Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Where does AC come from?

AC voltages and currents are usually produced by
rotating generators in a power system.
Producing DC voltages using a generator is very hard
and is limited in magnitude.
Why use 3 phases?
Smooth torque on generator shaft
Delivery of constant power to a 3 phase load
3 Wires and not 6

WHY USE VERY HIGH VOLTAGES?

1 | Page

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

In this example the load is connected through a

transmission line with resistance R. The motor is
designed to operate at the same voltage as the
generator terminal voltage. Losses are large and
motor voltage is low.

AN ALTERNATE SOLUTION:

Transformer increases voltage to 10 times the generator

terminal voltage. Current in transmission line is 1/10 I,
losses are 1/100 I2, and motor voltage is V-IR/10.

2 | Page

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

AC GENERATOR:
A Generator is a device which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
A very simple AC generator consists to a permanent
magnet that rotates inside a coil in such a way that
the N-pole and S-pole alternate as seen from the coil.
An analog voltmeter (or rather a millivoltmeter) that
has its zero at the middle of the scale is connected to
the ends of the coil. As the magnet is rotated the
voltmeter moves first one way, then the other way.
The

speed

of rotation

determines

the

number

of "cycles per second", called Hertz (Hz).

A rotation speed of 3000 revolutions per minute
(RPM) produces 50 Hz, and 3600 RPM produce 60 Hz.
The rotating permanent magnet can be replaced by
another

coil

that

is

fed

by

DC

and

acts

as

an electromagnet. Doubling the number of coils will

double the number of, what is called "the poles", and
then only half the rotation speed is required for a
given output frequency.

Relation between speed and frequency is given by

3 | Page

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

or
f is the frequency in Hz (cycles per second). P is the
number of poles (2,4,6...) and N is the rotational
speed in revolutions per minute (RPM).
There is only one difference between Alternator and
DC generator. In Alternators commutator is replaced
by slip rings.
THREE-PHASE AC GENERATORS:
The

principles

basically the

of

three-phase

same as

that of

generator

are

a single-phase

generator, except that there are three equallyspaced windings and three output voltages that are
all 120 out of phase with one another.
Physically adjacent loops are separated by 60 of
rotation; however, the loops are connected to the slip
rings in such a manner that there are 120 electrical
degrees between phases.

The individual coils of each winding are

combined and represented as a single coil. The
significance of Figure is that it shows that the three
phase generator has three separate armature
windings that are 120 electrical degrees out of
phase.
4 | Page

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

ADVANTAGE OF THREE PHASE SYSTEM:

In general, three-phase systems are preferred over
single-phase systems for the transmission of power
for many reasons.
1.

Thinner conductors can be used to transmit the

same kVA at the same voltage, which reduces
the amount of copper required (typically about
25% less).

5 | Page

Industrial Electronics

2.

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

The lighter lines are easier to install, and the

supporting structures can be less massive and

3.

farther apart.
Three-phase

equipment

and

motors

have

preferred running and starting characteristics

compared to single-phase systems because of a
more even flow of power to the transducer than
4.

can be delivered with a single-phase supply.

In general, most of the large motors are three
phase because they are essentially self-starting
and do not require a special design or additional
starting circuitry.

6 | Page

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

WYE CONNECTED SYSTEM:

7 | Page

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Rather than six leads coming out of the generator,

one lead from each phase may be connected
together to form a common junction.
Alternators connected like this are sometimes called
wye or star connected generators. The common lead
is sometimes called the neutral.
PHASE VOLTAGE:

Voltages measured with respect to

the neutral wire are called phase voltages VP or

voltage across any phase is phase voltage. (VAN, VBN,
VCN).
LINE VOLTAGE:

Voltages measured between

phases are called line voltages VL (VAB, VBC, VAC )

In power systems we typically use Line Voltage
In the wye-connected generator, the current in any
line is in phase with the current in the winding that it
feeds. So we can say that
Ip = IL
For calculation of Line voltage:
VL=VAB=VAN-VBN
=VAN+VNB

8 | Page

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

VL Vab Vbc Vca

= 3 Van 3 Vbn 3 Vcn = 3V p
V p Van Vbn Vcn
DELTA CONNECTED SYSTEMS:

9 | Page

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

In Delta-connected generator, there is no neutral and

the windings are connected in the shape of Greek
letter delta ().

In a circuit that has equal phase voltages (called a

balanced circuit), the voltage between any two
phases is equal to that of a single phase. So, the line
voltage and the voltage across any winding are in
phase. The line current, however is 120 out of phase
with the current in any of the phases.
and
POWER FACTOR:
The power factor of an AC electric power system is
defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the
10 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

load to the apparent power, and

is

between

dimensionless
0

and

number

1 (frequently

expressed as a percentage, e.g.

0.5 pf = 50% pf).
Real power is the

capacity

of

the

circuit

for

performing work in a particular time. Apparent power

is the product of the current and voltage of the
circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned
to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts
the wave shape of the current drawn from the
source, the apparent power can be greater than the
real power.
In a single-phase

power

systems,

the

power

produced by a phase is equal to PP = (VP IP)(Cos)

The power factor (Cos) is the cosine of the phase
angle between the phase current and voltage.
For 3 phase system Ptotal = 3VP IPCos=
Apparent power is PApp = 3VP IP=

VL ILCos.

V L IL .

UNIVERSAL MOTOR:
11 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Operates equally well on AC and DC.

Electrically equivalent to DC series motor.
If we supply AC then both armature current and field
reverse their direction after every half cycle and
hence the resulting mechanical force will occur in a
constant direction.
It differs somewhat from DC motors in their physical
construction.
Universal motors generally run at high speeds,
making

them

useful

for

appliances

such

as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where

high RPM operation is desirable. They are also
commonly

used

in

portable

power

tools,

such

as drills, circular and jig saws, where the motor's

characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner
and weed

trimmer motors

exceed

10,000

RPM,

while Dremel and other similar miniature grinders will

often exceed 30,000 RPM.
It is normally designed for capacities less than 1 hp
(0.75 kW). It is usually operated at high speed, 3500
revolutions per minutes (rpm) loaded and 8000 to
10,000 revolutions per minute unloaded. For lower
speeds, reduction gears are often employed, as in
the case of electric hand drills or food mixers. As in
12 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

all series motors, the rotor speed increases as the

load decreases and the no-load speed is limited only
by friction and winding.
ADVANTAGE OF AC MOTORS:

Availability of AC supply.
Less expensive and smaller size.
No use of brush and commutator in Induction motors.
Well suited in constant speed applications.
Speed control is easy using variable frequency drive.
Reliable operation.

DISADVANTAGE:
Expensive speed control.
Inability to operate at low speeds.
Poor positioning control.

CLASSIFICATION OF AC MOTORS:
AC motors can be classified in several ways.
13 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

According to power ratting they may be classified as

fractional horsepower(less than 1HP) and integral
horsepower motors (1HP and above).
These motors may be classified according to number
of phases. AC motors are either single phase or three
phase. Single phase motors are generally used in
domestic applications, business farm and small
industrial applications. Three phase motors are used
for heavy industrial tasks
One more basis to classify these motors is their
internal structure. AC motor can be classified as
Universal motor, Induction motor and synchronous
motor.
Synchronous and induction motors have two basic
parts.

Stator
Rotor
Stators for both types of motor are similar in
construction.
Stator is made of many laminated steel discs in order
to reduce eddy current and hysteresis losses.
The principle of rotating magnetic fields is the key to
the operation of most ac motors. Both synchronous
and induction types of motors rely on rotating

14 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

magnetic fields in their stators to cause their rotors

to turn.
The idea is simple. A magnetic field in a stator can be
made to rotate electrically, around and around.
Another magnetic field in the rotor can be made to
chase it by being attracted and repelled by the stator
field. Because the rotor is free to turn, it follows the
rotating magnetic field in the stator.
To establish a rotating magnetic field in a motor
stator, the number of pole pairs must be the same as
(or a multiple of) the number of phases in the applied
voltage. The poles must then be displaced from each
other by an angle equal to the phase angle between
the individual phases of the applied voltage.

15 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

16 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

The waveforms are of the two input phases,

displaced 90 because of the way they were
generated in a two-phase alternator.
The waveforms are numbered to match their
associated phase. Although not shown in this figure,
the windings for the poles 1-1A and 2-2A would be as
shown in the previous figure.
At position 1, the current flow and magnetic field in
winding 1-1A is at maximum (because the phase
voltage is maximum). The current flow and magnetic
field in winding 2-2A is zero (because the phase
voltage is zero). The resultant magnetic field is
therefore in the direction of the 1-1A axis
At the 45odegree point (position 2), the resultant
magnetic field lies midway between windings 1-1A
and 2-2A. The coil currents and magnetic fields are
equal in strength. At 90 (position 3), the magnetic
field in winding 1-1A is zero. The magnetic field in
winding 2-2A is at maximum.
Now the resultant magnetic field lies along the axis
of the 2-2A winding as shown. The resultant
magnetic field has rotated clockwise through 90 to
get from position 1 to position 3. When the twophase voltages have completed one full cycle
(position 9), the resultant magnetic field has rotated
through 360. Thus, by placing two windings at right
angles to each other and exciting these windings
17 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

with voltages 90 out of phase, a rotating magnetic

field results.
Magnitude of this field remains constant but it
changes its direction continuously.
Speed of this field depends upon only one thing. i.e
the frequency of input wave. This speed is sometime
referred as stator speed or synchronous speed.
nst

120 f
p

Where
f= frequency of applied voltage to stator windings.
P = number of poles / phase.
And nst=stator speed in rpm.
Speed of stator is called synchronous speed
because field is synchronized to the frequency of
supply voltage all the times.
Above equation shows that value of synchronous
speed can be controlled by
1. Frequency of input signal.
2. Number of pole.

18 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

INDUCTION MOTOR:
In all motors conversion of electrical power into
mechanical power takes place in the rotor.
In DC motors, the electric power is directly conducted
to the armature (rotor) through brushes and
commutator. Hence DC motor may be referred as
Conduction motor.
In an induction motor rotor receives power not by
conduction but induction like a transformer. Thats
why it is known as induction motor.
19 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating

transformer because the stator (stationary part) is
essentially the primary side of the transformer and
the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side.
The primary side's current evokes a magnetic field
which interacts with the secondary sides emf to
produce a resultant torque, henceforth serving the
purpose of producing mechanical energy. Induction
motors are widely used, especially polyphase
induction motors, which are frequently used in
industrial drives.
Induction motors are now the preferred choice for
industrial motors due to their rugged construction,
absence of brushes (which are required in most DC
motors) and thanks to modern power electronics the
ability to control the speed of the motor.
WHY DOES ROTOR ROTATES:
When three phase supply is provided to 3 phase
stator then a rotating magnetic field of constant
magnitude and rotational speed equals to
synchronous speed is setup.
This flux cuts the rotor which is stationary. Due to
relative motion between stationary rotor and rotating
field an emf is induced in rotor according to
Faradays law of Electromagnetic induction.

20 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Current in rotor produces a magnetic field in rotor.

According to Lenzs law this field will tend to oppose
Cause (relative motion between rotor and stator
field) and rotor tends to move in rotating fields
direction.
Rotor of induction motor cannot run at the same
speed as stator.
If it could turn at stator speed then no induction
takes place in rotor.
SLIP:
The difference between stator speed and
synchronous speed.
Slip nst nr

fractionalSlip
% Slip

nst n
nst

nst n
100
nst

21 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

22 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

SLIP RING ROTOR:

A slip ring rotor replaces the bars of the squirrel-cage
rotor with windings that are connected to slip rings.
23 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

When these slip rings are shorted, the rotor behaves

similarly to a squirrel-cage rotor; they can also be
connected to resistors to produce a high-resistance
rotor circuit, which can be beneficial in starting.

Relative Motion Slip:

At standstill the relative speed of the rotating mmf is
at a maximum, therefore the frequency of the
induced emfs is at a maximum.
Once the rotor is turning the relative speed, and
hence frequency, of the induced emf decreases.
24 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

If the rotor is turning at synchronous speed, there is

no relative speed and therefore no induced rotor
emf or rotor current flow. Therefore there is no
torque produced
This is an impossible situation that cannot be
achieved by normal motor action.

RELATION BETWEEN TORQUE AND ROTOR

POWER FACTOR:
We know that in a DC motor armature torque is
proportional to the product of armature current and
flux/pole.
25 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

In case of AC motor torque is proportional to flux per

pole , rotor current and another factor i.e rotor power
factor.

Or
Where is rotor current at standstill and
rotor power factor.

is

Or
Since angle between E2 and I2 is 2.therefore torque
will be maximum at 2 is 45o lagging.
This time rotor reactance will be equal to rotor
resistance and power factor is cos 45o=.7071.
Beyond this point, if load on the motor is increased,
the motor can produce is called breakdown torque
or stall torque.
Full load torque is defined as the turning force
generated by the rotor when motor develops full
rated load at rated speed.
Maximum torque than an SCIM can produce is
given by

Where Trated is rated torque. nBR is speed at which

breakdown occurs and nrated is rated speed.
26 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

How to find rated torque?????

Since power of any motor is given by

Where n is speed in r.p.m, T is torque in pound feet

and P is power in Watt
In our case it becomes

Solving for Trated

ROTOR emf and reactance in running

comdition:

27 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Operating characteristics:
SCIM is very similar to a transformer with rotating
secondary.
In a no load condition rotor cuts the turns of stator
winding and a cemf is generated in stator which limits
stator current to a small value.
As load is placed on the rotor shaft, speed of rotor
slightly decreases hence rotor current increases and
motor

torque

also

increases.

Increased

rotor

flux

opposes the stator flux and lowers it slightly. Stator cemf

slightly decreases and stator current increases.

28 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

A small reduction in speed may produce large increase in

motor torque hence it has variable torque constant
speed motor.
If motor is stalled then there will be large rotor current.
This causes very large stator current. When the motor is
operated in this condition its operating voltage should be
equal or less than half of the rated voltage.

29 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

30 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

SPEED REGULATION:
SCIM has excellent speed regulation. Only few percent
change in speed over the range from no load to full load.
Suppose there is a motor with no load. As we load down
the motor slip increases and frequency of rotor current
increases. The current in the rotor also increases.
This current produces stronger field and hence an
increased torque which is necessary to handle extra
load. The speed stays approximately the same.
At starting, the slip in an SCIM is maximum and large
current is induced in rotor which produces torque needed
to start the motor.
As motor picks the speed, rotor frequency and rotor
current decreases. The torque continues to increase to
its maximum value.
It happens until a point is reached where enough current
flows to produce torque needed to handle load at
constant speed.
Speed regulation is given in %ge and calculated as

31 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:
It runs either at constant speed or not all.
While running it maintains a constant speed i.e.
synchronous speed. The only way to change it is to
vary its supply frequency (because NS=120f/p). In
other words there is no slip.
It is not self starting. It has to be run up to
synchronous speed (or near synchronous speed) by
some means before it can be synchronized to the
supply.
It is capable of being operated over a wide range of
power factors. Hence it can be used for power factor
correction. Hence it can reduce the cost of electricity.
Construction:
The stator is similar in construction that of an
induction motor.
Integral horse power motors are salient poles.
Salient poles are actually electromagnets with the
pole pieces projecting outward.
Pole pieces are laminated. Coils of wire are wound
around and are connected to slip rings.
In addition to the coil windings on the rotor it has
many squirrel cage bars. These bars play a role to
32 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

start it. These bars are shorted by end rings. These

bars are sometimes called damper or amortisseur
windings. Another function of these bars is to damp
the fluctuations in speed.
There are 2 basic differences between SCIM rotor and
damper in SM. first, in the induction motor rotor bars
are not evenly spaced and located all around the
rotor. In the SM, the damper windings are located
only on the pole faces.

Second is that since there is no relative motion

between stator RMF and rotor hence no current flows
through damper except any speed variation in rotor.
Motor pole pieces are laminated. These laminations
are punched together and wound with wire. These
pole pieces are placed in spider.

33 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Squirrel cage bars are nonmagnetic material such as

brass or copper. Starting torque depends upon the
resistance of these bars.

34 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

ROTOR EXCITATION:
Rotor excitation means to provide magnetic field to rotor.
There are many ways to excite the rotor.
1. DC generator: a DC generator is mounted on rotor
shaft. As rotor rotates generator also rotates and
produces DC voltage. This DC voltage is fed to rotor
via slip rings. In case of large current requirement a
pilot DC generator is used to control main DC
generator. Problems with DC generators are
maintenance cost and down time for replacing
brushes. Conductive dust due to brush wear also
creates some problem.

35 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

2. To avoid above problems a brushless arrangement

is used i.e. AC generators are used. Since rotor
needs DC current therefore 3 phase rectifiers are
used to convert AC into DC. In case of higher
currents two alternators (pilot and main) should be
used.

3. Another method called static excitation is used

now a days and becomes more popular. In this
method AC from main power line is rectified and
controlled my SCRs.

36 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

STARTING OF MOTOR:
When 3 phase supply is fed to stator, then a rotating
magnetic field is produced. We can think stator as a twopole rotating object rotating with synchronous frequency
in clockwise direction having poles Ns and Ss. Now
suppose rotor and stator are in the position shown
below.

In this case north poles repel each other hence rotor will
move in counter clockwise direction. But half a period
later stator poles interchange their positions i.e. Ns is at
point B and Ss is at point A. under these conditions Ns
37 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

attracts S and Ss attracts N. hence rotor tends to move

clockwise. Hence total net torque of rotor is zero.
SM needs a special system to start the motor. this
system can be internal or external.
Internal systems use damper windings and SM starts as
an induction motor. DC excitation is not applied till the
motor has accelerated to almost synchronous speed.
When DC excitation is applied rotor becomes
magnetized. Its one of the salient pole becomes north
and other becomes south. North and south poles
alternate around the salient pole rotor.
When a north pole on the stator passes over a particular
pole, DC power is applied. The south pole of rotor is
attracted to the north pole of the stator. The rotor then
locks with the stator field. now speed of rotor is exactly
equal to synchronous speed thats why it is known as
synchronous motor.

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION:

SMs are frequently used for power factor correction.
3 basic problems arise due to low power factor.
1. Low supply voltage
2. High KVA ratting for the same load
3. More cost.
SM is capable to produce both leading and lagging

power factors from 0 to unity.

Power factor is adjusted by adjusting exciting current.

38 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

FRACTIONAL HORSEPOWER SYNCHRONOUS

MOTORS:
They are synchronous motors have power ratting less
than 1 HP.
Most of them are non excited rotor motors.
There are two major types.
1. Reluctance motor.
2. Hysteresis motor.

39 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

NEED OF STARTING CIRCUITRY FOR MOTOR:

The starting current of any heavy electric motor can be

more than 4 times the normal load current it draws when
it has gained speed and has reached its normal running

output power and temperature.

If it were started simply when connected in DELTA, the
starting current would be huge and - just to be able to

start the motor, not to run it normally - would require:

Large circuit breakers, big enough to allow the start-up
surge current to pass without immediately shutting it off.
(But the breakers would then be much too big to be able
to protect the motor from over-current faults whilst it is

running normally.)
Very thick 3-phase power service cables. (But the cable
would then be much bigger than is necessary whilst the

motor is running normally.)

Very large coils and contacts on the relays or contactors
used to control the motor. (But they would then be much

40 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

bigger than is necessary whilst the motor is running

normally.)
One solution to this problem is to start the motor in STAR
and then, when the motor has gained sufficient speed,
change its connections to DELTA to allow the motor to
run at its full speed and torque from then on. It's a bit
like using the gears of an automobile.

Technical explanation
When the windings of a 3-phase motor are connected in
STAR the voltage applied to each winding is reduced to
only ( 1 /

3 )of

the voltage applied to the winding when it

is connected directly across two incoming power service

line phases in DELTA.

The current per winding is reduced to only ( 1 /

3 )of

the

normal running current taken when it is connected in

DELTA.
So, because of the Power Law V [in volts] x I [in amps] =
P [in watts],
the total output power when the motor is connected in
STAR is:
PS = [VL x (1 /

3 )]

x [ID x ( 1 /

3 )]

= PD x (1/3) [one third of

the power in DELTA]

Where:
VL is the line-to-line voltage of the incoming 3-phase
power service
ID is the line current drawn in DELTA
PS is the total power the motor can produce when
running in STAR

41 | P a g e

Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

PD is the total power it can produce when running in

DELTA.
A further disadvantage when the motor is connected in
STAR is that the total output torque is only 1/3 of the

total torque it can produce when running in DELTA.

The Star/Delta starter requires a six terminal motor that
is delta connected at the supply voltage. The Star Delta
starter employs three contactors to initially start the
motor in a star connection, then after a period of time, to
reconnect the motor to the supply in a delta connection.

42 | P a g e