1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

AMPLITUDE MODULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

vcc

DEMODULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

BLOCKDIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND

DE-MODULATION

2
Exp. No. :
Date :
AMPLITUDE MODULATION &DEMODULATION

AIM:
To study the function of Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation (under
modulation, perfect modulation & over modulation) and also to calculated the
modulation index.

APPARATUS:
S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation 1

trainer kit.

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

3
THEORY:

Amplitude Modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the

carrier wave c(t) is varied linearly with the instantaneous amplitude of the message
signal m(t).The standard form of an amplitude modulated (AM) wave is defined by

 S(t) = Ac [1 + Ka m(t)] Cos(2пfct)

Where a Ka is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator. The
demodulation circuit is used to recover the message signal from the incoming AM
wave at the receiver. An envelope detector is a simple and yet highly effective
device that is well suited for the demodulation of AM wave, for which the
percentage modulation is less than 100%.Ideally, an envelop detector produces an
output signal that follows the envelop of the input signal wave form exactly;
hence, the name. Some version of this circuit is used in almost all commercial AM
radio receivers. The Modulation Index is defined as
m = (Vmax + Vmin) / (Vmax – Vmin)
Where Vmax and Vmin are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of
the modulated wave.

PROCEDURE:
For Modulation:

1. Refer to block diagram and Carry out the following connections.

2. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

4
 3. onnect
SINE
OUT
post
of

5
 FUNCTION GENERATOR SECTION (ACL-01) to The I/p of Balance
Modulator1 (ACL-01) SIGNAL IN Post.
4. To connect o/p of VCO (ACL-01) RF OUT post to the input of Balance
Modulator 1 CARRIER IN post (ACL-01).
5. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-01 & ACL-
02, while connecting this; ensure that the power supply is OFF.
6. Keep switch SW1 towards 1-10 KHz position.
7. Keep Out post LEVEL about 0.5Vpp; FREQ. About 1 KHz.
8. Keep switch SW2 towards 500 KHz position.
9. Keep RF out LEVEL about 1 Vpp; FREQ. about 450 KHz, Switch on 500
KHz.
10. BALANCED MODULATOR1: CARRIER NULL completely rotated
clockwise or counter clockwise, so as “unbalance” the modulator and to
obtain an AM signal with not suppressed carrier across the output; OUT
LEVEL in fully clockwise.
11. Observe the AM Modulator wave.
12. Move the probe from post SIG to post OUT (output of the modulator),
where Signal modulated in amplitude is detected. Note that the modulated
signal Envelope corresponds to the wave form of the DSB AM modulating
signal.
13. Vary the amplitude of the modulating signal and check the 3 following
conditions: Modulation percentage lower than the 100%, equal to the
100%, Superior to 100% (over modulation).
14. Vary the frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal, and check the
Corresponding variations of the modulated signal.
15. Vary the amplitude of the modulating signal and note that the modulated
Signal can result saturation or over modulation.

For Demodulation:

1. Refer to the FIG and Carry out the following connections.

2. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
3. Connect SINE OUT post of FUNCTION GENERATOR SECTION (ACL-
01) to the I/p of Balance Modulator1 (ACL-01) SIGNAL IN Post.
4. Connect o/p of VCO (ACL-01) OUT post to the input of Balance
modulator (ACL-01) CARRIER IN post.
5. Connect power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-01 & ACL -02,
While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
6. Switch on the power supply.
7. Keep switch SW1 towards 1-10KHZ position.
8. Keep Sine out LEVEL about 0.5 Vpp; FREQ. About 1 KHZ.
9. Keep switch SW2 towards 1500KHz position
10. Keep VCO Level about 0.5Vpp; FREQ. About 550 KHz.
11. BALANCED MODULATOR 1: CARRIER NULL completely rotates
clockwise or counter clockwise, so that the modulator is “unbalanced” and
an AM signal with not suppressed carrier is obtained across the output:
adjust OUTLEVEL to obtain an AM signal across the output whose
amplitude is about 500mVpp.
12. Keep Local Oscillator (ACL-02) 1000 KHz, 1V.
13. Connect local oscillator OUT post to LO IN of the mixer section.
14. Connect balance modulator1 out to RF IN of mixer section in ACL-02.
15. Connect mixer OUT to IF IN of 1st IF Amplifier in ACL-02.

6
EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

7
 16. Connect IF OUT1 of 1st IF to IF IN 1 and IF OUT2 of 1st IF to IFIN 2 of
2ND IF Amplifier.
17. Connect OUT post of 2nd IF amplifier to IN post of envelope detector.
18. Connect post AGC1 to post AGC2 and jumper position
19. Observe the modulated signal envelope, which corresponds to the
waveform of the modulating signal at OUT post of the balanced
modulator1 of ACL-01. Connect the oscilloscope to the IN and OUT post
of envelope detector and detect the AM signal and the detected one. If the
central frequency of the amplifier and the carrier frequency of the AM
signal and local oscillator frequency coincides, you obtain two signals
similar to the ones of diagram.
20. Check that the detected signal follows the behavior of the AM signal
envelope. Vary the frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal, and
check the corresponding variations of the demodulated signal.

RESULT:

8
9
10
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FREQUENCY MODULATION:

FREQUENCY DEMODULATION:

• F.M
demodulated
output

11
Exp. No. :
Date :

FREQUENCY MODULATION & DEMODULATION

AIM:
To study the functioning of frequency modulation & demodulation and to
calculate the modulation Index.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Frequency Modulation & 1
Demodulation trainer kit.

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

12
THEORY:

The process, in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance

with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, is called “Frequency
Modulation”. The FM signal is expressed as

Where Ac is amplitude of the carrier signal, fc is the carrier frequency β

is the modulation index of the FM wave.
Modulator has been developed using XR-2206 integrated circuit. The IC
XR-2206 is a monolithic Function generator; the output waveforms can be both
amplitude and frequency modulated by an external voltage. Frequency of
operation can be selected externally over a range of 0.01 MHz. The circuit is
ideally suited for communications, instrumentations and function generator
applications requiring sinusoidal tone, AM, FM or FSK generation. In this
experiment, IC XC-2206 is connected to generate sine wave, which is used as a
carrier signal. The amplitude of carrier signal is 5vPP of 100 KHz frequencies.
Demodulator had been developed using LM4565 integrated circuit. The IC
LM565 is a general-purpose phase locked loop containing a stable, highly linear
voltage controlled oscillator for low distortion FM demodulation. The VCO free
running frequency f0 is adjusted to the center frequency of input frequency
modulated signal i.e. carrier frequency which is of 100 KHz. When FM signal is
connected to the demodulator input, the deviation in the input signal (FM signal)
frequency which creates a DC error voltage at output of the phase comparator
which is proportional to the change of frequency ζf. This error voltage pulls the
VCO to the new point. This error voltage will be the demodulated version of the
frequency modulated input signal.

BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION:

FREQUENCY MODULATION:

13
FREQUENCY DE-MODULATION:

PROCEDURE:

14
 For Modulation:

1. Refer to the block diagram & Carry out the following connections and
settings.
2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-03 and
switch it on.
3. Keep all Switch Faults in OFF position.
4. Select Sine wave signal using jumper JP1 shorted.
5. Select frequency range 1-10 KHz using JP4.
6. Using pot P1 keep frequency at 1 KHz and using pot P2 keep amplitude at
0.2Vpp.
7. Keep switch SW2 at 1500KHz position.
8. Using pot P5 keep frequency at minimum and using pot P6 keep amplitude
at 2Vpp.
9. Connect the o/p of function generator OUT post to the modulation IN post
of FREQUENCY MODULATOR.
10. Connect the oscilloscope to the output of the modulator FM/RF OUT.

For Demodulation:
1. Refer to the block diagram & Carry out the following connections and
settings.
2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-03 and
ACL- 04 switch it on.
3. Keep all Switch Faults in OFF position.
4. Select Sine wave signal using jumper JP1 shorted.
5. Select frequency range 0.1-1KHz using JP4.
6. Using pot P1 keep frequency at 500Hz and using pot P2 keep amplitude at
0.1Vpp.
7. Keep switch SW2 at 500 KHz position.
8. Using pot P5 keep frequency at 450 KHz and using pot P6 keep amplitude
at 1Vpp.
9. Connect the output of function generator OUT post to the modulation IN
post of FREQUENCY MODULATOR.
10. Connect the output of FREQUENCY MODULATOR FM/RF OUT post to
the input of RF IN of mixer in ACL-03.
11. Using pot P8 keep Local Oscillator frequency at 1000 KHz and using pot
P9 keep amplitude at 1Vpp.
12. Connect the LOCAL OSCILLATOR OUT to the LO IN of the MIXER.
13. Observe signal at MIXER OUT post and achieve the same signal as
Frequency modulator output by setting frequency of LOCAL
OSCILLATOR.
14. Connect the MIXER OUT to the LIMITER IN post with the help of
shorting links.
15. Observe LIMITER OUT post where output is clear from noise and stabilize
around a value of about 1.5Vpp.
16. Connect the LIMITER OUT post to the FM IN of QUADRATURE
DETECTOR.
17. Connect 0° post to IN1 post of the quadrature detector (ACL-04).

15
EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

16
 18. Connect 90° post to IN2 post of the quadrature detector (ACL-04).
19. Connect the oscilloscope across post OUT of Quadrature Detector. If the
central frequency of the discriminator and the carrier frequency of the FM
signal and local oscillator frequency coincide, you obtain demodulated
signal. The fact that there is still some high-frequency ripple at the output
of the Quadrature Detector block indicates that the passive low pass filter
circuit at the block’s output is not sufficient to remove this unwanted high
frequency component. We use the LOW PASS FILTER block to overcome
this problem.
20. Connect the OUT post of PLL detector to the IN post of LOW PASS
FILTER.
21. The LOW - PASS FILTER block strongly attenuates the high-frequency
ripple component at the detector’s output, and also blocks the d.c. offset
voltage. Consequently, the signal at the output of the LOW – PASS
FILTER block should very closely resemble the original audio modulating
signal.
22. Note that the demodulated signal has null continuous component. Vary the
amplitude of the FM signal and check that the amplitude of the detected
signal varies, too.
23. Increase the carrier frequency and note that a positive voltage is added to
the detected signal. Still increasing the frequency, the detected signal
presents a distortion (in this condition you operate on a non linear zone of
the discriminator.)

RESULT:

17
18
19
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF BALANCED MODULATOR:

20
Exp. No. :
Date :
BALANCED MODULATOR

AIM:
To study the following of the Balanced Modulator as a 1. Frequency
Doublers 2. DSB-SC Generator.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Amplitude Modulation trainer kit. 1

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

21
THEORY:

Balanced modulator is used for generating DSB-SC signal. A balanced

modulator consists of two standard amplitude modulators arranged in a
balanced configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave. The two modulators
are identical except the reversal of sign of the modulating signal applied to
them.
1. RF Generator:
Colpitts oscillator using FET is used here to generate RF signal of
approximately 100 KHz Frequency to use as carrier signal in this
experiment. Adjustments for Amplitude and Frequency are provided in
panel for ease of operation.
2. AF Generator:
Low Frequency signal of approximately 5KHz is generated using OP-AMP
based wein bridge Oscillator. IC TL 084 is used as an active component,
TL 084 is FET input general purpose quad OP-AMP integrated circuit. One
of the OP-AMP has been used as amplifier to improve signal level. Facility
is provided to change output voltage.
3. Regulated Power Supply:
This consists of bridge rectifier, capacitor filters and three terminal
regulators to provide required dc Voltage in the circuit i.e. +12v, -8v @
150 ma each.
4. Modulator:
The IC MC 1496 is used as Modulator in this experiment. MC 1496 is a
monolithic integrated circuit Balanced modulator/Demodulator, is versatile
and can be used up to 200 MHz.
5. Multiplier:
A balanced modulator is essentially a multiplier. The output of the MC
1496 balanced modulator is proportional to the product of the two input
signals. If you apply the same sinusoidal signal to both inputs of a
ballooned modulator,

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

22
23
 the output will be the square of the input signal AM-DSB/SC: If you use
two sinusoidal signals with deferent frequencies at the two inputs of a
balanced modulator (multiplier) you can produce AMDSB/SC modulation.
This is generally accomplished using a high- frequency “carrier” sinusoid
and a lower
frequency “modulation” waveform (such as an audio signal from
microphone).

PROCEDURE:

For Modulation:

1. Refer to block diagram and Carry out the following connections.

2. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
3. Connect SINE OUT post of FUNCTION GENERATOR SECTION
(ACL-01) to The I/p of Balance Modulator1 (ACL-01) SIGNAL IN
Post.
4. To connect o/p of VCO (ACL-01) RF OUT post to the input of Balance
Modulator 1 CARRIER IN post (ACL-01).
5. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-01 &
ACL-02, while connecting this; ensure that the power supply is OFF.
6. Keep switch SW1 towards 1-10 KHz position.
7. Keep Out post LEVEL about 0.5Vpp; FREQ. About 1 KHz.
8. Keep switch SW2 towards 500 KHz position.
9. Keep RF out LEVEL about 1 Vpp; FREQ. about 450 KHz, Switch on
500 KHz.
10. BALANCED MODULATOR1: CARRIER NULL completely rotated
clockwise or counter clockwise, so as “unbalance” the modulator and to
obtain an AM signal with not suppressed carrier across the output;
OUT LEVEL in fully clockwise.
11. Observe the AM Modulator wave.
12. Move the probe from post SIG to post OUT (output of the modulator),
where Signal modulated in amplitude is detected. Note that the
modulated signal Envelope corresponds to the wave form of the DSB
AM modulating signal.
13. Vary the amplitude of the modulating signal and check the 3 following
conditions: Modulation percentage lower than the 100%, equal to the
100% ,Superior to 100% (over modulation).
14. Vary the frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal, and check
the Corresponding variations of the modulated signal.
15. Vary the amplitude of the modulating signal and note that the
modulated Signal can result saturation or over modulation.

RESULT:

24
25
26
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE- EMPHASIS:

BLOCK DIAGREM REPRESENTATION OF PRE-EMPHASIS

BLOCK DIAGREM REPRESENTATION OF DE- EMPHASIS:

27
Exp. No. :
Date :
PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS
AIM:
To study the functioning of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Frequency Modulation and Demodulation 1
trainer kit.

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

28
THEORY:

Pre-emphasis:

Frequencies contain in human speech mostly occupy the region from 100
to 10,000 Hz, but most of the power is contained in the region of 500 Hz for men
and 800 Hz for women. Common voice characteristics emit low frequencies higher
in amplitude than higher frequencies. The problem is that in FM system the noise
output of the receiver increases linearly with the frequency, which means that the
signal to noise ratio becomes poorer as the modulating frequency increases.

Also, noise can make radio reception less readable and unpleasant. This
noise is greatest in frequencies above 3KHz.The high frequency noise causes
interference to the already weak high frequency voice. To reduce the effect of this
noise and ensure an even power spread of audio frequencies, Pre emphasis is used
at the Transmitter side.
A preemphasis network in the transmitter accentuates the audio frequencies
above 3 KHz, so providing the higher average deviation across the voice spectrum,
thus improving the signal to noise ratio.

The preemphasis is obtained by using the simple audio filter, even simple
RC filter will do the job. The preemphasis circuit produces higher output at higher
frequencies because the capacitive reactance is decreased as the frequency
increases.

De-emphasis:
The problem in FM broadcasting is that noise and hiss tend to be more
noticeable, especially when receiving the weaker stations. To reduce this effect,
the treble response of the audio signal is artificially boosted prior to transmission.
This is known as pre-emphasis.

TABULAR COLUMN: Vin =

Pre-emphasis: De-emphasis:

29
 Input frequency Output Input frequency Output
Gain Gain
S.No. (50 Hz to 20 voltage S.No. (50 Hz to 20 voltage
(in dB) (in dB)
kHz) Vo kHz) Vo

MODEL GRAPH:
The response of Pre – emphasis circuits The response of De – emphasis
circuit:

Amplitude

Frequency Frequency

30
 At the receiver side a corresponding filter or “de-emphasis” circuit is
required to reduce the treble response to correct level. Since most noise and hiss
tend to be
at the higher frequencies, the de-emphasis removes a lot of this. Pre-emphasis and
de-emphasis thus allow an improved signal to noise ratio to be achieved while
maintaining the frequency response of the original audio signal. The de-emphasis
stage is used after the detector stage.

PROCEDURE:

PRE-EMPHASIS:
1. Refer to the block diagram & Carry out the following connections and
settings.
2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-03 and
switch it on.
3. Keep all Switch Faults in OFF position.
4. Select frequency range 1-10 KHz using JP4.
5. Using pot P1 keep frequency at 1 KHz and using pot P2 keep amplitude at
0.1Vpp.
6. Connect the output of function generator to the IN post of pre-emphasis
circuit.
7. Observe output voltage at the OUT post of pre-emphasis circuit.
8. Vary the frequency in steps of 500Hz and note down the output voltage the
OUT post of pre-emphasis circuit.
9. Plot the graph of output voltage v/s input frequency on graph paper.
10. From the response you can easily understand that using the pre-emphasis
Circuit we can increase the amplitude of modulating signal at higher
frequencies thus improving the Signal to Noise ratio at higher frequencies.

DE-EMPHASIS:
1. Refer to the FIG and Carry out the following connections setting.
2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-04 and
switch it on.
3. Keep all Switch Faults in OFF position.
4. Select Sine wave signal using jumper JP1 shorted.
5. Select frequency range 1-10 KHz using JP4.
6. Using pot P1 keep frequency at 1 KHz and using pot P2 keep amplitude at
0.1Vpp.
7. Connect the output of function generator to the IN post of De-emphasis
circuit.
8. Observe output voltage at the OUT post of De-emphasis circuit.
9. Vary the frequency in steps of 500Hz and note down the output voltage at
the OUT post of De-emphasis circuit.
10. Plot the graph of output voltage v/s input frequency on graph paper.

RESULT:

31
32
33
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Input
signal

BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF MIXER:

34
Exp. No. :
Date : CHARACTERISTICS OF MIXER

AIM:
To study the functioning and characteristics of mixer.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Amplitude Demodulation trainer kit. 1

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

THEORY:

Mixers are used for frequency conversion and are critical components in
modern radio frequency (RF) systems. A mixer converts RF power at one
frequency into power at another frequency to make signal processing easier and
also inexpensive. A fundamental reason for frequency conversion is to allow
amplification of the received signal at a frequency other than the RF, or the audio,
frequency. A receiver may require as much as 140 decibels (dB) of gain. It might
not be possible to put more than 40 dB of gain into the RF section without risking
instability and potential oscillations. Likewise the gain of the audio section might
be limited to 60 dB because of parasitic feedback paths, and microphonics. The
additional gain needed for a sensitive receiver is normally achieved in an
intermediate frequency (IF) section of the receiver.
The mixer is a nonlinear device having two sets of input terminals and one
set of output terminals. Mixer will have several frequencies present in its output,
including the difference between the two input frequencies and other harmonic
components.

35
 To construct frequency mixer. Connect two different inputs signal at Base
(IF frequency) and emitter (Local Oscillator) and the collector output is given to
low pass filter to get the beat frequency and observe the wave forms.
A frequency mixer is used in very radio and television receiver, it is also
used in many other electronic systems. When a sine wave drives a nonlinear
circuit, we get harmonics of each sine wave plus new frequencies called the sum
and difference frequencies.
Nonlinear distortion causes harmonic and inter-modulation distortion. Any
device or circuit with a nonlinear input-output relation results in nonlinear
distortion of the signal. In the time domino, this means that the shape of the
periodic signal changes as it passes through the nonlinear circuit. In the frequency
domain, the result is a change in the spectrum of the signal. If only one input sine
wave is pres ent, only harmonic distortion occurs; if two or more input sine waves
are involved, both harmonic and inter-modulation distortion occurs.

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

36
 Two input sine waves drive a nonlinear circuit. As before, this results in all
harmonics and intermodulation components. The bandpass filter then passes one of
the inter-modulation components, usually the difference frequency fx – fy. In term
of spectra, the frequency mixer is a circuit that produces an output spectrum with a
single line at fx – fy when the input spectrum is a pair of lines at fx and fy. A low
– pass filter may be used in place of a bandpass filter, provided that fx – fy is less
than fx or fy.

For instance, if fx is 2MHz and f is 1.8 MHz, then.

Fx – fy = 2 MHz – 1.8MHz = 0.2 MHz

In this case, the difference is lower than either input frequency, so we can
use a low-pass filter if we wish (Low-pass filters are usually easier to build than

37
band pass filters.).But in applications in which fx – fy is between fx and fy, we
must use a band pass filter. As an example, if fx = 2MHz and fy = 0.5 MHz, then

Fx – fy = 2 MHz – 0.5 MHz = 1.5 MHz

To pass only the difference frequency, we are forced to use a band pass
filter.

PROCEDURE:

1. Refer to the block diagram and Carry out the following connections.
2. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
3. Connect the o/p of VCO (ACL-01) OUT post to the I/p of MIXER (ACL-
02) RF IN post.
4. Connect local oscillator OUT post to LO IN of the mixer section of ACL-
02.
5. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-01 & ACL-
02 while connecting this; ensure that the power supply is OFF.
6. Switch on the Power supply.
7. Keep switch SW2 towards 1500 KHz position
8. Keep VCO (ACL-01) LEVEL about 100 mVpp ; FREQ. 550 KHz,
9. Keep LOCAL OSCILLATOR (ACL-02): LEVEL about 100 mVpp;
FREQ. 1450 KHz.
10. Accurately adjust the above frequency until the output is crossed again by a
sine waveform.
11. Assure the frequencies and check that now: mixer frequency = fLO – fRF
12. The last frequency relations indicate that the two signals with different
frequency RF are converted to the same frequency IF. If they were
contemporarily present, there would be interference between the two and
this would make a proper reception of the signal impossible. The unwished
frequency is called image frequency. To prevent this inconvenience it is
necessary to prevent that the image signal reaches the input of the mixer,
and this is carried out interposing selective filters between the input of the
signal RF and the mixer.

RESULT:

38
39
40
 BLOCKDIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF SSB MODULATION
SYSYTEM:

BLOCKDIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF SSB DE- MODULATION

SYSYTEM:

41
Exp. No. :
Date :
SINGLE SIDE BAND SYTEM

AIM:
To generate SSB using phase method and demodulation

APPARATUS:
S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.
1. Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation 1
trainer kit.

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

42
THEORY:

An SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB signal through a highly

selective band pass filter. This filter selects either the upper or the lower sideband.
Hence transmission bandwidth can be cut by half if one sideband is entirely
suppressed. This leads to single side band modulation (SSB). In SSB modulation
bandwidth saving is accompanied by a considerable increase in equipment
complexity.
Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC) modulation was the basis
for all long distance telephone communications up until the last decade. It was
called "L carrier." It consisted of groups of telephone conversations modulated on
upper and/or lower sidebands of contiguous suppressed carriers. The groupings
and sideband orientations (USB, LSB) supported hundreds and thousands of
individual telephone conversations.
Due to the nature of-SSB, in order to properly recover the fidelity of the
original audio, a pilot carrier was distributed to all locations (from a single very
stable frequency source), such that, the phase relationship of the demodulated
(product detection) audio to the original modulated audio was maintained.
Also, SSB was used by the U.S. Air force's Strategic Air Command (SAC)
to insure reliable communications between their nuclear bombers and NORAD. In
fact, before satellite communications SSB-was the only reliable form of
communications with the bombers.
The main reason-SSB-is superior to-AM,-and most other forms of
modulation are:
(1) since the carrier is not transmitted in SSB, there is a reduction by 50% of the
transmitted power. In AM out of 100% modulation: 67% of the power is
comprised of the carrier; with the remaining 33% power in both sidebands.
(2) Because in SSB, only one sideband is transmitted, there is a further
reduction by 50% in transmitted power.
(3) Finally, because only one sideband is received, the receiver's needed bandwidth
is reduced by one half--thus effectively reducing the required power by the
transmitter another 50%

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

43
PROCEDURE:

44
 For Modulation:

1. Refer to the block diagram and Carry out the following connections.
2. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
3. Connect o/p of FUNCTION GENERATOR section (ACL-01) OUT post to
I/p of Balance Modulator1 (ACL-01) SIGNAL IN post.
4. Connect o/p of VCO OUT post (ACL-01) to the input of Balance
modulator1 CARRIER IN post (ACL-01).
5. Connect power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-01 & ACL-02,
while connecting this, and ensure that the power supply is OFF.
6. Switch on the power supply.
7. Refer to the block diagram and Carry out the following connections.
8. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
9. Connect o/p of FUNCTION GENERATOR section (ACL-01) OUT post to
I/p of Balance Modulator1 (ACL-01) SIGNAL IN post.
10. Connect o/p of VCO OUT post (ACL-01) to the input of Balance
modulator1 CARRIER IN post (ACL-01).
11. Connect power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-01 & ACL-02,
while connecting this, and ensure that the power supply is OFF.
12. Switch on the power supply & Keep switch SW1 towards 1-10 KHz
position.
13. Keep sine level about 1 Vpp, Freq. about 3 KHz & Keep switch SW2
towards 500 KHz position.
14. Keep LEVEL about 2Vpp; FREQ. about 452 KHz.
15. Keep Balanced Modulator 1, Carrier Null in central position, so that the
modulator is “balanced” and obtain an AM signal across the output with
suppressed carrier, OUT LEVEL in clockwise position
16. Connect OUT post of balanced modulator 1 to IN post of ceramic filter.
17. Observe the SSB signal at the OUT post of ceramic filter. You can observe
that the filter extracts only one of the two components (sidebands)
generated by balance modulator.
18. Measure the frequency fc of the carrier (post CAR.), fm of the modulating
signal (post SIG.) and fssb of the SSB signal across the output of the filter
(post OUT).
19. Repeat Check that: fssb = fc + fm, this means that the band extracted by the
filter corresponds to the Upper Side Band.
20. the last measurements setting the frequency of the carrier to 458 KHz. You
obtain: fssb = fc – fm, this means that the band extracted by the filter
corresponds to the Lower Side Band.
21. Increase the frequency of the modulating signal (SINEWAVE) and check
that the SSB signal attenuates and tends to a null.

45
EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

46
For De-modulation:
1. Refer to the block diagram and Carry out the following connections.
2. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
3. Connect o/p of Function Generator (ACL-01) OUT post to the i/p of
Balance Modulator1 (ACL-01) Signal in post.
4. Connect o/p of VCO (ACL-01) Out post to the input of Balance
modulator1 Carrier in (ACL-01) post
5. Connect power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-01 & ACL-02,
while connecting this; ensure that the power supply is OFF.
6. Switch on the power supply.
7. Keep switch SW1 towards 1-10 KHz position.
8. Keep sine level about VCO level about 1Vpp, Freq. about 3 KHz.
9. Keep switch SW2 towards 500 KHz position.
10. Keep VCO level about 1 Vpp, Freq. about 452 KHz.
11. Balanced Modulator 1, Carrier null in central position, so that the
modulator is “balanced” and obtain an AM signal across the output with
suppressed carrier.
12. Connect OUT post of balanced modulator to IN post of ceramic filter
13. Connect the OUT post of ceramic filter to IN1 post of product detector of
ACL-02.
14. Connect the OUT post of VCO in ACL-01 kit to the IN2 post of Product
Detector with same carrier for SSB demodulation.
15. Observe the demodulated signal at the OUT post of the product detector.
16. CERAMIC FILTER OUT Post (ACL-01) i.e. output of the SSB modulator:
It is a sine wave which corresponds to the Upper Side Band, at the base of
the frequency set for the carrier.
17. Out Post (ACL-02) i.e. output of the product detector, There is a sine wave
with frequency equal to the one the modulating signal (post Out of Sine
wave section.), to which a component with much higher frequency is
filtered.
18. Increase the frequency of the modulating signal (Sine wave) and check that
the detected signal attenuates and tends to a null.
19. The frequencies of the modulating signal (Sine wave) and check that the
detected signal attenuates and tends to a null.
20. Disconnect VCO from the IN2 post of product detector and connect at beat
frequency oscillator OUT post, in this way, you supply the product detector
with a different carrier form the one used in the modulator.

RESULT:

47
48
49
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

SIMPLE CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION OF DIODE DETECTOR:

PRACTICAL CIRCUIT FOR DIODE DETECTOR:

BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF ENVELOPE DETECTOR:

50
Exp. No. :
Date :

DIODE DETECTOR CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:
To study the characteristics of diode detector or envelope detector.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation 1
trainer kit.

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

51
THEORY:

Demodulation involves two operations: (i) Rectification of the modulated

wave and (ii) Elimination of RF components of the rectified modulated wave.
The diode is the most common device used in AM demodulator. Signal
(AM modulated signal) is applied to anode and output is taken from cathode.
Diode operates as half wave rectifier and passes only positive half cycle of the
modulated wav e. Further signal is applied to a parallel combination of resistor
(Rd) and capacitor (Cd) which acts as a low pass filter. This LPF allows only low
frequency signal to output and it by
passes RF component to the ground.
This simple diode detector has the disadvantage that the output voltage, in
addition to being proportional to the modulating signal, also has a dc component,
which represents the average envelope amplitude (i.e. carrier signal) and a small
RF ripple. However these unwanted components are removed in a practical
detector leaving only AF signal.
In practical diode detector the cathode terminal of the diode is connected to
one end of the secondary of IF transformer. The other end is grounded. Secondary
is tuned with the capacitor C1. The capacitors C2 and C3 are used for RF filtering.
The modulated signal is applied at the input of IF transformer. The voltage
applied is negative and hence the cathode of the diode passes is connected to the IF
transformer. So the diode passes both the positive and negative half cycles. The RF
filtering is done by C2 and C3. The output is taken at the volume control.

PROCEDURE:

1. Refer to the FIG and Carry out the following connections.

2. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
3. Connect SINE OUT post of FUNCTION GENERATOR SECTION (ACL-
01)
To the I/p of Balance Modulator1 (ACL-01) SIGNAL IN Post.

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

52
 4. Connect o/p of VCO (ACL-01) OUT post to the input of Balance
modulator (ACL-01) CARRIER IN post.

53
 5. Connect power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-01 & ACL
-02.While connecting this; ensure that the power supply is OFF.
6. Switch on the power supply.
7. Keep switch SW1 towards 1-10KHZ position.
8. Keep Sine out LEVEL about 0.5 Vpp ; FREQ. About 1 KHZ.
9. Keep switch SW2 towards 1500 KHz position
10. Keep VCO Level about 1.5Vpp; FREQ. About 900 KHz.
11. BALANCED MODULATOR 1: CARRIER NULL completely rotates
clockwise or counter clockwise, so that the modulator is “unbalanced” and
an AM signal with not suppressed carrier is obtained across the output:
adjust OUTLEVEL to obtain an AM signal across the output whose
amplitude is about 500mVpp.
12. Keep LOCAL OSCILLATOR (ACL-02) signal at 1350 KHz, 1 v
13. Keep RF Level (ACL-02) on max. Position or adjust as per input signal..
14. Connect the OUT post of balance modulator1 to the IN post of output
amplifier. In which output of amplifier is directly connected to the antenna
via switch ‘SW3’.
15. Connect RF IN post to OUT of Antenna.
16. Connect RF OUT post to RF IN of MIXER of ACL-02CL-02.
17. Connect local oscillator OUT post to LO IN of the mixer section.
18. Connect mixer OUT post to IF IN of 1st IF amplifier.
19. Connect IF OUT1 of 1st IF to IF IN 1 and IF OUT2 of 1st IF to IFIN 2 OF
2ND IF Amplifier.
20. Connect OUT post of 2nd IF amplifier to IN post of envelope detector.
21. Connect AGC1to AGC2 and jumper position as per the diagram.
22. Connect the oscilloscope to the IN and OUT post of envelope detector and
detect the AM signal and the detected one. If the central frequency of the
amplifier and the carrier frequency of the AM signal and local oscillator
frequency coincides, you will obtain following signals.
23. check that the detected signal follows the behavior of the AM signal
envelope. Vary the frequency and amplitude of the modulating signal, and
check the corresponding variations of the demodulated signal

RESULT:

54
55
56
 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF SYNCHRONOUS
DETECTOR:

57
Exp. No. :
Date :
SYNCHRONOUS DETECTOR CHARACTERISTICS
AIM:
To study the single side band AM reception using of product or
synchronous detector detector.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation 1
trainer kit.

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

THEORY:

THE RECEIVER:
The receiver is of the normal superheterodyne design. The incoming signal
is amplified by the RF Amplifier and passed to the mixer. The other input to the
mixer is the local oscillator, which is running at 455 KHz above the frequency to
which the receiver is tuned. The mixer generates sum and difference signals and
the lower of the two is the resulting IF signal occupying a range of frequencies at
around 455 KHz. The audio information must now be separated from these IF
frequencies.

RECOVERING THE AUDIO SIGNALS:

This is achieved by a circuit called an SSB AM decoder. It does the same
job as a demodulator or detector in a DSB AM receiver. The SSB AM decoder is
slightly more complicated when compared with the DSB equivalent. One way of
extracting the audio signals is to use a mixer to shift the frequencies just as we
58
have done several times already. If a mixer combined an input of (audio +
455KHz) with another input of 455 KHz the resultant outputs would be the usual
'sum' and 'difference' frequencies. The product detector and the 455 KHz input to
the product detector is provided by an oscillator called a VCO.

SSB SIGNAL DEMODULATION:

The SSB signal demodulation requires the presence of the carrier, which
must be locally generated in the receiver. To obtain the starting modulating signal
from the modulated signal, multiply the modulating signal and the locally
generated carrier and filter the result to extract the modulating signal. The circuit
carrying out the multiplication of the two signals can be the same used to generate
the modulation with suppressed carrier in transmission. When used as demodulator
the circuit is commonly called product detector

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

59
PROCEDURE:

1. Refer to the block diagram and Carry out the following connections.
2. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
3. Connect o/p of Function Generator (ACL-01) OUT post to the i/p of
Balance Modulator1 (ACL-01) Signal in post.
4. Connect o/p of VCO (ACL-01) Out post to the input of Balance
modulator1 Carrier in (ACL-01) post
5. Connect power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-01 & ACL-02,
while connecting this; ensure that the power supply is OFF.
6. Switch on the power supply.
7. Keep switch SW1 towards 1-10 KHz position.
8. Keep sine level about VCO level about 1Vpp, Freq. about 3 KHz.
9. Keep switch SW2 towards 500 KHz position.
10. Keep VCO level about 1 Vpp, Freq. about 452 KHz.
11. Balanced Modulator 1, Carrier null in central position, so that the
modulator is “balanced” and obtain an AM signal across the output with
suppressed carrier.
12. Connect OUT post of balanced modulator to IN post of ceramic filter
13. Connect the OUT post of ceramic filter to IN1 post of product detector of
ACL-02.

60
 14. Connect the OUT post of VCO in ACL-01 kit to the IN2 post of Product
Detector with same carrier for SSB demodulation.
15. Observe the demodulated signal at the OUT post of the product detector.
16. CERAMIC FILTER OUT Post (ACL-01) i.e. output of the SSB modulator:
It is a sine wave which corresponds to the Upper Side Band, at the base of
the frequency set for the carrier.
17. Out Post (ACL-02) i.e. output of the product detector, There is a sine wave
with frequency equal to the one the modulating signal (post Out of Sine
wave section.), to which a component with much higher frequency is
filtered.
18. Increase the frequency of the modulating signal (Sine wave) and check that
the detected signal attenuates and tends to a null.
19. The frequencies of the modulating signal (Sine wave) and check that the
detected signal attenuates and tends to a null.
20. Disconnect VCO from the IN2 post of product detector and connect at beat
frequency oscillator OUT post, in this way, you supply the product detector
with a different carrier form the one used in the modulator.

RESULT:

61
62
 BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF PHASE LOCKED LOOP:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

63
Exp. No. :
Date :

PHASE LOCKED LOOP

AIM:
To study FM reception using phase locked loop detector.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Frequency Modulation and Demodulation 1
trainer kit.

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

THEORY:

The phase locked loop detector is another demodulator that employs a

phase comparator circuit. It is a very good demodulator and has an advantage that
it is available as a self-contained integrated circuit, so no setting is required. You
just plug it in and it works. For these reasons, it is often used in commercial
broadcast receivers. It has very low of distortion. Altogether a very nice circuit.
The overall action of the circuit may, at first, seem rather pointless.
As we can see in FIG.9, there is a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The DC
output voltage from the output of the low pass filter controls the frequency of this
oscillator. Now, this DC voltage keeps the oscillator running at the same frequency
as the original input signal but 90° out of phase. The question often arises why we
would want the oscillator to run at the same frequency and 90° out of phase. And if
we did, then why not just add a phase shifting circuit at the input to give the 90°

64
phase shift? The answer can be got by imagining what happens when the input
frequency changes – as it would with an FM signal.
If the input frequency increases and decreases, the VCO frequency is made
to follow it. To do this, the input control voltage must increase and decrease. These
changes in DC voltage level form the demodulated signal. The AM signal then
passes through a signal buffer to prevent any loading effect from disturbing the
VCO and then through an audio amplifier if necessary. The Frequency response is
highly linear.

PROCEDURE:

1. Refer to the block diagram & Carry out the following connections and
settings.
2. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-03 and
ACL- 04 switch it on.
3. Keep all Switch Faults in OFF position.
4. Select Sine wave signal using jumper JP1 shorted.
5. Select frequency range 0.1-1KHz using JP4.

EXPECTED WAVEFORM:

65
6. Using pot P1 keep frequency at 500Hz and using pot P2 keep amplitude at
0.1Vpp.
7. Keep switch SW2 at 500 KHz position.
8. Using pot P5 keep frequency at 450 KHz and using pot P6 keep amplitude
at 1Vpp.
9. Connect the output of function generator OUT post to the modulation IN
post of FREQUENCY MODULATOR.
10. Connect the output of FREQUENCY MODULATOR FM/RF OUT post to
the input of RF IN of mixer in ACL-03.
11. Using pot P8 keep Local Oscillator frequency at 1000 KHz and using pot
P9 keep amplitude at 1Vpp.
12. Connect the LOCAL OSCILLATOR OUT to the LO IN of the MIXER.
13. Observe signal at MIXER OUT post and achieve the same signal as
Frequency modulator output by setting frequency of LOCAL
OSCILLATOR.
14. Connect the MIXER OUT to the LIMITER IN post with the help of
shorting links.
15. Observe LIMITER OUT post where output is clear from noise and stabilize
around a value of about 1.5Vpp.
16. Connect the LIMITER OUT post to the FM IN of RATIO DETECTOR.
17. Connect the oscilloscope across post OUT of PLL Detector. If the central
frequency of the detector and the carrier frequency of the FM signal and
local oscillator frequency coincide, you obtain demodulated signal. The
fact that there is still some high-frequency ripple at the output of the PLL
DETECTOR block indicates that the passive low pass filter circuit at the
block’s output is not sufficient to remove this unwanted high-frequency

66
 component. We use the LOW PASS FILTER block to overcome this
problem.
18. Connect the OUT post of PLL detector to the IN post of LOW PASS
FILTER.
19. The LOW - PASS FILTER block strongly attenuates the high-frequency
ripple component at the detector’s output, and also blocks the D.C. offset
voltage. Consequently, the signal at the output of the LOW – PASS
FILTER block should very closely resemble the original audio modulating
signal

RESULT:

67
68
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

69
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FREQQUENCY SYNTHESIZER

Fout=N.fin
fin

70
Exp. No. :
Date :
FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER
AIM:
To study the operation of frequency synthesizer using PLL

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Frequency synthesizer trainer kit. 1

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

THEORY:

Phase locked loop:

PLL stands for ‘Phase locked loop’ and it is basically a closed loop
frequency control system, which functioning is based on phase sensitive detection
of phase difference between the input and output signals of controlled
oscillator.Before the input is applied the PLL is in free running state. Once the
input frequency is applied the VCO frequency starts change and phase locked loop
is said to be in captured mode. The VCO frequency continues to change until it
equals the input frequency and PLL is then in the phase locked state. When phase
locked the loop tracks any change in the input frequency through its repetitive
action.
Frequency synthesizer:
The frequency divider is inserted between the VCO and the phase
comparator. Since the output of the divider is locked to the input frequency fin,
VCO is running at multiple of the input frequency. The desired amount of
multiplication can be obtained by selecting a proper divide by N network. Where
N is an integer. For example fout = 5 fin a divide by N=10, 2 network is needed as
shown in block diagram. This function performed by a 4 bit binary counter 7490
configured as a divide by 10, 2 circuit. In this circuit transistor Q1 used as a driver
stage to increase the driving capability of LM565 as shown in above figure.To
verify the operation of the circuit, we must determine the input frequency range
and then adjust the free running frequency Fout of VCO by means of R1 (between
71
10th and 8th pin) and C1 (9th pin), so that the output frequency of the 7490 driver
is midway within the predetermined input frequency range. The output of the VCO
now should be 5Fin.
Free running frequency (f0):
Where there is no input signal applied, it is in free running mode.

F0 = 0.3 / (RtCt)
where Rt is the timing resistor and Ct is the timing capacitor

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

TABULAR FORM:

72
 fin Fout = N fin Divided by
S.No.
(KHz) (KHz) 10, 2

Lock range of PLL (fL):

FL = ± 8f0/VCC
where f0 is the free running frequency = 2VCC

Capture range (fC):

fC =

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the trainer ad verify the output of the regulated power supply i.e. ±
5V. These supplies are internally connected to the circuit so no extra connections
are required.
2. Observe output of the square wave generator using oscilloscope and measure the
range with the help of frequency counter, frequency range should be around 1KHz
to 10KHz.
3. Calculate the free running frequency range of the circuit (VCO output between
4th pin and ground). For different values of timing resistor R1 ( to measure Rt
switch off the trainer and measure Rt value using digital multimeter between given
test points). And record the frequency values in tabular 1. Fout = 0.3 / (RtCt)
where Rt is the timing resistor and Ct is the timing capacitor = 0.01 μ f.
4. Connect 4th pin of LM 565 (Fout) to the driver stage and 5th pin (Phase
comparator) connected to 11th pin of 7490. Output can be taken at the 11th pin of
the 7490. It should be divided by the 10, 2 times of the fout.
73
RESULT:

74
75
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

76
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AGC:

Exp. No. :
Date :
77
 AGC CHARACTERISTICS
AIM:
To study the characteristics of Automatic Gain Control (AGC).

APPARATUS:

S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.

1. Automatic Gain Control trainer kit. 1

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 1

4. Connecting cords & probes.

THEORY:

AGC was implemented in first radios for the reason of fading propagation
(defined as slowvariations in the amplitude of the received signals) which required
continuing adjustments in the receiver’s gain in order to maintain a relative
constant output signal.Such situation led to the design of circuits, which primary
ideal function was to maintain a constant signallevel at the output, regardless of
the signal’s variations at the input of the system.Now AGC circuits can be found in
any device or system where wide amplitude variations in the output signal could
lead to a lost of information or to an unacceptable performance of the system.
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) circuits are employed in many systems
where the amplitude of an incoming signal can vary over a wide dynamic range.
The role of the AGC circuit is to provide a relatively constant output amplitude so
that circuits following the AGC circuit require less dynamic range. If the signal
level changes are much slower than the information rate contained in the signal,
then an AGC circuit can be used to provide a signal with a well defined average
level to downstream circuits. In
most system applications, the time to adjust the gain in response to an input
amplitude change should remain constant, independent of the input amplitude level
and hence gain setting of the amplifier.
The large dynamic range of signals that must be handled by most receivers
requires gain adjustment to prevent overload or IM of the stages and to adjust the
demodulator input level for optimum operation.

78
· A simple method of gain control would involve the use of a variable attenuator
between the input and the first active stage. Such an attenuator, however, would
decrease the signal level, but it would also reduce the S/N of any but the weakest
acceptable signal.
· Gain control is generally distributed over a number of stages, so that the gain in
later stages (the IF amplifiers) is reduced first, and the gain in earlier stages (RF
and first IF) is reduced only for signal levels sufficiently high to assure a large
S/N.

MODEL GRAPH:

79
· If the RF gain is small is enough switching in/out an attenuator at RF only for
sufficiently high signal levels. Variable gain control for the later stages can operate
from low signal levels. Variable-gain amplifiers are controlled electrically, and
when attenuators are used in receivers, they are often operated electrically either
by variable voltages for continuous attenuators or by electric switches (relays or
diodes) for fixed or stepped attenuators.
The input signal is amplified by a Variable Gain Amplifier (VGA), whose
gain is controlled by an external signal VC. The output from the VGA can be
further amplified by a second stage to generate and adequate level of Vo. Some the
output signal’s parameters, such as amplitude, carrier frequency, index of
modulation or frequency, are sensed by the detector; any undesired component is
filtered out and the
The AGC circuit consists of an OP-Amp (LM358). The OP-Amp acts as an
amplifier with positive feedback. The LM358 is a single supply OPAmp. Hence
the input that is given to the inverting input of the OP-Amp is biased about the
mean value of the supply Vcc.
The output of the OP-Amp is fed back to the non-inverting input of the OP-
Amp. Also the output is fed back to the inverting input coupled with the audio
input by means of an active network. The active network consists of a BJT and a
P-channel JFET. The BJT acts as a switch which sources or sinks the collector
current based on the base voltage.
The P-channel JFET acts as a linear resistor dependent on the gate
voltage. The resistance is directly proportional to the gate voltage, which is in-turn
proportional to the collector current of the BJT. The drain current is then fed back
to the inverting input of the OP-Amp coupled with the audio input.
When the input amplitude is given it is biased about the mean value of the
supply. The OP-Amp amplifies the value by the ratio (1+R9/R10). The output of
the OP-Amp is then given to the base of the BJT. The collector current is inversely
proportional to the base voltage. Hence when the output goes high the collector
current goes low. When the collector current goes low the resistance of the JFET
also goes low.
Hence the voltage at the inverting input also goes low. Thus the output is
controlled automatically depending on the input.
The output of the AGC is then given to the power amplifier via a variable resistor.
First the output is coupled to the variable resistor with the help of a coupling
capacitor. It is used for scaling the output.
80
 The transfer function of the AGC gives a good idea of what the AGC does.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. Connect the function generator output to the input of AGC in AGC trainer
kit.
3. observe the output waveform with respect to input waveform and measure
the output voltage by keeping input voltage constant.
4. The x-axis is the input amplitude and the y-axis is the output voltage. The
output is linearly dependent on the input till the voltage V1. After V1 the
output remains fairly constant for change in the input till V2.
5. After V2 the AGC breaks down. The AGC is demonstrated in the region
between V1 and V2.

RESULT:

81
82
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

83
Exp. No. :
Date :
DIGITAL PHASE DETECTOR
AIM:
To detect the phase difference between two square wave signals using
digital phase detector.

APPARATUS:

84
 S.No Name of the Equipment Qty.
1. Digital phase detector trainer kit. 1

2. C.R.O (20MHz) 1

3. Function generator (1MHz). 2

4. Connecting cords & probes.

THEORY:

The phase detector compares the input frequency and the VCO frequency
and generates a dc voltage that is proportional to the phase detector difference
between the two frequencies. Depending on the analog or digital phase detector
used, the PLL is either called an analog or digital type respectively. For simplicity,
the digital phase detectors are used. Examples of digital phase detectors are
Exclusive –OR phase detector and Edge – triggered phase detector
EX-OR phase detector:

The exclusive –OR phase detector that uses an exclusive –OR gates such as
CMOS type IC 4070. The EX-OR phase detector is preferred when both the inputs
are square waves. The output of the EX-OR gate is high only when fin and fout are
applied at EX-OR inputs the output is the difference between the two inputs. In the
waveforms shown below fin is lagging fout by some phase shift, the output is the
phase difference between
the two signals.
Edge triggered phase detector:

Edge triggered type of phase detector is preferred when both the inputs are
pulse waveforms. This edge triggered type of phase detector is designed using by
RS Flip Flop. The RS Flip Flop is formed from a pair of cross coupled NOR gates
using IC such as CD 4001. The RS Flip Flop is triggered that is the output of
detector changes its logic state on the positive (leading edge of the input fin and
fout.

85
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

EXPECTED WAVEFORMS:

86
PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the trainer kit

2. Observe the output of the square wave generator available on the trainer kit
using
CRO and measure the range with the help of frequency counter, the
frequency
range should be around 2KHz to 13KHz.
3. Calculate the free running range of the VCO output i.e between 4th pin of IC
PLL 565 and ground. For different values of timing resistor Rt, fout is given
by

Fout = 0.3 / ( Ct * Rt )
Where Ct: timing capacitor = 0.01 μF, Rt : timing resistor
4. Connect the square wave to the input of IC PLL 565 and short 4th and 5th
pin of
PLL. Vary the input frequency of the square wave, when the PLL is locked
that is
connected to one input fout EX-OR phase detector. The other input fin of
EX-OR
phase detector is the coming from inbuilt of square wave generator.
5. Connect the pulse generator output to the input of IC 565 PLL and short 4th
& 5th
pin of PLL. Vary the input frequency of the square wave when the PLL is
locked
that is connected to one input of Edge triggered phase detector input i.e.
fout. The
other input fin of edge triggered phase detector is the pulse input coming
from the
inbuilt pulse generator.
6. The dc output voltage of the exclusive-OR phase detector is a function of the
phase difference between its two inputs fin and fout.

RESULT:

87
88