AC Generators AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS

AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS

AC generators are widely used to produce AC voltage. To understand how these

generators operate, the function of each component of the generator must first be
understood.

EO 1.1 STATE the purpose of the following components of an

AC generator:
a. Field
b. Armature
c. Prime mover
d. Rotor
e. Stator
f. Slip rings

Field

The field in an AC generator consists of coils of conductors within the generator that receive a
voltage from a source (called excitation) and produce a magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the
field cuts the armature to produce a voltage. This voltage is ultimately the output voltage of the
AC generator.

Armature

The armature is the part of an AC generator in which voltage is produced. This component
consists of many coils of wire that are large enough to carry the full-load current of the
generator.

Prime Mover

The prime mover is the component that is used to drive the AC generator. The prime mover may
be any type of rotating machine, such as a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.

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AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS AC Generators

Rotor

The rotor of an AC generator is the rotating component of the generator, as shown in Figure 1.
The rotor is driven by the generators prime mover, which may be a steam turbine, gas turbine,
or diesel engine. Depending on the type of generator, this component may be the armature or
the field. The rotor will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there; the rotor will
be the field if the field excitation is applied there.

Figure 1 Basic AC Generator

Stator

The stator of an AC generator is the part that is stationary (refer to Figure 1). Like the rotor,
this component may be the armature or the field, depending on the type of generator. The stator
will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there; the stator will be the field if the
field excitation is applied there.

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AC Generators AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS

Slip Rings

Slip rings are electrical connections that are used to transfer power to and from the rotor of an
AC generator (refer to Figure 1). The slip ring consists of a circular conducting material that is
connected to the rotor windings and insulated from the shaft. Brushes ride on the slip ring as
the rotor rotates. The electrical connection to the rotor is made by connections to the brushes.

Slip rings are used in AC generators because the desired output of the generator is a sine wave.
In a DC generator, a commutator was used to provide an output whose current always flowed
in the positive direction, as shown in Figure 2. This is not necessary for an AC generator.
Therefore, an AC generator may use slip rings, which will allow the output current and voltage
to oscillate through positive and negative values. This oscillation of voltage and current takes
the shape of a sine wave.

Figure 2 - Comparison of DC and AC Generator Outputs

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AC GENERATOR COMPONENTS AC Generators

Summary

The important information in this chapter is summarized below.

AC Generator Components Summary

The field in an AC generator consists of coils of conductors within the

generator that receive a voltage from a source (called excitation) and produce
a magnetic flux.

The armature is the part of an AC generator in which output voltage is

produced.

The prime mover is the component that is used to drive the AC generator.

The rotor of an AC generator is the part that is driven by the prime mover
and that rotates.

The stator of an AC generator is the part that is stationary.

Slip rings are electrical connections that are used to transfer power to and
from the rotor of an AC generator.

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AC Generators AC GENERATOR THEORY

AC GENERATOR THEORY

AC generators are widely used to produce AC voltage. To understand how these

generators operate, the basic theory of operation must first be understood.

EO 1.2 Given the speed of rotation and number of poles,

CALCULATE the frequency output of an AC generator.

EO 1.3 LIST the three losses found in an AC generator.

EO 1.4 Given the prime mover input and generator output,

DETERMINE the efficiency of an AC generator.

Theory of Operation

A simple AC generator consists of:

(a) a strong magnetic field, (b)
conductors that rotate through that
magnetic field, and (c) a means by
which a continuous connection is
provided to the conductors as they
are rotating (Figure 3). The strong
magnetic field is produced by a
current flow through the field coil
of the rotor. The field coil in the
rotor receives excitation through
the use of slip rings and brushes.
Two brushes are spring-held in
contact with the slip rings to
provide the continuous connection Figure 3 Simple AC Generator
between the field coil and the
external excitation circuit. The armature is contained within the windings of the stator and is
connected to the output. Each time the rotor makes one complete revolution, one complete cycle
of AC is developed. A generator has many turns of wire wound into the slots of the rotor.

The magnitude of AC voltage generated by an AC generator is dependent on the field strength

and speed of the rotor. Most generators are operated at a constant speed; therefore, the generated
voltage depends on field excitation, or strength.

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AC GENERATOR THEORY AC Generators

The frequency of the generated voltage is dependent on the number of field poles and the speed
at which the generator is operated, as indicated in Equation (10-1).

NP
f = (10-1)
120

where

f = frequency (Hz)
P = total number of poles
N = rotor speed (rpm)
120 = conversion from minutes to seconds and from poles to pole pairs

The 120 in Equation (10-1) is derived by multiplying the following conversion factors.

60 seconds 2 poles
x
1 minute pole pair

In this manner, the units of frequency (hertz or cycles/sec.) are derived.

Losses in an AC Generator

The load current flows through the armature in all AC generators. Like any coil, the armature
has some amount of resistance and inductive reactance. The combination of these make up what
is known as the internal resistance, which causes a loss in an AC generator. When the load
current flows, a voltage drop is developed across the internal resistance. This voltage drop
subtracts from the output voltage and, therefore, represents generated voltage and power that is
lost and not available to the load. The voltage drop in an AC generator can be found using
Equation (10-2).

Voltage drop IaRa IaXLa (10-2)

where

Ia = armature current
Ra = armature resistance
XLa = armature inductive reactance

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AC Generators AC GENERATOR THEORY

Hysteresis Losses

Hysteresis losses occur when iron cores in an AC generator are subject to effects from a
magnetic field. The magnetic domains of the cores are held in alignment with the field in
varying numbers, dependent upon field strength. The magnetic domains rotate, with respect to
the domains not held in alignment, one complete turn during each rotation of the rotor. This
rotation of magnetic domains in the iron causes friction and heat. The heat produced by this
friction is called magnetic hysteresis loss.

To reduce hysteresis losses, most AC armatures are constructed of heat-treated silicon steel,
which has an inherently low hysteresis loss. After the heat-treated silicon steel is formed to the
desired shape, the laminations are heated to a dull red and then allowed to cool. This process,
known as annealing, reduces hysteresis losses to a very low value.

Mechanical Losses

Rotational or mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction, brush friction on the
commutator, and air friction (called windage), which is caused by the air turbulence due to
armature rotation. Careful maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction to a
minimum. Clean bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the reduction of bearing friction.
Brush friction is reduced by ensuring: proper brush seating, proper brush use, and maintenance
of proper brush tension. A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction of brush
friction. In very large generators, hydrogen is used within the generator for cooling; hydrogen,
being less dense than air, causes less windage losses than air.

Efficiency

Efficiency of an AC generator is the ratio of the useful power output to the total power input.
Because any mechanical process experiences some losses, no AC generators can be 100 percent
efficient. Efficiency of an AC generator can be calculated using Equation (10-3).

Output
Efficiency x 100 (10-3)
Input

Example: Given a 5 hp motor acting as the prime mover of a generator that has a load
demand of 2 kW, what is the efficiency of the generator?

Solution:

In order to calculate efficiency, the input and output power must be in the same
units. As described in Thermodynamics, the horsepower and the watt are
equivalent units of power.

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AC GENERATOR THEORY AC Generators

Therefore, the equivalence of these units is expressed with a conversion factor as

follows.

ft lbf 1 kW 1000 w W
550 746
sec ft lbf 1 kW hp
737.6
1hp sec

W
Input Power = 5 hp x 746 3730 W
hp

Output Power = 2 kW 2000 W

Output 2000 W
Efficiency = 0.54 x 100 54%
Input 3730 W

Summary

The important information covered in this chapter is summarized below.

AC Generator Theory Summary

The frequency of the generated voltage in an AC generator can be calculated by

multiplying the number of poles by the speed of the generator and dividing by
a factor of 120.

The three losses found in an AC generator are:

- Internal voltage drops due to the internal resistance and impedance of the
generator
- Hysteresis losses
- Mechanical losses

Efficiency of an AC generator can be calculated by dividing the output by the

input and multiplying by 100.

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AC Generators AC GENERATOR OPERATION

AC GENERATOR OPERATION

Because of the nature of AC voltage and current, the operation of an AC

generator requires that rules and procedures be followed. In addition, there are
various types of AC generators available, each type having advantages and
disadvantages.

EO 1.5 DESCRIBE the bases behind the kW and current

ratings of an AC generator.

EO 1.6 DESCRIBE the conditions that must be met prior to

paralleling two AC generators including consequences of
not meeting these conditions.

EO 1.7 DESCRIBE the difference between a stationary field,

rotating armature AC generator and a rotating field,
stationary armature AC generator.

EO 1.8 EXPLAIN the differences between a wye-connected and

delta-connected AC generator including advantages and
disadvantages of each type.

Ratings

Typical name plate data for an AC generator

(Figure 4) includes: (1) manufacturer; (2)
serial number and type number; (3) speed
(rpm), number of poles, frequency of output,
number of phases, and maximum supply
voltage; (4) capacity rating in KVA and kW
at a specified power factor and maximum
output voltage; (5) armature and field current
per phase; and (6) maximum temperature rise.

Power (kW) ratings of an AC generator are

based on the ability of the prime mover to
overcome generator losses and the ability of
the machine to dissipate the internally
generated heat. The current rating of an AC
generator is based on the insulation rating of Figure 4 AC Generator Nameplate Ratings
the machine.

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AC GENERATOR OPERATION AC Generators

Paralleling AC Generators
Most electrical power grids and distribution systems have more than one AC generator operating
at one time. Normally, two or more generators are operated in parallel in order to increase the
available power. Three conditions must be met prior to paralleling (or synchronizing) AC
generators.

Their terminal voltages must be equal. If the voltages of the two AC generators are not
equal, one of the AC generators could be picked up as a reactive load to the other AC
generator. This causes high currents to be exchanged between the two machines, possibly
causing generator or distribution system damage.

Their frequencies must be equal. A mismatch in frequencies of the two AC generators

will cause the generator with the lower frequency to be picked up as a load on the other
generator (a condition referred to as "motoring"). This can cause an overload in the
generators and the distribution system.

Their output voltages must be in phase. A mismatch in the phases will cause large
opposing voltages to be developed. The worst case mismatch would be 180 out of
phase, resulting in an opposing voltage between the two generators of twice the output
voltage. This high voltage can cause damage to the generators and distribution system
due to high currents.

During paralleling operations, voltages of the two generators that are to be paralleled are
indicated through the use of voltmeters. Frequency matching is accomplished through the use
of output frequency meters. Phase matching is accomplished through the use of a synchroscope,
a device that senses the two frequencies and gives an indication of phase differences and a
relative comparison of frequency differences.

Types of AC Generators
As previously discussed, there are two types of
AC generators: the stationary field, rotating
armature; and the rotating field, stationary
armature.

Small AC generators usually have a stationary

field and a rotating armature (Figure 5). One
important disadvantage to this arrangement is that
the slip-ring and brush assembly is in series with
the load circuits and, because of worn or dirty
components, may interrupt the flow of current.

Figure 5 Stationary Field, Rotating Armature

AC Generator

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AC Generators AC GENERATOR OPERATION

If DC field excitation is connected

to the rotor, the stationary coils
will have AC induced into them
(Figure 6). This arrangement is
called a rotating field, stationary
armature AC generator.

The rotating field, stationary

armature type AC generator is
used when large power generation
is involved. In this type of
generator, a DC source is supplied
to the rotating field coils, which
produces a magnetic field around
the rotating element. As the rotor
is turned by the prime mover, the Figure 6 Simple AC Generator - Rotating Field, Stationary
Armature
field will cut the conductors of the
stationary armature, and an EMF
will be induced into the armature windings.

This type of AC generator has several advantages over the stationary field, rotating armature AC
generator: (1) a load can be connected to the armature without moving contacts in the circuit;
(2) it is much easier to insulate stator fields than rotating fields; and (3) much higher voltages
and currents can be generated.

Three-Phase AC Generators
The principles of a three-phase generator are basically
the same as that of a single-phase generator, except
that there are three equally-spaced windings and three
output voltages that are all 120 out of phase with
one another. Physically adjacent loops (Figure 7) are
separated by 60 of rotation; however, the loops are
connected to the slip rings in such a manner that
there are 120 electrical degrees between phases.

The individual coils of each winding are combined

and represented as a single coil. The significance of
Figure 7 is that it shows that the three-phase
generator has three separate armature windings that
are 120 electrical degrees out of phase.

Figure 7 Stationary Armature 3 Generator

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AC GENERATOR OPERATION AC Generators

AC Generator Connections
As shown in Figure 7, there are six leads from the
armature of a three-phase generator, and the output is
connected to an external load. In actual practice, the
windings are connected together, and only three leads are
brought out and connected to the external load.

Two means are available to connect the three armature

windings. In one type of connection, the windings are
connected in series, or delta-connected () (Figure 8).

In a delta-connected generator, the voltage between any Figure 8 Delta Connection

two of the phases, called line voltage, is the same as the
voltage generated in any one phase. As shown in Figure 9, the three phase voltages are equal,
as are the three line voltages. The current in any line is 3 times the phase current. You can
see that a delta-connected generator provides an increase in current, but no increase in voltage.

Figure 9 Characteristics of a Delta-Connected Generator

An advantage of the delta-connected AC generator is that if one phase becomes damaged or

open, the remaining two phases can still deliver three-phase power. The capacity of the generator
is reduced to 57.7% of what it was with all three phases in operation.

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AC Generators AC GENERATOR OPERATION

In the other type of connection, one of the

leads of each winding is connected, and
the remaining three leads are connected to
an external load. This is called a wye
connection (Y) (Figure 10).

The voltage and current characteristics of

the wye-connected AC generator are
opposite to that of the delta connection.
Voltage between any two lines in a wye-
connected AC generator is 1.73 (or 3 ) Figure 10 Wye Connection
times any one phase voltage, while line
currents are equal to phase currents. The
wye-connected AC generator provides an increase in voltage, but no increase in current (Figure
11).

Figure 11 Characteristics of a Wye-Connected AC Generator

An advantage of a wye-connected AC generator is that each phase only has to carry 57.7% of
line voltage and, therefore, can be used for high voltage generation.

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AC GENERATOR OPERATION AC Generators

Summary
The important information covered in this chapter is summarized below.

AC Generator Operation Summary

Power (kW) ratings of an AC generator are based on the ability of the prime
mover to overcome generation losses and the ability of the machine to dissipate
the heat generated internally. The current rating of an AC generator is based on
the insulation rating of the machine.

There are three requirements that must be met to parallel AC generators:

1) Their terminal voltages must be equal. A mismatch may cause high

currents and generator or distribution system damage.

2) Their frequencies must be equal. A mismatch in frequencies can cause

one generator to "motor," causing an overload in the generators and the
distribution system.

3) Their output voltages must be in phase. A mismatch in the phases will

cause large opposing voltages to be developed, resulting in damage to the
generators and distribution system due to high currents.

The disadvantage of a stationary field, rotating armature is that the slip-ring and
brush assembly is in series with the load circuits and, because of worn or dirty
components, may interrupt the flow of current.

A stationary armature, rotating field generator has several advantages: (1) a load
can be connected to the armature without moving contacts in the circuit; (2) it
is much easier to insulate stator fields than rotating fields; and (3) much higher
voltages and currents can be generated.

The advantage of the delta-connected AC generator is that if one phase becomes

damaged or open, the remaining two phases can still deliver three-phase power
at a reduced capacity of 57.7%.

The advantage of a wye-connected AC generator is that each phase only has to

carry 57.7% of line voltage and, therefore, can be used for high voltage
generation.

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 Department of Energy
Fundamentals Handbook

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE
Module 11
Voltage Regulators
Voltage Regulators TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

VOLTAGE REGULATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Block Diagram Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Sensing Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Reference Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Comparison Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Amplification Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Signal Output Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Feedback Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Changing Output Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

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LIST OF FIGURES Voltage Regulators

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Voltage Regulator Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

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Voltage Regulators LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF TABLES

NONE

Rev. 0 Page iii ES-11

REFERENCES Voltage Regulators

REFERENCES

Gussow, Milton, Schaums Outline Series, Basic Electricity, McGraw-Hill.

Academic Program for Nuclear Power Plant Personnel, Volume IV, Columbia, MD:
General Physics Corporation, Library of Congress Card #A 326517, 1982.

Academic Program for Nuclear Power Plant Personnel, Volume II, Columbia, MD:
General Physics Corporation, Library of Congress Card #A 326517, 1982.

Nasar and Unnewehr, Electromechanics and Electric Machines, John Wiley and Sons.

Van Valkenburgh, Nooger, and Neville, Basic Electricity, Vol. 5, Hayden Book Company.

Lister, Eugene C., Electric Circuits and Machines, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill.

Croft, Carr, Watt, and Summers, American Electricians Handbook, 10th Edition, McGraw-
Hill.

Mileaf, Harry, Electricity One - Seven, Revised 2nd Edition, Hayden Book Company.

Buban and Schmitt, Understanding Electricity and Electronics, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill.

Kidwell, Walter, Electrical Instruments and Measurements, McGraw-Hill.

ES-11 Page iv Rev. 0

Voltage Regulators OBJECTIVES

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE

1.0 Given a block diagram, DESCRIBE the operation of a typical voltage regulator.

ENABLING OBJECTIVES

1.1 STATE the purpose for voltage regulation equipment.

1.2 Given a block diagram of a typical voltage regulator, DESCRIBE the function of
each of the following components:
a. Sensing circuit
b. Reference circuit
c. Comparison circuit
d. Amplification circuit(s)
e. Signal output circuit
f. Feedback circuit

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 Voltage Regulators

Intentionally Left Blank

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Voltage Regulators VOLTAGE REGULATORS

VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Because the voltage from an AC generator varies as the output load and power
factor change, a voltage regulator circuit is necessary to permit continuity of the
desired output voltage.

EO 1.1 STATE the purpose for voltage regulation equipment.

EO 1.2 Given a block diagram of a typical voltage regulator,

DESCRIBE the function of each of the following
components:
a. Sensing circuit
b. Reference circuit
c. Comparison circuit
d. Amplification circuit(s)
e. Signal output circuit
f. Feedback circuit

Purpose

The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain the output voltage of a generator at a desired
value. As load on an AC generator changes, the voltage will also tend to change. The main
reason for this change in voltage is the change in the voltage drop across the armature winding
caused by a change in load current. In an AC generator, there is an IR drop and an IXL drop
caused by the AC current flowing through the resistance and inductance of the windings. The
IR drop is dependent on the amount of the load change only. The IXL drop is dependent on not
only the load change, but also the power factor of the circuit. Therefore, the output voltage of
an AC generator varies with both changes in load (i.e., current) and changes in power factor.
Because of changes in voltage, due to changes in load and changes in power factor, AC
generators require some auxiliary means of regulating output voltage.

Block Diagram Description

Figure 1 shows a typical block diagram of an AC generator voltage regulator. This regulator
consists of six basic circuits that together regulate the output voltage of an AC generator from
no-load to full-load.

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VOLTAGE REGULATORS Voltage Regulators

Figure 1 Voltage Regulator Block Diagram

Sensing Circuit

The sensing circuit senses output voltage of the AC generator. As the generator is loaded or
unloaded, the output voltage changes, and the sensing circuit provides a signal of these voltage
changes. This signal is proportional to output voltage and is sent to the comparison circuit.

Reference Circuit

The reference circuit maintains a constant output for reference. This reference is the desired
voltage output of the AC generator.

Comparison Circuit

The comparison circuit electrically compares the reference voltage to the sensed voltage and
provides an error signal. This error signal represents an increase or decrease in output voltage.
The signal is sent to the amplification circuit.

Amplification Circuit

The amplification circuit, which can be a magnetic amplifier or transistor amplifier, takes the
signal from the comparison circuit and amplifies the milliamp input to an amp output, which is
then sent to the signal output, or field, circuit.

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Voltage Regulators VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Signal Output Circuit

The signal output circuit, which controls field excitation of the AC generator, increases or
decreases field excitation to either raise or lower the AC output voltage.

Feedback Circuit

The feedback circuit takes some of the output of the signal output circuit and feeds it back to the
amplification circuit. It does this to prevent overshooting or undershooting of the desired voltage
by slowing down the circuit response.

Changing Output Voltage

Let us consider an increase in generator load and, thereby, a drop in output voltage. First, the
sensing circuit senses the decrease in output voltage as compared to the reference and lowers its
input to the comparison circuit. Since the reference circuit is always a constant, the comparison
circuit will develop an error signal due to the difference between the sensed voltage and the
reference voltage. The error signal developed will be of a positive value with the magnitude of
the signal dependent on the difference between the sensed voltage and the reference voltage.
This output from the comparison circuit will then be amplified by the amplifier circuit and sent
to the signal output circuit. The signal output circuit then increases field excitation to the AC
generator. This increase in field excitation causes generated voltage to increase to the desired
output.

If the load on the generator were decreased, the voltage output of the machine would rise. The
actions of the voltage regulator would then be the opposite of that for a lowering output voltage.
In this case, the comparison circuit will develop a negative error signal whose magnitude is again
dependent on the difference between the sensed voltage and the reference voltage. As a result,
the signal output circuit will decrease field excitation to the AC generator, causing the generated
voltage to decrease to the desired output.

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VOLTAGE REGULATORS Voltage Regulators

Summary

Voltage regulators are summarized below.

Voltage Regulators Summary

Purpose - to maintain the output voltage of a generator at a desired value

Sensing circuit - senses output voltage of the AC generator

Reference circuit - maintains a constant output for reference, or desired, voltage

output of the AC generator

Comparison circuit - compares reference voltage to output voltage and provides

an error signal to the amplification circuit

Amplification circuit(s) - takes the signal from the comparison circuit and
amplifies the milliamp input to an amp output

Signal output circuit - controls field excitation of the AC generator

Feedback circuit - prevents overshooting or undershooting of the desired voltage

by slowing down the circuit response

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