conservation. http://mpa.gov/

Monitoring and responding to threats like

invasive species (see page 92), harmful algal
blooms, hypoxia, and coral bleaching
Conducting outreach and awareness
Acquiring sensitive lands and/or protective
buffers
Designating and/or connecting protected
areas

Facilitating Wetland Migration

Wetlands that are not able to naturally keep up with

increased rates of sea level rise through accretion of
sediment and organic matter may be able to migrate
landward, along with the functions and services
they provide, given the proper soil and hydrological
conditions and the lack of barriers. However, the
ability to migrate and ultimate sustainability will
depend on factors such as rate of change, topography,
and upland land uses. Although costly and complex,
if migration is constrained, wetland loss may be
compensated for through the creation of new
wetlands in suitable areas.
Steps that can be taken to facilitate wetland migration
include:
Prohibiting and removing shore protection
structures that would impede migration
Acquiring land suitable for migration through
easements or acquisition15
Requiring ecological buffer zones, setbacks,
and/or rolling easements
Adhering to the principles of compact
community design

Adopting policies that support these activities before

the suitable corridors are overly developed will likely
be more cost-effective and politically palatable than
once development has moved in. Wetland management
programs should include analysis of how climate change
may affect the coastal wetlands so strategic decisions
can be made about land acquisition and other protective
measures.

Managing for Ocean Acidification

With the impacts and reversibility of ocean
acidification still uncertain, management responses are
still being developed. The mitigation of climate change
by reducing greenhouse gas emissions may be the best
response as adaptation may not be feasible. Currently,
recommendations to help reduce the impacts of ocean
acidification, in addition to mitigation, include:
Conserving and restoring natural landscapes
Reducing land-based sources of pollution and
nutrients that contribute to acidification
Reducing other nonclimate stressors to enhance
resilience
Promoting marine connectivity
Protecting high biodiversity ecosystems that are
likely to be less vulnerable to the impacts of
ocean acidification
Spreading the threat by replicating ecosystems
in different areas where pH may vary
Monitoring and sharing information with
researchers and other managers about observed
impacts

15 Acquisition of parcels within identified corridors could be structured to allow landowners continued use or occupancy of their lands (while

maintaining wetland values) during their lifetimes, after which ownership would transfer to a designated government agency.

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Adapting to Climate Change

Ecosystem Restoration, Creation, and

Enhancement
Unlike the previous measures in this category, many
of the activities designed to restore, create, or enhance
coastal and marine ecosystems entail manipulation of
the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of a
site. While there is considerable scientific confidence in
support of activities that reduce nonclimate stressors,
the effectiveness of the measures discussed here in
helping systems adapt to climate change is not as
evident, and their consideration, while still essential,
requires a clear understanding of how a system
functions and how it might be affected by climate
change (CCSP 2008b).
These projects should be designed to withstand the
impacts of climate change, incorporating native
species that will be able to adapt to anticipated future
conditions. The focus should be on maintaining and
enhancing connectivity and preserving ecosystem
functionality and services rather than re-creating
a specific species composition. Representation
and replication can help increase the likelihood of
ecosystem or habitat survival.16 Ensuring resilient
native species and habitats are well-represented and
replicated decreases the possibility of catastrophic
events destroying systems.
Specific activities for restoring, creating, or enhancing
an ecosystem will vary by ecosystem type as well
as by species. Brief descriptions of wetland, coral

Restoration projects may entail placing and shaping sediment

and planting vegetation, in addition to other activities, in order to
rebuild degraded wetlands.

reef, and artificial reef projects are included below. A

more detailed discussion is outside the scope of this
document. See the Key Resources at the end of this
chapter for more information.

Wetlands

Restoration, creation, and enhancement consist of a

wide-range of activities and are essential in recovering
or replacing ecosystems that have been degraded
or destroyed (Interagency Workgroup on Wetland
Restoration 2003):
RestorationReturning a degraded wetland or
former wetland to a pre-existing condition or as
close to that condition as is possible.
CreationConverting a nonwetland (either dry
land or unvegetated water) to a wetland.

Learning from othersLouisiana Repairs Wetlands with Mississippi River Sediment

The Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority and EPA have embarked on a project to build and restore
nearly 500 acres of marsh in Lower Jefferson and Plaquemines parishes using sediment from the Mississippi River.
The Mississippi River Sediment Delivery System at Bayou Dupont will involve mining sediments from the river and
transporting them by pipeline to the designated areas, which are outside the levees. After the material is transported,
native vegetation will be planted on the new marsh. The sediment source was chosen because it will be replenished
naturally. Pipeline infrastructure will remain in place after the project is complete so it can be used for future projects.
www.lacoast.gov/projects/overview.asp?statenumber=BA%2D39

16 Representation refers to protecting a portfolio of variant forms of a species or ecosystem so that, regardless of the climatic changes that occur,

there will be areas that survive and provide a source for recovery. Replication centers on maintaining more than one example of each ecosystem
or population such that if one area is affected by a disturbance, replicates in another area provide insurance against extinction and a source for
recolonization of affected areas (CCSP 2008b).

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Learning from othersSouth Carolina Habitat Program Employs Community Volunteers

The South Carolina Department of Natural Resources operates a community-based habitat restoration and monitoring
program that brings together volunteers and scientists to restore and monitor oyster habitat along the South Carolina
coast. The purpose of the South Carolina Oyster Restoration and Enhancement Program is to restore and enhance
oyster habitat by planting recycled oyster shells in the intertidal environment to form new, self-sustaining oyster reefs.
http://score.dnr.sc.gov/

Restored, created, and enhanced wetlands serve as storm buffers,

improve water quality, provide habitat to fish and wildlife, enhance
outdoor recreation opportunities, and more.

EnhancementIncreasing one or
more of the functions performed by an
existing wetland beyond what currently or
previously existed in the wetland. There is
often an accompanying decrease in other
functions.
Examples of activities associated with these
types of projects include planting and seeding,
which could include plant species adapted to
future climate conditions; waterflow modification;
sediment diversion and/or placement; filling canals;
recontouring topography; dredging and removal
of fill materials; prohibition and removal of shore
protection structures and other barriers that impede
natural processes; water quality improvements; and
invasive species control.
Any project designed to restore, establish, or
enhance an ecosystem will require planning, longterm management, monitoring, and, possibly,

land acquisition. In general, of the three project types,

restoration is the most likely to be successful (Interagency
Workgroup on Wetland Restoration 2004). The outcomes
of projects that create new ecosystems or new ecosystem
services are more uncertain, especially when the additional
uncertainties of climate change are factored in. Wetland
creation is usually difficult and typically requires a lot more
planning and effort than restoration projects. Generally, it
is easier to create wetlands from open water than it is to
convert uplands. In either case, one type of ecosystem is
likely to be destroyed in order to establish the new one.
Tradeoffs will need to be made and understood.

Coral

Restoring damaged coral reef ecosystems is an

important part of protecting and preserving ecosystem
health. Reef restoration can help prevent further
degradation and facilitate the natural recovery process.
Future work on developing restoration strategies may
ultimately make reefs more resilient to the impacts of
climate change. To date, most restoration efforts have
been focused on repairing damage caused by human
impacts, such as vessel groundings and anchoring,
and these efforts serve to restore natural function,
structure, and diversity among injured reefs. Managers
have conducted pilot projects on applying restoration
techniques that may be used to respond to climatic
event disturbances, such as coral bleaching, and disease
mortality events.
Coral reef restoration largely entails stabilizing
and repairing the damaged framework, recreating
topography, and transplanting corals dislodged,
propagated in nurseries, and/or relocated from other
suitable sources (e.g., corals orphaned as a result of
coastal construction projects). Restoration of natural
processes may also include ecological approaches
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Adapting to Climate Change

such as reinstating herbivores, protecting herbivore

populations, enhancing recruitment, and reducing the
prevalence of disease. Restoration projects are difficult
and expensive and may take decades to demonstrate
their success. Thus, they require sound planning, longterm management, experimentation, and monitoring.

Artificial Reefs

Artificial reefs are constructed of a wide variety

of man-made materials and placed underwater to
restore, create, or enhance ecosystems, typically as
a fisheries management tool. Properly constructed
and strategically sited artificial reefs can enhance fish
habitat, provide more access to quality fishing grounds,
benefit fishermen and the economies of shore
communities, increase total fish biomass within a given
area, and provide managers with another option for the
conservation and management of fishery resources
(NOAA 2007b). Artificial reefs may also serve as
breakwaters, protecting shorelines from erosion, and
provide recreational opportunities.
NOAAs 2007 National Artificial Reef Plan (as Amended):
Guidelines for Siting, Construction, Development, and
Assessment of Artificial Reefs outlines the states role
in planning for artificial reef construction and
maintaining regulatory and quality control to ensure all
artificial reefs in state waters:17

Have biological justification relating to present

and future fishery management needs
Will have minimal negative effects on existing
fisheries and/or conflicts with other uses
Will have minimal negative effects on other
natural resources and their future use
Use materials that have long-term compatibility
with the aquatic environment18
Are monitored to determine whether reefs
meet permit terms and conditions and are
functioning as anticipated
The use of artificial reefs is a complex issue that
requires planning, long-term monitoring, and
evaluation to ensure the anticipated benefits are
derived. There is still considerable debate on how
artificial reefs impact the natural aquatic community
into which they are introduced. Improperly planned,
constructed, or managed reefs may be ineffective, may
cause conflict among competing user groups at the
reef site, may increase the potential to overharvest
targeted species, or may damage natural habitats. In
such cases the benefits from the planned objectives
of these structures may be negated (NOAA 2007b).
In some instances, artificial reefs may not be allowed
in Special Aquatic Sites, which are areas possessing
special ecological characteristics of productivity,

Learning from othersMississippi Rebuilds Artificial Reefs

Mississippis Department of Marine Resources Artificial Reef Bureau, in partnership
with Mississippi Gulf Fishing Banks, is working to rebuild fishing reefs destroyed by
Hurricane Katrina. About 90 percent of Mississippis inshore and offshore artificial
reefs were destroyed by the storm. As of early 2010, 100 percent of the inshore reefs
and 65 to 70 percent of offshore reefs had been rebuilt. Cultch material is often
made up of crushed limestone, concrete, or other suitable material. In addition, the
state constructed an artificial reef off the undeveloped Deer Island using debris
from storm-damaged bridges to help slow erosion of the island, which provides
protection to the mainland, and enhance recreational fishing in the area. www.dmr
.state.ms.us/Fisheries/Reefs/artificial-reefs.htm

17 While not explicitly mentioned in the plan, the mention of future needs and uses in these requirements suggests a need to consider how these

needs and uses may be affected by climate change.

18 The collective experience of the state artificial reef managers over the past several decades has revealed that a number of secondary use

materials are unsuitable as artificial reef material. Among those that have been found to be persistently problematic are: wood; fiberglass; plastic;
light vehicle bodies; fiberglass boats and boat molds; railroad boxcars; and light gauge metal items, such as refrigerators, washing machines, and
clothes dryers (NOAA 2007b). The plan also advises against using tires in artificial reef construction.

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

habitat, wildlife protection, or other important and

easily disrupted ecological values (e.g., coral reefs,
sanctuaries and refuges, and vegetated shallows).

Aquatic Invasive Species Management

Climate-driven changes are likely to combine with
other stressors to further increase the vulnerability
of natural systems to invasive species (Karl et al.
2009). Changes in climate may alter pathways;
influence establishment, spread, and distribution; and
affect the ability of native systems to repel invasion.
Impacts are likely to vary by region as well as species.
Some species, both desirable and invasive, may
thrive under new conditions; others may find them
unsuitable (EPA 2008). Despite the uncertainties,
aquatic invasive species management plays a critical
role in overall ecosystem management and should be
planned and implemented in a manner that is flexible
and considers and monitors for potential changes.
The Non-Indigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention
and Control Act of 1990, amended by the National
Invasive Species Act of 1996, calls for states to
develop aquatic invasive species management plans.
By incorporating climate change into these plans, they
could serve as the basis for modifying management
activities (prevention, control, eradication) to meet
changing conditions. In a 2008 report, the EPAs
National Center for Environmental Assessment
recommended the following initial steps:
Incorporate climate change considerations
into leadership and coordination activities
Identify new aquatic invasive species threats
as a result of climate change

Aquatic invasive species like the zebra mussel can upset

ecosystems, threaten native species, damage structures, and
cause other serious problems.

Identify ecosystem vulnerabilities and

improve methods to increase ecosystem
resilience
Evaluate the effectiveness of control
mechanisms under changing conditions
Manage information systems to include
considerations of changing conditions
An aquatic invasive species program may include
research to assess current and future invasive
threats or identify pathways; detection of newly
established species (e.g., monitoring, surveys,
inspection); import, introduction, or release
requirements for species (e.g., permits and licenses);
transport and shipping requirements; quarantine;
education and public awareness efforts; control
(e.g., biological, chemical, and manual); emergency

Learning from othersMassachusetts Plans for Aquatic Invasive Species

With leadership from the Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management, the Massachusetts Aquatic Invasive
Species Working Group, composed of state and federal agencies and nonprofit organizations, works to minimize the
impacts of aquatic invasive species in the state. The group published the Massachusetts Aquatic Invasive Species
Management Plan in 2002 and focuses on prevention and education; early detection, monitoring, and species
identification; rapid response; and control. One program component is the Marine Invader Monitoring and Information
Collaborative, a network of trained community groups and citizens that uses a standardized monitoring protocol to
collect aquatic invasive species data and information. www.mass.gov/czm/invasives/

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response efforts; and restoration of degraded areas

to increase resilience against reinvasion (EPA
2008). Importantly, an aquatic invasive species
program that considers climate change will include
a comprehensive monitoring system that can detect
new aquatic invasive species and changes in existing
ones and how they affect the management area.

Water Resource Management and

Protection
Stormwater Management
Green Infrastructure
Water Supply Management
Many of the impacts of climate change will be
related to water, either too much of it, or not
enough. A number of the measures discussed
throughout this chapter can be used to help protect

Detention basins can be designed to mimic natural ponds with

gentle side slopes and native vegetation, which help prevent
erosion and suspension of sediment and intercept pollutants
from runoff.

coastal communities from too much watersea

level rise and other types of inundation, in particular.
This category includes measures that can be taken
to manage stormwater, urban shallow flooding that
tends to result from heavy precipitation events rather
than rising waters, and to manage water supplies
in anticipation of dry periods and corresponding
water shortages. These are activities that, along
with floodplain management, would benefit from
being managed together as part of a comprehensive
integrated water resources management program.

Stormwater Management
In general, the purpose of stormwater management
is to control the amount of pollutants, sediments, and
nutrients entering water bodies through precipitationgenerated runoff. However, it also plays an important
role in preventing damage to the built environment and
the natural systems that protect it.
Existing drainage systems may be ill-equipped to
handle the amount of stormwater runoff that will
accompany the more intense rainfall events expected
in the future. Those in low-lying areas will be further
challenged by losses in elevation attributed to rising
sea levels. To accommodate for these changes, coastal
communities may need to modify and enhance the
capacity of their drainage systems and should consider
climate change when implementing and updating
existing stormwater management plans. Modifications
and enhancements may include:19
Updating stormwater regulations
Incorporating green infrastructure (see next
page)

Learning from others...Maryland Funds Stormwater Enhancements to Address Climate Change

As part of its Coast-Smart Communities Initiative, Marylands Department of Natural Resources is providing financial and
technical assistance to coastal communities to address the impacts of sea level rise and climate change. One of the first
four projects selected under the initiative will allow for improvements to Caroline Countys floodplain and stormwater
management programs. The project will include consolidation of and changes to the two ordinances to meet and
exceed state requirements, public outreach, and input to a forthcoming rezoning process, which will consider natural
resource protection and public safety issues. www.dnr.state.md.us/CoastSmart/

19 Since some modifications and enhancements could encourage growth in the short-term, growth controls may also be needed.

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Limiting/removing impervious surfaces

Acquiring easements for new and wider
drainage ditches
Implementing and enforcing stream dumping
regulations
Improving carrying and storage capacity
of streams, channels, and basins through
ongoing maintenance
Installing larger pipes and culverts
Adding pumps
Creating retention and detention basins
Converting culverts to bridges

Green Infrastructure

By capturing runoff from impervious surfaces, such as roofs,

roads, and driveways, rain gardens allow water to seep slowly
into the ground and help protect nearby waterbodies by reducing
runoff and filtering pollutants.

As it relates to water resource management and

protection, green infrastructure is a comprehensive
approach that promotes the use of natural and built
systems to improve infiltration, evapotranspiration,
capture, and reuse of stormwater at regional,
community, and site scales. It uses soil and vegetation
in lieu of or in addition to the hard or gray
infrastructure typically used to divert, store, and treat

stormwater. Some aspects of green infrastructure will

need to be managed through regulations (e.g., land
use, building codes) and land acquisition programs;
others will be most effective when promoted through
outreach, education, and training.

Learning from othersGeorgia Manual Promotes Green Infrastructure along Coast

The Coastal Stormwater Supplement to the Georgia Stormwater Management Manual provides Georgias coastal
communities with guidance on an integrated, green infrastructure-based approach to natural resource protection,
stormwater management, and site design that can be used to better protect coastal Georgias natural resources from the
negative impacts of land development and nonpoint source pollution. The manual seeks to shift the focus of stormwater
management efforts from postconstruction alleviation of impacts to preconstruction prevention. www.georgiaepd.org/
Documents/CoastalStormwaterSupplement.html

Learning from othersGreen Infrastructure Plays Key Role in Wisconsin Stormwater Management
Established by Wisconsin state law, the Metropolitan Milwaukee Sewerage District is a regional government agency that
provides water reclamation and flood management services. To help reduce the number of combined sewer overflow
events and improve the water quality in Lake Michigan, the agency has invested in a number of green infrastructure
projects. Programs include Green Seams, a land acquisition program, and the Lake Michigan Rain Gardens Initiative. The
agency also promotes downspout disconnection and has partnered with local businesses and municipalities to make
rain barrels accessible to the public. http://v3.mmsd.com/

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Adapting to Climate Change

By helping to maintain and restore natural hydrology

and removing nutrients, pathogens, and pollutants from
stormwater, these approaches:
Improve water quality and groundwater
recharge
Reduce stormwater flooding
Protect ecosystems
Provide habitat
Provide recreational opportunities
Improve aesthetics
In general, regional green infrastructure is an
interconnected network of natural lands and waters
that provide essential environmental functions (e.g.,
wetlands, floodplains, and forests) and the buffers that
protect them. Examples of community and site-level

green infrastructure practices that may help coastal

communities adapt to climate change include:

Vegetated swales and media strips

Urban forestry
Porous pavement
Rain gardens
Green roofs
Rain barrels and cisterns
Downspout disconnection

Water Supply Management

Since climate change will likely negatively affect both
water quantity and quality, and coastal populations
will continue to grow, water supply managers must be
prepared to respond to associated changes in supply

Learning from othersCalifornia Unites Land Use and Water Supply Planning
California state law requires cities and counties to link water supply information with certain land use decisions.
Specifically, for proposed housing developments of 500 or more homes, it requires local water agencies to verify
there is enough water to serve the project for at least 20 years, including long periods of drought. www.water.ca.gov/
urbanwatermanagement/

Learning from othersRegional Compact Protects

Valuable Water Resources in Great Lakes
In December 2005, the governors of the eight Great
Lakes states endorsed the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River
Basin Water Resources Compact to protect and preserve
the Great Lakes, and it has since been enacted into law in
each state. The compact calls for each state to:
Develop and maintain a water resources inventory
Develop its own water conservation and efficiency
goals and objectives consistent with basinwide
goals and objectives
Develop and implement a water conservation and
efficiency program
Prohibit new or increased diversions
Manage and regulate new or increased
withdrawals and consumptive uses in accordance
with the compact

95

Collectively conduct a periodic assessment of the

cumulative impacts of withdrawals, diversions,
and consumptive uses, which should consider
climate change
www.cglg.org/projects/water/Agreement-Compact.asp

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

and demand. Water conservation, recovery, and reuse

will be central to efforts to protect sustainable water
supplies. Examples of activities to support these efforts
or provide additional protection include the following:

Encouraging changes in behavior (incentives)

Modifying water utility operations
Diversifying water supplies
Integrating groundwater and surface water
management
Increasing storage capacity
Employing new technologies
Revising drought and water plans
Revising/implementing regulations and
building codes
Modifying water pricing
Reallocating water distribution
Increasing use of water markets
Relocating/retrofitting existing infrastructure
Incorporating green infrastructure

Future planning should consider the multiple climate

change phenomena that will affect water supplies and
the supporting infrastructure. In addition, it should
allow for flexibility to make adjustments as needed
based on enhanced projections, seasonal forecasts, and
observed changes.

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Adapting to Climate Change

Key Resources
General
Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook for Development Planners, U.S. Agency for
International Development. www.crc.uri.edu/index.php?actid=366
Advanced Floodplain Management Concepts (training), Federal Emergency Management Agency.
http://training.fema.gov/EMICourses/
Coastal No Adverse Impact, Association of State Floodplain Managers.
www.floods.org/index.asp?menuid=340&firstlevelmenuid=187&siteid=1
Coastal Training Program, National Estuarine Research Reserve System.
www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Training.aspx
Community Rating System, FEMA. www.fema.gov/business/nfip/crs.shtm
DisasterSafety.org, Institute of Business and Home Safety. www.disastersafety.org/
Developing the [Hazard] Mitigation Plan: Identifying Actions and Implementing Strategies, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/resources.shtm
Guidance on Water and Adaptation to Climate Change, United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe. www.unece.org/env/documents/2009/Wat/mp_wat/ECE_MP.WAT_30_E.pdf
Integrating Historic Property and Cultural Resource Considerations into Hazard Mitigation Planning,
FEMA. www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/resources.shtm
Introduction to Hazard Mitigation (online training), FEMA. http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/IS/
Local Strategies for Addressing Climate Change, NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/publications.html
Managing Coastal Erosion, National Research Council of the National Academies.
http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=1446
Managing Floodplain Development through the National Flood Insurance Program (training),
FEMA. http://training.fema.gov/EMICourses/
Mitigating Shore Erosion along Sheltered Coasts, National Research Council of the National
Academies. http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11764
National Flood Insurance Plan/Community Rating System (training), FEMA.
http://training.fema.gov/EMICourses/
Negotiating for Coastal Resources (training), NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/cms/cls/negotiating_coastal.html
Planning for Climate Change, NOAA Estuarine Reserves Division.
http://nerrs.noaa.gov/CTPIndex.aspx?ID=455
Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local, Regional, and State Governments, ICLEI
Local Governments for Sustainability.
www.icleiusa.org/action-center/planning/adaptation-guidebook/
Shoreline Management: Alternatives to Hardening the Shore, NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal
Resource Management. http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/shoreline.html
Special Area Management Plans. NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management.
http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/special.html
Synthesis of Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas, EPA Climate Ready Estuaries.
www.epa.gov/cre/adaptationoptions.html
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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory. http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/

Using the Hazard Mitigation Plan to Prepare Successful Mitigation Projects, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/resources.shtm
Water Resource Policies and Authorities Incorporating Sea-Level Change Considerations in Civil Works
Programs, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. http://140.194.76.129/publications/eng-circulars/

Impact Identification and Assessment

See also Key Resources in Chapter 4.
Climate Prediction Center, NOAA National Weather Service. www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/
CoastWatch, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service.
http://coastwatch.noaa.gov/
Coral Reef Watch, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service.
http://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/
Integrated Coral Observing Network, NOAA. http://ecoforecast.coral.noaa.gov/
National Estuarine Research Reserve System Research. NOAA Estuarine Reserves Division.
www.nerrs.noaa.gov/Research.aspx
National Water Information System. U.S. Geological Survey. http://waterdata.usgs.gov/nwis
NOAA Climate Service. www.climate.gov/
NOAAWatch: NOAAs All Hazard Monitor, NOAA. www.noaawatch.gov/
nowCoast, NOAA Office of Coast Survey. http://nowcoast.noaa.gov/
Science-Based Monitoring Restoration Monitoring of Coastal Habitats, NOAA National Centers for
Coastal Ocean Science.
http://coastalscience.noaa.gov/ecosystems/estuaries/restoration_monitoring.html
Tides and Currents, NOAA Center for Operational Oceanographic Products and Services.
http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/
U.S. Drought Portal. National Integrated Drought Information System. www.drought.gov/
U.S. Water Monitor. U.S. Geological Survey. http://watermonitor.gov/
WaterWatch, U.S. Geological Survey. http://water.usgs.gov/waterwatch/

Awareness and Assistance

Best Practice Approaches for Characterizing, Communicating, and Incorporating Scientific Uncertainty
in Decisionmaking, U.S. Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
Building Public Support for Floodplain Management, Association of State Floodplain Managers.
www.floods.org/ace-files/documentlibrary/Publications/BPS_Guidebook_2_1_10.pdf
Climate LiteracyThe Essential Principles of Climate Science: A Guide for Communities and
Individuals, U.S. Climate Change Science Program.
www.globalchange.gov/resources/educators/climate-literacy
Communicating Sustainability, United Nations Environment Programme.
www.unep.fr/scp/publications/details.asp?id=DTI/0679/PA
Education and Outreach Training, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Conservation Training Center.
http://nctc.fws.gov/
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ICLEI Resource Guide: Outreach and Communications, ICLEILocal Governments for Sustainability.
www.icleiusa.org/action-center/engaging-your-community/
Risk Behavior and Risk Communication: Synthesis and Expert Interviews, NOAA Coastal Services
Center. www.csc.noaa.gov/publications.html
Seven Cardinal Rules of Communication, EPA. www.epa.gov/CARE/library/7_cardinal_rules.pdf

Growth Management
Coastal Community Planning and Development (training), NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/training/ccpd.html
Hazard Mitigation: Integrating Best Practices into Planning, American Planning Association, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=4267
Smart Growth for Coastal and Waterfront Communities, NOAA, EPA, International City/County
Management Association, Rhode Island Sea Grant. http://coastalsmartgrowth.noaa.gov/

Loss Reduction
Coastal Construction Manual: Principles and Practices of Planning, Siting, Designing, Constructing, and
Maintaining Residential Buildings in Coastal Areas, FEMA. www.fema.gov/rebuild/mat/fema55.shtm
Design Guide for Improving Critical Facility Safety from Flooding and High Winds: Providing
Protection to People and Buildings, FEMA. www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=2441
Engineering Principles and Practices of Retrofitting Floodprone Residential Structures, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1645
FEMA Mitigation Assessment Team Reports, FEMA. www.fema.gov/rebuild/mat/mat_reprts.shtm
Homeowners Guide to Retrofitting: Six Ways to Protect Your House from Flooding, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1420
Implementing Floodplain Land Acquisition Programs in Urban Localities, University of North Carolina
Center for Urban & Regional Studies.
http://people.vanderbilt.edu/~james.c.fraser/publications/Floddplain%20Project%20Report.Final.pdf
International Code Council (codes available for purchase). www.iccsafe.org/
Introduction to Residential Coastal Construction (online training), FEMA.
http://training.fema.gov/EMIWeb/IS/
Local Officials Guide for Coastal Construction, FEMA. www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=3647
[Hazard] Mitigation Best Practices Portfolio, FEMA. www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/bestpractices/
Retrofitting Flood-Prone Residential Buildings (training), FEMA.
http://training.fema.gov/EMICourses/
Sea Level Rise Planning Maps: Showing the Likelihood of Shore Protection. http://plan.risingsea.net/
Selecting Appropriate [Hazard] Mitigation Measures for Floodprone Structures, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=2737

Shoreline Management
Beach Nourishment, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory,
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/chl.aspx?p=s&a=ARTICLES;192
Beach Nourishment and Protection, National Research Council of the National Academies.
http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=4984

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Beneficial Use of Dredged Material, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/dots/budm/budm.cfm
Living Shorelines, NOAA Restoration Center.
http://habitat.noaa.gov/restoration/techniques/livingshorelines.html
Regional Sediment Management, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. www.wes.army.mil/rsm/
Shore Protection Assessment: How Beach Nourishment Works, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Coastal
and Hydraulics Laboratory.
http://chl.erdc.usace.army.mil/pub-beachnourishment

Coastal and Marine Ecosystem Management

Adaptive Management: The U.S. Department of the Interior Technical Guide, U.S. Department of the
Interior. www.doi.gov/initiatives/AdaptiveManagement/documents.html
Addressing Elevation and Inundation Issues in Habitat Restoration Planning and Implementation, NOAA
National Ocean Service. http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/cpr/library/publications.html
Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force. http://anstaskforce.gov/default.php
Climate Ready Estuaries Coastal Toolkit. EPA Climate Ready Estuaries. www.epa.gov/cre/toolkit.html
Ecosystem-Based Management Tools Network. www.ebmtools.org/
Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Invasive Species and Implications for Management and Research,
EPA National Center for Environmental Assessment.
http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=188305
GIS Tools for Strategic Conservation Planning (training), NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/digitalcoast/training/gisforscp.html
Habitat Priority Planner: A New Planning Tool for Coastal Communities, NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/hpp/
An Introduction and Users Guide to Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement, Interagency
Workgroup on Wetland Restoration. www.lsu.edu/sglegal/pdfs/WetlandsUsersGuide.pdf
National Artificial Reef Plan (as Amended): Guidelines for Siting, Construction, Development, and
Assessment of Artificial Reefs, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service.
www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/PartnershipsCommunications/NARPwCover3.pdf
National Conservation Training Center, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. http://nctc.fws.gov/
NOAA Habitat Program. http://habitat.noaa.gov/
NOAA National Marine Protected Areas Center. http://mpa.gov/
NOAA Restoration Center. http://habitat.noaa.gov/restoration/
Planners Guide to Wetland Buffers for Local Governments, Environmental Law Institute.
www.elistore.org/reports_detail.asp?ID=11272
Preliminary Review of Adaptation Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems and Resources, U.S. Climate
Change Science Program. www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps
A Reef Managers Guide to Coral Bleaching, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, NOAA, and the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature.
www.coris.noaa.gov/activities/reef_managers_guide/
Strategies for Managing the Effects of Climate Change on Wildlife and Ecosystems, The H. John Heinz
III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment. www.heinzcenter.org/publications/

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Water Resource Management and Protection

EPA Stormwater Program, EPA, Office of Water.
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=6
Low Impact Development, EPA, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds. www.epa.gov/nps/lid/
Managing Wet Weather with Green Infrastructure, EPA, Office of Wastewater Management.
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=298
Water Quality Scorecard: Incorporating Green Infrastructure Practices at the Municipal, Neighborhood,
and Site Scale. EPA Office of Research and Development.
www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/water_scorecard.htm
Water Resources of the United States. U.S. Geological Survey. http://water.usgs.gov/

Evaluate, Select, and Prioritize Actions

Benefit Cost Analysis, FEMA. www.fema.gov/government/grant/bca.shtm
Benefit-Cost Analysis: Entry-Level Training, FEMA. http://training.fema.gov/EMICourses/
Project Design and Evaluation (training), NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/cms/cls/project_design.html
Using Benefit-Cost Review in [Hazard] Mitigation Planning, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/resources.shtm

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Chapter 6 Plan
Implementation
and Maintenance

This final chapter of the planning guide discusses

implementing the plan; tracking, evaluating, and
communicating plan progress; and updating the plan,
which are all critical to the climate change adaptation
plans overall success. In each of these steps, it is
important to remember that the science is evolving,
and to account for this, planning will need to be
ongoing and flexible.
To support these efforts, consider:
Continuing to convene the planning team on
a regular basis (or as needed) for consistency
in ongoing planning efforts and to serve as a
forum for climate change adaptation issues
Instituting regular communications among
planning team members to maintain
momentum

Continuing outreach efforts to inform and

engage the public and other stakeholders
Building and strengthening partnerships with
other governments (federal, state, and local),
nonprofits, and the private sector
Working with elected officials to maintain
support and visibility
The steps described in this chapter include:
Step 4.1: Adopt the Plan
Step 4.2: Implement the Plan
Step 4.3: Integrate Plan Findings into Other
State Planning Efforts and Programs
Step 4.4: Track, Evaluate, and Communicate
Plan Progress
Step 4.5: Update the Plan
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Step 4.1: Adopt the Plan

The plan will benefit from endorsement by the heads
of the implementing agencies and formal adoption,
whether by the governor, legislature, or an appropriate
state agency. Formal adoption will demonstrate your
states commitment to climate change adaptation
while also legitimizing the plan and authorizing its
implementation.

Step 4.2: Implement the Plan

Once the plan has been adopted, make it known. It
will likely contain actions that require stakeholder
support, even action. Make sure each stakeholder
group knows the plan is moving forward, what
that means to them, and how they can continue to
contribute to the states climate change adaptation
efforts.
With the strategy (goals and actions) in place and
the plan approved, focus on the actions the planning
team has selected. The action plans will guide the
implementation of the individual actions.
One of the biggest challenges to the implementation of
climate change adaptation actions is funding. This will
likely require creativity and networking and will be an
ongoing effort. Currently, there is not a lot of funding
directly targeted at climate change adaptation. But, there
are a number of grant opportunities for restoration,
conservation, hazard mitigation, infrastructure (e.g.,
installing new/updating existing), and community and
economic development.

Think about how funds from multiple sources can

be combined as well as how you can work with other
jurisdictions (states and local governments), regional
organizations, and nongovernmental organizations to
pool resources to meet complementary needs. Planning
team members should think about the grants they have
applied for in the past and how these funding vehicles
might also support adaptation activities. Funding may
also be available through nonprofit organizations (e.g.,
environmental advocacy groups), private foundations,
and businesses. In addition to funding, these groups
may also be able to provide in-kind goods and services.
It is likely that over the next few years, grant programs
will be created or modified to fund climate change
adaptation actions. The planning team may want to
assign a team member or subgroup the responsibility of
tracking relevant grant opportunities.

Sources of Federal Funding

In addition to funding available through the Coastal
Zone Management Program and other programs
administered by NOAA, a number of other federal
agencies offer funding for activities that support
climate change adaption. Agencies that administer such
programs include, but are not limited to FEMA, EPA,
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers. For some programs, applications
must be for actions consistent with the goals and
objectives identified in associated federally approved
plans. Thus, to maximize funding opportunities, it is a
good idea to align climate change adaptation planning
with other federally supported planning activities.

Learning from othersEnergy and Climate Collaborative Guides Implementation of Climate Action Plan
in New Hampshire
Recognizing that implementation requires a high degree of coordination and integration, as well as flexibility,
accountability, transparency, communication, and ongoing assessment and reporting, the authors of the New
Hampshire Climate Action Plan, which includes adaptation, recommended formation of a public/private partnership,
the New Hampshire Energy and Climate Collaborative, to oversee and guide implementation of the plan. The primary
purpose of the collaborative is to track and facilitate implementation of the plans recommendations and to report to the
governor, legislature, and general public on progress toward achieving the desired outcomes. http://nhcollaborative.org/

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Appendix A provides more information about some of

the funding programs the planning team may be able
to take advantage of to help the state adapt to climate
change.

Sources of State and Local Funding

Where possible, try to get funding for adaptation
incorporated into existing state budgets (e.g., capital
improvement or operating budgets). Alternatively,
traditional sources of state and local government
funding include, but are not limited to: 1

General taxes
Impact fees
Property taxes
General obligation bonds
Sales taxes
Revenue bonds
Special tax districts
Certificates of participation
Use fees
Leases (land and water)

Step 4.3: Integrate Plan into

Other State Planning Efforts
and Programs
As discussed in Chapters 3 and 4, there are a number
of other state plans and programs that will have a role
in adapting to climate change along the coast. The
planning team considered these plans and programs
in the adaptation plan and incorporated information
and projects as appropriate. Likewise, other plans and
programs should consider the adaptation plan, and
climate change in general, as they are developed and
updated. These other plans and programs can benefit
from the adaptation plans vulnerability assessment, and
may even be the vehicles used to implement adaption
actions identified by the planning team.

Step 4.4: Track, Evaluate, and

Communicate Plan Progress
To ensure effectiveness of the adaptation plan and
demonstrate its progress, the planning team, or
some iteration of it, will need to continuously track
the actions and evaluate the overall plans progress
toward meeting its goals. By designing a tracking and
evaluation process upfront, the planning team will be
in a good position to keep up the momentum gained
during other steps of the planning process.
Including schedules, milestones, and evaluation plans
in individual action plans will ease this review process.
Evaluation of the overall success of the plan can also
be achieved by monitoring changes in vulnerability
as identified in the original plan. However, since the
timing of climate change impacts is still uncertain,
it may be difficult to assess level of success (or lack
thereof) in the plans early years. Some impacts, which
will occur regardless of climate change (e.g., hazard
events), may be easier to monitor than those that are
likely to occur more slowly over time, like sea level rise.
Things to consider when designing the tracking and
evaluation process include:
How often should the planning team meet to
review the plan and discuss its progress?
How will the planning team keep elected
officials apprised of progress and obstacles?
How will progress be communicated to other
stakeholders outside of the planning team?
How should progress be reported (e.g., create a
progress report template for actions)?
Is the action complete?
If the action is ongoing, what was
accomplished during the reporting period?
Were there any unexpected problems,
obstacles, or delays associated with the
action? If so, how were they overcome?
Have there been any indicators of success
or failure of implemented actions in meeting
the intended goals? Any losses avoided?

1 The ability of local governments to raise funds depends on your states legal and regulatory framework.

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Learning from othersPost-Storm Assessment Demonstrates Success in Florida

In 1995, Hurricane Opal demonstrated the success of more stringent land use and building codes, such as those
associated with Floridas Coastal Construction Control Line (CCCL), in reducing storm-related damage. The CCCL was
established in the 1980s by the states Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) to strengthen land use and
building construction standards (e.g., foundation, elevation, wind load) in coastal high hazard areas. According to the
DEP, wave erosion caused by Hurricane Opal damaged or destroyed more structures than any other storm in the 20 years
prior. A damage assessment conducted after the storm revealed that of the 576 major habitable structures seaward of
the CCCL that were constructed to meet the higher standards, none were substantially damaged. On the other hand, of
the 1,366 major habitable structures seaward of the CCCL that were constructed prior to the CCCL (or not permitted by
the state), 768 (56 percent) received substantial damage (FEMA 1997). www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1712

Were there any unintended consequences

(positive or negative) due to implementation
of an action?
Are there any new stressors or challenges
that may hinder action-specific or overall
success? If so, can anything be done to
overcome them?
This regular review also provides the planning team
with an opportunity to make changes to the plan,
goals, or actions based on lessons learned or new
information. The plan update, as described in the next
section, allows for these types of changes on a larger
scale, but instances may arise that call for making
adjustments between scheduled updates (e.g., disasters
may provide opportunities for adaptation to be
incorporated into recovery efforts).
Where successes are evident, promote them. Where there
are challenges to implementation, modify or replace the
action. In both instances, think about how the lessons
learned can be applied elsewhere. Use the media and the
other outreach vehicles identified in the planning process
to communicate progress and elicit feedback.

Step 4.5: Update the Plan

Climate change adaptation plans are living documents
that need to be updated to achieve maximum
effectiveness. So, in addition to reviewing the status of
the plan and the actions on a regular basis (and making
revisions as appropriate), you should plan a full-scale
update every few years (e.g., every three to five years) as
determined by the planning team or as needed (e.g., in
105

the wake of a catastrophe). Plan ahead for the update

and assign ongoing data monitoring and collection
tasks to team members or subgroups.
When updating the plan, consider following a process
similar to the one outlined in this guide:
Reconvene the planning team, altering its
composition as needed
Continue involving the public and other
stakeholders
Review the vulnerability assessment and make
changes to priorities, as necessary, based on:
Observed changes
New climate science findings/projections
Recent hazard events
Changes to exposure
Changes in adaptive capacity
Completed actions
Review the goals from the initial plan and
make changes, as necessary, based on revised
vulnerabilities and priorities
Review the actions from the initial plan and
reprioritize, change, delete, or add actions based
on lessons learned as well as new goals and
changes in adaptive capacity
Review the implementation and evaluation
process and make adjustments as appropriate
Finally, include in the plan update a status review of the
actions identified in the previous version of the plan.
And, document examples of successes, challenges, and
lessons learned.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Key Resources

Funding
The Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance, General Services Administration. www.cfda.gov/
Compendium of Federal Funding Sources for State and Tribal Wetlands Programs, UNC
Environmental Finance Center, EPA. www.efc.unc.edu/publications/pdfs/wetlands/
CompendiumofWetlandsFederalFundingSourcesNationalPrograms.pdf
Federal Funding Programs, EPA, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds.
www.epa.gov/owow/funding/federal.html
Funding Opportunities for Coastal Managers (includes links to grant writing guides), NOAA Coastal
Services Center. www.csc.noaa.gov/funding/
Guidebook of Financial Tools: Paying for Environmental Systems, EPA.
www.epa.gov/efinpage/publications/GFT2008.pdf

Other
Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook for Development Planners, U.S. Agency for
International Development. www.crc.uri.edu/index.php?actid=366
Bringing the Plan to Life: Implementing the Hazard Mitigation Plan, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/resources.shtm
Developing the Mitigation Plan: Identifying Actions and Implementing Strategies, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/resources.shtm
Developing and Promoting Mitigation Best Practices and Case Studies, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1774
Planning for Meaningful Evaluation (training). NOAA Coastal Services Center.
www.csc.noaa.gov/cms/cls/evaluation.html
Preparing for Climate Change: A Guidebook for Local, Regional, and State Governments, ICLEILocal
Governments for Sustainability. www.icleiusa.org/action-center/planning/adaptation-guidebook/
Telling the Tale of Disaster Resistance. A Guide to Capturing and Communicating the Story, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=1762
Using the Hazard Mitigation Plan to Prepare Successful Mitigation Projects, FEMA.
www.fema.gov/plan/mitplanning/resources.shtm

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Adapting to Climate Change

Appendix A: Potential
Federal Funding Sources
The programs in the table below are examples of
the types of programs that may provide funding
indirectly or directly for activities that support climate
change adaptation. The list is not comprehensive, and
availability of funds may vary from one year to the

Program Name/

Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance

Contact

Description

CFDA Number
Grants.gov

next. General contact information is provided, but,

in most cases, your best contact is the parallel state
agency or the regional federal office. An ongoing
monitoring of Grants.gov is a good way to keep up
with federal funding opportunities.

Information

Source to find and apply for federal government

Grants.gov

grants.

www.grants.gov/

Database of federal programs.

Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance

www.cfda.gov/

U.S. Department of Commerce

Coastal Zone Management

Financial assistance for implementation and

NOAA/National Ocean Service

Administration Awards

enhancement of state coastal management

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource

CFDA 11.419

programs, which aim to preserve, protect, develop,

Management

and where possible restore and enhance the

(301) 713-3155

resources of the nations coastal zone.

http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/
programs/czm.html

Coastal and Estuarine Land

Financial assistance for land acquisition to protect

NOAA/National Ocean Service

Conservation Program

important coastal and estuarine areas that have

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource

CFDA 11.419

significant conservation, recreation, ecological,

Management

historical, or aesthetic values, or that are threatened

(301) 713-3155

by conversion from their natural or recreational

http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/

state to other uses.

land/

Coral Reef Conservation Grant Program

Financial assistance for broad-based coral reef

NOAA/National Ocean Service

CFDA 11.419

conservation activities (including management and

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource

monitoring).

Management
(301) 713-3155
http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcrcp/
workwithus/funding/welcome.html

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A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Program Name/

Contact

Description

CFDA Number

Information

U.S. Department of Commerce (contd)

National Estuarine Research Reserve

Financial assistance for development, land

NOAA/National Ocean Service

CFDA 11.420

acquisition, monitoring, research, education,

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource

operation, and facilities construction for National

Management

Estuarine Research Reserves for the purpose of

(301) 713-3155

creating natural field laboratories to gather data

http://nerrs.noaa.gov/

and make studies of and educate people about

the natural and human processes occurring within
the estuaries of the coastal zone.
Community-Based Restoration Program

Financial assistance to implement on-the-ground

NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service

CFDA 11.463

habitat restoration projects to benefit marine,

Office of Habitat Conservation

estuarine, and riparian habitats, including but

(301) 713-0174

not limited to salt marshes, seagrass beds, coral

www.habitat.noaa.gov/funding/crp.html

reefs, mangrove forests, and freshwater habitat

important to anadromous fisheries, predominantly
in coastal areas around the United States.
Climate and Societal Interactions

Financial assistance for research, outreach, and

NOAA/Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric

Program

education activities that enhance the capacity

Research

CFDA 11.431

of key socioeconomic sectors to respond to and

Climate Program Office

plan for a changing climate through the use of

www.cpo.noaa.gov/cpo_pa/

climate information and related decision-support

resources.
Economic Adjustment Assistance

Financial assistance to address the needs of

Economic Development Administration1

Program

communities experiencing adverse economic

www.eda.gov/AboutEDA/Programs.xml

CFDA 11.307

changes that may occur suddenly or over time,

including but not limited to those caused by
federally declared disasters.

Public Works and Economic

Financial assistance to help the nations most

Economic Development Administration1

Development Program

distressed communities revitalize, expand and

www.eda.gov/AboutEDA/Programs.xml

CFDA 11.300

upgrade their physical infrastructure to attract

new industry, encourage business expansion,
diversify local economies, and generate or retain
long-term private sector jobs and investments.

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Adapting to Climate Change

Program Name/

Contact

Description

CFDA Number

Information

U.S. Department of Homeland Security

Hazard Mitigation Grant Program

Financial assistance to implement long-term hazard

Federal Emergency Management Agency2

CFDA 97.039

mitigation measures to reduce the loss of life and

Risk Reduction Division

property after a major disaster declaration.

(866) 222-3580
[email protected]
www.fema.gov/government/grant/hmgp/

Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program

Financial assistance for hazard mitigation planning

Federal Emergency Management Agency2

CFDA 97.047

and the implementation of hazard mitigation

Risk Reduction Division

projects that reduce injuries, loss of life, and

(866) 222-3580

damage and destruction of property prior to a

[email protected]

disaster.

www.fema.gov/government/grant/pdm/

Flood Mitigation Assistance Program

Financial assistance to reduce or eliminate the

Federal Emergency Management Agency2

CFDA 97.029

long-term risk of flood damage to buildings,

Risk Reduction Division

manufactured homes, and other structures insured

(866) 222-3580

under the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).

[email protected]

The long-term goal is to reduce or eliminate claims

www.fema.gov/government/grant/fma/

under the NFIP through mitigation activities.

Repetitive Flood Claims Program

Financial assistance to reduce or eliminate the

Federal Emergency Management Agency2

CFDA 97.092

long-term risk of flood damage to structures

Risk Reduction Division

insured under the NFIP that have had one or more

(866) 222-3580

claims for flood damage and that cannot meet the

[email protected]

requirements of the Flood Mitigation Assistance

www.fema.gov/government/grant/rfc/

program for either cost-share or capacity to

manage the activities.
Severe Repetitive Loss Program

Financial assistance to reduce or eliminate the long-

Federal Emergency Management Agency2

CFDA 97.110

term risk of flood damage to severe repetitive loss

Risk Reduction Division

structures insured under the NFIP.

(866) 222-3580
[email protected]
www.fema.gov/government/grant/srl/

Public Assistance Grant Program

Financial assistance so communities can quickly

Federal Emergency Management Agency2

CFDA 97.036

respond to and recover from major disasters or

Public Assistance Division

emergencies declared by the President, includes

www.fema.gov/government/grant/pa/

funding for the repair, replacement, or restoration

of disaster-damaged, publicly owned facilities
and the facilities of certain private nonprofit
organizations and encourages their protection from
future events by providing assistance for hazard
mitigation during the recovery process.

109

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Program Name/

Contact

Description

CFDA Number

Information

U.S. Department of Homeland Security (contd)

Community Assistance Program State

Financial assistance to states to provide technical

Federal Emergency Management

Support Services Element

assistance to NFIP communities and to evaluate

Agency2

CFDA 97.023

community performance in implementing NFIP

www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/floodplain/

floodplain management activities with the

fema_cap-ssse.shtm

additional goal of building state and community

floodplain management expertise and capability.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Wetland Program Development Grants

Financial assistance to enhance and build programs

Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and

CFDA 66.461; 66.462

that protect, manage, and restore wetlands.

Watersheds3
(800) 832-7828
[email protected]
www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/

National Estuary Program

Financial assistance to protect and restore estuaries

Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and

CFDA 66.456

and estuarine watersheds designated by the EPA

Watersheds3

administrator as estuaries of national significance.

www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/

Nonpoint Source Implementation

Financial assistance for implementing EPA-

Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and

Grants

approved Section 319 nonpoint source

Watersheds3

CFDA 66.460

management programs.

(202) 566-1155
www.epa.gov/owow/nps/cwact.html

U.S. Department of Defense

Estuary Habitat Restoration Program

Financial and technical assistance for estuary

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers4

habitat restoration projects that result in improving

Civil Works

degraded estuaries or estuary habitat or creating

www.usace.army.mil/CECW/ERA/

estuary habitat, with the goal of attaining a selfsustaining system integrated into the surrounding
landscape.
Beach Erosion Control Projects

Financial and technical assistance to control beach

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers4

CFDA 12.101

and shore erosion to public shores through projects

Civil Works

not specifically authorized by Congress.

Flood Control Projects

Financial and technical assistance to reduce

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers4

CFDA 12.106

flood damages through projects not specifically

Civil Works

authorized by Congress.
Aquatic Plant Control

Financial and technical assistance for the control

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

CFDA 12.100

of obnoxious aquatic plants in rivers, harbors, and

Aquatic Plant Control Operations

allied waters. The program is designed to deal

Support Center

primarily with weed infestations of major economic

(800) 291-9405

significance.

110

Adapting to Climate Change

Program Name/

Contact

Description

CFDA Number

Information

U.S. Department of Defense (contd)

Protection of Essential Highways,

Financial and technical assistance to provide bank

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers4

Highway Bridge Approaches, and Public

protection of highways, highway bridges, essential

Civil Works

Works

public works, churches, hospitals, schools, and other

CFDA 12.105

nonprofit public services endangered by floodcaused erosion.

Snagging and Clearing for Flood Control

Financial and technical assistance to reduce flood

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers4

CFDA 12.108

damages by channel clearing and excavation,

Civil Works

with limited embankment construction by use of

materials from the clearing operation only.
Aquatic Ecosystem Management and

Financial and technical assistance to restore

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers4

Restoration

degraded aquatic ecosystem structure, function, and

Civil Works

dynamic processes to a less degraded, more natural

condition, which will involve consideration of the
ecosystems natural integrity, productivity, stability,
and biological diversity.
Beneficial Uses of Dredged Materials

Financial and technical assistance to protect,

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers4

restore, and create aquatic and wetland habitats

Civil Works

in connection with dredging of an authorized

navigation project.
Project Modifications for Improvement

Financial and technical assistance for planning,

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers4

of the Environment

engineering and design, and construction of projects

Civil Works

to restore ecosystems degraded by a previously

constructed Corps of Engineers project. Projects
typically involve environmental restoration of
aquatic, floodplain, and upland areas.
U.S. Department of the Interior
North American Wetlands Conservation

Financial assistance for long-term protection,

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service5

Act

restoration, and/or enhancement of wetlands and

Division of Bird Habitat Conservation

CFDA 15.623

associated uplands habitats.

(703) 358-1784
[email protected]
www.fws.gov/birdhabitat/Grants/
NAWCA/

National Coastal Wetlands Conservation

Financial assistance for acquisition, restoration,

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service5

Grant Program

management, or enhancement of coastal wetlands.

Division of Habitat and Resource

CFDA 15.614

Conservation
(703) 358-2236
www.fws.gov/coastal/CoastalGrants/

111

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Program Name/

Contact

Description

CFDA Number

Information

U.S. Department of the Interior (contd)

Cooperative Endangered Species

Financial assistance for a wide array of voluntary

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Conservation Fund

conservation projects for candidate, listed, and

Endangered Species Program6

CFDA 15.615

recently recovered species. Projects include

www.fws.gov/endangered/grants/

habitat restoration, species status surveys, public

education and outreach, captive propagation
and reintroduction, nesting surveys, genetic
studies, development of management and habitat
conservation plans, and land acquisition.
State (Tribal) Wildlife Grants

Financial assistance to develop and implement

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service5

CFDA 15.634; 15.639

programs for the benefit of wildlife and their

Wildlife and Sport Fish Restoration

habitat.

Program
http://wsfrprograms.fws.gov/Subpages/
GrantPrograms/GrantProgramsIndex
.htm

Landowner Incentive Program

Financial assistance to establish or supplement

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service5

CFDA 15.633

landowner incentive programs that provide

Wildlife and Sport Fish Restoration

technical or financial assistance to private

Program

landowners for the protection and management

http://wsfrprograms.fws.gov/Subpages/

of habitat to benefit federally listed, proposed,

GrantPrograms/GrantProgramsIndex

or candidate species, or other at-risk species on

.htm

private lands.
Land and Water Conservation Fund

Financial assistance for the preparation of

National Park Service7

CFDA 15.916

statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation

www.nps.gov/ncrc/programs/lwcf/

plans and acquisition and development of outdoor

recreation areas and facilities.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Community Development Block Grant

Financial assistance for the development of viable

Community Planning and

Program

urban communities, which means providing

Development8

CFDA 14.218; 14.228

decent housing and a suitable living environment

www.hud.gov/offices/cpd/

and by expanding economic opportunities,

communitydevelopment/programs/

principally for persons of low- and moderateincome. Under certain circumstances, funding
may be used to meet urgent needs where existing
conditions pose a serious and immediate threat to
the health or welfare of the community.

112

Adapting to Climate Change

Program Name/

Contact

Description

CFDA Number

Information

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Urban and Community Forestry Program

Financial assistance to plan for, establish, manage,

U.S. Forest Service9

CFDA 10.675

and protect trees, forests, green spaces, and related

State and Private Forestry

natural resources in and adjacent to cities and

www.fs.fed.us/spf/

towns.
Watershed Protection and Flood

Financial and technical assistance for works of

Natural Resources Conservation

Prevention

improvement to protect, develop, and utilize the

Service10

CFDA 10.904

land and water resources in watersheds.

Conservation Planning and Technical

Assistance Division
www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/
watershed/

Regional Contacts:
1

www.eda.gov/AboutEDA/Regions.xml
www.fema.gov/about/regions/
3 www.epa.gov/epahome/regions.htm
4 www.usace.army.mil/about/Pages/Locations.aspx
5 www.fws.gov/coastal/CoastalGrants/contactUs.html
6 www.fws.gov/endangered/regions/
7 www.nps.gov/ncrc/programs/lwcf/contact_list.html
8 www.hud.gov/offices/cpd/about/staff/fodirectors/
9 www.fs.fed.us/ucf/contact_regional.html
10 www.nrcs.usda.gov/about/directory/specialists.html
2

113

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Appendix B: Federal Laws

and Executive Orders
Relevant to Climate
Change on the Coast
Some of the federal laws and presidential executive
orders that are relevant to climate change on the coast
are summarized below. They are listed alphabetically
and encompass all amendments. Dates indicate the year
the law was originally passed.

Laws as codified can be accessed at http://uscode

.house.gov/lawrevisioncounsel.shtml. Executive orders
can be accessed at www.archives.gov/federal-register/
executive-orders/.

Laws
Title

Description

Clean Water Act (Federal

Established the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants

Water Pollution Control Act)

into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for

(1972)

surface waters. Includes a program to regulate the discharge of dredged

33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.

and fill material into waters of the United States, including wetlands.

Lead Agency(s)
U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency

Provides loans and grants to local governments for wastewater

treatment, nonpoint source pollution control, and estuary protection.
Coastal Barrier Resources Act

Restricts federal expenditures that might encourage or support

(1982)

development, including flood insurance, within the Coastal Barrier

16 U.S.C. 3501 et seq.

Resources System, which consists of undeveloped coastal barriers along

U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service

the Atlantic, Gulf, and Great Lakes coasts.

Coastal Wetlands Planning,

Established the National Coastal Wetlands Conservation Grant Program

Protection, and Restoration

to provide funding for acquisition, restoration, management and

Act (1990)

enhancement of coastal wetlands.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service

16 U.S.C. 3951 et seq.

Coastal Zone Management

Provides for management of coastal resources, including the Great

Act (1972)

Lakes, and balances economic development with environmental

16 U.S.C. 1451 et seq.

conservation. Outlines and provides financial support for the National

NOAA/National Ocean
Service

Coastal Zone Management Program and the National Estuarine

Research Reserve System. Recognizes the need for coastal states to
anticipate and plan for sea level rise.

114

Adapting to Climate Change

Title

Description

Coral Reef Conservation Act

Established the National Coral Reef Action Strategy, Coral Reef

(2000)

Conservation Program, and Coral Reef Conservation Fund to provide

16 U.S.C. 6401 et seq.

funding and promote effective management and use of sound science

Lead Agency(s)
NOAA/National Ocean
Service

to preserve, sustain, and restore valuable coral reef ecosystems.

Endangered Species Act (1973)

Provides for the conservation of endangered and threatened species

16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.

of fish, wildlife, and plants and the ecosystems on which they depend.
Authorizes the determination and listing of species as endangered

NOAA/National Marine
Fisheries Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

and threatened. Prohibits unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and

transport of endangered species. Provides funding to acquire land for
the conservation of listed species and to support state programs.
Estuary Protection Act (1968)

Encourages consideration in planning and development activities of

16 U.S.C. 1221 et seq.

the value of estuaries and the need to protect, conserve, and restore

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

them.
Estuary Restoration Act (2000)

Made restoring estuaries a national priority. Promotes the restoration

33 U.S.C. 2901 et seq.

of estuary habitat by forging effective partnerships among public

agencies and between the public and private sectors, providing
financial and technical assistance for estuary habitat restoration
projects, and developing and enhancing monitoring and research
capabilities.

Natural Resources
Conservation Service
NOAA/National Marine
Fisheries Service/National
Ocean Service
U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Federal Water Project

Requires that recreation and fish and wildlife enhancement be given full

Recreation Act (1965)

consideration in federal water development projects (e.g., navigation,

16 U.S.C. 4601K-12 et seq.

flood control, reclamation, hydroelectric projects). Authorizes funding

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

for land acquisition to establish refuges for migratory waterfowl.

Fish and Wildlife Coordination

Provides for protection of fish and wildlife when federal actions

Act (1934)

result in the control or modification of a natural stream or body of

16 U.S.C. 661 et seq.

water. Requires federal agencies to consider the effect that water-

NOAA/National Marine
Fisheries Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

related projects would have on fish and wildlife resources, take action
to prevent loss or damage to these resources, and provide for the
development and improvement of these resources.
Fish and Wildlife Conservation

Authorizes financial and technical assistance to states for development,

Act (1980)

revision, and implementation of conservation plans and programs for

16 U.S.C. 2901 et seq.

nongame fish and wildlife.

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery

Provides for management and conservation of marine fisheries in

Conservation and Management

U.S. federal waters through regional fishery management councils.

Act (1976)

Promotes rebuilding overfished fisheries, protecting essential fish

15 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.

habitat, and reducing bycatch. Mandates the use of annual catch limits
and accountability measures to end overfishing.

115

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

NOAA/National Marine
Fisheries Service

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Title

Description

Marine Mammal Protection

Restricts the taking and importing of marine mammals and marine

Act (1972)

mammal products. Calls for an ecosystem approach to natural resource

16 U.S.C. 1361 et seq.

management and conservation.

Lead Agency(s)
NOAA/National Marine
Fisheries Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service

National Environmental Policy

Requires federal agencies to integrate environmental values into

Act (1969)

their decision-making processes by considering the environmental

42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.

impacts of their proposed actions (including financing) and reasonable

U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency

alternatives to those actions.

National Flood Insurance Act

Established the National Flood Insurance Program to provide protection

(1968)

(insurance) against flood losses and encourage sound land use.

42 U.S.C. 4001 et seq.

Requires communities to participate in the flood insurance program

Federal Emergency
Management Agency

as a condition of future federal financial assistance. Requires the

purchase of flood insurance by property owners who are being assisted
by federal programs or by federally supervised, regulated, or insured
agencies or institutions in the acquisition or improvement of land or
facilities (e.g., mortgages) in special flood hazard areas.
National Historic Preservation

Directs federal agencies to consider the effects of their actions

Act (1966)

(including financing) on historic properties (e.g., districts, buildings,

16 U.S.C. 470 et seq.

structures, sites, or objects) in their decision making.

National Marine Sanctuaries

Authorizes the designation and protection of areas of the marine

Act (1972)

environment with special national significance due to their

16 U.S.C. 1431 et seq.

conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, cultural,

National Park Service

NOAA/National Ocean
Service

archeological, educational, or aesthetic qualities as national marine

sanctuaries.
National Park Service Organic

Established the National Park Service to conserve, promote, and

Act (1916)

regulate the use of federal areas designated as part of the Natural Park

16 U.S.C. 1 et seq.

System.

National Wildlife Refuge

Provides for the administration and management of the national

System Administration Act

wildlife refuge system, including wildlife refuges, areas for the

(1966)

protection and conservation of fish and wildlife threatened with

16 U.S.C. 668dd, 668ee

extinction, wildlife ranges, game ranges, wildlife management areas

National Park Service

U.S. Fish and Wildlife

Service

and waterfowl production areas.

Non-Indigenous Aquatic

Provides for prevention and control of infestations of the coastal

NOAA

Nuisance Prevention and

inland waters of the United States by the zebra mussel and other

U.S. Army Corps of

Control Act (1990)

nonindigenous aquatic nuisance species through ballast water

16 U.S.C. 4701 et seq.

management, research, and financial assistance.

Engineers
U.S. Coast Guard
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service
U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency

116

Adapting to Climate Change

Title

Description

North American Wetlands

Provides for the conservation of North American wetland ecosystems

Conservation Act (1989)

for waterfowl, other migratory birds, fish, and wildlife through a

16 U.S.C. 4401 et seq.

nonregulatory, incentive-based program that encourages public-

Lead Agency(s)
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

private partnerships and provides financial assistance for projects.

Resource Conservation and

Authorizes control of hazardous waste generation, transportation,

Recovery Act (1976)

treatment, storage, and disposal. Establishes a framework for the

42 U.S.C. 6901 et seq.

management of nonhazardous solid waste.

Rivers and Harbors

Prohibits navigational obstructions, including alteration (e.g.,

Appropriation Act (1899)

excavation and fill) of the course, location, condition, or capacity of any

33 U.S.C. 401 et seq.

navigable water of the United States. Regulates the construction of

U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency

U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers

wharves, piers, jetties, bulkheads, and similar structures in ports, rivers,

canals, or other areas used for navigation.
Robert T. Stafford Disaster

Established the process through which the federal government

Relief and Emergency

provides assistance to state and local governments to alleviate the

Assistance Act (1974)

suffering and damage which result from disasters. Encourages and

42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.

provides funding for hazard mitigation and requires state and local

Federal Emergency
Management Agency

hazard mitigation plans for some types of assistance.

Safe Drinking Water Act

Authorized establishment of national health-based standards to protect

(1974)

drinking water and its sources: rivers, lakes, reservoirs, springs, and

42 U.S.C. 300f et seq.

ground water wells.

Water Resources

Authorizes funding for water-related projects, including beach

Development Act (multiple

nourishment, clean water, and flood control programs.

U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency

U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers

years)
33 U.S.C. 2201 et seq.
Watershed Protection and

Authorizes technical and financial assistance to state and local

Flood Prevention Act (1954)

governments for planning and installing watershed projects to address

Natural Resources

16 U.S.C. 1001 et seq.

natural resource issues such as flooding and sedimentation.

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

Established the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System to protect

(1968)

and preserve rivers that possess scenic, recreational, geologic, fish

16 U.S.C. 1271 et seq.

and wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values as well as their

National Park Service

immediate environments.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Conservation Service

Bureau of Land
Management

U.S. Forest Service

117

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

Executive Orders
Title

Description

Executive Order 11988 Floodplain

Directs federal agencies to provide leadership and take action to reduce the risk of flood loss; to

Management (1977)

minimize the impact of floods on human safety, health, and welfare; and to restore and preserve

Codified under 42 U.S.C. 4321

the natural and beneficial values served by floodplains by evaluating the potential effects of any
actions (federally conducted, approved, or funded) they may take in a floodplain and avoiding
harm where practicable.

Executive Order 11990 Protection of

Directs federal agencies to provide leadership and take action to minimize the destruction, loss,

Wetlands (1977)

or degradation of wetlands and to preserve and enhance the natural and beneficial values of

Codified under 42 U.S.C. 4321

wetlands by evaluating the potential effects of any actions (federally conducted, approved, or
funded) they may take in a wetland and avoiding harm where practicable.

Executive Order 12898 Environmental

Directs federal agencies to make achieving environmental justice part of their missions by

Justice (1994)

identifying and addressing disproportionately high and adverse human health or environmental

Codified under 42 U.S.C. 4321

effects of its programs, policies, and activities on minority and low-income populations.

Executive Order 13089 Coral Reef

Established the United States Coral Reef Task Force to lead U.S. efforts to preserve and protect

Protection (1998)

coral reef ecosystems. Directs federal agencies to ensure, to the extent practicable, that actions

Codified under 16 U.S.C. 6401

they authorize, fund, or carry out do not degrade these ecosystems.

Executive Order 13112 (1999)

Established the Invasive Species Council. Requires federal agencies to address invasive species

Codified under 42 U.S.C. 4321

concerns and to not authorize or carry out new actions that would cause or promote the
introduction of invasive species to minimize the economic, ecological, and human health
impacts that invasive species cause.

Executive Order 13158 Marine Protected

Established the Marine Protected Areas Center. Directs federal agencies to work with

Areas (2000)

government and nongovernmental partners to increase protection and sustainable use of ocean

Codified under 16 U.S.C 1431

resources by strengthening and expanding a national system of marine protected areas (MPA).
Directs federal agencies to avoid harm to MPAs through the actions they authorize, fund, or carry
out.

Executive Order 13514

Requires agencies to participate in the interagency Climate Change Adaptation Task Force to

Federal Leadership in Environmental,

develop a U.S. strategy for adaptation to climate change and approaches through which the

Energy, and Economic Performance

policies and practices of the agencies can be made compatible with and reinforce the strategy.

(2009)
Executive Order 13547 Stewardship of

Establishes a national policy to ensure the protection, maintenance, and restoration of the health

the Ocean, Our Coasts, and the Great

of ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes ecosystems and resources, enhance the sustainability of ocean

Lakes (2010)

and coastal economies, preserve our maritime heritage, support sustainable uses and access,
provide for adaptive management to enhance our understanding of and capacity to respond to
climate change and ocean acidification, and coordinate with our national security and foreign
policy interests.

118

Adapting to Climate Change

Appendix C: Regional
Climate Change Summaries
Projections of future climate change can be made with
increased confidence at the regional level as climate
modeling and downscaling capabilities continue to
improve. However, changes in precipitation are more
difficult to project than changes in temperature.
Confidence in projected changes is also higher for the
winter and spring seasons than for the summer and fall.
Furthermore, average temperature changes are not as
important as the projected increases of the minimum
and maximum temperature. All regions will continue to
experience considerable decadal variation due to events
such as El Nio.
With these points in mind, this appendix summarizes
regional, climate-related changes that have been
observed over the twentieth century or are projected to
occur at some time during or by the end of the twentyfirst century. These results have been excerpted from
the U.S. Global Change Research Programs Global
Climate Change Impacts in the United States, (Karl et al.
2009), unless otherwise indicated.

Northeast (Maine to Virginia)

The following changes in climatic conditions have been
observed in the Northeast:
Since 1970, the average air temperature has
increased by 2F; the rise in temperature during
the winter was 4F.
Days with temperatures over 90F have become
more frequent.
An increasing trend in precipitation has been
observed throughout much of the year and,
most notably, over the last 50 years, the number
of days with very heavy precipitation has
increased.

119

Winter precipitation has come more typically

as rain rather than as snow, leading to reduced
snowpack.
Winter ice is disappearing earlier from lakes and
rivers, and river flows are peaking earlier in the
spring as the snow melts.
Average sea surface temperature levels have
been increasing in the North Atlantic.
In the mid-Atlantic region from New York to
North Carolina, rates of relative sea level rise
ranged between 2.4 and 4.4 mm/year (~.094
and .173 in) or about .3 m (~11.8 in) over the
twentieth century (CCSP 2009c); low-lying
topography and a high storm frequency make
this area particularly vulnerable.
The following climate-related changes are projected for
the Northeast:
Air temperature will rise an additional 2.5 to
4F in winter and 1.5 to 3.5F in summer over
the next several decades.
Under a higher emissions scenario, by late this
century:
The summer heat would occur three weeks
earlier and end three weeks later and the
average number of days above 100F for
certain cities would increase,
Short-term droughts are projected to occur
as frequently as once each summer in the
Catskill and Adirondack Mountains and
across the New England states, and
Winters will be shorter with fewer cold
days, more precipitation, and a reduced
snow season.
Severe flooding due to sea level rise and heavy
downpours is likely to occur more frequently.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

The densely populated coasts of the Northeast

face substantial increases in the extent and
frequency of storm surge, coastal flooding,
erosion, property damage, and loss of wetlands.
As the average temperatures of the ocean
continue to increase, the center of lobster
fisheries is projected to continue its northward
shift and the cod fishery on Georges Bank is
likely to be diminished.

Southeast (includes Gulf of Mexico States)

The following changes in climatic conditions and
impacts have been observed in the Southeast:
Since 1970, the annual average temperature
has risen about 2F, with the greatest change
occurring during the winter.
The number of freezing days has declined by
four to seven days per year for most of the
region since the mid-1970s.
Since 1901, there has been a 30 percent
increase in precipitation during the fall (except
in southern Florida). Summer and winter
precipitation declined.
There has been an increase in heavy downpours
in many parts of the region.
The percentage of the region experiencing
moderate to severe drought increased over the
past three decades.
Barrier islands are losing land at an increasing
rate, reducing their protective function.
The destructive potential of Atlantic hurricanes
has increased since 1970, correlated with an
increase in sea surface temperature. A similar
relationship with the frequency of landfalling
hurricanes has not been established.
An increase in average summer wave heights
along the U.S. Atlantic coastline since 1975
has been attributed to a progressive increase in
hurricane power.

The following climate-related changes are projected for

the Southeast:
Quality of life will be affected by increasing
heat stress, water scarcity, and severe weather
events.
Warming in all seasons will continue and the
rate of warming will increase through the end
of the century.
The greatest increases in temperature are
expected in the summer, and the number of
very hot days will increase at a greater rate than
the average temperature.
Average temperatures are projected to rise
from between 4.5F to about 9F by the 2080s,
depending upon the degree to which emissions
are controlled.
Higher temperatures will lead to an increased
frequency, intensity, and duration of drought
across the region.
An increase in average sea level of up to two
feet or more and the likelihood of increased
hurricane intensity and associated storm
surge are likely to be among the most costly
consequences of climate change for this region.
The intensity of Atlantic hurricanes is likely
to increase this century with higher peak wind
speeds, rainfall intensity, and storm surge.
Increased intensity will further affect low-lying
coastal ecosystems and coastal communities
along the Gulf and South Atlantic coastal
margin; increase inland and coastal flooding,
coastal erosion rates, wind damage to coastal
forests, and wetland loss; and exacerbate the
risk to people, personal property, and public
infrastructure.
More frequent storm surge flooding and
permanent inundation of coastal ecosystems
and communities is likely in some low-lying
areas, particularly along the central Gulf Coast
where the land surface is sinking.
The salinity of estuaries, coastal wetlands, tidal
rivers, and shallow aquifers is likely to increase.

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Adapting to Climate Change

Ecological thresholds are expected to be

crossed throughout the region, causing major
disruptions to ecosystems and to the benefits
they provide to people.
Decreased water availability due to increased
temperature and longer periods of time
between rainfall events, in addition to an
increase in demand, is very likely to affect the
regions economy as well as its natural systems.

Midwest (Great Lakes)

The following changes in climatic conditions have been
observed in the Midwest in recent decades:
Average temperatures have increased,
particularly during the winter.
Precipitation in summer and winter has been
above average for the last three decades, the
wettest period in a century.
Heavy downpours are twice as frequent as they
were a century ago, and two record-breaking
floods occurred in the past 15 years.
There has been a decrease in lake ice
throughout the region and in the Great Lakes.
The following climate-related changes are projected for
the Midwest:
Heat waves are expected to be more frequent,
severe, and longer lasting.
Precipitation is expected to increase in
winter and spring and to become more
intense throughout the year, leading to more
pronounced flooding/runoff conditions.
The likelihood of drought will increase in the
summer, with water levels declining in rivers,
streams, and wetlands.
Great Lake levels are expected to fall no more
than a foot under a lower emissions scenario
and between one and two feet under a higher
emissions scenario. The greater the temperature
rise, the higher the likelihood of a larger
decrease in lake levels. There are also potential
impacts on beaches, coastal ecosystems,
dredging requirements, infrastructure, and
shipping.
121

Stratification of lake waters will occur earlier

and for longer periods during the summer,
increasing the risk of oxygen-poor or oxygenfree dead zones that kill fish and other living
things.
Aquatic ecosystem disruptions are likely to
be compounded by invasions by non-native
species. Native species are expected to decline.

Southwest
The following changes in climatic conditions have been
observed in the Southwest:
The average temperature in the Southwest has
increased about 1.5F compared to a 1960-1979
baseline period.
As of 2009, much of the region remained in
a drought that began around 1999; the most
severe western drought in the last 110 years,
which has been exacerbated by record warming.
Precipitation generally decreased during the
summer and fall in the Southwest, while winter
and spring have had increases in precipitation.
The following climate-related changes are projected for
the Southwest:
By 2100, the average annual temperature is
expected to rise from about 4 to 10F above the
19601979 baseline period; summer temperature
increases are expected to be greater than the
annual average increase in some areas.
There is an increased probability of drought.
Increased flood risk in the Southwest is likely
to result from a combination of decreased
snow cover on the lower slopes of high
mountains and an increased fraction of winter
precipitation falling as rain and therefore
running off more rapidly. The increase in rain
on snow events will also result in rapid runoff
and flooding.
Changes in the timing and amount of river flow
during the winter and spring in the SacramentoSan Joaquin River Delta is expected to double
the risk of flooding by mid-century and
increase it by a factor of eight by 2100.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

There is presently no consensus on how the

regions summer monsoon (rainy season) might
change in the future.
Limitations imposed on water supply by
projected temperature increases are likely to
be made worse by substantial reductions in
rain and snowfall in the spring months, when
precipitation is most needed to fill reservoirs to
meet summer demand.

Northwest
The following changes in climatic and related
conditions have been observed in the Northwest:
The region experienced an average temperature
increase of 1.5F over the last century, with
some areas having an average increase of up to
4F.
Higher cool season temperatures have resulted
in more precipitation falling as rain rather than
snow and leading to an earlier snowmelt.
The April 1 snowpack has declined
substantially throughout the region. The
average decline in the Cascade Mountains was
about 25 percent over the past 40 to 70 years,
with most of this due to the 2.5F increase in
cool season temperatures over that period.
The timing of the peak spring runoff has been
shifting over the past 50 years with the peak of
spring runoff shifting from a few days earlier in
some places to as much as 25 to 30 days earlier
in others.
A low oxygen dead zone off the coast of
Washington and Oregon is believed to be
driven by climate change.
Ocean acidification is occurring along the
Northwest coast.
The following climate-related changes are projected for
the Northwest:
Temperatures are projected to increase another
3 to 10F by 2100.
Increases in winter precipitation and decreases
in summer precipitation are projected, though
these projections are less certain than those for
temperature.

Heavier winter rainfall suggests an increase

in saturated soils and, therefore, an increased
number of landslides on coastal bluffs, which
will be especially problematic in areas where
there has been intensive development on
unstable slopes. Sea level rise will exacerbate
these conditions.
Further declines in the regions snowpack
are expected, with variations due to latitude,
elevation, and proximity to the coast. A decline
in the April 1 snowpack in the Cascades of 40
percent is projected by the 2040s.
The trend in the earlier timing of the peak
spring runoff is projected to continue, with
shifts anticipated of 20 to 40 days. However,
major shifts in the timing of runoff are not
expected in areas dominated by rain instead of
snow.
Extreme high and low streamflows are also
projected to change. Increased winter rainfall
is expected to lead to more flooding in some
areas, and low flows in the late summer are
projected to decrease further.
Sea level rise along vulnerable coastlines will
result in increased erosion and the loss of land.
Some areas in the Northwest are experiencing
falling sea levels due to uplift. A mid-range
estimate of 13 inches by 2100 has been made
for the Puget Sound basin.
Salmon and other coldwater species will
experience additional stresses as a result of
rising water temperatures and declining summer
streamflows.

Alaska
The following changes in climatic conditions and
impacts have been observed in Alaska:
Higher temperatures are contributing to earlier
spring snowmelt, reduced sea ice, widespread
glacier retreat, and permafrost warming.
Between 1970 and 2000, the snow-free season
increased by approximately 10 days across
Alaska, primarily due to earlier snowmelt in the
spring.
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Adapting to Climate Change

Increased evaporation, combined with thawing

of permafrost, has resulted in declines in the
area of closed-basin lakes over the past 50
years.
Increasing storm activity in autumn in recent
years has delayed or prevented barge operations
that supply coastal communities with fuel.
High-wind events have become more frequent
along the western and northern coasts. The
same regions are experiencing increasingly
long sea-ice-free seasons and hence longer
periods during which coastal areas are especially
vulnerable to wind and wave damage.
Coastal erosion is causing the shorelines of
some areas to retreat at average rates of tens of
feet per year. The ground beneath several native
communities is literally crumbling into the sea.
The rate of erosion along Alaskas northeastern
coastline has doubled over the past 50 years.
The Bering Sea pollock fishery has experienced
major declines in recent years.
The following climate-related changes are projected for
Alaska:
Average annual temperatures in Alaska are
projected to rise about 3.5 to 7F by the middle
of this century and 5 to 13F by the end of the
century.
Higher temperatures are expected to continue
to reduce Arctic sea ice coverage, which will
increase coastal erosion and flooding associated
with coastal storms and alter the timing and
location of plankton blooms, which is expected
to drive major shifts of marine species.
Storm activity is expected to increase in the
Bering Sea. An increase in the frequency and/
or intensity of Arctic Ocean storms is also
expected.
Increases in evaporation due to higher air
temperatures are expected to lead to drier
conditions overall and an increased likelihood
of summer drought.

123

Marine ecosystems will experience continued

perturbations, including northward shifts,
with consequences for the commercial fishery
and for the food supplies of indigenous
populations.

Islands
While changes in temperature and sea level have been
observed for several decades, the following climaterelated changes are projected for the Pacific and
Caribbean islands:
Air and ocean surface temperature are expected
to increase.
The number of heavy rain events is very likely
to increase.
In the Pacific islands, the rainy season may shift
from winter to summer.
In the Caribbean, total annual precipitation will
decline, particularly under higher emissions
scenarios.
Hurricane (typhoon) wind speeds and rainfall
rates are likely to increase with continued
warming.
Islands and other low-lying coastal areas will
be at increased risk from coastal inundation
due to sea level rise and storm surge, with
major implications for coastal communities,
infrastructure, natural habitats, and resources.
The availability of freshwater is likely to be
reduced, with significant implications for island
communities, economies, and resources.

A Planning Guide for State Coastal Managers

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Photo Credits
Cover (left to right):
NOAA
FEMA, Patsy Lynch
U.S. Global Change Research Program
NOAA
FEMA, Crystal Payton
Page 1: NOAA
Page 3: FEMA, Crystal Payton
Page 4: U.S. Global Change Research Program
Page 5: NOAA
Page 7: NOAA
Page 12: NOAA
Page 13: Michigan Sea Grant, Mark Breederland
Page 14: NOAA
Page 16: NOAA
Page 17: Chesapeake NEMO
Page 20: Chesapeake NEMO
Page 24: Chesapeake NEMO
Page 26: NOAA
Page 27: NOAA
Page 30: NOAA
Page 32: FEMA, Liz Roll
Page 35: NOAA
Page 39: NOAA
Page 45: NOAA
Page 46: NOAA
Page 47: FEMA, Robert Kaufmann
Page 52: FEMA, Marvin Nauman
Page 56: USGS
Page 57: The Nature Conservancy/NOAA
Page 58: NOAA
Page 66: Chesapeake NEMO
Page 67: FEMA, Dave Saville
Page 68: Maryland Coastal Bays Program
Page 69: NOAA
Page 70: FEMA, Patsy Lynch
Page 72: NOAA
Page 73: FEMA, Patsy Lynch
Page 74: FEMA
Page 75: FEMA, Yonah Walter

Page 76: FEMA, Robert Kaufmann

Page 77: U.S. Global Climate Change Research Program
Page 78: USACE
Page 79: NOAA
Page 80: USGS
Page 81: NOAA
Page 82: FEMA, Andrea Booher
Page 83: USFWS
Page 84: USACE
Page 86: NOAA
Page 87: NOAA
Page 89: USACE
Page 90: NOAA
Page 91: Mississippi Department of Marine Resources
Page 92: NOAA
Page 93: EPA
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Page 95: NOAA
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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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