CS2253 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

PART A QUESTIONS
UNIT-I
1 .What is cache memory?
The small and fast RAM units are called as caches. When the execution of an instruction
calls for data located in main memory, the data are fetched and a copy is placed in the
cache. Later if the same data is required it is read directly from the cache.
2. What is the function of ALU?
Most of the computer operations(arithmetic and logic)are performed in ALU. The data
required for the operation is brought by the processor and the operation is performed by
ALU.
3. What is the function of CU?
The control unit acts as the nerve center, that coordinates all the computer operations. It
issues timing signals that governs the data transfer.
4. What are the basic operations of a computer?
The basic operations are READ and WRITE.
5. What are the registers generally contained in the processor?
MAR-memory address register
MDR-memory data register
IR-Instruction Register
RO-Rn-General purpose register
PC-Program counter
6. What are the steps in executing the program?
1.fetch
2.decode
3.execute
4.store
7. Define interrupt and ISR?
An interrupt is a request from an I/O device for service by the processor. The processor
provides the requested service by executing the interrupt service routine.
1

8. Define bus?
A group of lines that serves as a connecting path for several devices is called a bus.
9. What is the use of buffer register?
The buffer register is used to avoid speed mismatch between the I/O device and the
processor.
10. Compare single bus structure and multiple bus structure?
A system that contains only one bus(i.e only one transfer at a time) is called as a single
bus structure. A system is called as multiple bus structure if it contains multiple buses.
11. What is system software? Give an example.
It is a collection of program that are executed as needed to perform functions such as
I.
receiving and interpreting user commands
II.
entering and editing application programs and storing them as files in
secondary storage devices.
Eg. assembler, linker, compiler etc
12. What is application software? Give example.
Application programs are usually written in a high level programming language, in which
the programmer specifies mathematical or text processing operations. These operations
are described in a format that is independent of the particular computer used to execute
the program.
Ex: C,C++,JAVA
13. What is compiler?
A system software program called a compiler translates the high-level language program
into a suitable machine language program containing instruction such as the Add and
Load instructions.
14. what is text editor?
It is used for entering and editing application programs. The user of this program
interactively executes command that allow statements of a source program entered at a
keyboard to be accumulated in a file.
15. Discuss about OS as system software?
OS is a large program or actually a collection of routines, that is used to control the
sharing of and interaction among various computer units as they execute application
programs. The OS routines perform the tasks required to assign computer resources to
individual application programs.
2

16. What is multiprogramming or multitasking?

The operating system manages the concurrent execution of several application programs
to make the best possible uses of computer resources. This pattern of concurrent
execution is called multiprogramming or multitasking.
17. What is elapsed time of computer system?
The total time to execute the total program is called elapsed time. it is affected by the
speed of the processor, the disk and the printer.
18. What is processor time of a program?
The periods during which the processor is active is called processor time of a program it
depends on the hardware involved in the execution of individual machine instructions.
19. Define clock rate?
The clock rate is given by, R=1/P, where P is the length of one clock cycle.
20. Write down the basic performance equation?
T=N*S/R
T=processor time
N=no.of instructions
S=no of steps
R=clock rate
21. What is pipelining?
The overlapping of execution of successive instructions is called pipelining.
22. What is byte addressable memory?
The assignment of successive addresses to successive byte locations in the memory is
called byte addressable memory.
23. What is big endian and little endian format?
The name big endian is used when lower byte addresses are used for the more significant
of the word. The name little endian is used for the less significant bytes of the word.
24. What is branch instruction?
As a result of branch instruction is a type of instruction which loads a new values into the
program counter.

25. What is branch target?

As a result of branch instruction, the processor fetches and executes the instruction at a
new address called branch target, instead of the instruction at the location that follows the
branch instruction in sequential address order.
26. What are condition code flags?
The processor keeps track of information about the results of various operations for use
by subsequent conditional branch instructions. This is accomplished by recording the
required information in individual bits, often called condition code flags.
27. Define addressing modes.
The different ways in which the location of an operand is specified in an instruction are
referred to as addressing modes.
28. What is a pointer?
The register or memory location that contains the address of an operand is called a
pointer.
29. What is index register?
In index mode the effective address of the operand is generated by adding a constant
value to the contents of a register. The register used may be either a special register or
may be any one of a set of general purpose register in the processor. This register is
referred to as an index register.
30. What is assembly language?
A complete set of symbolic names and rules for the use of machines constitute a
programming language, generally referred to as an assembly language.
31. What is assembler directive?
SUM EQU 200
Assembler directives are not instructions that will be executed. It simply informs the
assembler that the name SUM should be replaced by the value 200 wherever it appears in
the program, such statements are called as assembler directives.
32. What is loader?
Loader is a system software which contains a set of utility programs. It will load the
object program to the memory.

33. Define device interface.

The buffer registers DATAIN and DATAOUT and the status flags SIN and SOUT are part
of circuitry commonly known as a device interface.
34. Briefly explain the floating point representation with an example?
The floating point representation has 3 fields
1.sign bit
2.siginificant bits
3.exponent
For example consider 1.11101100110*105.
Mantissa=11101100110
Sign=0
Exponent =5
35. What are the 2 IEEE standards for floating point numbers?
1.single
2.double
36. What is overflow, underflow case in single precision(sp)?
Underflow-In SP it means that the normalized representation requires an exponent less
than -126.
Overflow-In SP it means that the normalized representation requires an exponent greater
than +127.
37. What are the exceptions encountered for FP operation?
The exceptions encountered for FP operation are overflow, underflow. /0, inexact and
invalid values.
38. What is guard bits?
guard bits are extra bits which are produced during the intermediate steps to yield
maximum accuracy in the final results.
39. What are the ways to truncate guard bits?
1.chopping
2.von Neumann rounding
3.rounding procedure.

UNIT II
1. Explain MDR and MAR.
The data and address lines of the external memory bus connected to the internal processor
bus via the memory data register, MDR,and the memory address register , MAR,
respectively. Register MDR has two inpits and two outputs. Data may be loaded into
MDR either from the memory bus or from the internal processor bus the data stored in
MDR may be placed on either bus. The input of MAR is connected to the internal bus
and its output is connected to the external bus.
2. Name two special purpose registers.
Index register
Stack pointer
3. Define data path.
The registers, the ALU, and the interconnecting bus are collectively referred to as the data
path.
4. Define processor clock.
Processor clock is defined as the time periods in which all operations and data transfer
with in the processor take place.
5. What is known as multiphase clocking?
When edge-triggered flip flops are not used, two or more clock signals may be needed to
guarantee proper transfer of data. This is known as multiphase clocking.
6. Define MFC.
To accommodate the variability in response time, the processor waits until it receives an
indication that the requested read operation has been completed. The control signal used
for this purpose is known as memory-function-completed(MFC).
7. What is WMFC?
WMFC if the control signal that causes the processors control circuitry to wait for the
arrival of the MFC signal.
8. What is meant by branch instruction?
A branch instruction is an instruction which replaces the contents of the PC with
the branch target address. This address is usually obtained by adding offset X, which is
given in the branch instruction is called a branch delay slot.
6

9. Define register file.

All general purpose registers are combined into a single block called the register
file.
10. What are the two approaches used for generating the control signals in proper
sequence?

Hardwired control

Microprogrammed control

11. What are the factors determine the control signals?

Contents of the control step counter

Contents of the instruction register

Contents of the condition code flag

External input signals such as MFC & interrupt requests

12. Explain hardwired control.

The control hardwire can be viewed as the state machine that changes from one
state to another in every clock cycle, depending on the contents of the instruction register,
the condition codes and the external inputs. The outputs of the state machine are the
control signals. The sequence of operations carried out by this machine is determined by
the writing of the logic elements, hence the name hardwired.
13. What are the features of the hardwired control?
A controller that uses this approach can operate at high speed. It has little
flexibility and the complexity of the instruction set it can implement is limited.
14. What is micro programmed control?
Micro programmed control is a scheme in which control signals are generated by
a program similar to machine language program.
15. What is control word?
A control word is a word whose individual bits represent the various control
signals.
7

16. Define microroutine and microinstruction.

A sequence of control words corresponding to the control sequence of a machine
instruction constitutes the microroutine for that instruction and the individual control
words in this microroutine are referred to as microinstructions.
17. What is control store?
The microroutines for all the instructions in the instruction set of a computer are
stored in a special memory called the control store.
18. What is the draw back of assigning one bit position to each control signals?
Assigning individual bits to each control signal results in long microinstructions
because the number of required signals is usually large.
Moreover, only a few bits are set to 1 in any given microinstruction, which means the
available bit space is poorly used.
19. Name some register output control signals.
Pc out, MDR out, Z out, Offset out, R1 out, R2 out, R3 out and TEMP out.
20. What is vertical organization and horizontal organization?
Highly encoded schemes that use compact codes to specify only a small number
of control functions in each microinstruction are referred to as vertical organization. On
the other hand, the minimally encoded scheme in which many resources can be controlled
with single microinstructions is called a horizontal organization.
21.

Compare vertical organization and horizontal organization

Vertical organization
Highly encoded schemes.

Horizontal organization
Minimally encoded schemes.

Specify only a small number of

Many resources can be controlled.

control signals.

Operating speed is low.

Operating speed is high.

22. Explain bit-O-Ring technique.

8

The micro program shows that branches are not always made to a single branch
address. This is a direct consequence of combining simple micro routines by sharing
common parts. Consider a point in the microprogram sequencing. At this point, it is
necessary to choose between actions required by direct and indirect addressing modes. If
the indirect mode is specified in the instruction, then the microinstruction in the location
170 is performed to fetch the operand from the memory. If the direct mode is specified,
this fetch must be bypassed by branching immediately to location 171. the most efficient
way to bypass microinstruction 170 is to have the preceding branch microinstructions
specify the address 170 and then use an OR gate change the least significant bit of this
address to 1 if the direct addressing mode is involved. This is known as the bit-O-ring
technique for modifying branch address.
23. What is the draw back of micro programmed control?
It leads to a slower operating speed because of the time it takes to fetch
microinstructions from the control store.
24. Define emulation.
Given a computer with a certain instruction set, it is possible to define additional
machine instructions and implement them with extra micro routines. Emulation allows us
to replace obsolete equipment with more up to date machines. If the replacement
computer fully emulates the original one, then no software changes have to be made to
run existing programs. Thus, emulation facilitates transitions to new computer systems
with minimal distribution.

UNIT III
1. Define pipelining.
Pipelining is an effective way of organizing concurrent activity in a computer
system. The processor executes the program by fetching and executing instructions, one
after another.
2. What are the major characteristics of a pipeline?

Ans: The major characteristics of a pipeline are:

a) Pipelining cannot be implemented on a single task, as it works by splitting multiple
tasks into a number of subtasks and operating on them simultaneously.
b) The speedup or efficiency achieved by suing a pipeline depends on the number of pipe
stages and the number of available tasks that can be subdivided.
c) If the task that can be subdivided has uneven length of execution times, then the
speedup of the pipeline is reduced.
d) Though the pipeline architecture does not reduce the time of execution of a single task,
it reduces the overall time taken for the entire job to get completed.
3. What are the types of pipeline hazards?
Ans: The various pipeline hazards are:
1. Data hazard
2. Structural Hazard
3. Control Hazard.
4. What is a pipeline hazard?
Ans: Any condition that causes the pipeline to stall is called hazard. They are also called
as stalls or bubbles.
5. Name the four steps in pipelining.
Fetch

: Read the instruction from the memory.

Decode

: Decode the instruction and fetch the source operand.

Execute

: Perform the operation specified by the instruction.

Write

: Store the result in the destination location.

6. What is the use of cache memory?

The use of the cache memories solves the memory access problem. In particular,
when a cache is included on the same chip as the processor, access time to cache is
usually the same as the tine needed to perform other basic operations inside the processor.
This makes it possible to divide instruction fetching and processing into steps that are
more or less equal in duration. Each of these steps is performed by a different pipeline
stages, and the clock period is chosen to correspond to the longest one.

7. What is data hazard?

10

Any condition that causes the pipeline to stall is called a hazard. A data hazard is
any condition in which either the source or destination operands of instruction are not
available at the time expected in the pipeline. As a result some operation has to be
delayed, and the pipeline stalls.
8. What are instruction hazards?
The pipeline may also be stalled because of a delay in the availability of an
instruction. For example, this may be a result of a miss in the cache, requiring the
instruction to be fetched from the main memory. Such hazards are often called control
hazards or instruction hazards.
9. What are called stalls?
An alternative representation of the operation of a pipeline in the case of a cache
miss gives the function performed by each pipeline stage in each clock cycle. The periods
in which the decode unit, execute unit and the write unit are idle are called stalls. They
are also referred to as bubbles in the pipeline.
10. What is structural hazard?
Structural hazard is the situation when two instructions require the use of a given
hardware resource at the same time. The most common case in which this hazard may
arise is in access to memory.
11. What is said to be side effect?
When a location other than one explicitly named in an instruction as a destination
operand is affected, the instruction is said to have a side effect.
12. What is dispatch unit?
A separate unit which we call the dispatch unit takes instructions from the front of
the queue and sends them to the execution unit. The dispatch unit also performs the
decoding function.

13. What is branch folding?

11

The instruction fetch unit has executed the branch instruction concurrently with
the execution of other instructions. This technique is referred to a branch folding.
14. What are the two types of branch prediction techniques available?
Ans: The two types of branch prediction techniques are
1) Static branch prediction
2) Dynamic branch prediction
15. What is delayed branching?
A technique called delayed branching can minimize the penalty incurred as a
result of conditional branch instructions. The idea is simple. The instructions in the delay
slots are always fetched. Therefore, we would like to arrange for them to be fully
executed whether or not the branch is taken. The objective is to be able to place useful
instructions in these slots. If no useful instructions can be placed in the delay slots, these
slots must be filled with NOP instructions.
16. Define speculative execution.
Speculative execution means that instructions are executed before the processor is
certain that they are in the correct execution sequence. Hence, care must be taken that no
processor registers or memory locations are updated until it is confirmed that these
instructions should indeed be executed. If the branch decision indicates otherwise, the
instructions and all their associated data in the execution units must be purged, and the
correct instruction fetched and executed.
17. What is called static and dynamic branch prediction?
The branch prediction decision is always the same every time a given instruction
is executed. Any approach that has this characteristic is called static branch prediction.
Another approach in which the prediction decision may change depending on execution
history is called dynamic branch prediction.

18. What are condition codes?

12

In many processors, the condition code flags are stored in the processor status
register. They are either set are cleared by many instructions, so that they can be tested by
subsequent conditional branch instructions to change the flow of program execution.
19. What are superscalar processors?
Several instructions start execution in the same clock cycle, and the processor is
said to use multiple issue. Such processors are capable of achieving an instruction
execution throughput of more than one instruction per cycle. They are known as
superscalar processors.
20. What is imprecise and precise exception?
Situation in which one or more of the succeeding instructions have been executed
to completion is called imprecise exception. Situation in which all subsequent
instructions that may have been partially executed are discarded. This is called a precise
exception.
21. What is commitment unit?
When out-of-order execution is allowed, a special control unit is needed to
guarantee in-order commitment. This is called the commitment unit. It uses queue called
the recorder buffer to determine which instruction should be committed next. Instructions
are entered in the queue strictly in program order as they are dispatched for execution.
22. What is a deadlock?
A deadlock is a situation that can arise when two units, A and B use a shared
resource. Suppose that unit B cannot complete its task until unit A completes its task. At
the same time, unit B has been assigned a resource that unit A needs. If this happens,
neither unit can complete its task. Unit A is waiting for the resource it needs, which is
being held by unit B at the same time, unit B is waiting for unit A to finish before it can
release that resource.

13

UNIT IV
1. What is the maximum size of the memory that can be used in a 16-bit computer
and 32 bit computer?
The maximum size of the memory that can be used in a 16-bit computer is 2
memory locations. The maximum size of the memory that can be used in a 32-bit
computer is 2 memory locations.
2.

Define memory access time?

The time required to access one word is called the memory access time. Or It is

the time that elapses between the initiation of an operation and the completion of that
operation
3. Define memory cycle time?
It is the time delay required between the initiations of two successive memory
operations.
Eg. The time between two successive read operations.
4. When is a memory unit called as RAM?
A memory unit is called as RAM if any location can be accessed for a read or
writes operation in some fixed amount of time that is independent of the locations
address.
5. What is MMU?
MMU is the Memory Management Unit. It is a special memory control circuit
used for implementing the mapping of the virtual address space onto the physical
memory.
6. Define memory cell?
A memory cell is capable of storing one bit of information. It is usually organized
in the form of an array.
7. What is a word line?
In a memory cell, all the cells of a row are connected to a common line called as
word line.
8.Define static memories?
Memories that consists of circuits capable of retaining their state as long as power
is applied is called static memories

14

9.What are the characteristics of semiconductor RAM memories?

They are available in a wide range of speeds.

Their cycle time range from 100ns to less than 10ns.

They replaced the expensive magnetic core memories

They are used for implementing memories.

10.Why SRAM are said to be volatile?

Because their contents are lost when power is interrupted. So SRAM are said to
be volatile.
11.What are the characteristics of SRAM?

SRAM are fast

They are volatile

They are of high cost

Less density

12. What are the characteristics of DRAM?

Low cost

High density

Refresh circuitry is needed

13. Define Refresh Circuits?

It is a circuit which ensures that the contents of a DRAM are maintained when
each row of cells are accessed periodically.
14. Define Memory Latency?
It is used to refer to the amount of tile it takes to transfer a word of data to or from
the memory.
15. What is asynchronous DRAM?
In asynchronous DRAM, the timing of the memory device is controlled
asynchronously. A specialized memory controller circuit provides the necessary control
signals RAS and CAS that govern the timing. The processor must take into account the
delay in the response of the memory such memories are asynchronous DRAM.
16. What is synchronous DRAM?

15

Synchronous DRAMs are those whose operation is directly synchronized with a

clock signal.
17. Define Bandwidth?
When transferring blocks of data, it is of interest to know how much time is
needed to transfer an entire block, since blocks can be variable in size it is useful to
define performance measure in terms of number of bits or bytes that can be transferred in
one second. This measure is often referred to as the memory bandwidth.
18. What is double data rate SDRAM?
Double data rates SDRAM are those which can transfer data on both edges of the
clock and their bandwidth is essentially doubled for long burst transfers.
19. Want is mother board?
Mother Board is a main system printed circuit board which contains the processor.
It will occupy an unacceptably large amount of space on the board.
20. What are SIMM and DIMM?
SIMM are Single In-Line Memory Module.DIMM is Dual In-Line Memory
Modules. Such modules are an assembly of several memory chips on a separate small
board that plugs vertically into a single socket on the motherboard.
21. What is memory controller?
A memory controller is a circuit which is interposed between the processor and
the dynamic memory. It is used for performing multiplexing of address bits. It provides
RAS-CAS timing. It also sends R/W and CS signals to the memory. When used with
DRAM chips, which do not have self refreshing capability, the memory controller has to
provide all the information needed to control the refreshing process.
22. Differentiate static RAM and dynamic RAM?
S.NO
1
2
3
4
5

STATIC RAM
They are fast
They are very expensive
They retain their state indefinitely
They require several transistors
Low density

DYNAMIC RAM
They are slow
They are less expensive
They do not retain their state indefinitely
They require less no transistors
High density

16

23. What is RAM Bus technology?

The key feature of RAM bus technology is a fast signaling method used to
transfer information between chips. Instead of using signals that have voltage levels of
either 0 or V supply to represent the logic values the signals consists of much smaller
voltage swings around a reference voltage, vref, small voltage swings make it possible to
have short transition times, which allows for a high speed of transmission.
24. What are RDRAM?
RDRAM are Rambus DRAM. Rambus require specially designed memory chips.
These chips use cell arrays based on the standard DRAM technology. Multiple banks of
cell arrays are used to access more than one word at time. Circuitry needed to interface to
the Rambus channel is included on the chip. Such chips are known as RDRAM.
25. What are the special features of Direct RDRAM?

It is a two channel Rambus

It has 18 data lines intended to transfer two bytes of data at a time

There are no separate address lines

26. What are RIMM?

RDRAM chips can be assembled into larger modules called RIMM. It can hold up
to 16 RDRAM
27. Define ROM?
It is a non-volatile memory. It involves only reading of stored data.
28. What are the features of PROM?

They are programmed directly by the user.

Faster

Less expensive

More Flexible

29. Why EPROM chips are mounted in packages that have transparent window?
Since the erasure requires dissipating the charges trapped in the transistors of
memory cells. This can be done by exposing the chip to UV light.
30. What are disadvantages of EPROM?
The chip must be physically removed from the circuit for reprogramming and its
entire contents are erased by the UV light.
17

31. What are advantages and disadvantages of using EEPROM?

The Advantages are that EEPROM do not have to be removed for erasure. Also it
is possible to erase the cell contents selectively. The only disadvantage is that different
voltages are needed for erasing, writing and reading the stored data.
32. Differentiate Flash devices and EEPROM devices.
S.NO
1

2
3
4

FLASH DEVICES
It is possible to read the contents of a single cell,

EEPROM DEVICES
It is possible to read and

but it is only possible to write an entire block of

write the contents of single

cells
Greater density which leads to higher capacity
Lower cost per bit
Consumes less power in their operations and

cell
Relatively lower density
Relatively more cost
Consumes more power

makes it more attractive for use in portable

equipments that is battery driven

33. What is cache memory?

It is a small, fast memory that is inserted between large, slower main memory and
the processor. It reduces the memory access time

Processor

Cache

Main Memory

34. Define Flash Memory.

It is an approach similar to EEPROM technology. A flash cell is based on a single
transistor controlled by trapped charge just like an EEPROM cell.

35. What is locality of reference?

18

Analysis of program shows that many instructions ion localized areas of the
program are executed repeatedly during some time period, and the remainder of the
program, accessed relatively infrequently. This is referred to as locality of reference. This
property leads to the effectiveness of cache mechanism.
36. What are the two aspects of locality of reference? Define them.
Two aspects of locality of reference are temporal aspects and spatial aspect.

Temporal aspect is that a recently executed instruction is likely to be executed

again very soon.

The spatial aspect is that instructions in close proximity to recently executed

instructions are also to be executed soon

37. Define cache line.

Cache block is used to refer to a set of contiguous address location of some size.
Cache block is also referred to as cache line.
38. What are the two ways in which the system using cache can proceed for a write
operation?

Write through protocol technique

Writeback or Copyback protocol technique

39. What is write-through protocol?

For a write operation using write-through protocol during write-hit: The cache
location and the main memory location are updated simultaneously.
For a write-miss: For a write-miss, the information is written directly to the main
memory
40. What is write-back or copy-back protocol?
For a write operation using this protocol during write-hit: the technique is to
update only the cache and to mark it as updated with an associated flag bit, often called
the dirty or modified bit. The main memory location of the word is updated later, when
the block containing this marked word is to be removed from the cache to make room for
a new block.
For a write-miss: the block containing the addressed word is first brought into the
cache, and then the deserved word in the cache is overwritten with the new information.
41. What is load-through or early restart?
19

When a read miss occurs for a system with cache the required word may be sent
to the processor as soon as it is read from the main memory instead of loading in to the
cache. This approach is called load through or early restart and it reduces the processors
waiting period.
42. What are the mapping techniques?
Direct mapping
associative mapping
Set associative mapping
43. What is hit?
A successful access to data in cache memory is called hit.
44. Define hit rate?
The number of hit states as a fraction of all attempted access.
45. What are the two ways of constructing a larger module to mount flash chips on a
small card?
Flash cards
Flash drivers.
46. Describe the memory hierarchy.

48. Define miss rate?

It is the number of misses states as a fraction of attempted accesses.
49. Define miss penalty?
20

The extra time needed to bring the desired information into the cache is called
miss penalty.
50. Define access time for magnetic disk.
The sum of seek time and rotational delay is called as access time for disks.
Seek Time:
Seek time is the time required to move the read/write head to the proper
track.
Rotational latency:
Rotational latency is the amount of time that elapses after the head is
positioned over the correct track until the stating position of the addressed sector
passes under the read/write head.
51. What is phase encoding or Manchestor encoding?
It is the technique for combining clock information with data. It is a scheme in
which changes in magnetization occur for each data bit. Its disadvantage is poor bitstorage density.
52. What is the formula for calculating the average access time experienced by the
processor?
T avg = h c + (1-h) M
Where
h- Hit Rate
M Miss Penalty
C Time to access information in the cache.
53. What is the formula for calculating the average access time experienced by the
processor in a system with two levels of cache?
T avg = h1 c1 +(1-h1) h2 c2 + (1-h1) (1-h2) M
h 1 Hit rate in L1 cache
h 2 Hit rate in L2 cache
c 1 Time to access information in the L1 cache
c 2 Time to access information in the L2 cache

54. What are prefetch instructions?

21

Prefetch instructions are those instructions which can be inserted into a program
either by the programmer or by the compiler.
55. Define system space.
Management routines are part of the operating system of the computer. It is
convenient to assemble the OS routines into a virtual address space.
56. Define user space?
The system space is separated from virtual address space in which the user
application programs reside. The letter space is called user space.
57. What are pages?
All programs and date are composed of fixed length units called pages. Each
consists of blocks of words that occupy contiguous locations in main memory.
58. What is replacement algorithm?
When the cache is full and a memory word that is not in the cache is referenced,
the cache control hardware must decide which block should be removed to create space
for the new block that contains the reference word. The collection of rules for making this
decision constitutes the replacement algorithm.
59. What is write miss?
During the write operation if the addressed word is not in cache then said to be
write miss.
60. What is associative search?
The cost of an associative cache is higher that the cost of a direct mapped cache
because of the need to search all 128 bit tag patterns to determine whether a given block
is in the cache. A search of this kind is called an associative search.
61. What is virtual memory?
Technique that automatically move program and datablocks into the physical
main memory when they are required for execution are called as virtual memory.
62. What is virtual address?
The binary address that the processor used for either instruction or data called as
virtual address.
63. What is page frame?
22

An area in the main memory that can hold one page is called as page frame.
64. What is Winchester technology?
The disk and the read/write heads are placed in a sealed air-filtered enclosure
called Winchester technology.
65. What is a disk drive?
The electro mechanical mechanism that spins the disk and moves the read/write
heads called disk drive.
66. What is disk controller?
The electronic circuit that controls the operation of the disk called disk controller.
67. What is word count?
The number of words in the block to be transferred.
68. What is error checking?
It computes the error correcting code (ECC) value for the data read from the given
sector and compares it with the corresponding ECC value read from the disk.
69. What is booting?
When the power is turned on, the OS has to be loaded into the main memory
which is taken place as part of a process called booting. To initiate booting a tiny part of
main memory is implemented as a nonvolatile ROM.
70. Draw static RAM cell.

UNIT V
23

1. Why IO devices cannot be directly be connected to the system bus?

Ans: The IO devices cannot be directly connected to the system bus because
i.
The data transfer rate of IO devices is slower that of CPU.
ii.
The IO devices in computer system has different data formats and
work lengths that of CPU.
So it is necessary to use a module between system bus and IO device called IO module or
IO system
2. What are the various mechanisms for implementing I/O operations?

Program controlled I/O

Interrupts

DMA

3. What are the major functions of IO system?

Ans: i. Interface to the CPU and memory through the system bus.
ii. Interface to one or more IO devices by tailored data link.
1. What is memory mapped I/O?
When the I/O devices share the same address space, the arrangement is
called memory mapped I/O.
2. What is program controlled I/O?
In program controlled I/O the processor repeatedly checks a status flag to
achieve the required synchronization between the processor and an input
and output device.

4. What is an I/O Interface?

Ans: Input-output interface provides a method for transferring binary information
between internal storage, such as memory and CPU registers, and external I/O devices
5. Write the factors considered in designing an I/O subsystem?
Ans:
1. Data Location: Device selection, address of data with in device( track,
sector etc)
2. Data transfer: Amount, rate to or from device.
3. Synchronization: Output only when device is ready, input only when
data is available.
4. I/O operation: refers to a data transfer between an I/O device and
Memory or between an I/O device and CPU.
6. Explain Direct Memory Access.
24

Ans: A modest increase in hardware enables an IO device to transfer a block of

information to or from memory without CPU intervention. This task requires the IO
device to generate memory addresses and transfer data through the bus using interface
controllers.
7. Define DMA controller.
Ans: The I/O device interface control circuit that is used for direct memory access is
known as DMA controller.
8. What is polling?
Ans: Polling is a scheme or an algorithm to identify the devices interrupting the
processor. Polling is employed when multiple devices interrupt the processor through one
interrupt pin of the processor.
9. What is the need of interrupt controller?
Ans: The interrupt controller is employed to expand the interrupt inputs. It can handle the
interrupt requests from various devices and allow one by one to the processor.
10. What are the two independent mechanisms for controlling interrupt request?
At the device end, an interrupt enable bit in a control register determines whether
the device is allowed to generate an interrupt request At the processor end, either an
interrupt enable nit in the PS or a priority structure determines whether a given interrupt
request will be accepted.
11. What is a Priority Interrupt?
Ans: A priority interrupt is an interrupt that establishes a priority over the various sources
to determine which condition is to be serviced first when two or more requests arrive
simultaneously.
12. What are vectored interrupts?
To reduce the time involved in the polling process, a device requesting an
interrupt may identify itself directly to the processor. Then the processor can immediately
start the executing the corresponding ISR. The schemes based on this approach are called
vectored interrupts.
13. Define bus.
Ans: When a word of data is transferred between units, all the bits are transferred in
parallel over a set of lines called bus. In addition to the lines that carry the data, the bus
must have lines for address and control purposes.
14. Define synchronous bus.
25

Ans: Synchronous buses are the ones in which each item is transferred during a time
slot(clock cycle) known to both the source and destination units. Synchronization can be
achieved by connecting both units to a common clock source.
15. Define asynchronous bus.
Ans: Asynchronous buses are the ones in which each item being transferred is
accompanied by a control signal that indicates its presence to the destination unit. The
destination can respond with another control signal to acknowledge receipt of the items.
16. What do you mean by memory mapped I/O?
Ans: In Memory mapped I/O, there are no specific input or output instructions. The CPU
can manipulate I/O data residing in interface registers with the same instructions that are
used to manipulate memory words i.e. the same set of instructions are used for reading
and writing memory can be used to input and output.
17. What is program-controlled I/O?
Ans: In program controlled I/O the processor repeatedly checks a status flags to achieve
the required synchronization between the processor and an input and output device.
18. Define interrupt.
Ans: An interrupt is any exceptional event that causes a CPUU to temporarily transfer
control from its current program to another program , an interrupt handler that services
the event in question.
19. Define exception.
Ans: The term exception is used to refer to any event that causes an interruption
20. What are the different methods used for handling the situation when multiple
interrupts occurs?
Ans: 1) Vectores interrupts
2) Interrupt nesting
3) Simultaneous Requests.
21. What is a privileged instruction?
Ans: To protect the operating system of a computer from being corrupted by user
programs, certain instructions can be executed only while the processor is in the
supervisor mode. These are called privileged instruction.
22. What is bus arbitration?
Ans: it is process by which the next device to become the bus master is selected and bus
mastership is transferred to it. There are two ways for doing this:
1. Centralized arbitration
2. Distributed arbitration.
23. What is port? What are the types of port available?
26

Ans: An I/O interface consists of circuitry required to connect an I/O device to computer
bus. One side consists of a data path with its associated controls to transfer data between
the interface and I/O device. This is called port. It is classified into:
1) Parallel port
2) Serial port.
24. What is a parallel port?
Ans: A parallel port transfers data in the form a number of bits, typically 8 to 16,
simultaneously to or from the device.
25. What is a serial port?
Ans: A serial port transfers and receives data one bit at a time.
26. What is PCI bus?
Ans: The Peripheral component interconnect(PCI) bus is a standard that supports the
functions found on a processor bus but in a standardized format that is independent of
any particular processor.
27. What is SCSI?
Ans: It is the acronym for small computer system interface. It refers to a standard bus
defined ANSI. Devices such as disks are connected to a computer via 50-wire cable,
which can be upto 25 meters in length and can transfer data at rate up to 55 megabytes/s.
28. Define USB.
Ans: The Universal Serial Bus(USB) is an industry standard developed to provide two
speed of operation called low-speed and full-speed. They provide simple, low cost and
easy to use interconnection system.
29. What are the objectives of USB?
Simple
Low cost
Easy to use
Supports wide range of data transfer characteristics
Plug and play mode of operation
30. What is time slicing?
With this technique each program runs for a short period called a time slice, and
then another program runs for its time slice and so on.

27

PART B QUESTIONS

UNIT-I
1. Explain the various addressing modes.

Register mode
Absolute mode
Immediate mode
Indirect mode
Indexed mode
Relative mode
Auto increment mode
Auto decrement mode

2. Discuss the following:

(i)Basic operational concept of a computer
Instructions
Operational details of processor
Registers
Operating steps
(ii)Basic instruction types
Zero address instruction
One address instruction
Two address instruction
Three address instruction
3. Discuss in detail the various measures of performance of a computer.

Processor clock
Pipelining and super scalar operation
Clock rate
Instruction set
Compiler

4. Discuss the following

(i) Instruction execution & straight line sequencing
Execution steps
Diagram
(ii) Branching
Explanation
Diagram
28

5. Explain in detail the data transfer between the memory & I/O unit.

Program controlled I/O

Flags (SIN, SOUT)
Buffers (DATAIN, DATAOUT)
Coding
Diagram

6. Explain the various functional units of a computer

Input unit
Output unit
ALU
CU
MU

UNIT-II
1. Give the basic organization of a micro programmed control unit. Draw a
flowchart of a
Micro routine for the instruction Add src, Rdst.

Diagram for basic organization

Explanation
Flowchart for Add src, Rdst

2. Describe the micro programmed control unit in detail.

Hints: A micro programmed control unit is built around a storage unit is called a control
store where all the control signals are stored in a program like format. The control store
stores a set of micro programs designed to implement the behavior of the given
instruction set.
Refer page no. 429-445
3. Explain the organization of a Hardwired control unit. Mention its advantages and
disadvantages.

Diagram for basic organization

Explanation
Advantages
Disadvantages

29

4. Describe the Hardwired control method for generating the control signals
Hints: Hard-wired control can be defined as sequential logic circuit that generates
specific sequences of control signal in response to externally supplied instruction
Refer page no. 425- 429
5. Draw the organization of a single bus processor and give the control sequences for
fetching a word from memory, storing a word in memory, executing a complete
instruction and unconditional branch.

Diagram
Control sequences

6. Explain the multiple bus organization structure with neat diagram.

Hints: The multiple bus organization is using more buses instead of one bus to reduce the
number of steps needed and to provide multiple paths that enable several transfers to take
place in parallel.
Refer page no. 423-425.

UNIT III
1. Explain the various types of hazards in pipelining.

Instruction hazard
Data hazard
Structural hazard
Control hazard

2. Write notes on super scalar operation?

Explanation
Diagram

3. Give the organization of the internal data path of a processor that supports a 4stage pipeline for instructions and uses a 3- bus structure and discuss the same.
Hints: The speed of execution of programs can be improved by arranging the hardware
so that more than one operation can be performed at the same time.
Explain about the 4- stage pipeline.
Refer page no. 4556-459
For 3- bus structure refer page no. 479-481.
4. What is pipelining? What are the various hazards encountered in pipelining?
Explain in detail.
Hints: The major characteristics of a pipeline are:
a) Pipelining cannot be implemented on a single task, as it works by splitting multiple
tasks into a number of subtasks and operating on them simultaneously.
30

b) The speedup or efficiency achieved by suing a pipeline depends on the number of pipe
stages and the number of available tasks that can be subdivided.
c) If the task that can be subdivided has uneven length of execution times, then the
speedup of the pipeline is reduced.
d) Though the pipeline architecture does not reduce the time of execution of a single task,
it reduces the overall time taken for the entire job to get completed.
The various pipeline hazards are:
1. Data hazard
2. Structural Hazard
3. Control Hazard.
Refer page no. 459-476.

UNIT-IV
1. Write notes on semiconductor RAM memories
Internal organization of memory chips
Static memories
Asynchronous DRAMs
Synchronous DRAMs
2. Write notes on various types of ROMs.

ROM
PROM
EPROM
EEPROM
Flash memory

3. What are the various types of cache mapping mechanisms? Explain in detail.

Direct mapping
Associated mapping
Set associative mapping
Explanation

4. Describe the three mapping techniques used in cache memories with suitable
Example.
Hints: The cache memory is a fast memory that is inserted between the larger slower
main memory and the processor. It holds the currently active segments of a program and
their data.
i)
Associative mapping.
ii)
Direct mapping.
iii)
Set-associative mapping
Refer page no. 314-325

31

5. Explain with neat diagram the internal organization of bit cells in a memory
chip.
Hints: Memory cells are usually organized in the form of an array, in which each cell is
capable of storing one bit of information. Each row consists a memory word, and all cells
of a row are connected to a common line referred to as word line, which is driven by he
address decoder on the chip.
Refer Page no. 295-297.
6. Discuss the virtual memory management technique in detail
Hints: The data is to be stored in physical memory locations that have addresses different
from those specified by the program. The memory control circuitry translates the address
specified by the program into an address that can be used to access the physical memory.
Refer page no. 337-343
7. Explain the various secondary storage devices in detail.
Hints: The various secondary storage devices are:
1. Magnetic hard disks
2. Optical disks
3. Magnetic tape systems Refer page no. 344-359
8. What is memory interleaving? Explain with neat diagram.
Hints: The main memory of a computer is structure as a collection of physically separate
modules each with its own address buffer register and data buffer register, memory access
operations may proceed in more than one module at the same time. Thus the aggregate
rate of transmission of words to and from the main memory system can be increased.
Refer page no. 330-331
UNIT-V
1. Describe the data transfer method using DMA.
Hints: A modest increase in hardware enables an IO device to transfer a block of
information to or from memory without CPU intervention. This task requires the IO
device to generate memory addresses and transfer data through the bus using interface
controllers.

Refer page no. 234-240.

2. Explain about the interrupts in detail
Hints: An interrupt is any exceptional event that causes a CPUU to temporarily transfer
control from its current program to another program , an interrupt handler that services
the event in question.
32

Refer page no. 208-221.

3. Explain the different types of buses with neat diagram.
Hints: When a word of data is transferred between units, all the bits are transferred in
parallel over a set of lines called bus. In addition to the lines that carry the data, the bus
must have lines for address and control purposes.The different types of buses are:
1. Synchronous Buses:
Synchronous buses are the ones in which each item is transferred during a time slot(clock
cycle) known to both the source and destination units. Synchronization can be achieved
by connecting both units to a common clock source.
2. Asynchronous buses
Asynchronous buses are the ones in which each item being transferred is accompanied by
a control signal that indicates its presence to the destination unit. The destination can
respond with another control signal to acknowledge receipt of the items.
Refer page no. 241-247
4. Explain the various interface circuits.
Hints: An I/O interface consists of circuitry required to connect an I/O device to
computer bus. One side consists of a data path with its associated controls to transfer data
between the interface and I/O device. This is called port. It is classified into:
1) Parallel port
2) Serial port.
Refer page no. 248-259.
5. Explain in details the various standard I/O interfaces.
Hints: The various standard I/O interfaces are:
1. The Peripheral component interconnect(PCI) bus is a standard that supports the
functions found on a processor bus but in a standardized format that is independent of
any particular processor
2. It is the acronym for small computer system interface. It refers to a standard bus
defined ANSI. Devices such as disks are connected to a computer via 50-wire cable,
which can be upto 25 meters in length and can transfer data at rate up to 55 megabytes/s.
3. The Universal Serial Bus(USB) is an industry standard developed to provide two speed
of operation called low-speed and full-speed. They provide simple, low cost and easy to
use interconnection system.
Refer Page no. 259-281.
6. Explain the various methods available to handle multiple devices using
interrupts?

Vectored interrupt
33

Interrupt nesting
Simultaneous requests

7. Write notes on interrupts in operating system?

Explanation

8. Explain DMA and the different types of bus arbitration mechanisms.

Diagram
Explanation
Centralized arbitration
Decentralized arbitration

9. Explain synchronous and asynchronous bus.

Explanation
Diagram

10. Write notes on the following

i.PCI
ii.SCSI
iii.USB
Explanation
Diagram
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2010.
Fourth Semester
Computer Science and Engineering
CS2253 - COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE
(Common to Information Technology)
(Regulation 2008)
Time: Three hours Maximum:100 marks
Answer ALL Questions.
PART A- (10 X 2= 20 marks)
1. Distinguish between autoincrement and autodecrement addressing mode.
Page No. 48
2. Compare RISC with CISC architecture.
Page No. 97
3. Under what situations the micro program counter is not incremented after a new
instruction is fetched from micro program memory?
34

Page No. 430

4. What are the relative merits of horizontal and vertical micro instruction format?
5. What is pipelining and what are the advantages of pipelining?
Page No. 454
6. List the key aspects in gaining the performance in pipelined systems.
Page No. 456
7. How many memory chips are needed to construct 2M x 16 memory system using
512K x 8 static memory chips?
Page No. 297
8. What is virtual memory and what are the benefits of virtual memory?
Page No. 294
9. What is meant by bus arbitration?
Page No. 237
10. Name and give the purpose of widely used bus standard.
Page No. 259
PART B- (5 X 16 = 80 Marks)
11. (a) (i) Describe the role of system software to improve the performance of a
computer.
(8 Marks)
Page No. 10
(ii) Design a 4- bit adder/ subtracter circuit using full adders and explain its
function.
(8 Marks)
Page No. 368
(Or)
(b) (i) What are the special registers in a typical computer? Explain their purposes
in detail.
(8 Marks)
Page No. 8
(ii) Design a 4- bit fast adder and explain its function in detail.
(8 Marks)
Page No. 368
12. (a) (i) Draw and explain the block diagram of a complete processor. (6 Marks)
Page No. 8
(ii) Briefly describe the design of a hardwired control unit.
(10 Marks)
Page No. 6
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain the basic organization of a microprogrammed control unit and the
generation of control signals using microprogram.
(12 Marks)
Page No. 429
(ii) What are the advantages and disadvantages of hardwired and
microprogrammed control?
(4 Marks)
Page No. 429
13. (a) (i) Describe the role of cache memory in pipelined system.
Page No. 5
(ii) Discuss the influence of pipelining on instruction set design.
35

(8 Marks)
(8 Marks)

Page No. 26
(Or)
(b) What is instruction hazard? Explain the methods for dealing with the instruction
hazards.
(16 Marks)
Page No. 504
14. (a) (i) What are the different secondary storage devices? Elaborate on any one of
the devices.
(8 Marks)
Page No. 344
(ii) Explain how the virtual address is converted into real address in a paged virtual
memory system.
(8 Marks)
Page No. 337
(Or)
(b) (i) Explain approaches for addressing multiple- module memory systems with
suitable diagrams.
(6 Marks)
Page No.
(ii) Briefly describe magnetic disk principles and also the organization and accessing
of data on a disk.
(10 Marks)
Page No. 344
15. (a) (i) Describe the hardware mechanism for handling multiple interrupt
requests.
(8 Marks)
Page No. 9
(ii) What are handshaking signals? Explain the handshake control of data transfer
during input and output operation.
(8 Marks)
Page No. 244
(Or)
(b) (i) What are the needs for input- output interface? Explain the functions of a
typical 8- bit parallel interface in detail.
(10 Marks)
Page No. 454
(ii) Describe the USB architecture with the help of a neat diagram.
(6 Marks)
Page No. 2
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2007.
Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)
CS1251- COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Time:Three hours

Maximum:100 marks
Answer ALL questions.
PART A-(10*2=20 marks)

1. A memory byte location contains the pattern 00101100.What does this pattern
represent when interpreted as a number? What does it represent as an ASCII
Code?

36

Interpreted number is 44
ACCII code is NULL/idle
2. What is the information conveyed by addressing modes?
The information conveyed by the addressing mode is to specify the location of an
operand in an instruction
3. Draw the full Adder circuit using two half adders.
4. What are the various ways of representing signed integers in the system?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of hardwired and micro
programmed control?
Advantages of hardwired control
i.operate at high speed
ii. each state of this counter corresponds to one control step
disadvantages
i.little flexibility
ii.complexity of the instruction set can implement is limited
advantages of microprogram control
i. control signals are generated by program itself
ii.high flexibility
disadvantages
i.slower operating speed
6. What is data hazard in pipelining? What are the solutions?
A data hazard is a situation in which the pipeline is stalled because the data to be
operated on are delayed for some reason.
The solution for data hazard is
i.operand forwading
ii. handled by software
iii. to stall
37

7. What is virtual memory? How is it implemented?

A technique that automatically move program and data blocks into the physical main
memory when they are required for execution. This memory when they are required
for execution. This memory is termed as virtual memory. And it is implemented by
MMU.
8. What will be the width of address and data buses for a 512k*8 memory chip?
Width of address bus 19
Data bus 8
9. Why do we need DMA?
DMA is used to transfer the block of data directly between an external device and the
main memory without the continuous intervention by the processor.
10. What is the difference between subroutine and interrupt service routine?
Subroutine or the sub program is the routine which could be called by another
subroutine or main routine under program control.
Interrupt service routine is called automatically on the occurance of an interrupt
which is predefined.

PART B-(5*16=80marks)
11

(a)

(i)

(ii)

Explain how the processor is interfaced with the memory with a

neat block diagram and explain how they communicate.
(10)
Page No: 7
What do you know about bit,bytes,nibbles and word?What are
big-endian and little-endian assignments of addresses?
(6)
Page No: 33
OR

(b)

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

12.

(a)

(i)

Write notes on instruction formats. (4)

Page No: 37
List the various addressing modes.Give a brief explanation of
each of them with an example.
(8)
Page No: 68
Describe the organization of a stack. (4)
Page No: 68
Design a 4-bit carry look ahead adder and explain its operation
with an example.
(8)
Page No: 372

38

(b)

13.

(a)

(ii)

Design a binary multiplier using sequential adder.Explain its

operation
(8)
Page No: 376
OR

(i)

Write about the CSA method of fast multiplication.prove how it

is faster with an example.
(8)
Page No: 383

(ii)

Draw the circuit for integer division and explain(8)

Page No: 390

(i)

Explain the instructon cycle highlighting the sub-cycles and

sequence of steps to be followed.(8)

(ii)

Draw the single bus and three bus organization of the data path
inside a processor. (4)
Page No: 412
Describe the organization of micro programmed control
unit. (4)
Page No: 429

(iii)

OR
(b)

(i)

Design a 4-stage instruction pipeline and show how its

performance is improved over sequential execution.

(8)
Page No: 454

14.

(a)

(ii)

Highlight the solutions of instruction hazards.

Page No: 465

(i)

Write notes on static memories.

(8)
Page No: 297
Explain the concept of memory hierarchy

(8)

OR
Write notes on :
(i)
ROM Technologies.
(ii)
Memory Inter Leaving.
(iii)
Set associative mapping of cache.
(iv)
RAID Disk arrays.

Page No: 310

Page No: 330
Page No: 318
Page No: 351

(ii)
(b)

15.

(a)

(i)

(8)

(i)

Explain how I/Odevices can be interfaced with a block diagram.

Page No: 204
(8)

(ii)

How do you connect multiple I/Odevices to a processor using

interrupts?Explain with suitable diagrams. (8)
Page No: 208
OR
39

(b)

Write notes on:

(i)
DMA.
(ii)
Bus Arbitration.
(iii)
Printer processor Communication.
(iv)
USB.

Page No: 239

Page No: 237
Page No: 251
Page No: 272

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,MAY/JUNE 2007.

Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)
CS1251- COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Time:Three hours

Maximum:100 marks
Answer ALL questions.
PART A-(10*2=20 marks)

1. Why data bus is bidirectional and address bus is unidirectional in most

microprocessors?
The data bus is bidirectional because the data bus has to transfer data between the
CPU and memory/I/O device, whereas the address bus is used to send out memory
address from the CPU , hence it is unidirectional.
2. What are limitations of assembly language?
i.it is converted to machine language using assembler which is time consuming when
compared with machine language.
ii.it is difficult to solve the complex problems
iii.a set of symbolic names and rules has to be followed
3. Why floating point number more difficult to represent and process than integer?
In floating point numbers we have to represent any number in three fields sighn,
exponent and mantissa. The IEEE 754 standard gives the format for these fields and
according to the format th numbers are to be represented. In case of any process we have
to consider mantissa and exponent separately. Therefore, floating point numbers are more
difficult to represent and process than integer.
4. Draw a full adder circuit and give the truth table.
5. Define pipeline speedup.
S(m)=T(l)/T(m)

40

Where T(m) is the execution time for some target workload on an m-stage pipeline.
T(l) is the execution time for some workload an a similar non pipelined processor.
6. State the differences between hardwired and micro programmed control unit.

Hardwired control

Microprogrammed control

-- It is implemented using the gates, flip

flop and hardwired circuits.

--It is implemented using the micro

program stored in the control memory.

--No control memory is used.

--Control memory is used.

--Execution is faster.

--Execution is slower.

--Modification is difficult.

--Modification is simple by modifying the

micro program in the control memory.

--RISC machines

--CISC Machines.

7. List the factors that determine the storage device performance.

i.Access time
ii.Cycle time
iii.Transfer Rate.
8. How many 128*8 RAM chips are needed to provide a memory capacity of 2048
bytes?
128*8=1024 bytes.
One 128*8 chip can store 1024 bytes, hence to have memory capacity of 2048 bytes
we need two 128*8 RAM chip.
9. Why does DMA have priority over the CPU when both request a memory
transfer?
The data transfer monitored by DMA controller which is known as DMA channel.
The CPU is involved only at the beginning and end of the transfer, when the CPU
wishes to read or write a block of data, it issues a command to DMA Channel by

41

sending read/write operation, address of I/O, number of words to be read or written,

hence DMA have priority over the CPU when both request a memory transfer.
10. What is the advantage of using interrupt initiated data transfer over transfer
under program control without interrupt?
In the interrupt initiated data transfer, the processor identifies the request and transfer
the control ISR to perform the task and its resumes back with the useful task whereas,
the processor has to waste its time by performing all the task, for example when a
print command is given in the interrupt initiated , it gives control over to ISR and
resumes the work back where as without interrupt the processor has to wait until the
print document is transferred to the printer.

PART B-(5*16=80 marks)

11.

(a)

(i)
(ii).

(b).

(i)
(ii)

12.

(a)

What is a stack?illustrate the use of stack in subroutine processing

with suitable diagram.
(8)
Page No: 68
Describe different types of addressing modes in detail
(8)
Page No: 48
OR
Briefly explain any six I/O operations with an example
Page No: 64
Illustrate memory read and write operations. (7)
Page No: 65

(9)

(i).

Give the block diagram of the hardware implementation of

addition and subtraction of signed number and explain the
operation with flowchart.
(10)
Page No: 368

(ii)

Explain the representation of floating point numbers in detail.

Page No: 393
(6)
OR

(b)

(i).
(ii)

Design a multiplier that multiplies two 4 bit numbers.

(8)
Page No: 376
Describe the algorithm for integer division with suitable example.
Page No: 390

13

(a)

(i)

(8)

Explain the execution an instruction with diagram. (8)

Page No: 421
42

(b)

(ii)

Explain the functions of a six segment pipeline and draw a

space diagram for a six segment pipeline showing the time it
takes to process eight tasks. (8)
Page No: 454
OR

(i)

Explain how the performance of the instruction pipeline can be

improved.
(10)
Page No: 465
Explain multiple bus organization in detail.(6)

(ii)
14.

(a)

(i).

(ii)

(b)

(i)
(ii)

15.

(a)

(i)
(ii).

(b)

(i)
(ii)

What is virtual memory?Explain how the logical addres is

translated into physical address in the virtual memory system
with a neat diagram. (10)
Page No: 337
Describe the organization of a typical RAM chip. (6)
Page No : 295
OR
Explain the organization of magnetic disk in detail (6)
Page No: 344
A digital computer has a memory unit of 64 k*16 and a cache
memory of 1 k words.The cache uses direct mapping with a
block size of four words.How many bits are there in the
tag,index,block and word fields of the address format ?How
many blocks can the cache accommodate?
(10)
Design a parallel priority interrupt hardware for a system with
eight interrupt sources.
(8)
Page No: 208
describe the functions of SCSI with a neat diagram (8)
Page No: 266
OR
What is the importance of an I/O interface compare features of
SCSI and PCI interfaces.
(6)
Page No: 259
What are different input and output signals of DMA controller?
Why are the read and write control signals are bidirectional?Under
what condition and for what purpose they are used as inputes and
outputs?
(10)
Page No: 234

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,APRIL/MAY 2008.

Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)
CS1251- COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
43

Time:Three hours

Maximum:100 marks
Answer ALL questions.
PART A-(10*2=20 marks)

1. What are tri-state gate?

2. Why is the data bus in most microprocessors bidirectional while the address
bus is unidirectional?
Data Bus: These lnes are used to send data to memory via output ports and to
receive data from memory via input ports. Therefore, data bus lines are bidirectional.
Address Bus: On these lines the CPU send out the address of the memory
location or I/O port that is to be written to or read from. Here, the communiation
is one-way, the address is send from CPU to memory and I/O port and hence these
lines are unidirectional.
3. Perform 1010100 1000100 using 1s and 2s complement.
4. Define underflow and overflow.
Underflow: If the result the arithmetic operation involving n-bit numbers is too
small to represent by n-bits, underflow is said to occur.
Overflow: If the result of an arithmetic operation is outside the representable
range, then overflow is said to occur.
5. What is pipelining and what are the advantages of pipelining?
Pipelining is a technique of decomposing a sequential process into
suboperations, with each subprocess being executed in a special dedicated segment
that operates concurrently with all other segments.
Advantages:

i.
ii.

Increases computer processing capability

Increased throughput

6. What is the difference between hardwired control and micro programmed

control?
7. List the differences between static RAM and dynamic RAM.
SRAM:
refreshing.

Static Random Access Memory. It tends to be faster. They require no

44

DRAM: Dyanamic Random Access Memory. Data is stored in the form of

charges. So continuous refreshing is needed.
8. Define the terms : spatial locality and temporal locality.
Spatial Locality:
The spatial aspect means that instructions in close
proximity to a recently executed instruction are closely likely to be executed soon.
Temporal Locality: Temporal means that instructions that are recently
executed, are likely to be executed again very soon.
9. What factors influences the bus design decisions?
1. Data Location: Device selection, address of data with in device( track,
sector etc)
2. Data transfer: Amount, rate to or from device.
3. Synchronization: Output only when device is ready, input only when
data is available.
4. I/O operation: refers to a data transfer between an I/O device and
Memory or between an I/O device and CPU.
10. What is priority interrupt?
A priority interrupt is an interrupt that establishes a priority over the
various sources to determine which condition is to be serviced first when two or
more requests arrive simultaneously.

PART B (516=80 marks)

11.

(a)

(b)

12.

(i)

With a neat diagram explain Von-Neumann computer architecture.

(ii)

What are the major instruction design issues?

Page No: 37
Or

(i)

(12)
(4)

Explain various instruction formats in detail.

(10)
Page No: 37
(ii)
What is a stack and what are the operations on stack? Give any
three applications of stack.
(6)
Page No: 68
(a)
(i)
Design a 4-bit binary adder/subtractor and explain its functions.
Page No: 372
(8)

45

(b)

(ii)

Give the algorithm for multiplication of signed 2s complement

numbers and illustrate with an example.
(8)
Page No: 380
OR

(i)

Design an array multiplier that multiplies two 4-bit numbers and

explain its operation.
(8)
Page No: 376
Write the algorithm for division of floating point numbers and
illustrate with an example.
(8)

(ii)
13.

(a)

(i)

What is branch hazard? Describe the methods for dealing with the
branch hazards.
(10)
Page No: 465

(ii)

With a suitable diagram describe the sequence of micro operations

involved in fetching and executing a typical instruction.
(6)
OR

14.

(b)

What is data hazard? Explain the methods for dealing with the data
hazards.
(16)
Page No : 461

(a)

(i)
(ii)

(b)

(i)
(ii)

15.

Describe the functional characteristics that are common to the

devices used to build main and secondary computer memories. (6)
Page No: 295
Explain various mechanisms of mapping main memory address
into cache memory addresses.
(10)
Page No: 314
Or
Explain how the virtual address is converted into real address in a
paged virtual memory system.
(10) Page No: 337
Describe the working principle of a typical magnetic disk. (6)
Page No: 344

(a)

Draw the typical block diagram of a DMA controller and explain how it is
used for direct data transfer between memory and peripherals.
(16)
Page No: 234
Or

(b)

(i)
(ii)

Describe the working principles of USB.

(8)
Page No: 272
Briefly compare the characteristics of SCSI with PCI.
Page No: 261 & 266
46

(8)

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2006.

Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)
CS1251-COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Time:Three hours

Maximum:100 marks
Answer ALL questions.
PART A-(10*2=20 marks)

1. What is a bus? What are the different buses in a CPU?

Ans:
called bus.

A group of lines that serve as a connecting path for several devices is

The different buses in a CPU are

Data bus
Address bus
Control bus
2. What are the four basic types of operations that need to be supported by an
instructor set?
i.

Data transfer between memory and the processor register.

ii.

Arithmetic and logic operations on Data.

iii.

Program sequencing and control

iv.

I/O transfer

3. Draw the symbolic representation of the full adder and give the expression for
the sum.
4. In confirming to the IEEE standard mention any four situations under which a
processor sets exception flag.
i.

Underflow

ii.

Overflow

47

iii.

Divide by zero

iv.

Invalid

5. What are the address-sequencing capabilities required in a control memory?

i.

Increamenting the control address register

ii.

Unconditional branch as specified by address field of the microinstruction.

iii.

Conditional branch depending on status bits in register of computer

iv.

A facility for sub-routine calls and retuns.

6. What is meant by super scalar processor?

Super scalar processors are designed to exploit more instruction level parallelism
in user programs. This means that multiple functional units are used. With such an
arrangement it is possible to start the execution of several instruction in every clock
cycle. This mode operation is called super scalar execution.
7. What do you understand by Hit ratio?
Whan a processor refers a data item from a cache, if the referenced item is in the
cache, then such a reference is called hit. If the referenced data is not in the cache, then it
is called miss (or cache miss). Hit ratio is defined as the ratio of number of hits to
number of refernces.

8. Define locality of reference? What are its types?

During the course of execution of a program memory references by the processor
for both the instruction and the data tends to cluster. There are two types,
i. Spatial Locality
ii. Temporal Locality
9. What is DMA operations? State its advantages.
In order to transfer bulk amount of data between memory and I/O device without
involvement of CPU, the Direct Memory Access technique is used. The advantage is, fasr
data transfer.

48

10. What is the necessity of an interface?

Any device that has to be connected to a CPU require an intrface. Which takes
care of the mismatch in speed, data and electrical characteristics between the CPU to the
decvice.

PART B-(5*16=80marks)
11.

(a)

(i)

Give the difference instruction formats of a CPU in general. (6)

Page No: 37

(ii)

Define addressing mode.Classify addressing modes and explain

each type with examples.
(10)
Page No: 48
OR

(b)

12.

(a)

(i)

Write an assembly language to find the biggest number among

given three numbers (6)
Page No: 58

(ii)

Explain instruction set and instruction sequencing

Page No: 37

(i)

What is the advantage in using ripple carry adder (4)

Page No: 385
Draw the diagram of a carry look ahead adder and explain the
carry lookahead principle.
(12)
Page No: 372

(ii)

(10).

OR
(b)

13.

(a)

(i)

Give the IEEE standard double precision floating point

format.(3)
Page No: 394

(ii)

Explain the floating point add/subtract rules.With a detailed

flow chart explain how floatin point additional subtraction is
performed
(13)
Page No: 398

With a neat diagram explain the basic organization of a

microprogrammmed control unit.Explain the operation of this control unit
with a typical set of micro instructions.
OR

49

(16)

Page No: 429

(b)

14.

(a)

(i)

Explain the
unit. (8)

various design methods of hardwired control

Page No: 425

(ii)

Explain the basic concepts of pipelining and comparing it with

sequential processing.Draw needed diagrams.
(8)
Page No: 454

(i)

Draw a neat sketch of memory hierarchy and explain the need

of cache memory.
(8)
Page No: 314

(ii)

Explain the various mapping functions used for mapping main

memory blocks in to cache memory. (8)
Page No: 316
OR

(b).

15.

(a)

(i)

Explain the virtual memory address translation and TLB with

necessary diagram. (10)
Page No: 337

(ii)

Dicuss the concept of memory interleaving and give its

advantages. (6)
Page No: 330

(i)

Discuss the general steps involved in interrupt driven data

transfer.
(6)
Page No: 208

(ii)

Explain how DMA transfer is accomplished with a neat

diagram
(10)
Page No: 234
OR

(b)

Write short notes on:

(i)
PCI (8)
Page No: 261
(ii)
Advantages of USR over older I/O bus architectures

(8)

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION,MAY/JUNE 2006.

Fourth Semester
(Regulation 2004)
CS1251-COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Time:Three hours

Maximum:100 marks
Answer ALL questions.
PART A-(10*2=20 marks)

50

1. Give an example each of zero-address, one address, two-address, and threeaddress instructions.
i.
Zero address Instruction: locations of all operands are defined
implicitly
ii.
One address Instruction: Add A
iii.
Two address Instruction: Add A , B
iv.
Three address Instruction: Add A , B , C
2. Which data structures can be best supported using (a) indirect addressing
mode (b) indexed addressing mode?
(a) Indirect Addressing mode
Pointer data structure
(b) Indexed Addressing mode
Array data structure
3. What is the purpose of guard bits used in floating point operations?
The guard bits are the extra bits which is used to retain the intermediate
steps to increase the accuracy in the final result.
4. Give the booths recording and bit pair recording of the number
1000111101000101.
5. Why is the Wait-For-Memory-Function-Completed step needed when
reading from or writing to the main memory?
WMFC step is required for the write control signal / read control signal
caause the memory bus interface hardware to issue write command / read command
on the memory bus. The processor wait in this process until the memory operation is
completed and an WMFC response is received.
6. How do you control instructions like branch, cause problems in a pipelined
processor?
Pipelined processor gives the best throughput for sequenced line
instruction. In branch instruction, as it has to calculate the target address, whether the
instruction jump from one memory location to other. In the mean time, before
calculating the larger, the next sequence instructions are got into the pipelines, which
are rolled back when target is calculated.
7. What is the function of a TLB (translation look-aside buffer)?
A small cache called the TLB is interporated into MMU, which consists of
the page table entries that corresponding to the most recently accessed page.
8. An eight-way set-associative cache consists of a total of 256 blocks. The main
memory, contains 8192 blocks, each consisting of 128 words.
(a) How many bits are there in the main memory address?
(b) How many bits are there in the TAG, SET and WORD fields?
51

The main memory contains of 256 blocks and each block consists of 128
words.
(a) Total words in MM = 8192 * 128 = 1048576.
(b) To address 32768 words we require ( 2 20 = 1048576) 20 bits
9. Why are interrupt masks provided in any processor?
Interrupt mask enable the higher priority devices comes first and there for
lower priority devices comes last. The interrupt enable bits as a bit vector is called as
interrupt mask. Which enables / disables the devices according to the correct
configuration of the mask.
10. How does bus arbitration typically work?
i.
A bus master waiting to use the bus asserts by the bus request.
ii.
A bus master cannot be the bus until its request is granted.
iii.
A bus master must signal to the arbitor at the end of the bus utilization.

PART B (516=80 marks)

11. (i) Explain in detail the different types of instructions that are supported in a
typical processor. (10)
Page No: 38
(ii) Registers R1 and R2 of a computer contain the decimal values 1200 and
2400 respectively. What is the effective address of the memory operand in
each of the following instructions?
(1) Load 20(R1), R5
(2) Add (R2), R5
(3) Move #3000, R5
(4) Sub (R1)+, R5
(6)
Or
12. (a) (i) Explain in detail the principle of carry-look-ahead adder. Show how
16-bit CLAs can be constructed from 4-bit adders. (12)
Page No: 372
(ii) Perform the division on the following 5-bit unsigned integer using nonrestoring division: 10101 / 00101. (4)
Page No: 390
OR
(b) (i) Explain the working of a floating point adder/subtractor.
(12)
Page No: 393
(ii) Multiply the following pair of signed 2s complement numbers using
bit-pair recording of the multipliers : A = 010111, B = 101100.
(4)
Page No: 384
13. (a) (i) Explain how pipelining helps to speed-up the processor. Discuss the
hazards that have to be taken care of in a pipe-lined processor.
(12)
Page No: 454
(ii) Give the sequence of control signals to be generated to fetch an
instruction from memory in a single-bus organization.
(4)
52

OR
(b) Explain in detail the working of a micro-programmed control unit. (16)
Page No: 429
14. (a) (i) Discuss the address translation mechanism and the different page
replacement policies used in virtual memory system.
(10)
Page No: 337
(ii) A byte addressable computer has a small data cache capable of holding
eight 32-bit words. Each cache block contains 132-bit word. When a
given program is executed, the processor reads data from the following
sequence of hex addresses 200, 204, 208, 20C, 2F4, 2F0, 200, 204,
218, 21C, 24C, 2F4. The pattern is repeated four times. Assuming that
the cache is initially empty, show the contents of the cache at the end of
each pass, and compute the hit rate for a direct mapped cache. (6)
OR
14 (b) (i) Discuss the various mapping schemes used in cache design.Comare the
schemes in terms of cost and performance.(10)
Page No: 316
(ii) Consider a two level cache with access times of 5 ns, and 8-0 ns
respectively.If the hit rates are 95%and 75% respectively in the two
caches,and the memory access time is 250ns,what is the average access
time?
15 (a) (i) Explain the use of vectored interrupts in processors.Why is priority
handling desired in interrupt controllers?How do the different priority
schemes work ? (10)
Page No: 208
(ii) Discuss the data transfer mechanism of the PCI bus.(6) Page No: 261
OR
(b) (i) Explain how data may be transferred from a hard disk to memory using
DMA including arbitration for the bus.Assume a synchronous bus,and
draw a timing diagram showing the data transfer.(10)
Page No: 234
(ii) Discuss the salient features of the USB operation(6) Page No: 272

53

54