COMBUSTION AND FLAME TYPES

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 COMBUSTION

• Combustion is defined as a relatively rapid chemical combination of

hydrogen and carbon in the fuel with the oxygen in the air, resulting in
liberation of energy in the form of heat.

Combustion are of two types :

1. Homogeneous combustion
2. Heterogeneous combustion

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 FLAME
A flame is a combustion reaction which can propagate sub sonically through
space.

FLAME TYPES:
1) According to composition of the reactants
a) PREMIXED
b) DIFFUSION
2) According to basic character of gas flow through reaction zone
a) LAMINAR
b) TURBULENT
3) According to flame structure and motion
a) STEADY
b) UNSTEADY

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1) According to Composition of the Reactants

a) PREMIXED - Fuel and oxidizer are uniformly mixed together, like

in a gasoline engine.

b) DIFFUSION - If reactants are not premixed and must mix together

in the same region where reaction takes place , the
flame is called diffusion

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 2) According to basic character of gas flow through reaction zone

a) LAMINAR- In laminar or streamlined flame, mixing and transport are

done by molecular processes. Laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds
numbers. (Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial to viscous forces.

b) TURBULENT - In this, mixing and transport are enhanced by the

macroscopic relative motion of eddies or lumps of fluid, which is a
characteristic feature of turbulent (high Reynolds number)

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3) According to flame structure and motion

A) STEADY : Flame structure and motion doesn’t change with time.

B) UNSTEADY : Flame structure and motion vary with time.

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ROLE OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER ON ENGINE
PERFORMANCE

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 ROLE OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER ON ENGINE
PERFORMANCE
• The diesel engine performance is greatly
affected by the phenomena occurring inside the
combustion chamber, which depends mainly on
the piston bowl configuration.

• The piston bowl configuration is closely to swirl

ratio of the engine.

• In order to maintain the global standard of DI

engine performance, multi dimensional flow
simulation is used as an economical tool for the
optimum design of DI engine.

• Swirl is generated during compression process

in DI engine and subsequently it plays a vital role
in mixing air and fuel inside the cylinder.

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• Modeling of combustion cylinder and prediction of in-cylinder flow is essential
to achieve better performance of a DI engine.

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TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

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 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER

1. OPEN OR DIRECT TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

2. PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

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 OPEN TYPE COMBUSTION CHAMBER

 Fuel is injected directly into the upper

portion of the cylinder (i.e.
combustion chamber). This type
depends little on turbulence to
perform the mixing.
 High injection pressures and multi –
orifice nozzles are required.
 It was used earlier on low speed
engines, but with availability of
further higher pressures, being used
even for high speed engines.

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 2.PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
It is separated into two
chambers.
• The smaller chamber occupies
about 30 percent of total
combustion space.
• As the pre combustion chamber
runs hot, delay period is very
short. This results into small rate of
pressure rise and thus , tendency
of Diesel knock is minimum , and
as such running is smooth.
• Products of combustion from pre
chamber move to main chamber
in a violent way, which helps in a
very rapid combustion in third
stage due

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 MEXICAN HAT TYPE CHAMBER

 Most common
 Produces desirable turbulence
 The deeper the bowl the greater the turbulence
 Lower fuel Inj. Pressures possible
 Shallow bowl less turbulence
 Higher fuel Inj. Pressures required

 Late model engines use Mexican hat because:

 Desirable gas dynamics
 Low risk of fuel burn-out on the piston below the injector
 Long service life

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TYPES OF DIESEL COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

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 TYPES OF DIESEL COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

• DIRECT – INJECTION SYSTEMS

• INDIRECT – INJECTION SYSTEMS

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 DIRECT – INJECTION SYSTEMS

• Have a single open combustion

chamber into which fuel is injected
directly.

• Used for large size engines.

• Additional air motion not required .

• As engine size decreases ,

increasing amounts of air swirl are
used to achieve faster fuel – air
mixing rates.

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 INDIRECT – INJECTION SYSTEMS

• Chamber is divided into two regions

• Fuel is injected into pre chamber

which is connected to the main
chamber via a nozzle.

• Used in the smallest engine sizes.

• During compression, air is forced

form the main chamber above the
piston into the auxiliary chamber,
through the nozzle or orifice .Thus,
toward the end of compression , a
vigorous flow in auxiliary chamber is
set up.

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COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT COMBUSTION SYSEMS

• In DI systems, as engine size decreases and maximum speed rises ,

swirl is used increasingly to obtain high fuel air mixture rates

• IDI systems is used for smallest engine sizes ,It is used to obtain the
vigorous air motion required for high fuel – air mixing rates.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON DIESEL COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

DIRECT INJECTION INDIRECT

INJECTION
SYSTEM QUIESCENT MEDIUM SWIRL PRE CHAMBER

SIZE LARGEST MEDIUM SMALLEST

CYCLE 2/4 STROKE 4 STROKE 4 STROKE

TURBOCHARGED TC/S TC/NA NA/TC

MAXIMUM SPEED 120-2100 1800-3500 4500

BORE , mm 900-150 150-100 95-70

STROKE/BORE 3.5-1.2 1.3-1.0 1.1-0.9

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 DIRECT INJECTION INDIRECT
INJECTION
SYSTEM QUIESCENT MEDIUM SWIRL PRE CHAMBER

COMPRESSION 12-15 15-16 22-24

RATIO
CHAMBER OPEN OR BOWL IN PISTON SINGLE/MULTI-
SHALLOW dish ORIFICE
PRECHAMBER

AIR -FLOW QUIESCENT MEDIUM SWIRL VERY TURBULENT

PATTERN IN PRECHAMBER

NUMBER OF HOLES MULTI MULTI SINGLE

INJECTION VERY HIGH HIGH LOWEST

PRESSURE

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 PRIMARY CONSIDERATION IN THE DESIGN OF
COMBUSTION CHAMBERS FOR C.I ENGINE
• Injection and combustion both must
complete in short time in order to
achieve the best efficiency.

• For best combustion mixing should

complete in the short time.

• In C.I engine it is evident that fuel

air contact must be limited during the
delay period in order to limit dp/dt,
the rate of pressure rise in the
second phase of combustion. This
result can be obtained by shortening
the delay time.

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• To achieve high efficiency and power the combustion must be completed
when the piston is nearer to T.D.C, it is necessary to have rapid mixing of fuel
and air during the third stage of combustion.

• The design of combustion chamber for C.I engines must also take
consideration of fuel injection system and nozzles to be used.

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COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

 Minimal flame travel

 The exhaust valve and spark
plug should be close together
 Sufficient turbulence
 A fast combustion, low
variability
 High volumetric efficiency at
WOT
 Minimum heat loss to
combustion walls
 Low fuel octane requirement

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COMBUSTION ANALYSIS TOOLS

1.P-q diagram, Ignition Delay

2.Needle Lift Diagram
3.Line Pressure Diagram

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 P- Θ DIAGRAM
THREE PHASES OF COMBUSTION

1. IGNITION DELAY
2. PERIOD OF RAPID OR UNCONTROLLED COMBUSTION
3.PERIOD OF UNCONTROLLED COMBUSTION.

• Third is followed by AFTER BURNING which may be called forth phase of

combustion.

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 1. IGNITION DELAY PERIOD
• It is defined as the time interval
between the start of injection and the
start of combustion.
• The delay period is subdivided into
physical and chemical delay.
• The period of physical delay is the time
between the beginning of injection and
attainment of chemical reaction
conditions.
• Pressure reached during second stage
will depend upon the duration of the
delay period.
• Longer the delay period , the more
rapid and higher the pressure rise.
• Must aim to keep delay period as short
as possible for smooth running to
maintain control over the pressure
changes.

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 2. PERIOD OF RAPID OR UNCONTROLLED
COMBUSTION
• This period is counted from
the end of delay period to the
point of maximum pressure
on the indicator diagram.
• In this rise of pressure is
rapid.
• The rate of pressure rise
depends on the amount of
fuel present at the end of
delay period, degree of
turbulence, fitness of
atomization and spray
pattern.

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3.PERIOD OF UNCONTROLLED COMBUSTION.

• Temperature and pressure is very high so fuel droplets injected in the

stage burn almost as they enter.
• Pressure rise is controlled by mechanical means i.e. Injection rate.

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 AFTER BURNING

• Combustion continues even after the fuel injection is over because

of poor distribution of fuel particles .

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NEEDLE LIFT DIAGRAM

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 NEEDLE LIFT DIAGRAM
- The fuel injected during ignition delay period reduces resulting
into less rate of pressure and temperature rise during pre mixed
combustion and thus lower NOx ppm. (This effect is more visible
at intermediate speeds.)

- Another advantage: combustion noise reduction.

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THREE PHASES OF DIESEL COMBUSTION

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THE THREE PHASES OF DIESEL COMBUSTION

 Ignition delay phase (Time Between SOI to Start of

Combustion)
 Premixed Combustion phase
 Mixing –controlled combustion phase

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1. Ignition delay phase duration responsible for:
 Rate of rise of combustion pressure
 Effects combustion noise
 Peak combustion pressure
 Mechanical stress on components like journal bearing, crank pins &
gudgeon pin
 Peak combustion temp
 NOx generation

Ignition delay is dependent upon:

 Compression Ratio
 Ambient temperature condition
 Cetane no. of fuel
 Local A/F ratio
 Swirl effect
 Injection pressure
 Load on engine

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2. Pre-mixed combustion phase (Curve bc): Combustion of a portion of
the fuel injected during the ignition delay period which have mixed with
the air in the chemically correct proportion.
Results into,
Very high rate of cylinder pressure rise resulting into diesel
combustion noise.
Higher combustion temperatures resulting into NOx generation

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3. Mixing Controlled Combustion
 Often referred as Diffusion Combustion
 Represented by curve- cd in figure.
 Depends on the rate fuel mixes with air and acquires a condition
that is ready to burn.
 Combustion paths: three types of mixing controlled combustion

1. Rich
2. Stoichiometric
3. Lean

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1. During Stoichiometric Zones
a. Combustion is complete
b. Products are H2O & CO2

2. For Rich
a.Incomplete combustion
b.Produces soot

3. For lean
a. Burn ineffectively
b. Produces unburned hydrocarbon

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EMISSION FROM DI DIESEL ENGINE

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EMISSION FROM DI DIESEL ENGINE

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HEAT RELEASE RATE IN DI ENGINE

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 HEAT RELEASE RATE IN DI ENGINE

• A rate of heat release

diagram corresponding to
the rate of fuel injection and
cylinder pressure data is
shown in figure.

• The heat release diagram

shows negligible heat
release until toward the end
of compression when a
slight loss of heat during the
delay period is evident.

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 • During the combustion process the burning proceeds in three
distinguishable stages.

• FIRST STAGE: The rate of

burning is generally very
high and lasts for only a few
crank angle degrees. It
corresponds to the period of
rapid cylinder pressure rise.

• SECOND STAGE: It
corresponds to a period of
gradually decreasing heat
release rate. This is the main
heat release period and lasts
about 40°.

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HEAT RELEASE RATE AND RATE OF INJECTION IN DI
ENGINE

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 HEAT RELEASE RATE AND RATE OF INJECTION IN DI
ENGINE
• Heat release rate and rate of injection is
shown in figure.

• Lyn developed the following observation.

• The total burning period is much longer

than the injection period.

• The absolute burning rate increases

proportionally with increasing engine
speed; Thus on a crank angle basis, the
burning interval remains constant.

• The magnitude of the initial peak of the

burning rate diagram depends on the
ignition delay period, being higher for
longer days.

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• A rate of heat release diagram
corresponding to the rate of fuel injection
and cylinder pressure data is shown in
figure.

• The heat release diagram shows

negligible heat release until toward the end
of compression when a slight loss of heat
during the delay period is evident.

• During the combustion process the

burning proceeds in three distinguishable
stages.

• First stage: The rate of burning is

generally very high and lasts for only a few
crank angle degrees. It corresponds to the
period of rapid cylinder pressure rise.

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• Second stage: It corresponds to a
period of gradually decreasing heat
release rate. This is the main heat
release period and lasts about 40°.

• Normally about 80% of the total

fuel energy is released in the first
two periods.

• Third stage: It corresponds to the

tail of the heat release diagram in
which a small but distinguishable
rate of heat release persists
throughout much of the expansion
stroke. The heat release amounts
to about 20% of the total fuel
energy.

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• Normally about 80% of the
total fuel energy is released
in the first two periods.

• THIRD STAGE: It
corresponds to the tail of the
heat release diagram in
which a small but
distinguishable rate of heat
release persists throughout
much of the expansion
stroke. The heat release
amounts to about 20% of the
total fuel energy.

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FACTORS EFFECTING THE COMBUSTION PROCESS

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 FACTORS AFFECTING COMBUSTION PROCESS

The factors effecting combustion process are as

follows
1) Ignition quality of fuel
2) Injection pressure of droplet size
3) Injection advance angle
4) Compression ratio
5) Intake temperature
6) Jacket water temperature
7) Intake pressure, supercharging
8) Engine speed.
9) Load and air to fuel ratio
10) Engine size
11) Type of combustion chamber

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COMBUSTION INFLUENCE ON FUEL ECONOMY

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 COMBUSTION INFLUENCE ON FUEL ECONOMY

• The engine cycle efficiency decreases at later injection timings as the heat
release shifts away from TDC in this situation. This explains the fuel-
consumption and smoke/particulate increase at retarded injection.

• The effect of retard on smoke level, particulate matter and increased fuel
consumption can be overcome by using higher fuel injection rates.

• Reducing NOx emissions from about 10.7 to about 4.5g/bhp-hr caused a

6% loss in fuel economy in engine designs from the late 1980s and early
1990sreasons for this loss in fuel economy are attributed to the loss in peak
combustion pressure that leads to reduced cycle work.

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• A 6%loss in fuel economy is totally unacceptable to the trucking industry,
which sometimes survives by virtue of its fuel savings. It is necessary not
only to recover but also to improve the fuel economy.

• Effect of injection pressure on fuel consumption :

1. Increasing injection pressure from 700 to 1000bar had a significant

impact on fuel consumption.
2. Figure shows the effect of injection pressure on fuel consumption at
various NOx concentrations.

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EFFECT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON HRR (HEAT
RELEASE RATE)

• If injection pressure increases then Qp and Qm increases

Where Qp – Heat release rate during premixed combustion phase
Qm - Heat release rate during mixing controlled combustion phase.

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HOMOGENEOUS CHARGE COMPRESSION
IGNITION (HCCI)

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 HOMOGENOUS CHARGE COMPRESSION IGNITION
• HCCI is a new combustion
technology. It is the hybrid of the
traditional spark ignition (SI) and
the compression ignition process
(Diesel engine).

• It is a form of internal combustion

In which well – mixed fuel and
oxidizer (air) are compressed to the
point of auto ignition

• The defining characteristics of HCCI

are that the ignition occurs at
several places at a time which
makes the fuel /air mixture burn
nearly simultaneously.

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• HCCI can be controlled to achieve gas dine engine like emissions
along with diesel engine – like efficiency.

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 METHOD

1. A mixture of fuel and air will ignite

when the concentration and
temperature of reactants is
sufficiently high.

2. The concentration and/or

temperature can be increased
several different ways:
•High compression ratio
•Pre-heating of induction gases
•Forced induction
•Retained or re-inducted exhaust
gases

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 ADVANTAGES
1. HCCI provides up to a 15 percent fuel savings, while meeting current
emissions standards.

2. HCCI engine are fuel lean, they can operate at diesel – like
compression ratios (>15), thus achieving higher than SI engines.

3. HCCI can operate on gasoline, diesel fuel and most alternative fuels.

4. Leads to cleaner combustion and lower emissions because of low peak

temperatures. NOx levels are almost negligible.

5. In regards to gasoline engines, the omission of throttle losses improves

HCCI efficiency.

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 DISADVANTAGES

• Difficult to control HCCI.

• High in cylinder peak pressures may cause damage to the engine.

• High heat release and pressure rise rates contribute to engine wear.

• It is difficult to control.

• HCCI engines have a smaller power range.

• CO and HC emissions are higher.

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 EMISSIONS

•NOx formation is less because of low peak temperature.

•CO and HC formation are high.

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 CONTROL
• HCCI is more difficult to control than other popular modern
combustion engines, such as Spark Ignition (SI) and Diesel .

• In an HCCI engine, however, the homogeneous mixture of fuel

and air is compressed and combustion begins whenever the
appropriate conditions are reached. This means that there is no
well-defined combustion initiator that can be directly controlled.

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DIESEL HYBRID

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 DIESEL HYBRID
• Diesel hybrid technology has blossomed
over the last several years to become one of
the most advanced heavy-duty vehicle
technologies available today.

• These vehicles combine the latest advances

in hybrid vehicle technology with the inherent
efficiency and reduced emissions of modern
clean diesel technology to produce dramatic
reductions in both emissions and fuel
consumption while offering superior vehicle
performance and the benefit of using existing
fueling infrastructures.

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 Understanding Hybrid-Electric Vehicles

• The term “hybrid vehicle” refers to a vehicle

with at least two sources of power.

• A “hybrid electric vehicle” indicates that one

source of power is provided by an electric
motor.

• The other source of motive power can

come from a number of different
technologies, but is typically provided by an
internal combustion engine designed to run
on either gasoline or diesel fuel.

• The term “diesel-electric hybrid” describes

an HEV that combines the power of a diesel
engine with an electric motor.

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• The diesel engine in a diesel electric hybrid vehicle generates electricity
for the electric motor, and in some cases can also power the vehicle
directly.

• HEVs are fueled just like their more traditional counterparts with
conventional diesel fuel.

• HEVs generate all the electricity they need on-board and never need to be
recharged before use.

• The diesel fuel powers an internal combustion engine that is usually

smaller (and thus more efficient) than a conventional engine, which works
along with an electric motor to provide the same power as a larger engine.

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• The electric motor derives its power from an alternator or generator that is
coupled with an Energy storage device (such as a set of batteries or a super
capacitor).

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 Sources of Hybrid Efficiency and Emissions Reductions

•Whenever a power system transfers energy from one form to another – such
as a hybrid’s conversion of mechanical energy into electricity and then back
again – the system will experience a decrease in energy efficiency.

•Hybrid electric vehicles offset those losses in a number of ways which, when
combined, produce a significant net gain in efficiency and related emissions
reductions.

•There are four primary sources of efficiency and emissions reduction found in
hybrids:

1. Smaller Engine Size

2. Regenerative Braking
3. Power-On-Demand
4. Constant Engine Speeds and Power Output

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FUEL AND AIR DISTRIBUTION IN THE FUEL SPRAY
OF A DI DIESEL

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 FUEL AND AIR DISTRIBUTION IN THE FUEL SPRAY
OF A DI DIESEL
• Photographic films of combustion in a DI diesel
engine has a shape as shown in figure.

• The average distance between the droplets is

expected to change with their location in the
spray and it is greatest near the edge
downstream from the centerline of the spray
where the smaller droplets are concentrated.

• The average local A/F ratio and consequently

the combustion mechanism are therefore
expected to vary from one location to another.

• The local A/F ratio is highest along the

centerline of the spray and diminishes as we
move to the outer extremities of the spray core.

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• At the downstream edge of the spray and at distances farther away from the
spray core, the A/F ratio always approaches zero and it increases as we
move toward the core of the spray.

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Fuel spray is Divided into several regions:

• LEAN FLAME REGION

• LEAN FLAME - OUT REGION

• SPRAY CORE

• AFTER INJECTION OR SECONDARY INJECTION

• SPRAY TAIL

• FUEL DEPOSITED ON THE WALLS

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 LEAN FLAME REGION
• Vapor concentration between the core
and the downstream edge of the spray is
not homogeneous and the local A/F ratio
may vary from 0 to ∞.

• Ignition starts in spray envelope near

the downstream edge of the spray.

• Ignition nuclei are usually formed at

several locations where the mixtures will
most likely auto ignite.

• Once ignition starts, small independent

non luminous flame front propagate from
the ignition nuclei and ignite the
combustible mixture around them. This
mixture is lean.

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• The region in which these independent flames
propagate is referred as the lean flame region
(LFR).

• In this region nitric oxide is formed at high

concentration.

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 LEAN FLAME - OUT REGION
• Near the outer edge of the spray, the
mixture is often too lean to ignite or to
support combustion. This region is
referred as the lean flame – out region
(LFOR).

• Within LFOR, some fuel decomposition

and partial oxidation products can be
found.

• The decomposition products are mainly

lighter hydrocarbon molecules.

• The partial oxidation products include

aldehyde and other oxygenates.

• It is a major source of unburned

hydrocarbon and odorous constituents.

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• The size of LFOR depends on many factors, including the temperature and
pressure in the chamber during combustion, the air swirl and the type of fuel.

• Higher temperature and pressure extend the flames to leaner mixtures and
thus reduce the LFOR size.

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 SPRAY CORE
• Following the ignition and
combustion in the LFR, the flame
propagates toward the core of the
spray.

• In this region which is between

LFR and the core of the spray, the
fuel droplets are larger. They gain
het by radiation from the already
established flames and evaporate at
a higher rate. The increase in
temperature increases the rate of
vapor diffusion, due to the increase
in molecular diffusivity.

• These droplets may be completely

or partially evaporated.

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• If they are completely evaporated, the flame will burn all the mixture
within the rich ignition limit.

• The droplets that are not completely evaporated may be surrounded

by a diffusion - type flame and burn as individual droplets or
evaporate to form a fuel-rich mixture.

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 SPRAY TAIL
• The part of the fuel injected consists
of large droplets due to the relatively
small pressure differential acting on
the fuel near the end of the injection
process.

• The penetration of this part of fuel is

referred as the spray tail.

• Under high conditions, the spray tail

has little chance of entering regions
with adequate oxygen concentration.

• The temperature of the surrounding

gases is fairly high and the rate of
heat transfer to these droplets is very
high. These droplets therefore
evaporate quickly and decompose.

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•The decomposed products contain unburned hydrocarbons and
high percentage of carbon molecules.

•Partial oxidation precuts include carbon monoxide and aldehydes.

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 AFTER INJECTION OR SECONDARY INJECTION

• Under medium and high loads, many

injection systems produce after –
injection.

• When this occurs the injector needle

valve bounces off of its seat and opens
for a short time after the end of the main
injection.

• The amount of fuel, delivered during

after – injection is very small. However it
is injected late in the expansion stroke,
under a relatively small pressure
differential and with very little
atomization and penetration.

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• This fuel is quickly evaporated and decomposed, resulting in the formation of
CO, carbon particles and unburned hydrocarbons.

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 FUEL DEPOSITED ON THE WALLS
• Some fuel sprays impinge on the
walls. This is especially the case in
small, high – speed DI engines
because of the shorter spray path
and the limited number of sprays.

• The rate of evaporation of the

liquid film depends on many factors,
including gas and wall temperatures,
gas velocity, gas pressure and
properties of the fuel.

• The vapor concentration is

maximum on the liquid surface and
decreases with increased distance
from the surface.

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• Combustion of the
rest of the fuel on the
walls depends on the
rate of evaporation
and mixing of fuel and
oxygen.

• If the surrounding
gas has a low oxygen
concentration or the
mixing is poor,
evaporation occurs
without complete
combustion.

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SPRAY FORMATION

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 SPRAY FORMATION

• The combustion process depends a great deal on the development of the

spray from the start of injection, even before the spray is fully developed.

• The behavior of the spray is very important to the combustible mixture

formation and start of ignition.

• The following subsections provide additional insight into spray formation

during injection and its behavior after fuel cutoff.

1. SPRAY FORMATION DURING INJECTION

2. SPRAY ATOMISATION
3. SPRAY PENETRATION
4. DROPLET SIZE DISTRIBUTION

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 1. SPRAY FORMATION DURING INJECTION
• Upon leaving the nozzle hole, the jet
becomes completely turbulent a very
short distance from the point of
discharge.

• Due to jet turbulence, the emerging jet

becomes partly mixed with the
surrounding air.

• Air becomes entrained and carried away

by the jet, which results in increasing
mass flow in the x-direction.

• Concurrently the jet spreads out in y –

direction and according to the principle of
conservation of momentum, the jet
velocity decreases.

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• The velocity of the jet will further decreases as it moves in the X- direction
due to frictional drag.

• The fuel is highest in at the centerline and decreases to zero at the

interface between the zone of disintegration and ambient air.

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 2. SPRAY ATOMIZATION
• Spray formation is described as
the breakup of the fuel jet as it exits
the nozzle hole.

• The size of the droplets formed by

this breakup is smaller than the
nozzle hole’s diameter.

• The degree of atomization

increases due to the breakup of
large droplets as the jet moves
further along the x-axis.

• Atomization continues as long as

the Weber number exceeds a
threshold value.

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• The Weber number is defined as the ratio of the inertia forces to the
surface tension forces and is described by the following equation

Where:
Ρ = mass density
d = droplet diameter
V = upstream velocity
σ = surface tension

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 3. SPRAY PENETRATION
• For more air utilization, the
droplets would have to travel
farther into the combustion
volume to reach air that is
present across the combustion
volume.
• The faster the spray
penetrates into the combustion
volume, the greater the mixing
rates as well as the air
utilization.
• It is not desirable to have
spray penetrate so far that it
would impinge on the
combustion chamber walls.

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 4. DROPLET SIZE DISTRIBUTION
• Figure below is an example of the effect of injection pressure on droplet size as
influenced by nozzle hole geometry and nozzle hole diameter.

• The droplet size distribution given in figure is for a fuel spray produced from a
nozzle hole at different times from the start of injection.

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• At 0.70ms injection duration, Figure indicates that small droplets had a high
frequency. At later times, larger droplet diameters had greater frequency than
small droplets. It means, as the injection continues, the smaller droplet
population decreases as the larger droplet population increases, as a percent
of the total number of droplets.

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PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING IGNITION DELAY

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 PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING IGNITION
DELAY
• Physical factors that affect ignition delay are :

a. INJECTION TIMING.
b. INJECTION QUANTITY OR LOAD.
c. DROPSIZE, INJECTION VELOCITY AND RATE.
d. INTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE.
e. ENGINE SPEED.
f. COMBUSTION CHAMBER WALL EFFECTS.
g. SWIRL RATE
h. OXYGEN CONCENTRATION

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 INJECTION TIMING
• At normal engine conditions (low to medium speed, fully warmed engine))
the minimum delay occurs with the start of injection at about 10 to 15 BTC.

• The increase in the delay with earlier or later injection timing occurs because
the air temperature and pressure change significantly close to TC.

• If injection starts earlier, the initial temperature and pressure are lower so the
delay will increase.

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• If injection starts later (close to TC) the temperature and pressure are initially
slightly higher but then decrease as the delay proceeds.

• The most favorable condition lies in between.

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 INJECTION QUANTITY OR LOAD
• Figure shows the effect of
injection quantity or engine load on
ignition delay.

• The delay decreases

approximately linearly with
increasing load for this DI engine.

• As the load is increased, the

residual gas temperature the wall
temperature increases. This results
in higher charge temperature at
injection, thus shortening the
ignition delay.

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• Under engine starting conditions, the delay increases due to the larger drop in
mixture temperature associated with evaporating and heating the increased
amount of fuel.

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 DROP SIZE, INJECTION VELOCITY AND RATE
• These quantities are determined by injection pressure, injector nozzle hole size,
nozzle type and geometry.

• At normal operating conditions, increasing injection pressure produces only

modest decreases in the delay.

• Doubling the nozzle hole diameter at constant injection pressure to increase the
fuel flow rate and increase the drop size had no significant effect on the ignition
delay.

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 INTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
•Figure shows the values of ignition
delay for diesel fuels plotted against
the reciprocal of charge temperature
for several charge pressures at the
time of injection.

•The intake air temperature and

pressure will affect the delay via their
effect on charge conditions during the
delay period. Figure shows the effects
of inlet air pressure and temperature as
a unction of engine load.

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• The fundamental ignition data available show a strong dependence of ignition
delay on charge temperature below about 1000k at the time of injection.
• Above about 1000k, the charge temperature is no longer significant.
• Through this temperature range there is an effect of pressure at the time of
injection on delay
• The higher the pressure the shorter the delay, with the effect decreasing as
charge temperatures increase and delay decreases.

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 ENGINE SPEED

• In crease in engine speed at constant load result in a slight decrease in

ignition delay when measured in milliseconds: in terms of crank angle
degrees, the delay increases almost linearly.

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 COMBUSTION CHAMBER WALL EFFECTS
• The impingement of the spray on the combustion chamber wall obviously
affects the fuel evaporation and mixing processes.
• Figure shows the effect of jet wall impingement on the ignition delay
•The data shows that the presence of wall the wall reduces the delay at the
lower pressures and temperatures studied, but has no significant effect at the
high pressures and temperatures.

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• The jet impingement angle was varied from zero to perpendicular. The delay
showed a tendency to become longer as the impingement angle decreased.

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 SWIRL RATE

• At normal operating engine speeds, the effect of swirl rate changes on the
delay is small.

• Under engine starting conditions the effect is much more important due to
the higher rates of evaporation and mixing obtained with swirl.

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 OXYGEN CONCENTRATION
• The oxygen concentration in the charge into which the fuel is injected
would be expected to influence the delay.

• As oxygen concentration is decreased ignition delay increases.

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THE END

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