CHAPTER VI

NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
Nabil R. Nassif and Dolly K. Fayad
December 2012

INTRODUCTION

Differential equations are often used to model physical problems in engineering

and science that involve the dependence of some variable with respect to another,
often satisfying a given initial condition. In this chapter, we consider some
computational aspects of the initial-value problem for a first order differential
equation
 0
y (t) = f (t, y(t)) t [t0 , T ]
(IV P )
y(t0 ) = y0
For existence and uniqueness of solutions issues, we require at the very least
that the function f C 1 [t0 , T ].
The methods considered in this chapter do not produce a continuous approximation to the exact solution of the initial value problem. Rather, discrete solutions are provided approximating y(t) on a set of discrete and often equally
spaced points. Specifically:
1. The interval [t0 , T ] is first subdivided into n subintervals
{[ti , ti+1 ] |i = 0, 1, ..., n 1}
such that for all i, ti = t0 +ih, and tn = T = t0 +nh, where h = ti+1 ti >
0 is the time step.
2. Secondly, using some numerical discrete scheme, an approximation to
the exact solution is calculated at all ti s, step by step. In other words,
if yi denotes a numerical approximation to the exact solution y(ti ):
yi y(ti ), for i = 0, 1, 2, ...n
the proposed solution to (IVP) derived in this chapter, is therefore a discrete set of ordered pairs:
Sn = {(t0 , y0 ), (t1 , y1 ), ..., (tn , yn )}
or equivalently a discrete sequence:
Yn = {y0 , y1 , ..., yn }
that approximates the set of exact values of y(t) : {y(t0 ), y(t1 ), ...., y(tn )}.

We start by stating some general properties related to discrete numerical

methods.

 Two types of formulae , explicit or implicit formulae are usually proposed for calculating Yn . Explicit methods reduce to explicit formulae
of the form:
(1)

yi+1 = F (ti , ti+1 , yi )

or equivalently

yi+1 = F (h, ti , yi )

while Implicit methods lead to implicit equations of the form:

(2)yi+1 = F (ti , ti+1 , yi , yi+1 )

or equivalently

yi+1 = F (h, ti , yi , yi+1 )

Generally this last equation is non linear, requiring additional root-finding

methods as described earlier in Chapter 2. Implicit methods may in some
cases provide improved accuracy over explicit methods, but require more
computational effort at each step.
For the purpose of analyzing convergence results of a numerical method,
we introduce the convergence vector:
e = {e0 , e1 , ..., en },
where ei = y(ti ) yi , i = 0, 1, ..., n with e0 = 0.
Definition 1 A numerical method of the form (1) or (2) solving (IVP)
is convergent if for every T > t0 > 0
lim max |ei | = 0

h0+ 1in

Furthermore, the convergence of the numerical method is of order p, if

max1in |ei | = O(hp ).
Convergence and order of convergence results are usually determined
from the analysis of the local truncation error of (1) or (2).
Specifically:
Definition 2 For all i = 1, 2, ..., n, the local truncation error of (1)
or (2) with respect to the exact solution y(t) is:
(3)

Ei = E(y(ti )) = y(ti ) F (ti , ti1 , y(ti1 ))

in case the method is explicit, or

(4)

Ei = E(y(ti )) = y(ti ) F (ti , ti1 , y(ti ), y(ti1 ))

in case of an implicit method.

Furthermore, the truncation error is of order p+1, if maxi |Ei | = O(hp+1 ).

Based on the definitions above, the order of convergence of a numerical

method is determined as follows:
Proposition 1 Let F satisfy the following Lipshitz condition:
(5)

|F (ti , ti1 , y(ti1 )) F (ti , ti1 , yi1 )| K|y(ti ) yi |,

If the local truncation error of a numerical method solving (IVP) is O(hp+1 ),

then the convergence of the method is O(hp ).
Proof. Considering for example, an explicit method whereas from equation (3):
(6)
y(ti ) = F (ti , ti1 , y(ti1 )) + Ei , i = 0, 1, ..., n
and since from equation (1):
(7)

yi = F (ti1 , ti , yi1 )

then subtracting (6) and (7) leads to:

ei = F (ti , ti1 , y(ti1 )) F (ti , ti1 , yi1 ) + Ei .
Thus under the assumption (5), one has:
|ei | K|ei1 | + |Ei |.
By induction on the right hand side term (|ei1 |), one has:
|ei | K m |eim | + |Ei | + K|Ei1 | + ... + K m1 |Eim+1 | ; i m.
For m = i with e0 = 0, one obtains:
|ei | |Ei | + K|Ei1 | + ... + K i1 |E1 |; , i 1.
which implies that:
i1m
|ei | i1
|Em |.
m=1 K

Since our main interest is in the global behavior of the method, i.e.
maxi |ei |, the last inequality indicates that the global error is due to the
accumulation of local truncation errors from previous steps.
Remark 1 The naive expectation is that since the number of steps n =
(T t0 )/h increases as O(h1 ), if the truncation error is O(hp+1) , then
under favorable conditions, the global error would decrease as O(hp ). We
say then that the method is of order p.

In numerical integration of ODE, the Runge-Kutta methods (RK methods)

form an important family of implicit and explicit iterative methods for the approximation of solutions of ordinary differential equations (ODE). These techniques were developed around 1900 by the German mathematicians C.Runge
and M.W.Kutta.
In this chapter, we will mainly analyze explicit Runge Kutta schemes that
are convergent schemes. The first and simplest RK method for solving the
initial-value problem (IVP) considered hereafter is the Explicit-Euler method.

First-order Explicit Runge-Kutta scheme: Eulers method

Given the value of the solution y at the single point t0 , the purpose of Eulers
method is to compute the value of y at a new point.
A simple and direct approach is to use a rectangular rule to compute integrals,
by making the approximation
f (t, y(t)) f (ti , y(ti )) for all t [ti , ti + h]
where the time step h is sufficiently small. This leads to the following result:
Z ti+1
f (t, y(t)) dt = h f (ti , y(ti )) + O(h2 )
ti

where it can be proved in this case that the local truncation error is O(h2 ).
Thus, integrating (IVP) from ti to ti+1 :
y(ti+1 ) = y(ti ) + h f (ti , y(ti )) + O(h2 )

(8)

A one-step numerical recursive scheme to solve (IVP) consists then in finding

a discrete sequence:
Y = {yi | i = 0, 1, ..., n}
such that:

yi+1 = yi + hf (ti , yi ), i = 0, 1, ...., n 1

y0 = y(t0 )

Obviously then, one function evaluation k1 is first calculated, leading to the

following discrete RK- scheme with one stage:

k1 = f (ti , yi )
(RK1)
yi+1 = yi + hk1
with a local truncation error of O(h2 ).
Based on Remark 1, one concludes the following result:
5

Proposition 2 The Eulers explicit method is a first order method. (The Global
Error of RK1 is O(h)).
Example 1 Use Eulers explicit scheme to solve the following initial value problem with time step h = 0.5:
 0
y (t) = 1.2y + 7e0.3t t [0, 1.5]
y(0) = 3
The corresponding discrete scheme with one stage is given by:

k1 = 1.2yi + 7e0.3ti
(RK1)
yi+1 = yi + hk1
The numerical results could be presented in a table as follows:
i
0
1
2
3

ti

yi
y0 = 3
y1 = 4.7
y2 = 4.893
y3 = 4.550

0
0.5
1
1.5

k1 = 1.2yi + 7e0.3ti
3.4
0.386
0.686

yi+1 = yi + hK1
y1 = 4.7
y2 = 4.893
y3 = 4.550

The discrete set of points solving the given problem is therefore:

{(0, 3); (0.5, 4.7); (1, 4.893); (1.5, 4.550); (2, 4.052); (2.5, 3.542)}
0.3t
The analytical or exact solution being y = 70

9 e
compute the absolute error at each ti value:

i
0
1
2
3

ti
0
0.5
1
1.5

yi
y0 = 3
y1 = 4.7
y2 = 4.893
y3 = 4.550

y(ti )
y(t0 ) = 3
y(t1 ) = 4.072
y(t2 ) = 4.323
y(t3 ) = 4.170

43 1.2t
,
9 e

we can therefore

E= |y(ti ) yi |
E=0
E =0.6277
E = 0.5696
E = 0.3803

Second order explicit Runge-Kutta methods

The Runge-Kutta methods of order 2 solving the initial value problem (IVP)
are modified Euler s schemes.
The following consequence of the Mean value theorem is needed:
Proposition 3 If f : R2 R is a function of 2 variables and is at least of
class C 1 , then:
f (t, y + O()) = f (t, y) + O()

Integrating (IVP) from ti to ti+1 :

Z
(9)

ti+1

y(ti+1 ) = y(ti ) +

f (t, y(t)) dt
ti

Assuming moreover that f C 2 , the Integral on the right hand side will be
approximated successively by: the Midpoint Rule and the Trapezoidal Rule.
1. The Midpoint Rule method:
Based on the Midpoint Rule, (9) is then:
(10)

y(ti+1 ) = y(ti ) + h f (ti +

h
h
, y(ti + )) + O(h3 )
2
2

By Eulers method:
y(ti +

h
h
) = y(ti ) + f (ti , y(ti )) + O(h2 )
2
2

Equation (10) is then:

(11)y(ti+1 ) = y(ti ) + h f (ti +

h
h
, y(ti ) + f (ti , y(ti )) + O(h2 )) + O(h3 )
2
2

Or equivalently:
(12)

y(ti+1 ) = y(ti ) + h f (ti +

h
h
, y(ti ) + f (ti , y(ti )) + O(h3 )
2
2

This last equation suggests the following discrete RK-scheme with 2 stages

k1 = f (ti , yi )
(RK2.M )
k = f (ti + h2 , yi + h2 k1 )
2
yi+1 = yi + hk2
with a local truncation error of O(h3 ).
2. The Trapezoidal Rule method: Heuns method
The second Runge Kutta method of order 2- Heuns method- is also called
the the improved Euler method.
Integrating (IVP), and based on the Trapezoidal Rule, (9) is then:
(13)

y(ti+1 ) = y(ti ) +

h
[f (ti , y(ti )) + f (ti+1 , y(ti+1 ))] + O(h3 )
2

By Eulers method:
y(ti+1 ) = y(ti ) + h f (ti , y(ti )) + O(h2 )
7

implying that:
f (ti+1 , y(ti+1 )) = f (ti+1 , y(ti ) + h f (ti , y(ti )) + O(h2 ))
Equation ( 13 ) is then:
h
[f (ti , y(ti )) + f (ti+1 , y(ti ) + hf (ti , y(ti )))] + O(h3 )
2
This last equation suggests the following discrete RK-scheme with 2 stages

k1 = f (ti , yi )
k2 = f (ti + h, yi + hk1 )
(RK2.H)

yi+1 = yi + h2 (k1 + k2 )

y(ti+1 ) = y(ti ) +
(14)

with a local truncation error of O(h3 ).

Referring to Remark 1, one concludes the following:
Proposition 4 The 2nd order Runge Kutta methods are second order
methods. (The Global Error of RK2 is O(h2 )).
Example 2 Use the 2nd 0rder Runge Kutta method (Heuns form) to
solve the initial value problem of preceding example:
 0
y (t) = 1.2y + 7e0.3t t [0, 1.5]
(IV P )
y(0) = 3
The corresponding discrete scheme with 2 stages is given by:

k1 = 1.2yi + 7e0.3ti
k2 = 1.2(yi + h(1.2yi + 7e0.3ti )) + 7e0.3(ti +h)
(RK2.H)

yi+1 = yi + h2 [k1 + k2 ]
The numerical results could be presented in a table as follows:
i
0
1
2
3

ti
0
0.5
1
1.5

yi
3
3.946
4.188
4.063

k1
3.4
1.290
0.160

k2
0.385
0.323
0.6586

yi+1 = yi + h2 (K1 + K2 )
3.946
4.188
4.063

The absolute error at each ti value is therefore presented below:

i
0
1
2
3

ti
0
0.5
1
1.5

yi
y0 = 3
y1 =
y2 = 4.188
y3 = 4.063

y(ti )
y(t0 ) = 3
y(t1 ) = 4.072
y(t2 ) = 4.323
y(t3 ) = 4.170
8

E= |y(ti ) yi |
E=0
E =0.126
E = 0.135
E = 0.106

4 The common fourth order Explicit RungeKutta method

One member of the family of Runge-Kutta methods is so commonly used
that it is often referred to as RK4 or simply as the Runge-Kutta
method . Its derivation is tedious, and we only expose the results.[Ralston]
The RK4 method for the initial value problem (IVP), is given by the
following equation:
(15)

1
yi+1 = yi + h(k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 )
6

where yi+1 is the RK4 approximation of y(ti+1 ) with 4 stages

k1

k2
k

3
k4

= f (ti , yi )
= f (ti + h2 , yi + h2 k1 )
= f (ti + h2 , yi + h2 k2 )
= f (ti + h, yi + hk3 )

Thus, the next value yi+1 is obtained at the expense of evaluating the
function f four times. It is determined by the present value yi plus the
product of the time step h and an estimated slope. That slope is a weighted
average of slopes:
k1 is the slope at the beginning of the interval
k2 is the slope at the midpoint of the interval, using slope k1 to
determine the value of y at the point tn + h2 using Eulers method.
k3 is again the slope at the midpoint of the interval, but now using
slope k2 to determine the y-value
k4 is the slope at the end of the interval, with its y-value determined
using k3 .
In averaging the 4 slopes, greater weight is given to the slopes at the midpoint.
The corresponding discrete scheme is then:

k1 = f (ti , yi )

k
2 = f (ti + h2 , yi + h2 k1 )
(RK4)
k3 = f (ti + h2 , yi + h2 k2 )

k4 = f (ti + h, yi + hk3 )

yi+1 = yi + 61 h(k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4 )

9

Remark 2 As proved in [Butcher] or [Gear], the final formula of the

RK4 method agrees with the Taylor series expansion up to the term in
h4 , meaning that the truncation error per step is O(h5 ) and that the total
accumulated error has order h4 .
Proposition 5 The RK4 method is a 4th -order method.

10

EXERCISES

1. Use Eulers method to solve the following (IVP)

(a) y 0 (t) = ety , 0 t 1, y(0) = 1, h = 0.5
(b) y 0 (t) = y + ty 1/2 , 2 t 3, y(2) = 2, h = 0.25
(c) y 0 (t) = 1 + y/t, 1 t 2, y(1) = 2, h = 0.25
2. Consider the following Initial Value Problem:
 dy
2
dt = t + y ; t [1, 2]
(IV P )
y(1) = 1
(a) Write first the discrete scheme of Eulers method, (RK1), then use 2
steps of this scheme to approximate y(1.25) and y(1.50).
Discrete Scheme

................................................................
(RK1)
yi+1 = ....................................................
Express all the computed results with a precision p = 3.
i
0
1

ti
.
.

yi
.
.

K1
.
.

yi+1
.
.

(b) Write first the discrete scheme of Heuns method, (RK2.H), then use
2 steps of this scheme to approximate y(1.25) and y(1.50).
Discrete Scheme

...............................................................
................................................................
(RK2.H)

yi+1 = ....................................................
Express all the computed results with a precision p = 3.

i
0
1

ti
.
.

yi
.
.

K1
.
.

11

K2
.
.

yi+1
.
.

(c) Write first the discrete scheme of the Midpoint Rule method, (RK2.M),
then use 2 steps of this scheme to approximate y(1.25) and y(1.50).
Discrete Scheme

...............................................................
................................................................
(RK2.M )

yi+1 = ....................................................
Express all the computed results with a precision p = 3.

i
0
1

ti
.
.

yi
.
.

K1
.
.

K2
.
.

3. Use Heuns method (RK2.H) to solve the following (IVP)

1. y 0 (t) = te3t 2y, 0 t 1, y(0) = 0, h = 0.5
2. y 0 (t) = 1 + (t y)2 , 2 t 3, y(2) = 1, h = 0.5
3. y 0 (t) = 1 + y/t, 1 t 2, y(1) = 2, h = 0.25
Exercise 4: Repeat Exercise 2 using the Midpoint method (RK2.M)

12

yi+1
.
.