Unit I

The Nature of Science and Scientific Writing

Noel K. Torreta

Man has always looked for explanations about the physical universe in order to
understand the way things are, why they look or behave the way they do. The need to
explain, predict, and control things that happen in this world has led us to systematize
knowledge, processes, and events in this physical universe. Thus, it can be said that our
survival in this universe has largely become possible through science. In this unit, we
will discuss the nature of science and scientific writing.

Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Define science in your own words;

Describe the nature of science;
Explain the functions of science;
Discuss the processes of science; and,
Explain the nature of a scientific paper.

What is science?
There are many ways of defining science. One way is to describe its nature and
scope. Another way is to discuss the processes involved in it. The first way may be said
to be static and theoretical, while the second may be viewed as dynamic. The static view
of science focuses on the body of knowledge gained through experience, the theoretical
explanation of natural phenomena. The dynamic view of science emphasizes the
methodical activity or investigation of natural phenomena.
Science as a systematized body of knowledge originated from its Latin
etymology, scientia, which means knowledge. Thus, one of the functions of science is to
explain the nature of the physical universe in order to understand its workings. Science
offers tentative explanations about the way certain things in this universe act or behave
the way they do. Through time, these explanations become theories, and then later they
become principles or laws. This body of scientific knowledge allows us to understand
more about our physical universe so that we can adapt to it and cope with the changes
that take place in our big world.
Science is also a methodical process of investigation. In our attempt to explain
natural phenomena in this world, we also learn ways to predict and control for them (the
1

other two functions of science), especially when they become detrimental to human
existence. Scientific investigation or inquiry is based on systematic observations and
experimentations. This is more commonly known as the scientific method. It involves
the following steps:
1. Observation. Scientific investigation begins with the use of our senses, like the
sense of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. With these senses, we are able to
identify problems that affect us.
2, Identification and Statement of the Problem. This involves the recognition of
the specific problem to be investigated. It is usually expressed in a question form.
3. Formulation of the hypothesis. A tentative answer to the problem is made in the
form of a statement that can be tested through experimentation.
4. Experimentation. Through the manipulation and control
variables, the hypothesis is tested and evaluated.

of one or more

5. Conclusion. Based on the findings of the experimentation, statements are made

regarding the hypothesis of the study. These statements basically answer the
research problem

Characteristics of Science
Science as a body of knowledge and as a process of investigation may be
described broadly as objective, empirical, accurate, precise, systematic, and tentative.
Just what do they mean?

Objective This refers to the attitude of the researcher. He/She must be free
from biases and prejudices. Science emphasizes demonstrable truth. Thus,
evidence in science is factual. Any claim must be verifiable and devoid of any
personal and partial judgments.

Empirical Scientific claims are based on observations and experimentations.

They must be observable phenomena. Closely related to being objective, science
is replicable. Scientific truth can be rechecked through sensory experiences.

Accurate Experimentations must yield consistent data. Scientific claims are

accurate if experimental data are close to each other.

Precise Scientific claims are evaluated on the basis of standard values. The
closeness of the claims to the standards indicates a more refined degree of
measurement.

Systematic- Scientific investigation is done in a methodical way. It follows the

scientific method discussed earlier, from the identification of the problem to the
drawing of conclusions. It is based on a sound and logical inductive and
deductive reasoning.

Tentative All scientific claims may be revised in the light of new evidences and
discoveries. No claim is absolute and irrevocable. Thus, science is always made
public for the scrutiny of everybody.

Processes of Science
Having discussed the characteristics of science, we can see that it requires a
rigorous and disciplined approach, showing that it involves various processes. The
dynamic view of science underscores these processes. In an article by Walter R. Brown
(1968) in the The Science Teacher, he identifies five processes of science:
A. Application of Generalizations to New Situations
Science involves logical thinking. It teaches one the ability to deduce or to infer
things from specific situations. Brown explains that this includes two sub-processes of
scientific inquiry. They are:
1. Ability to deductively apply principles to specific experiences; and,
2. Ability to extrapolate beyond given data.
The first sub-process of science emphasizes deductive reasoning or the ability
of a person to apply a general principle to a specific case or situation. For example in
Physics, one learns about Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation that states : The
gravitational force between any two masses in the universe is directly proportional to the
product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centers.
Knowing Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation , a person is able to explain
the low tide and the high tide that we observe in the sea on earth. The high tide of the
earth facing the moon is due to the gravity of the moon pulling the sea The sun exerts
less pull on the earths sea than the moon due to its distance. When the sun and the moon
partially cancel out each others pull, the effect is low tide.
Another sub-process of science is the ability of a person to go beyond the data.
In the process of scientific investigation, a person must learn to determine the
implications of the data. This means extending the meaning of the trends that are
observed in a given situation. However, Brown cautions us to know the limits that we
can safely do this.

B. Collection of Data
Another process involved in science is data collection, which requires a person
to become trained in gathering information. This process includes various skills to learn
such as the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Ability to identify a problem;

Ability to delimit the problem;
Skill in reading and understanding data in various forms;
Ability to choose a course of action by determining what data are necessary
for the solution of a problem; and,
5. Ability to choose the best authority.

Problem identification is one of the most difficult tasks in scientific

investigation. A person must have a questioning mind and must learn to ask Why?.
After he/she learns to specifically identify the problem, the person must know how to
state the problem in such a way that he/she can find a solution to it. Part of this is
recognizing the limits and the scope to which the problem can be worked out. This
requires going over previous works that have been made along the identified problem and
problem area. In his regard, the researcher must develop the skill to read and understand
data that have been presented in various ways: textual, graphic, and tabular. From these
data in various forms, the person must be able to determine what data are necessary to
solve the problem that he/she has identified. Related to this is the ability of the
researcher to judge the reliability of the sources of information.
C. Analysis of Data
Data analysis is highly determined by the hypotheses that state the relationships
of variables considered in the study. Brown identifies these four sub-processes of science:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Skill in formulating hypotheses;

Ability to organize lists of hypotheses;
Understanding cause-and-effect relationships; and,
Skill in testing hypotheses.

According to Brown, the difficulty in stating the hypotheses lies in the logical
processes involved in it. It is important that the proposed hypotheses are consistent with
other known data, amenable to available experimental methods, and they are stated
clearly. After hypotheses are evaluated and clearly stated, they must be ranked according
to their probability of being true. This requires an understanding of the cause-and-effect
relationships. A person must learn to distinguish the causes from the effects. Finally, a
person must learn to devise a way to test the hypotheses.

D. Synthesis of Data
This process requires a person to learn the art of putting and integrating things
into one unified whole. It leads to the formulation of generalizations and conclusions.
The following skills must be developed along this scientific process:
1. Ability to synthesize data into generalizations, and
2. Willingness to withhold judgment until sufficient information is available.
A person who embarks on a scientific investigation must learn eventually to
unite various data into a logical and unified generalization. This should lead to building a
theory that will explain and predict accurately the results of other observations in the
study. In this context, a person must learn to suspend judgment until all the information
necessary for a valid conclusion has been gathered.
E. Evaluation of Data
Data evaluation focuses on weighing the value of evidence and arguments
presented in the study. Thus, this process stresses three important skills:
1. Ability to evaluate evidence;
2. Skill in evaluating arguments; and,
3. Ability to distinguish among assumptions, hypotheses, theories, and
established principles.
Evaluating evidence that has been collected through experimentation is a hard
task. Two general criteria are often used: reliability and validity.
Reliability refers to the trustworthiness of the data in question. Questions that
are raised in this regard are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Were the variables of the experiment properly controlled?

Were the measuring instruments appropriate for the measurements being taken?
Were the instruments read accurately?
Are the data stable or will they change when the experiment is repeated?

Validity refers to whether the experiment really measures what it was intended
to measure. Some questions that may be raised regarding this are:
1. Does logic support the manner in which the experiment was conducted?
2. Were the proper data collected?
3. Do the data answer the research objectives?
Many conclusions in science are probably based on insufficient evidences.
Thus, these conclusions must be evaluated in terms of the logic of their arguments. In a

scientific inquiry, researchers must be taught the differences of the following:

assumptions, hypotheses, theories, and established principles.

Assumption the lowest kind of conclusion based entirely upon crude logic and
casual observation leading to its being taken for granted that something is true.
Hypothesis more likely to be correct since it is based on logic and evidence.
Statistical hypotheses may be tested.
Theory a reasoned judgment or conclusion that has a great deal of
experimental evidence indicating that it is probably true.
Principle a conclusion that has been evaluated by experts in the field and has
been found to be accurate at all times and in all places.

What a Scientific Paper Is

After so much discussions about science, its nature, functions, and processes,
we now come to explain what scientific paper is. It may be inferred from our earlier
discussions that implicit in the definition of science is the need for reports of inquiry.
Science is public; scientific findings must be disseminated for the scrutiny of the general
public So , what is a scientific paper?
According to Robert A. Day, A scientific paper is a written and published
report describing original research results. However, he goes on to say that this short
definition must be qualified. He noted that a scientific paper must be written in a certain
way and that it must be published also in a certain manner as dictated by three centuries
of tradition, editorial practice, scientific ethics, and printing/publishing procedures.
Day (1983) explained what a valid publication is using this definition of the
Council of Biology Editors (CBE) :
An acceptable primary scientific publication must be the first disclosure
containing sufficient information to enable peers (1) to assess
observations, (2) to repeat experiments, and (3) to evaluate intellectual
processes; moreover, it must be susceptible to sensory perception,
essentially permanent, available to the scientific community without
restriction, and available for regular screening by one or more of the
major recognized secondary services (e.g., currently, Biological
Abstracts, Chemical Abstracts, Index Medicus, Excerpta Medica,
Bibliography of Agriculture, etc., in the United States and similar
facilities in other countries).
He simplified this definition by saying that a scientific paper is (1) the first
publication of original research results, (2) in a form whereby peers of the author can
repeat the experiments and test the conclusions, and (3) in a journal or other source
document readily available within the scientific community.

The second criterion for a scientific paper is the particular kind of document
containing certain specified kinds of information. A scientific paper should reflect the
quality of thought as are needed for the rest of science: logic, clarity, and precision,

Summary
In this unit, we have discussed science as a systematized body of knowledge
about the physical universe gained through experience and experimentation. We have
also seen science as a disciplined and rigorous process of investigation about natural
phenomena. This process is more commonly known as the scientific method. It involves
processes such as application of generalizations to new situations, collection of data,
analysis of data, synthesis of data, and evaluation of data. Implicit in the nature and
scope of science is the need for reports of inquiry, thus the discussion about the nature of
scientific papers.

References
Blickle, Margaret D. and Martha E. Passe. 1963. Readings For Technical Writers (Ohio:
Publisher)
Brown, Walter R. 1968. Defining the Processes of Science, The Science Teacher
35(9): 26-28
Day, Robert A, 1983. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper.Philadelphia: ISI
Press.