2 nd.

Edition

Disaster
Assessment

Disaster Management Training Programme

Disaster
Assessment
2nd Edition

Module prepared by: R.S. Stephenson, Ph.D..

DHA
Disaster Management Training Programme

1994

Disaster
Assessment

This training module has been funded by the United Nations Development
Programme in collaboration with the Office of the United Nations Disaster
Relief Coordinator for the Disaster Management Training Programme
(DMTP) in association with the University of Wisconsin Disaster
Management Center.
Parts of this module include material from draft texts of internal UNDP /
UNDRO assessment guidelines. The module also draws directly on
assessment guidelines developed for OFDA and UNICEF. The concepts in
this module owe much to the work of Fred Cuny, Mishael Lechat, Claude de
Ville de Goyet, Randolph Kent, Franklin MacDonald, Ron Ockwell, John
Seaman, Giles Whitcomb, and staff members of UNDRO.
The text was reviewed by: Ron Ockwell and Jose Luis Zeballos M.D.,PAHO.
Editorial services, including design, educational components and formatting,
have been provided by Inter Works. Design consultation and desktop
publishing have been provided by Artifax.
Cover Photo: Polish helicopter used for reconnaissance flights to identify
suitable zones for air drops in Ethiopia. Photo by:RRC/Ethiopia

The first edition of this module was printed in 1991. Utilization and duplication of the
material in this module is permissible; however, source attribution to the
Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP) is required.

PART

CONTENTS
UN reorganization and the DMTP............................................................................6
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 7
PART 1 An overview of disaster assessment.....................................................9
An overview of disaster assessment .................................................................... 9
Assessment as an aid to decision-making .......................................................... 12
Collecting assessment data in disasters ............................................................. 15
CASE STUDY .................................................................................................... 19
PART 2 Practical insights on conducting assessments..................................21
General guidelines on factors contributing to success in
disaster assessments ......................................................................................... 21
Practical guidelines on assessment in sudden onset emergencies .................... 24
CASE STUDY .................................................................................................... 29
Practical guidelines on assessments in slow onset emergencies ....................... 33
CASE STUDY .................................................................................................... 34
PART 3 The role of the UN in relation to assessments....................................37
UN agency representatives ................................................................................ 37
Key elements of the resident coordinators early disaster role ............................ 39
The role of the resident coordinator as relief activity develops ............................ 41
Reporting assessment information ..................................................................... 42
Formulating and screening requests for international assistance ....................... 42
PART 4 Preparedness planning for emergency assessment..........................45
Assessment systems .......................................................................................... 45
Summary ............................................................................................................ 50
Annex 1: Acronyms ............................................................................................ 51
Annex 2: Resource list ........................................................................................ 53
Module Evaluation.................................................................................................55

Disaster
Assessment

United Nations reorganization and the

Disaster Management Training Programme
Since this module was written, there have been reorganization within the United Nations
system. This section describes these organizational changes and explains the expanded role of
the United Nations in Disaster Management.
In December 1991 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted resolution 46/182*
establishing the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA) in order to strengthen the
coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations and ensure
better preparation for, as well as rapid and well-coordinated response to complex
humanitarian emergencies as well as sudden and natural disasters. The Department
incorporates the former UNDRO as well as former UN emergency units for Africa, Iraq and
South-East Asia. The Secretariat for the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
(IDNDR) also forms part of the Department.
With regard to complex emergencies, DHA often operates in the grey zone where security,
political and humanitarian concerns converge. Policy planning and policy coordination are
performed in New York, where DHA works closely with the deliberative organs of the United
Nations and with the political, financial and economic departments of the Secretariat.
The Geneva Office (DHA-Geneva ) concentrates its activities on the provision of emergency
operational support to governments and UN operational entities. It is also responsible for the
coordination of international relief activities related to disaster mitigation. It continues to
handle the UN systems response to all natural disasters.
An Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) chaired by the Under-Secretary-General for
Humanitarian Affairs has been established pursuant to General Assembly resolution 46/182.
It associates non-governmental organizations, UN organizations, as well as the International
Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red
Crescent Societies (IFRC). The Executive heads of these agencies meet regularly to discuss
issues relating to humanitarian emergencies. An inter-agency secretariat for the IASC has also
been established Within DHA.
Several Special Emergency Programmes (SEP) have been organized within the Department,
including the Special Emergency Programme for the Horn of Africa (SEPHA), the Drought
Emergency in Southern Africa Programme (DESA), the Special Emergency Programme for the
New Independent States (SEP-NIS), as well as the United Nations Office for the Coordination
of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan (UNOCHA).
DHA promotes and participates in the establishment of rapid emergency response systems
which include networks of operators of relief resources, such as the International Search and
Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG). Special attention is given to activities undertaken to
reduce the negative impact of sudden disasters within the context of the International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
The Disaster Management Training Programme (DMTP), which was launched in the early
1990s, is jointly managed by DHA and UNDP, with support from the Disaster Management
Center of the University of Wisconsin, on behalf of an Inter-Agency Task Force. It provides a
framework within which countries and institutions (international, regional and national)
acquire the means to increase their capacity-building in emergency management in a development
context.
Copy is included in The Overview of Disaster Management Module.

PART

Disaster
Assessment

INTRODUCTION
Purpose and scope
This training module, Disaster Assessment, is designed to introduce
this aspect of disaster management to an audience of UN organization
professionals who form disaster management teams, as well as to
government counterpart agencies, NGOs and donors. This training is
designed to increase the audiences awareness of the nature and
management of disasters, leading to better performance in disaster
preparedness and response.
The content has been written by experts in the field of disaster management and in general follows the UNDP/UNDRO Disaster Management Manual
and its principles, procedures, and terminology. However, terminology in
this field is not standardized and authors from different institutions may use
the same terms in slightly different ways.

Overview of this module

Disaster assessment is the gathering and analysis of information pertinent to
disasters and disaster response. The scope of the information required covers
factual details of the hazard event causing the disaster, the needs of those
affected, and the available resources for responding to those needs.
The assessment process extends from preparedness activities and the
pre-disaster warning phase through the emergency phase and even into the
rehabilitation and recovery of the community. As the needs of the community change through these phases, the objectives of the ongoing assessment
change as well.
Part One of this module clarifies the assessment process and charts the
changing objectives of assessment through the various phases of a disaster
and relates these assessment activities to the decision making process.
Part Two provides practical guidelines for the collection of accurate and
usable data during the various phases of a disaster and gives specific insights
to the differing assessment needs required by different disaster types.
Part Three of the module addresses the role of the UN in disaster
assessment.
Part Four discusses the preparedness planning measures which
must be in place prior to a disaster to facilitate rapid and accurate assessment
when required.

Disaster
Assessment

Training methods
This module is intended for two audiences, the self-study learner and the
participant in a training workshop. The following training methods are
planned for use in workshops and are simulated in the accompanying
training guide. For the self-study learner the text is as close to a tutor as
can be managed in print.
Workshop training methods include:
group discussions
simulations/role plays
supplementary handouts
videos
review sessions
self-assessment exercises
The self-study learner is invited to use this text as a workbook. In
addition to note-taking in the margins, you will be given the opportunity
to stop and examine your learning along the way through questions included in the text. Write down your answers to these questions before
proceeding to ensure that you have captured key points in the text.

PART

PART

AN O
VER
VIEW OF
OVER
VERVIEW
DISASTER ASSESSMENT
This part of the module is designed to enhance your understanding of:
the role of assessment in disaster management
the steps in the assessment process
how the objectives of assessment evolve over the course of the
recovery from a disaster
different data collection methodologies suitable for assessment

An overview of disaster assessment

Assessment is the process of determining:
the impact which a hazard has had on a society
the needs and priorities for immediate emergency measures to save
and sustain the lives of survivors
the resources available
the possibilities for facilitating and expediting longer-term recovery
and development
Assessment is a crucial management task which contributes directly to
effective decision-making, planning and control of the organized response.
Assessment of needs and resources is required in all types of disasters,
whatever the cause and whatever the speed of onset. Assessment will be
needed during all the identifiable phases of a disaster, (see fig.1),from the
start of emergency life-saving, through the period of stabilization and
rehabilitation and into the long-term recovery, reconstruction and return to
normalcy. The focus of assessment and the strategies for data collection and
interpretation will need to change as the response evolves.
EPISODES AND ACTIVITIES IN RELATION TO THE RISKS
AND OCCURENCE OF SUDDEN DISASTERS

FIGURE 1

Disaster
Assessment

Figure 2 identifies how the objectives of assessment evolve as the

recovery process proceeds.

EVOLVING OBJECTIVES OF ASSESSMENT

Warning Phase
FIGURE 2

Determine extent to which affected populations are taking

measures to protect lives and facilities from expected hazard impact
Activate arrangements in the preparedness plan regarding the
implementation of assessment

Emergency Phase
Confirm the reported emergency and estimate the overall
magnitude of the damage
Identify, characterize and quantify populations at risk in
the disaster
Help to define and prioritize the actions and resources needed
to reduce immediate risks
Identify local response capacity, including organizational,
medical and logistic resources
Help anticipate future serious problems
Help manage and control the immediate response

Rehabilitation Phase
Identify the priorities of the affected people
Identify the policies of the government with regard to
post-disaster assistance
Estimate the additional support required from national and
international sources for relief and recovery
Monitor the outcome and effectiveness of continuing relief and
rehabilitation measures

Recovery Phase
Determine the damage to economically significant resources and its
implications for development policy
Assess the impact of the disaster on current development programs
Identify new development opportunities created by the disaster

10

Information, on the other hand, is useful data. Data become

information when they are meaningful, relevant and understandable to
particular people at particular times and places, for particular purposes.
What is information to one person may simply be useless data to another. A
major challenge in assessment is to sort out useless, irrelevant and
contradictory data to make sure that analysis is done based on the best
possible information.

PART

In introducing this subject, it is useful to distinguish between the terms

data and information: data are simply units of information including
perceptions, numbers, observations, facts or figures. It is frequently said that
we live in a time of too much data and that we are often in a data overload
situation. Data sometimes conflict with one another, for example, when two
individuals report widely differing perceptions of the same event.

AN O
VER
VIEW
OVER
VERVIEW
OF DISASTER
ASSESSMENT

DATA

The term indicator is widely used in assessment. An indicator is a

small set of data, which is usually easy or cost-effective to collect, highly
correlated with other data and from which much useful and trustworthy
conclusions can be derived quickly.
Assessments must be carefully planned and managed. A sequence of
activities is involved and each must be planned in detail. The following
activities typically constitute the assessment process:
Identify information needs and sources of reliable data
Collect data
Analyze and interpret data
Report conclusions, forecast and alternatives to appropriate planners
and decision-makers

INFORMATION

THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS

Identify information,
needs and resources

Design/modify disaster response

Collect data

FIGURE 3

Report conclusions

Analyze and interpret

11

Disaster
Assessment

As the response actions begin to influence events, assessments become

part of the monitoring and control loop, allowing those involved to monitor
outcomes and attempt to correct the response. It becomes part of a continuing process of assessment, review and correction by which those managing
the operation begin to restore the framework for survival and recovery.

Q. What are the main purposes for disaster assessment?

A.

Assessment is the
process by which
decision-makers begin
to bring order to the
chaos that results
from a disaster.

Assessment as an aid to decision-making

Assessment is the process by which decision-makers begin to bring order to
the chaos that results from a disaster. Assessment activities provide data to
emergency decision-makers and those involved in longer-term recovery
planning. It is done for a specific user or group of users who must decide
how best to allocate available and pledged resources for relief and recovery.
The decision-making context varies greatly depending on the country
involved, the disaster type and the phase of the emergency. Nonetheless, at
least two aspects of the context, i.e. the cast of characters and the decision
making scenario, are always present.

Relief actors
There is always a cluster of relief actors. They include:
The survivors
The government of the affected country-its ministries, agencies,
political figures and civil servants
The United Nations agencies-including national and international
headquarters offices
Inter-governmental organizations
Donor governments and their local representatives
International and national NGO representatives
The national and international news media

12

Increasingly, those participating in important decisions may not even be

present within the country. With the emergence of sophisticated telecommunications, officials at centers thousands of miles from the affected area
can be drawn quickly into the decision-process and can share much of the
data that are available to national officials. With rapidly growing satellite
coverage, relief actors are also now exposed to extensive live news coverage
by highly mobile television crews from the international TV networks.

Decision-making scenario
From the start of the emergency onwards, all the actors will be jointly or
separately involved in a decision-making process which includes three
stages:
Phase 1 situation assessment
Phase 2 choosing objectives and
identifying alternative means
of accomplishing them
Phase 3 developing and implementing
response plans

PART

Each of these will have different perceptions of the disaster and their role
in the recovery effort. Each will have different information needs and will
seek to meet these needs in different ways. Information that is meaningful
and useful to one group may be wholly irrelevant to another. Many agencies
will have a limited understanding of other groups requirements and
resources.

AN O
VER
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OVER
VERVIEW
OF DISASTER
ASSESSMENT

A good system
should pay
particular attention
to the emerging expressed priorities of
the affected people
themselves and
identify the resources
of the survivors and
their coping levels.

This process will be most intense and explicit during the emergency phase,
but will continue in some form through all the phases of the recovery
process.

Situation assessment
Early in all emergencies, but especially in rapid onset disasters or sudden population influxes as a result of civil-conflict, there will be great
uncertainty about what the problems actually are. These uncertainties
include: the area affected, the numbers of people requiring immediate
help, the levels of damage to services and life-lines, the level of continuing or emerging threat and the possibilities for providing help.
In all kinds of emergencies decision-makers will need to start by
building up a picture of where people are, what condition they are in, what
their needs are, what services are still available and what resources have
survived. A good system should pay particular attention to the emerging expressed priorities of the affected people themselves and identify the resources of the survivors an their coping levels. This overall picture is built up
from assessment data collected by officials within the area, from survey
teams on the ground, or from overflights. To a great extent, the quality and
quantity of that data will reflect the level of prior planning.

ANSWER (from page 12)

The main purposes of disaster
assessment are: to determine
the impact a hazard has had on
society; determine the needs
and priorities for assistance;
identify resources available;
identify development opportunities; monitor recovery process.

13

Disaster
Assessment

Receipt and handling of data involves three distinct steps:

Assessing the likely value of the data: the reliability of the source and
the likely accuracy of data
Validating incoming data against knowns a validation check
against existing baseline information
Incorporating data into a structured picture of the situation, which
can be displayed graphically, or otherwise reported to those who will
try to make sense of it

Choosing objectives and identifying intervention alternatives

Initially, this stage requires interpretation of the data which highlights the
risks to various populations, together with an attempt to define alternative
means to reduce immediate risks. A detailed understanding of the
general risk pattern in the particular type of emergency and how it may
change is essential. Some general risks frequently present in the
emergency phase are:
Continuing presence of hazard agents secondary flooding, fire,
landslides, extreme cold, chemical pollution, etc.
Loss of lifeline services clean water, waste disposal, medical
treatment
Inadequate supply of emergency clinical medical services
Inadequate supply of essential foods
Effects of severe climatic conditions exacerbated by lack of shelter,
warm clothing or heating fuel
Given adequate information, central decision-makers will also be able to
gauge local response capacity (including government, other groups and the
affected population) and decide how best to use those existing resources over
which they have some control for immediate relief.
A second important element of this stage of decision-making is
forecasting the attempt to develop a set of predictions of the relationship
between needs and resources over time and, in particular, an attempt to
judge whether resources can actually be made available in time to deal with
particular problems before their importance fades Forecasting is particularly
critical early on, when the pattern of need is changing very quickly.
For example, decisions on emergency medical care and search and rescue
during earthquakes are so time-sensitive that even a few hours delay in
the organization of support for a local response can lead to an almost total
waste of resources.

Developing and implementing response plans

In the early phases of a disaster, assessment activities give
decision-makers the information needed to set the objectives and
policies for emergency assistance, to take account of the priorities
of the affected people themselves and to decide how best to use the existing
resources for relief and recovery. The third stage response planning and
implementation involves allocating and scheduling resources including
people, equipment and supplies, first to meet specific relief objectives and
later to fulfill recovery and development goals. During this stage, assessment
provides information on the progress of the recovery highlighting areas
requiring further analysis and intervention.

14

of the disaster decision-making context?

A.

PART

Q. How do the various relief actors contribute to the complexity

AN O
VER
VIEW
OVER
VERVIEW
OF DISASTER
ASSESSMENT

Cultural attitudes and

personal preferences
can greatly influence
the type of data that
an individual or a
team will tend to
focus on.

Collecting assessment data in disasters

Data are collected for a purpose: to improve emergency decisions and to
provide more effective planning of relief and recovery. Data collection is
ongoing. Bad or out of date data can lead to erroneous conclusions and
wasted time and resources. Information must be found when it is needed.
To achieve this, the frequency of data collection and reporting must match
the rate of change in the situation being assessed.
A useful starting point in any data collection exercise is to seek advice
from survey specialists, statisticians and epidemiologists at the planning
stage. Proper design of sampling and survey methods can substantially
increase the accuracy and usefulness of assessment data. Also, cultural
attitudes and personal preferences can greatly influence the type of data
that an individual or team will tend to focus on.
Consideration of local cultural and other social factors at this stage can
help greatly in formulating interview methods and identifying useful
sources of information and, also, in predicting how the people associated
with the system are likely to behave.
There are a range of data collection methods, some of which are most
useful during the emergency phase and others which depend on the
development of more organized assessment procedures. A few can be
applied effectively during all phases of a disaster and its aftermath.
All data collection strategies are subject to problems of bias. Bias is the
degree to which the conclusion drawn from a data observation deviates from
the true situation. Sometimes bias results from asking the wrong question,
sometimes from asking the wrong people and, sometimes, from the biased
perception of the observer or reporter of data.
The following list outlines some of the more common ways of collecting
assessment data in relation to the various phases of the disaster. (Excellent
manuals on conducting detailed assessments have been prepared by the Pan
American Health Organization (PAHO) and the US AID-Office of Foreign
Disaster Assistance (OFDA) and are recommended to the reader.)

The frequency of
data collection and
reporting must match
the rate of change in
the situation being
assessed.

Bias is the degree to

which the conclusion
drawn from data
observation deviates
from the true
situation.

15

Disaster
Assessment

Impact and emergency phase

ANSWER (from page 15)
There are many relief actors;
each has their own assessment
needs and sources of information; actors frequently are not
aware of the data sources and
needs of others.

Automatic early self-assessment and local assessment by key elements in

the system, e.g. staff of lifeline systems. This can involve pre-planned
damage reporting by civil authorities and by military units in accordance
with operational procedures established in the disaster preparedness plan.
Visual inspection and interviews by specialists. Methods can include
overflight, actions by special point-assessment teams including visits
anticipated in the disaster preparedness plan and sample surveys to achieve
rapid appraisal of area damage.

Emergency phase onwards

Sentinel surveillance. This is a method used widely in emergency health
monitoring, where professional staff establish a reporting system which
detects early signs of particular problems at specific sites. The method can be
applied to a variety of other problems where early warning is particularly
important.
Surveying of specific characteristics of affected populations by specialist
teams. Well-designed surveys drawn from reliable and systematic samples
have a number of advantages, especially the relative confidence that may be
attached to data collected using formal statistical sampling methods.
Sampling allows researchers to survey a subset of an affected population and
confidently generalize to the larger population from which the sample was
drawn. There are several different types of sampling methods useful for
conducting assessments:
Simple random sampling: one in which every member of the target
population is equally likely to be selected and where the selection of a
particular member of the target population has no effect on the other
selections.
Systematic random sampling: choosing, for example, every fifth, or tenth
member on a numbered list. This may be wildly inaccurate if the lists are
incomplete or structured in non-random ways.
Stratified random sampling: divide the population into categories (or
strata); then select members from each category by simple or systematic
random sampling; finally combine these to give an overall sample.
Cluster sampling: this restricts the sample to a limited number of
geographical areas, known as clusters; for each of the geographical areas
chosen, select a sample by simple or random sampling; then combine these
sub-samples to get an overall sample.
Note: Decision makers should be aware of sampling error and its implications.
Ensure that reporting procedures are designed to adequately convey estimates of
accuracy and uncertainty.

16

PART

Detailed critical sector assessments by specialist staff. This involves

technical inspections and assessments by experts. It is required in sectors
such as water supply, electric power and other lifeline systems. Critical
sector assessments may be compiled from reports by specialist staff of these
systems or by visit by specialist teams from outside.

AN O
VER
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OVER
VERVIEW
OF DISASTER
ASSESSMENT

Interviews with key informants in government and NGOs and within

particular groups of affected people: local officials, local community leaders
and, especially in food and displacement emergencies, with leaders of
groups of displaced people.
Continuing surveillance by regular polling visits. This again is a
technique which is well-developed in epidemiological surveillance of
casualty care requirements and emergent health problems.

Rehabilitation phase onwards

Continuing surveillance by routine reporting. As the situation develops, it
will be especially useful if routine reporting systems can be adapted to
develop a comprehensive picture of events.
It is worth noting some special features of health surveillance. A major
principle of health operations is to monitor continuously for the emergence
of particular problems and then to focus precise interventions against
demonstrated causes of these problems. A major component is reporting by
medical staff (even in the first hours of sudden emergencies) through an
established system, with simple procedures and an emphasis on easily
detected diagnostic indicators of important problems This is combined with
regular polling visits and detailed local investigation of reports by
specialist professional staff.

Monitoring the quality of assessment data

A both collectors and reviewers of assessment information, UN staff need to
have a clear set of standards for judging data collection systems and their
products. At the preparedness stage, they may be in a position to offer useful
advice and support to host government authorities in the design and
implementation of data-collection and processing systems. During an
emergency, they will be called upon to evaluate the accuracy and usefulness
of data from official sources in-country. Estimating accuracy depends on an
understanding of data gathering methodologies and their limitations and a
clear appreciation of how accuracy can be lost during transmission and
processing. Estimating the usefulness of data requires an understanding of
the ways in which patterns of risk and the corresponding relief priorities
differ from place to place and how these risks change over time in different
kinds of emergencies. It also requires an understanding of donor capabilities
and the ways in which donors act upon incoming information.

Estimating accuracy
depends on an
understanding of
data gathering
methodologies and
their limitations.

Established NGOs (national and international) with development

programs in the affected areas can often give valuable information on local
situations even if they do not have nation-wide information. Churches and
their missions often have extensive long-term local experience. While these
sources of information often prove reliable, the limitations of many NGOs
must also be recognized. The operations and knowledge of NGOs are highly
localized geographically; some have limited numbers of personnel with
17

Disaster
Assessment

Under some
conditions, the UN
may need to confirm
or augment data from
government or other
sources by rapid,
focused assessments
by its own staff.

varying degrees of competence. Not all have systematic and institutionalized data-gathering networks. The information provided is likely to be
variable in quality and precision and should be evaluated in terms of the
experience and proven competence of the organization and individuals
concerned.
Under some conditions, the UN may need to confirm or augment
data from government or other sources by rapid, focused assessments by
its own staff. Donors and key national decision-makers should be consulted
immediately when a separate UN assessment is being proposed. Sections
below detail the general approach to scheduling and prioritizing such
assessments.

Q. Choose two types of data collection methods that are

appropriate for disaster scenarios you might encounter. For each
method indicate (1) what information this particular method is
especially suited to uncover and (2) what the strengths, limitations
and biases of each method are for the scenario you have chosen.

A.

18

PART

CASE STUDY

AN O
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OVER
VERVIEW
OF DISASTER
ASSESSMENT

Famine Early Warning and Relief: Use of Anthropometric Surveillance in Ethiopia

A study conducted by Save the Children Fund of the
UK has produced important findings for drought and
famine preparedness and assessment. The study
argues that in the case of Wollo region of Ethiopia,
where two major droughts have occurred in the last
decade, anthropometric surveillance was a costeffective means of improving early warning, planning , targeting and monitoring. The analysis of data
obtained by the Nutrition Field Worker/Nutritional
Surveillance program (NFW/NSP) suggested that the
mean weight for length (WFL) of children under five
was a valid indicator of access to food and responded
earlier than other widely used indicators, such as
livestock market trends, migration or mortality.
In Wollo, failure of the long rains in mid-1987 was
followed by a period of acute food shortage through
mid- 1988. In September of 1987 when it became clear
that half of the major crop would be lost, NGO and
government agencies began to document the changes
in various indicators in order to program relief
assistance. The relief branch of the Ethiopian government, the Relief and Rehabilitation Commission
(RRC) routinely collected and published information
on rainfall, crop yields, market prices and calculated
needs for relief food based on grain stores, livestock
wealth and unusual population migrations. High
estimates of need projected by the RRC were met
with scepticism by some international agencies. When
the short rain harvest in early 1988 proved to be only
50% of expected, the food deficit estimates rose even
higher.

An analysis showed that indicators such as crop

yields, market trends, livestock sales, WFL, and
migration, when taken alone, were not sufficient to
show the conditions that really existed in the various
awrajas (administrative districts). Each indicator was
capable of only reflecting part, but not all, of the
overall food security picture and did not account for
local differences in coping capacity. Given the
complexities, including the effects of civil conflict on
the area, donors seemed to be waiting for more
information before committing resources. As a result,
many awarajas did not receive relief food early enough
to avoid pronounced signs of food stress in late 1987.
In the beginning of 1988, it became clear that WFL
was declining unusually rapidly and these statistics
independently helped to validate other early warning
information, thus improving donor and NGO response.
Relative to the cost of providing Wollo with 50,000MT
of relief food per year (averaging drought and normal
years), the data collected by NFW/NSP, including
market and other socio-economic data, cost less than
1.5%. The anthropometric surveillance itself adds
less than 1% to the cost and can be justified as long
as the information it produces improves the effectiveness of the relief operations by even a few percent.
Furthermore, the benefits of NFW/NSP or similar
programs are likely to increase over time by
developing a data base and a deeper understanding
of rural cultures and economies. Information obtained
can be used to target assistance and to monitor the
effects of the aid provided.

From: Kelly, Marion, Operational Value of Anthropometric Surveillance in Famine Early Warning and Relief:
Region, Ethiopia, 1987-88, in Disasters, Volume 17, no. 1, p 48-55, March 1993.

19

Disaster
Assessment

NOTES

20

PART

PART

PRA
CTICAL INSIGHTS ON
PRACTICAL
CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS
This part of the module is designed to:
Increase your knowledge of general factors contributing
to successful assessments
Improve your ability to conduct detailed assessments in
sudden onset disasters
Increase your awareness of important aspects of slow onset
disasters that affect the assessment process

General guidelines on factors contributing

to success in disaster assessments
A substantial body of knowledge has been developed over the last decade
which provides guidance on the design and implementation of assessment
systems in the aftermath of a disaster. The following general guidelines have
been abstracted from those sources as well as the experiences of the author
and UN agency officials.

Planning and systems design guidelines

1.

Assessments are generally useful only if there is a system available to

record and collate the data and to assess and disseminate its implications. A pre-established assessment plan is crucial. It should specify
who gathers what data, where and when, who reports what to whom,
how the data can be analyzed, how it can be presented, how assessments
are disseminated and how the results are recorded.

2.

The analyses of assessment data must take account of changes in needs

and changes in resource availability over time. It is crucial to identify the
likely needs at the time when resources will be available.

3.

Planners need to pay close attention to the users of assessment information. Data should be collected to meet specific requirements by a
specific, identified operational individual or unit. Assessments must
teach them in a format they can use (which takes account of the
information load at the time of arrival) and at a time when it is relevant.

4.

The government should designate a person who ensures coordinated

collection and analysis of assessment data.

21

Disaster
Assessment

5.

The qualifications of people chosen to do assessments-their skills

and demonstrated capability to do the job are very important. This is
especially vital where technical teams are chosen to assess life-line
systems serving very large populations.

6.

Specificity in data collection is an important objective. Assessments

should be aimed to help match limited available resources to projected
critical needs.

7.

An important element of emergency assessment is the presence of

background quality control checks on emergency plans and procedures
and, when an emergency occurs, rapid quality checks on the collection,
evaluation and dissemination of data.

8.

Disaster survivors must be consulted and community social structures

and coping mechanisms must be reviewed to assess a communitys own
response to the disaster. External resources should not supplant the
communitys own efforts but, rather, build on them.

Specificity is an
important objective

External resources
should not supplant
the communitys own
efforts but, rather,
build on them.

Operational data collection:

1. As a general rule, focus data collection on the most important areas
of risk to the largest populations.
2. Assessment guidelines should be standardized wherever possible.
3. The barriers to access by assessment teams need to be identified
early as well as means to get around them. This can help in
assigning priorities for access to high value transport resources (for
example aircraft or helicopters) and in scheduling these resources.
4. Existing information collection and reporting systems should be
used as much as possible-especially the health reporting system.
5. A mix of specialists with appropriate skills and experience must be
chosen. Multi-disciplinary teams often see more. It is often useful
to assign an epidemiologist or survey statistician on each local
assessment team from the outset.
6. Formal sampling and survey methods should be used
whenever possible.

Always specify how

data were collected.

7. The source and method of collection, the team and the location,
time and date-of-collection of all data should always be specified.
8. Data should be presented in the formrates and percentagesnot just absolute numbers.
9. Data recording and presentation techniques should be
standardized where possible.

22

PART

PRA
CTICAL INSIGHTS
PRACTICAL
ON CONDUCTING
ASSESSMENTS

Routing, analyzing and reporting assessment data:

1. The communications system which survives the disaster will
determine who actually gets what information. Pay particular
attention in contingency plans to the ways in which assessment
data will be routed back to the assessment center and how to act
quickly to improve communications where appropriate.
2. Incoming assessment data need to be structured to help
with the following:
a) Recognition of situations where decisions are required
b) Formulation of the decision problem, in terms of the needs and
objectives and identification of potential alternatives for action
c) Analysis of the alternatives in terms of their likely impacts
d) Evaluation and selection of a response, by comparing the
alternatives in terms off their predicted outcome
3. All data arriving at an assessment center should be evaluated. In
particular, stress the following procedures to staff of these centers
and all other decision-makers:
a) Cross-check and compare reports from different sources
b) Avoid generalizing from data relating too only one area, one
sector or one part of a population
c) Evaluate assessment data against a baseline, where possible.
Recognize that there will be underlying normal rates of
specific problems which may continue throughout the
emergency.

All data should

be evaluated.

d) Remind analysts and decision makers that assessments may

uncover and highlight problems that were already there, as
well as those generated by the disaster
e) Question and check information that seems unreasonable
f) Seek information actively. Always check why no report has
been received. Dont assume that no report means no problem
g) Update information continuously as needs and priorities
change. Periodically reassess conditions in apparently stable
areas.
4. During planning for assessment and reporting, establish desirable
standards for emergency services-water supply, emergency
medical care and other relief services. Situation assessments and
reports can compare current conditions against these standards.
5. Information should still be relevant by the time it is processed and
disseminated. This, in turn, means that the systems for collecting
and communicating data must operate in real-time, i.e. while the
need for decisions still exists and that the evaluation of the data
must be done while the results are still likely to be meaningful.

23

Disaster
Assessment

Collecting data for future operations:

Some assessment
data may be of more
value after the
emergency than
during it.

In sudden-impact
disasters the key to
effective life-saving
relief is specific,
precisely targeted
interventions against
demonstrated causes
of death.

Some assessment data may be of more value after the emergency that during
it. This is particulary the case for data on mortality rates and associated risk
factors. This information has much less immediate operational value than
data on injury patterns and health problems but may be invaluable later to
shape future strategies for mitigation and preparedness. Ensure that data of
this type is not lost and that its collection receives adequate support.

Q. What are some common problems with data collection systems

for assessments?

A.

Practical guidelines on assessment in sudden

onset emergencies
In addition to the general guidelines described above, the unique attributes
of specific types of hazards have significant implications for the assessment
activities.
In sudden-impact disasters the key to effective life-saving relief is
specific, precisely targeted interventions against demonstrated causes of
death. There is sufficient scientific experience form previous emergencies to
give a good indication of who is most likely to die, of what cause and when.
It is clear that most of the effective interventions are time-critical and, hence,
rely greatly on resources already present in the area and that most can be
pre-planned. There will be insufficient time for extensive or detailed assessment and the organization of large-scale external support. In earthquakes, in
particular, search and rescue and early emergency medical care must rely
substantially on local resources. To give any useful benefit, external help
must involve delivery of very specific packages of aid to reinforce existing
activity. The first external assessment teams should deliver additional emergency stocks of critical items. These may include hand-tools and gloves for
local people engaged in search and rescue and specific medical support for
local hospitals and clinics. Accurate and credible information telling

24

There are three general priorities for early assessments:

Determine location of problems
Determine the magnitude of problems
Determine the immediate priorities
When focussing on these priorities, it is important to have a systematic
approach-assessments should be programmed to ensure that all sectors and
all likely affected areas are covered. Sectors may include:

PART

decision-makers what is not needed can help to reduce the overall

complexity of the logistical response, by excluding at least some useless
materials from the impact area.

PRA
CTICAL INSIGHTS
PRACTICAL
ON CONDUCTING
ASSESSMENTS

Accurate and credible

information telling
decision-makers what
is not needed can help
to reduce the overall
complexity of the
logistical response.

Emergency medical and health

Search and rescue
Damages to lifelines and critical facilities
Shelter and housing needs
Personal and household needs
Agricultural needs
Economic needs
Coordination is complicated by the need to ensure that the relationships
among these sectors are identified. Activities in one sector (health for
example) will be affected substantially by damage in another (to water
supply, electric power or communications). At every stage, assessments will
have to be multi-sectoral in the sense that these linkages are explicitly taken
into account.

Sched7uling of
assessment resources
is helped by having
pre-existing baseline
information on the
affected region.

Coordination of assessment in the very early hours will need effective

scheduling of critical air transport resources. Emergency managers will need
to allocate limited resources among competing demands-helicopters in
particular may be needed early on for both assessment and casualty
transport.
Scheduling of assessment resources is helped by having pre-existing
baseline information on the affected region. This gives emergency
coordinators the option to identify anticipated high loss zones and focus
initial assessment activity on those areas where particular types off problem
are predictable. For example, in tropical storms, maps off the following
vulnerable areas will be important:
Urban low-income neighborhoods
Coastal villages
Villages on flood plains
Villages on steep hillsides
Villages on low-lying river deltas
Villages on barrier islands

MAPS

25

Disaster
Assessment

Q. Why is it important for assessments to be multi-sectoral in

scope? In your answer provide an example of how problems could
result if an assessment were not multi-sectoral.

A.

Assessment activities in the impact and emergency

phases of sudden onset disasters
While the precise approach will depend on the exact type of disaster agent,
in all sudden emergencies a number of immediate actions are required to
establish the framework for overall emergency assessments. High-value
relief resources e.g. helicopters and mobile modern communications teams
should be focused on the following activities during the first few hours.
1.

Establish boundaries of the damage or disrupted zone and the

location of any damage to major urban areas. Use air survey
and/or radio communications with civilian authorities, police
and military units.

2.

Identify transportation blockages on main routes into the

damaged area.

3.

Identify major secondary threats to survivors-dam leakage,

secondary flooding or landslides, damage to chemical plant or fuelstorage fires. Encourage rapid initial assessment and reporting by
operating staff or local units of police or armed forces. Use air surveys
where appropriate.

4.

Assess damage to broadcasting facilities and review additional

coverage required and resources available for broadcasting recovery.
Effective communications with the public will be a major tool for
mobilizing assistance and shaping the overall response.

5.

Assess immediate and critical requirements for support to restore

emergency telecommunications between police, military, fire services
and hospitals in the most damaged areas.

6.

Assign assessment teams first to areas from which no reports have

been received.

ANSWER (from page24)

Some problems with data
collection systems for
assessment are that they:
dont take into account how
data needs change over time
are not targeted at a
specific user
may be too general and not
specific enough for
decision-making
lack back-ground or base-line
data to assess disaster impacts
ignore input of survivors
by-pass existing
information system
not based on reliable sampling
and survey methods

26

Attempt to establish the status of hospitals and clinics in areas affected by sudden impact disasters which are likely to have large numbers
of casualties e.g. in earthquakes: those that are close to the epicenter,
high density of old, multistory structures, narrow streets, high fire
risk or where there is evidence of secondary hazard. Assessments
should follow standard guidelines, which generally cover:

PART

7.

PRA
CTICAL INSIGHTS
PRACTICAL
ON CONDUCTING
ASSESSMENTS

Access to the disaster site

Damage to structure
Availability of essential equipment-X ray,
sterilization, lighting
Availability of essential stocks
Availability of power and water supply
Capacity of system to handle demands
Personnel requirements and availability
8.

Begin regional survey activity aimed at locating isolated and severely

affected communities. Rapid identification of these communities will
usually be needed if medical and other relief assistance is to be
scheduled in time to be effective. Investigate the extent to which field
medical teams are reaching injured people in isolated areas

9.

Investigate the overall adequacy of treatment for injured people in

these areas

10. Attempt to draw up a broad prioritization of areas requiring early

organized search and rescue and, later, intensive search and rescue.
Establish the resources available for organized and intensive
search and rescue in each area
In floods, focus assessment resources particularly on high-density
urban areas especially squatter and other low-income areas; also
high flood-risk areas including deltas, off-shore islands and flashflood risk areas
In earthquakes, focus on urban low-income areas and other areas
with high concentrations of old, multi-story domestic buildings
Be aware that in search and rescue in earthquakes there is
generally accepted to be a major drop in the survival prospects of
trapped victims after about 24 hours
11. Review the condition of data-assessment centers; restore or improve
communications with individuals acting as coordinators; and
reinforce the communications linkages which are operating.
12. Establish the level of damage to air-traffic control, airport runways,
fuel storage, cargo-handling and link routes at airfields nearest to the
impact area.
13. Identify ways of reinforcing the highest priority elements of the local
administrations response. As a general rule, the following criteria
may assist in making a decision:
Are local officials focussing on the highest priority problems first?
Is action concentrated on things the public is not capable of doing
for itself?
Is priority given to restore the services and procedures that will
help members of the public do what they want to do better?
Are people receiving the material items they actually need?
27

Disaster
Assessment

14. Review the governments accessible stockpile of essential items.

Depending on the emergency, these may include plastic sheeting,
building materials, boats and emergency storage facilities. This
review will need accurate up-to-date information on the pre-impact
location of critical resources, including large commercial stocks.
15. Shift priority form assessment of clinical medical requirements to
support for specialists involved in assessment of public health
requirements. Key factors off significance are large-scale population
movements and water supply damage in urban areas.
16. Contact staff of lifeline services for assessment of lifeline system
condition. The usual priority is:
Communications
Water supply
Electric power
Road networks and potential points off blockage
Sewerage systems
17. Critically review requirements for temporary provision of shelter.

Q. Choose three activities from the above list that have not been
sufficiently addressed in assessments that you have experienced.
Describe the consequences.

A.

In-depth assessment during the rehabilitation phase

ANSWER (from page 26)

Problems and opportunities in
one sector influence response
strategies in other sectors.

28

As conditions stabilize, usually after about one week, more in-depth

assessments will be needed. Overall the aim should be to identify gaps and
unmet and emerging needs and to develop more accurate estimates of the
numbers off people requiring assistance and the amounts of materials and
money required. Thereafter, as the disaster recovery continues, assessment
will increasingly fulfil a program monitoring function, providing feedback
to planners on the extent to which detailed implementation targets are
actually being met. The major activities during the rehabilitation phase
include:
Restoration of life-line systems
Safety of the basic infrastructure, hospitals, schools
Critical and strategic industries

PART

CASE STUDY

PRA
CTICAL INSIGHTS
PRACTICAL
ON CONDUCTING
ASSESSMENTS

Assessment in a Sudden Onset Disaster

During 1989, Hurricane Hugo wreaked havoc in the

Caribbean and the southeastern United States.
Damage was widespread throughout the region
affected by this storm. Islands in the Caribbean
were particularly isolated by the storms high winds
and attendant tornados. The Governor of one of the
set of affected island chains conducted the initial
assessment in a flyover. His visual confirmation of
the damage was enough to declare that a major
disaster had occurred. Unfortunately, the formal
assessment process stopped at that point as
authorities were told to determine actual numbers of
affected persons by counting the numbers that
presented themselves for assistance.
The emergency stage was beset by other problems
as well. All of the communications capacity on the
islands, as well as most life-line services, were out
of commission. Added to this problem were reports
of potential civil strife and a growing apparent need
for a police or military presence. Media reports fed
the confusion. Self-reports of survivors were
inaccurate and not trustworthy.

The government and NGOs responding to the

disaster were left with little useful information of
emergency needs. Reports of the amount of
destroyed and damaged housing and other problems
varied widely. Relief providers, unable to systematically plan, developed worst case scenarios to plan
relief. No progress was made in identifying simple
assessment techniques that could provide reliable
information.
Nevertheless, one method of bringing order to the
chaotic situation was tried. Disaster recovery experts
conducted aerial observation by helicopter of
densely populated areas experiencing the most
severe destruction. A simple count of blown-off roof
tops was made. These numbers were aggregated
and produced a satisfactory estimate of damaged
and destroyed housing which also provided guidance
to individuals estimating shelter, medical and food
needs. The actual estimates of damage under this
assessment technique were considerably less than
the scenarios developed when information was
completely unavailable and led to a better planned
response.

29

Disaster
Assessment

Detailed investigations during the rehabilitation phase

will normally need to include:
1. Damage to water distribution systems and estimates of restoration
coverage. The main priority area for investigation will be areas of dense
population and areas where critical or strategic industries rely heavily on
water utilities for operation. Information required will include the
condition of water sources, blockages to intake channels, the condition of
power sources and pumps, the availability of water treatment (including
essential chemicals), the condition of controls and switchgear, damage to
stor-age facilities and details of network damage. Much of this information will be provided directly by the staff of these systems and assessment planning should aim to support them in this task with provision of
transport, help for families and any other support needed.
2. Damage to other critical lifeline systems. These include electrical distribution systems, communications, transport (roads, bridges, railways, airports) and sewerage systems. In each case, the most appropriate sources
of assessment data will usually be the staff of the agency concerned. The
interdependency of these systems should also be recognized during the
analysis of assessments. In each case, assessments should include estimates of the repair resources needed to restore the most important elements of the systems and reports on the actual repair facilities available.
3. Assessments during the rehabilitation stage should also be concerned
with the safety and basic functioning of hospitals, clinics and of school
buildings. In earthquakes particularly, detailed engineering surveys of
hospital buildings should be carried out as soon as possible. During this
stage there may be additional unmet needs in the medical sector which
need to be identified quickly. For example, immediate attention may be
required to attend to the special needs of those who are already disable
and those in the population who are injured in such a way that they risk
becoming permanently disabled as a result of their injuries. People often
do not receive the specialist treatment or rehabilitation needed. Among
the UN agencies, UNICEF, ILO and WHO may be invited to help in
planning how specialist assessments can be made at the first opportunity
and how additional services can be developed. A point to stress is that
there is emerging evidence that in earthquakes, in particular, remedial
treatment of post-traumatic injuries such as joint fractures may need to
begin within days if long-term disability is to be avoided.
4. Additional assessments may be needed to review the coverage of relief
assistance for special groups including bereaved families, handicapped,
injured and the elderly.
5. During this phase, there will be a need to begin surveys of small and
large businesses to estimate recovery needs. The starting point should be
so-called critical industries. The nature of this category depends on the
particular pattern of damage and the interdependencies within the
economy, but is likely to include: sectors upon which major employers
depend for inputs; suppliers of basic needs for large urban populations
(for example, food processing); suppliers of inputs to lifeline systems;
energy industries such as fuel refining; and industries which provide
inputs to repair other important sectors, including cement, ferrous
reinforcement material and other construction items.

30

PART

Q. How does the assessment focus shift during the

PRA
CTICAL INSIGHTS
PRACTICAL
ON CONDUCTING
ASSESSMENTS

rehabilitation phase?

A.

The major activities appropriate for the recovery phase include:

Assessing damage to the social structure
Assessing damage to strategic economic sectors
Linking assessment to development programs
After the first two or three weeks-or perhaps earlier in some casesthere will be a need for surveys to help plan reconstruction. These must
focus not just on damage per se, but on the implications of damage to critical
economic resources for the countrys future development strategy and on the
social impact this will have.
UN agencies and NGOs have a substantial role to play. For example,
bodies like ECLAC can play a coordinating role in linking damage
assessment information with economic policy formulation.
A starting point is the development of a damage information compilation
system. UN agencies will be in a position to work with the national
authorities to build up the systems needed to collect and analyze a wide
range of data on damage and losses to national assets.

Damage information system components

Farm land and crop damage
Livestock losses
Irrigation damage
Fishing assets damage
Roads and bridges
Embankment and flood control
Reservoirs and dams
Harbors and ports
Railways
Electricity supply
Gas supply
Water supply

Housing
Schools
Medical facilities
Telecommunications
Industries by sector
Cultural assets
Dead and missing by
demographic category
Injured, by type of injury
and demographic category
Homeless

31

Disaster
Assessment

Where important cultural or historic monuments have been affected,

consider inviting UNESCOs Division of Cultural Heritage to send expert
staff to assess the extent of damage and recommend the remedial
measures needed.
Of particular concern is the impact of the disaster on populations
involved in marginal or informal economic activity. These include small
traders and shopkeepers, subsistence farmers and small-scale fishermen.
Proportionately, the per capita losses in these groups may be among
the highest.

Of particular concern
is the impact of the
disaster on
populations involved
in marginal or
informal economic
activity.

Additional information will be required on the productivity of specific

industrial sectors, changes in employment trends, information on material
shortages and bottlenecks to production and other interruptions to interindustry flows. Implications for the balance of payments should be a major
focus in some countries, for example, those suffering heavy losses to cash
crops. In general, during this phase the focus of information processing will
shift decisively to the planning institutions within government and to those
international agencies concerned with macro-policy. Information sources
will include industry associations, local planning officials, insurance
companies, banks and investment analysts. A series of formal surveys of
small and large-businesses can provide additional detailed data.
An important role for NGOs and the UN system during this phase is to
identify opportunities for linking on-going reconstruction and development
activities with disaster mitigation: in effect, building in protection against
future disasters during the reconstruction process for the previous one.

Q. What are important objectives of assessment during recovery?

A.

ANSWER

(from page 31)

Assessment shifts from

identifying emergency needs
for life-saving to detailed
assessments the requirements for restoration of lifeline systems and the safety
and functioning of critical
institutions like hospitals

and schools.

32

PART

Practical guidelines on assessments in slow onset

emergencies

PRA
CTICAL INSIGHTS
PRACTICAL
ON CONDUCTING
ASSESSMENTS

Food emergencies, influxes of displaced people and other slow

onset emergencies
In food emergencies-where market instability, widespread loss of
purchasing power or widespread failure of distribution leads to a collapse
of household fool-security-and in the types of large-scale population
displacements caused by war or famine, accurate and reliable assessment is
also a crucial management tool. However, assessment requirements are
shaped by a rather different set of factors:
Lead times for aid can be long. Donors may be unwilling to commit large
amounts of assistance in response to ambiguous information. Reliable
information is needed for forecasting and prediction at a very early stage,
often before many of the problems are visible and this information must be
reported to donor-staff who may be relatively unfamiliar with the affected
area and its problems.

Donors may be
unwilling to commit
large amounts of
assistance in
response to
ambiguous
information.

Efficient distribution of essential food and non-food items is usually a key

factor early on. Matching food requirements to food supply flows along the
transport chain is a crucial element. If the affected population is moving, the
problems caused by population density and inadequate services at points of
concentration will need to be addressed very quickly. Operationally, early
assessments will have to place special emphasis on the needs for implementing rapid immunization against childhood diseases, emergency water
supply, nutritional monitoring, bulk food logistics and the administrative
capacity for implementing fair registration and distribution systems.
In food emergencies, including pre-famine conditions, the initial
requirements are to establish the spatial distribution of the affected
populations, review the condition of various categories of people within that
population and identify groups at special risk. Data required will include:
1. Staple food availability in the areas affected and the prices
of these foods.
2. The availability of alternative foods including wild food.
3. The current nutritional status of these populations.
4. Critical medical/health problems, particularly acute diarrhea
disease and measles.
5. Indicators, where available, of significantly increased death rates
among specific groups.
6. The condition of emergency logistics systems, including transport
capacity, fuel availability and the location and capacity of storage
facilities.
7. The condition of systems for delivering emergency health care,
including measles immunization and the associated cold-chain,
and emergency water supply.
8. Options for income generating projects (refer to the latest operational
manuals of the UN World Food Program for detailed coverage of
these types of projects).
9. Options for alternative projects for enhancing food security. Like the
use of strategic food stocks as a tool for market-price stabilization and
the use of cash as a benefit.
33

Disaster
Assessment

CASE STUDY
Qualitative Assessment of Population Displacement

For many years, Guatemala has been plagued by

civil unrest that has affected mostly the rural Indian
populations of the highland. In 1982, a preliminary
visit to a war-torn northern zone that once was
home to approximately 40,000 people revealed that
the area was virtually uninhabited. But by May of
1982, many former residents had begun to return to
their villages only to find their crops and homes
destroyed and no available medical services. Newly
arriving residents were faced with the prospect of
having to wait at least one full harvest cycle (nine
months) before they could secure food.
Three conclusions were reached: 1) a very large
population was affected but very few outside
agencies knew the extent; 2) there was no
assessment going on; and 3) the little resource
delivery that was taking place was inadequate and
not coordinated. An information base was needed to
begin selecting target areas for relief activity.
In August, 1983 a bilingual field team of local interviewers was trained. The use of local interviewers
instilled confidence and trust in the Indian
population. The interviewers used two types of
survey techniques:
An observational checklist for the interviewer to
document rapidly his/her impressions of accessibility; agriculture; community appearance;
resident attributes and public services
A preliminary and in-depth key informant
checklist to document community attrition;

numbers of refugees and widows; amount and

duration of abandonment; quality of the last
harvest; and amount of destruction attributable to
the civil strife.
Key informants were chosen from mayors, civil
patrol, commissioners, religious leaders, teachers
and various community committee members. Time
spent in each community was kept to a minimum.
Information from the interviews provided detailed
village-level information that was compiled into
community profile sheets.
During the assessment exercise, 187 villages were
visited. Sixty percent were at least moderately
affected by the violence. Twenty-eight percent were
found to be in a high need using a set of reliable
indicators derived from the survey data. These
communities were targeted for immediate relief.
Although the techniques were not based on formal
sampling and survey methods they had the
advantages of village focus, speed, simplicity, and
relatively low cost (approximately $800.00(US
Dollars) per week.
Before this formal assessment took place, relief
organizations were aware of the general but not
specific problems. Because the methodology
targeted specific villages that were seriously affected
by the violence, the relief community was prompted
to take immediate action and concentrated aid
distribution to the most affected communities
minimizing valuable resource waste caused by
targeting of less needy populations.

This case study was adapted from Rapid Post-disaster Community Needs Assessment, Richard A. Margoluis et al,
Disasters, Vol.13, No.4, 1989, pages 287-299.

34

PART

A large-scale population displacement emergency may arise from

either conflict or the catastrophic breakdown of food security in an
area. In displacement emergencies, an overall objective of assessment
is to build a picture of the scale and geography of the population
flows over time. Because rates of flow can grow fast and quickly
exceed the existing services available, early action needs to
concentrate on forecasts of the numbers of people leaving affected
areas, the routes likely to be travelled and the projected settlement
patterns in relation to available services and resources. Assessment
should also concentrate on identifying early signs of breakdowns in
the provision of services, including bulk food logistics programs,
emergency water supply and health services and registration and
distribution systems. From the start, decision-makers will need clear
displays of sighting reports of groups en route and displays of known
flow rates, settlements, numbers and demography.

PRA
CTICAL INSIGHTS
PRACTICAL
ON CONDUCTING
ASSESSMENTS

In the longer term, in food and population displacement emergencies,

assessment requirements shift to distribution effectiveness and assessment of
emergency response needs. The focus shifts to the following problem areas:
new influxes, epidemics, flooding, impact of local conflict, agricultural
recovery requirements and repatriation and relocation requirements.

Q. What are major challenges in conducting assessments in slow

onset disasters?

A.

ANSWER (from page 32)

Assessment during
recovery focuses on:
Damage to important
economic sectors and
individual businesses;
Opportunities for mitigation;
Opportunities to build
development programs
into the recovery

35

Disaster
Assessment

NOTES

ANSWER (from page35)

Lead times can be long,
information may be
ambiguous and donors may
be reluctant to act without
highly dependable data.
Assessments must accurately forecast and predict
possible future contingencies related to population
movement and supply
system breakdown.

36

PART

PART

33

THE R
OLE OF THE UN IN
ROLE
RELA
TION TO ASSESSMENTS
RELATION
This part of the module is designed to enhance your understanding of:
the responsibilities of the UN system for assessment
the role of the Disaster Management Team
the responsibilities of the resident coordinator and how that role
changes during recovery
how and with whom information should be shared especially when
requesting international assistance

UN agency representatives
When international assistance is likely to be required after a disaster, the
UN system must be prepared to provide advice and assistance to the government in assessing damage and needs, defining strategies for response and
specifying material requirements. The UN must be able to provide potential
donors and the international community as a whole with objective statements on the priority needs for international assistance.
The focus of emergency response coordination within the UN system
in a country will generally be the UN Disaster Management Team (DMT).
Officials from all the major UN agencies in-country will be designated as
members of the operations group for the DMT, under the leadership of the
resident coordinator/representative. Each agency will usually take on a
specific assessment role (see figs.4 and 5)

The UN must be able

to provide potential
donors and the international community
as a whole with
objective statements
on the priority needs
for international
assistance.

FIGURE 4

37

Disaster
Assessment

USUAL ASSESSMENT RESPONSIBILITIES WITHIN

A UN-DISASTER MANAGEMENT TEAM
FIGURE 5

General infrastructure and government administrative services, possibly in conjunction with

the World Bank.
Working through and supporting the resident
coordinator/representative, helps to consolidate and
reconcile information from all UN-DMT members
and other bodies and to gather information on
sectors not covered by the specialized agencies.
Effects on food and cash crops, fisheries and
livestock operations. Harvest prospects.
Requirements for rehabilitation, including
possibilities for alternative crops.
The needs of refugees. Some consideration of the
needs of host populations and returnees in
conjunction with other organizations.
Special needs of children and women especially in
the health, education and social sectors. Aspects
relating to health, nutrition, water supply
(particularly rural or other small systems) and
sanitation are addressed in conjunction with WHO;
selective feeding programs and logistics with WFP.
Food supplies. Requirements for, use and delivery
of food aid and arrangements for its delivery and
distribution. Overall logistics.
Health sector considerations: medical and preventative health needs; epidemiology; long term effects
on health structures; water and sanitation. Water and
sanitation (large-scale possibly in conjunction with
World Bank, small-scale with UNICEF)

38

PART

UNDP has a major role in coordinating pre-disaster planning and

disaster response. The resident representative is, ex officio, the representative
of DHA at the country level. As the UN resident coordinator, he or she
serves as the focal point for coordination within the UN system and may also
take on a coordination role in relation to the wider international community,
including embassies, NGOs and bilateral donors. In some countries, UNDP
has established standing emergency units to help cope with long-term
chronic emergencies. In many emergencies, DHA may send delegates to
assist UNDP in this coordination process.

THE R
OLE OF THE
ROLE
UN IN RELA
TION
RELATION
TO ASSESSMENTS

All members of the United Nations Disaster Management Team, under

the leadership of the resident coordinator, must collaborate in:
Contributing in an appropriate manner to the overall assessment
Developing agreed, UN-DMT conclusions and recommendations
concerning needs and priorities for international assistance
Assisting the government, as required, in specifying needs and
formulating appropriate requests for international assistance
Each agency is responsible for assessments in accordance with its own
competence and mandates and is expected to contribute its information and
conclusions to the overall UN-DMT effort. The resident coordinator must
ensure that all aspects are covered, while respecting the individual agencies
mandates-a procedure that should wherever possible be discussed and
planned during the preparedness stage.

Q. What is the role of the UN system in assessments?

A.

Key elements of the resident

coordinators early disaster role
Where the government, possibly in collaboration with the national Red
Cross/Red Crescent Society and other operational agencies, has a proven
capability to undertake and coordinate a thorough and objective assessment,
the resident coordinator and the UN-DMT, assisted by DHA where required,
will need only to satisfy themselves of the validity of the assessment and the
stated priorities. This can be done by appropriately designed field visits and
discussions with officials and people directly affected by the disaster.

39

Disaster
Assessment

However, where direct UN assessment assistance is welcomed and required

by the authorities, the resident coordinator/representative and the UN-DMT
must carry out a range of actions:
Work with the government and others in organizing the collection
and assessment of data, including specifying the technical expertise
required to supplement existing local capacity.
Define the role of each individual UN agency in the overall
collaborative assessment effort and that of individual UN staff in each
field survey visit undertaken.
Ensure that appropriate expertise for assessment available in the
various UN agencies and offices is mobilized within the country and,
when necessary, from outside the country.
Help to mobilize and integrate relevant expertise available
elsewhere in the country especially from bilateral organizations,
NGOs and national bodies.
Inform DHA and concerned aid organizations locally of the
arrangements being made and any requirements for additional
technical and logistical assistance for the assessment. DHA
will contact other agencies and institutions at the international
level as appropriate.

Any suggested relief

strategy or response
which is derived from
an assessment must
fully respect the
rights of non-interference in the
affairs of the affected
country.

ANSWER

(from page39)

Provide assistance to the

government in assessing
damage, needs and
strategies for response.
Provide potential donors
and the international
community with accurate
information on priorities
for assistance.

40

Where necessary and with the agreement of the government, bring

together and dispatch a UN assessment team to the stricken area to
conduct an independent assessment, involving national or international experts if needed. Each visit must have specific and predefined objectives and be planned to ensure that the visiting team
meets those objectives without wasting the time of all concerned
including survivors, relief workers and local officials. Special care
should be given to the appropriate expertise for assessment
specialists. The box below details the desirable qualities:
The resident coordinator will be required to take special account of the

Profile for an assessment specialist

Seasoned disaster expert
Familiarity with the affected country
Knowledge of the local language
Leadership skills
Team worker
Decision-maker
governments own assessment of the situation and may need to wait for the
compilation of that assessment before responding officially. Any suggested
relief strategy or response which is derived from an assessment must fully
respect the rights of non-interference in the affairs of the affected country.
The government of the affected country has the ultimate responsibility for
seeking international support and coordinating and administering relief.

PART

Resident coordinators/representatives are sometimes requested to take

on a coordination role when the elements underpinning coordination are
themselves most uncertain. In the absence of a detailed previously defined
emergency plan, valuable time may need to be spent establishing vertical
and horizontal channels of communication, establishing responsibilities for
data collection and information sharing, coping with overlapping roles and
responsibilities and getting agreement on goals and priorities. This is often
complicated when systems for information sharing are badly disrupted and
damaged. Relatively minor emergencies can sometimes provide an
opportunity to highlight these problems resulting in the development of
improved systems before a major emergency arises.

THE R
OLE OF THE
ROLE
UN IN RELA
TION
RELATION
TO ASSESSMENTS

Where there are

differences of opinion
which cannot be
reconciled, the
resident coordinator/
representative should
specify them, with
the underlying
reasons where
possible, to DHA.

The role of the resident coordinator

as relief activity develops
As relief operations get underway, the resident coordinator/representative
will need to maintain an overview of assessments form the UN perspective
and ensure that all relevant aspects and all affected areas are systematically
covered.
A multi-sectoral approach to the assessment in which agencies and
sectoral entities collaborate and agree on findings and response strategies is
essential. Sectoral assessments which are undertaken independently and in
isolation from each other are likely to duplicate effort and lead to gaps in
coverage and information. The need will remain to try to piece together an
overall situation assessment, reconcile different perspectives and determine
inter-sectoral priorities.
The resident coordinator/representative must collaborate closely with
the national Red Cross/Red Crescent Society, the LRCS and ICRC (where
present) and NGOs in assessing all types of emergencies, especially those
involving displaced persons.
Every effort should be given to developing consensus among the national
and local authorities, the donor community and operational agencies
concerning the situation, any assistance requirements and proposed
interventions. Without agreement on needs and priorities, there will not be
wholehearted cooperationthere may even be competitionin response.
Where there are differences of opinion which cannot be reconciled, the
resident coordinator/representative should specify them, with the
underlying reasons where possible, to DHA.
With regard to the phasing of the assessment, it is worth emphasizing
that the first assessment will generally have to be conducted using in-country
personnel. This involves, within the first few days, a review of scope and
scale of the disaster and the areas in which assistance is required. The followup detailed assessment to define precise needs sector-by-sector and draw up
a concerted inter-agency program can be supported by additional specialist
personnel from the various agencies and/or multi-agency teams.

The resident
coordinator/representative must also
help all concerned to
include a development
perspective in the
planning of emergency
and post-disaster
assistance.

The resident coordinator/representative must also help all concerned to

include a development perspective in the planning of emergency and postdisaster assistance.
41

Disaster
Assessment

Q. Who has the ultimate responsibility for seeking and defining

the need for international assistance?

A.

The heads of the separate UN agencies?

The government of the affected country?
The resident coordinator?
Check the appropriate box.

Reporting assessment information

Reporting and sharing of information derived from assessments can usually
be best achieved by the following actions:
Regular meetings of the UN Disaster Management Team and
continuous exchange of information with all UN partners
Daily contact with the national disaster management counterpart
Statements of relief needs and contributions prepared and made
available regularly (initially daily) to the national disaster
management counterpart and local donor representatives
DHA SITREPS distributed to the national disaster management
counterpart and local donor representatives immediately on receipt

Formulating and screening requests

for international assistance
Where it is determined that there is a need for international assistance, the
resident coordinator and the UN-DMT should, on the basis of the agreed
assessment, assist the government in formulating a request or appeal which
is as accurate and specific as possible. This is a critical area in which the
resident coordinator and the UN-DMT can have a particularly significant
role.
The resident coordinator may need to continually clarify requests and
take initiatives to bring together separate host government bodies with
overlapping or closely-related interests, usually in collaboration with the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to ensure coordination and consistency in their
separate proposals and requests to external donors. There may be
opportunities to review and refine specifications, quantities, required
delivery schedules and priorities with the responsible authorities to ensure
that requests are realistic and in a form which will encourage the best
possible donor response.
Resident coordinators may need to seek agreement on a phased approach
to requests, with a first statement of immediate, priority requirements,
possibly accompanied by general indications of the scale of those additional
needs which will be defined in more detail and announced later.

42

While the UN-DMT assists the government to determine overall needs

for international assistance, several of the UN agencies may identify
particular programs of assistance which they will propose to implement,
subject to the mobilization of the required resources. The resident
coordinator and the UN-DMT must endeavor to prepare an overall
concerted program of assistance proposed by the UN organizations and
agencies which incorporates the separate agencies proposals, is coherent
and focuses on the priority issues. This should form the basis of a united
appeal for funds in which the organizations responsible for particular
elements will be clearly identified.

PART

Decision-makers perspectives on the strategic requirements for disaster

recovery are likely to change quickly as a more accurate picture emerges of
the actual needs and the surviving resources. All those involved should be
clear that any initial statement is necessarily provisional and will be
updated or added to as more information becomes available. Even so,
reports must be as accurate as possible and not mislead through
generalization and/or exaggeration.

THE R
OLE OF THE
ROLE
UN IN RELA
TION
RELATION
TO ASSESSMENTS

Reports must be
as accurate as
possible and not
mislead through
generalization and/
or exaggeration.

It should, nonetheless, be stressed that the united appeal will identify

and support the various appeals of individual agencies, rather than
substitute for them. Donors will be free to channel their response to the
various organizations in accordance with their own wishes.

Q. What are the steps the resident coordinator should take in

formulating and screening requests for international assistance?

A.

43

Disaster
Assessment

NOTES

ANSWER

(from page 42)

The government of the

affected country.

ANSWER(from pate 43)

Clarify requests by the
national government and
the UN Agencies to ensure
a coordinated and
coherent appeal and if
necessary, convene
meetings to eliminate gaps
and duplications
Assess whether a phased
approach for assistance is
necessary.

44

PART

PART

PREP
AREDNESS PLANNING FOR
PREPAREDNESS
EMER
GENCY ASSESSMENT
EMERGENCY
This part of the module is designed to enhance your understanding of:
how to design a comprehensive assessment system
what elements of an assessment system can be in place
as a part of preparedness activity
what activities will contribute to better preparedness
for assessment

Assessment systems
Effective assessment requires a coordinated and managed set of pre-planned
actions. Taken as a whole, the staff organizational arrangements and datahandling arrangements needed to achieve this constitute an assessment
system. There are at least seven elements of such a system, (see fig. 6).
First there must be an overall assessment plan, agreed to by all the
operational parties. This will establish areas of responsibility and accountability, guidelines and standard working procedures and reporting channels.
It will also establish how assessment responsibilities will change with time,
as the focus of activity shifts from emergency life-saving and restoration of
services towards social and economic planning for recovery and reconstruction. The assessment plan must incorporate a set of more detailed
contingency plans which take account of differences in the types of
possible hazards affecting the country.
Second, there should be a comprehensive collection of baseline data
available quickly and easily to those who may need it. The information that
can be derived from such a database usually includes:
the size and demographic structure of the affected population;
the location and characteristics of lifeline systems i.e. water, power,
telecommunications, transport;
the location, ownership and size of stockpiles of material resources
which can be used for relief;
the administrative structure in the affected area.
Third, there needs to be an operational data collection system which
can operate in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. This will generally include
designated reporting points, reporting procedures, designated communications routes protected or duplicated where appropriate and designated
field investigation teams. These must be supported by data gathering procedures which are rapid, structured and based on a commitment to use
formal sampling and survey techniques, however simple.

45

Disaster
Assessment

FIGURE 6

The fourth element consists of one or more collation and analyses centers
with designated staff and tested procedures.
Fifth, there will need to be established and tested procedures for
reporting and dissemination of assessments to identified points in the
decision-making and response system.
Sixth, the communications links by which information will be
disseminated will need to be defined, improved and protected, regularly
tested and the arrangements institutionalized.
Finally, seventh, there must be procedures for quality control and
standard setting for systems development, management, data-collection and
assessment operations. These procedures should be integrated and made
explicit in the overall assessment plan.

46

A useful starting point in preparedness is to clarify and clearly document

the responsibilities for emergency actions at each administrative level in
government. UN agency planners need to review preparedness measures for
assessment which may have been taken by the national government. These
measures should include appointment of an assessment coordinator and preselection of assessment teams and training for damage assessment. It should
also include selection and training of local on-the-spot reporters within
lifeline-related organizations, local civilian authorities, police and armed
forces. This is the stage at which it is essential to identify gaps in coverage
and to reconcile opposing points of view.

PART

Q. What are the key components of an assessment plan?

A.

PREP
AREDNESS
PREPAREDNESS
PLANNING FOR
EMER
GENCY
EMERGENCY
ASSESSMENT

A useful starting
point in preparedness
is to clarify and
clearly document the
responsibilities for
emergency actions at
each administrative
level in government.

There should be a review of the effectiveness of programs of routine

surveillance which may underpin continuing relief assessment particularly
for public health. Government emergency reporting systems should be built
upon existing reporting mechanisms if possible. UNDP and other UN bodies
may have a major role in strengthening and supporting mechanisms for
emergency transmission of data.
All UN organizations potentially have a major role in assisting with the
collection of baseline information and making it available for emergency use.
This is an area in which UN coordination may be particularly appropriate.
Procedures should be established to assemble United Nations disaster
assessment teams in-country. The operational composition of the team will
depend on the type of emergency. Staff members with field survey experience
are desirable in all cases. Since many of the techniques for collecting and
analyzing assessment data are drawn form epidemiological procedures, the
presence of a professional epidemiologist on the team may be of considerable
benefit in most disasters. Joint inter-agency teams are particularly useful.
Planners will need to review in detail the precise resources needed for each
type of assessment task. In particular, they should ensure that teams will
have adequate transportation, fuel and communications equipment.

Joint inter-agency
teams are particularly
useful.

Sources of specialist assessment staff include national ministries, UN

agencies, international agencies, local NGOs and national military units.
Each team will need to review the precise tasks which may need to be done
and explore in detail their relationships to other tasks-which ones are done
in parallel with others and which will need to be done sequentially.

47

Disaster
Assessment

The box below provides an overview of roles and competencies that

should be considered in composing assessment teams.

Assessment Teams
Logistics specialist
Public health-epidemiologist
Nutritionist
Environmental health specialist with
skills in assessing options for
expedient water supply

There should be contingency planning for possible assessment visits in

which UN teams might be involved in emergencies. UN planners should
discuss possible missions with senior national emergency management
personnel and, if appropriate, with local personnel in advance. Plans should
also include procedures to rapidly establish contact with pre-designated
reporting groups in the first stages of an emergency.
The UN system in-country will need to build and test systems for
collecting, receiving, collating and analyzing incoming data. UN planners
should, as far as possible, share approaches with national authorities. The
design of these systems will need to be integrated in the closest possible
way with strategies to develop telecommunications which can be used
under emergency conditions.
When making these plans, it is vital to anticipate:
how various types of assessment data are likely to flow in
particular situations
the best ways for UN staff to position themselves in relation
to these data flows
how UN staff can contribute significantly to either the collection or
routing of crucial data

ANSWER (from page 47)

Established areas of responsibility and accountability;
guidelines and standard
operating procedures; reporting channels; how responsibilities change over time; contingency plans for different types
of disasters

48

These plans require an attempt, in collaboration with the host country

authorities, to predict how communications routes will survive different
types of disasters, where and by whom particular items of important data
will be collected, how they will be routed and who will receive and act
upon them. After a number of reviews of this type, it may become clear that
a small number of communication routes and receiving centers will play a
dominant role in handling emergency information. These may or may not
correspond to those nominated in the countrys emergency plan.
UN Resident Representatives may be in a position to encourage the
development of national emergency communication plans which ensure
that the communication systems of the various ministries and agencies are
integrated in a coherent and protected network. There should be links with

PART

UN-managed communications. In some cases there may be opportunities to

include the strategic development of emergency civilian communications as
part of UN-supported national telecommunications development, although
this is usually a complex policy area.

PREP
AREDNESS
PREPAREDNESS
PLANNING FOR
EMER
GENCY
EMERGENCY
ASSESSMENT

Accurate and detailed inventories of damage and forecasts of the wider

economic consequences of a disaster will have high priority within a few
days of a sudden-impact disaster. UNDP/DHA staff may need to review the
requirements for damage information compilation systems to help assess the
economic implications of the emergency. Factors to consider include,
staffing, equipment, database software, contacts, training and links with
other ministries and departments. Attention should be given at the planning
stage to ways in which a formal, detailed survey of damage to economically
important resources will be managed.

Q. What are important activities in the preparedness stage to

ensure accurate assessments?

A.

49

Disaster
Assessment

SUMMARY
Assessment is a critical activity and essential component of the disaster
preparedness and management continuum. It is through a formal
assessment process that information is gathered and provided to the
responsible decision-makers. Far too often assessment is an afterthought
to the seemingly more urgent aspects of the recovery process, i.e.
scheduling and delivering relief supplies. Furthermore, assessment is
frequently seen as a one-time activity.
This module has asserted that assessments must be planned for,
systematically implemented and regularly conducted during the
recovery process. It is through assessment that decision-makers can
identify needs that lead to appropriate types of assistance. As important,
assessment indicates what type of assistance is not needs thus
decreasing inappropriate assistance. If assessment activities are
conducted throughout the recovery process, decision-makers will be
aware of emerging and unmet needs as well as mitigation and
development opportunities. In addition, assessments can provide
feedback on how the recovery is progressing which will allow for
correction of programs which may be falling short of their objectives.
Assessment is most effective when it is pre-designed as part of an
overall preparedness plan which is tested and refined. Because the
assessment process will differ for different types of hazards, the
preparedness plan must take into account the range of possible
situations the country might encounter. Information for assessment is
best gathered through well designed observation and survey methods.
These methods must take into account the ideas of a range of relief
actors including disaster survivors. Assessments, therefore, should be
coordinated.
The UN system, as well as NGOs must stand ready to assist national
governments in conducting assessments and analyzing and interpreting
the information received. The resident coordinator, representing the UN
system, is the focal point for the international community to understand
and respond to disaster situations.
ANSWER

(from page 49)

clarify and document

assessment responsibilities at all levels
of government
review the effectiveness of
programs of routine
surveillance
establish procedure and
clarify roles for the UNDMT assessment
build and test systems
for collecting, receiving,
collating and analyzing
incoming data

50

PART

Annex 1
Acronyms

ANNEX 1
ACR
ONYMS
ACRONYMS
DHA

Department of Humanitarian Affairs

DMTP

Disaster Management Training Programme

ECLAC

Economic Commission for Latin America and

the Caribbean

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

ICRC

International Committee or the Red Cross/Red

Crescent

ILO

International Labor Organization

LRCS

League of Red Cross Societies

(now International Federation of Red Cross and
Red Crescent Societies)

NGO

Non-Governmental Organization

OFDA

Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (US AID)

PAHO

Pan American Health Organization

UNDP

United Nations Development Programme

UN-DMT

United Nations Disaster Management Team

UNDRO

United Nations Disaster Relief Organization

(now DHA-Geneva)

UNHCR

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNICEF

United Nations Childrens Fund

US AID

United States Agency for International

Development

WFP

World Food Programme

WHO

World Health Organization

51

PART

Annex 2
Resource List

ANNEX 2
ADDITION
AL READING
ADDITIONAL
American Red Cross. Disaster Services Regulations and Procedures: Survey/Damage Assessment.
American Red Cross, 1988.
Braid, Robert B., Martin Schweitzer, Sam A Carnes and E. Jonathan Soderstrom. The Importance of Cumulative Impacts for Socieconomic Impact Assessment and Mitigation.
Energy. Vol. 10 no.5,1985.
Campbell, John R. and Joseph Chung. Post-Disaster Assessment, A. Management. Honolulu:
Pacific Islands Development Program, 1986.
.
Campbell, John R. and Joseph Chung. Post-Disaster Assessment, B. Field Survey. Honolulu:
Pacific Islands Development Program, 1986.
Guha-Sapir, D.Rapid Assessment of Health Needs in Mass Emergencies. WHO Statistical
Quarterly. Vol. 44,1991.
INTERTECT. Assessment Manual for Refugee Emergencies. Dallas: INTERTECT, 1985.
INTERTECT. Establishing Needs After a Disaster: Assessment, Dallas: INTERTECT, 1981.
McCracken, J.A., J.Pretty and G.R. Conway. An Introduction to Rapid Rural Appraisal for
Agricultural Development. London: International Institute for Environment and
Development, 1988.
Mitchell, John and Hugo Slim. Listening to Rural People in Africa: The Semi-structured
Interview in Rapid Rural Appraisal. Disasters. Vol. 15 no.1, (1991), pp. 68-72.

PAHO. Assessing Needs in the Health Sector After Floods and Hurricanes. Technical Paper No.11.
Washington DC: Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), 1987.
PAHO. PAHO Disaster Response Team Manual for Post Disaster Needs Assessment. Antigua: Pan
Caribbean Disaster Preparedness and Prevention Project,1988.
Smith, G.S. Development of Rapid Epidemologic Assessment Methods to Evaluate Health
Status and Delivery of Health Services. International Journal Epidemiol. Vol. 18,supp.2,
1989.
Stephenson, Rob and Susan York. Medical Care in Refugee Camps, Investigative Proceedures:
Checklist for Refugee Camp Assessment. Disasters. Vol.5 no.3, (1981). pp. 214-231.
Taylor, Alan J. Assessment of Victim Needs Dallas: INTERTECT, 1978.

53

Disaster
Assessment

United Nations. Suggested Indicators for Disaster Assessment. A Guide to Food and Relief
Operations. New York: United Nations, 1977.
United Nations World Food Programme. Food Aid in Emergencies, Book B:Operational
Procedures for WFP Staff. Chapter B4 Assessment and Planning at Country Level.
Rome: World Food Programme, Provisional Version, 1993.
World Health Organizaion. Emergency Preparedness and Response: Rapid Health Assessment in
Sudden Impact Natural Disasters. Geneva: World Health Organization, ERO/EPR/
90.16,1990.
Young, Helen. Food Scarcity and Famine: Assessment and Response. Oxfam Practical Health
Guide No.7.Oxford: Oxfam, 1992.

54