Power System Grounding and TransientsELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks EXECUTIVE EDITORS Marlin Q. Thurston Department of Electrical Engineering The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio William Middendorf Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Cincinnati Cincinnati. Ohio EDITORIAL BOARD Maurice Bellanger Télécommunications, Radioelectriques, et Téléphoniques (TRT) Le Plessis-Robinson, France J. Lewis Black burn Bothell, Washington Sing T. Bow Department of Electrical Engineering The Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania Norman B. Fuqua Reliability Analysis Center Griffiss Air Force Base. New York Charles A. Harper Westinghouse Electric Corporation and Technology Seminars, Inc. Timonium, Maryland Naim A. Kheir Department of Electrical and Systems Engineering Oakland University Rochester, Michigan Lionel M. Levinson General Electric Company Schenectady, New York V. Rajagopalan Department of Engineering Universite du Quebec a Trois Rivieres Trois-Rivieres. Quebec, Canada Fart Swartzlander TRW Defense Systems Group Redondo Beach, Califorma Spvros G, Tzafestas Department of Electrical Engineenn National Technical University of Athens Athens, Greece Sakae Yamamura Central Research Institute ot the Electric Power Industry Tokyo, Japanoy —E—E—EEeEw a | Ruttonal Fault Anatysis, edited by Richard Saeks and SR. Liberty > Nonparametric Methods in Communications. edited by P, Papantont- Kazakos and Dimitri Kazakos Interactive Pattern Recognition, Yéreuu Chien Solid-State Electronics, Lawrence £. Murr Electronic. Magnetic, and Thermal Properties of Solid Materials. Klaus Schroder 6. Magnetic-Bubble Memory Technology, Hsu Chang 7. Transformer and {nductor Design Handbook, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman 8. Electromagnetics: Classical and Modern Theory and Applications. Samuel Seely and Alexander D. Poularikas 9, One-Dimensional Digital Signal Processing, Chi-Tsong Chen 10. tuterconnected Dynamical Systems, Raymond A. DeCarlo and Richard Saeks iL, Modern Digital Control Systems. Raymond G. Jacquot 12, Hybrid Circuit Design and Manufacture, Roydn D. Jones 13. Magnetic Core Selection for Transformers and Inductors: A User's Guide to Practice and Specification. Colonel Wm. T. McLyman 14, Static and Rotating Electromagnetic Devices. Richard H. Engelmann {5. Energy-Efficient Electric Motors: Selection and Application, John C. Andreas 16. Electromagnetic Compossibility, Heinz M. Schlicke 17. Electronics: Models, Analysis, and Systems, James G, Gortling 18, Digital Filter Design Handbook, Fred J. Taylor 19. Multivariable Control: An Introduction, P. K. Sinha 20, Flexible Circuits: Design and Applications, Steve Gurley, with contribu- tions by Carl A, Edstrom, Jr., Ray D, Greenway, and William P. Kelly 21. Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, Thomas &. Browne, Jr. 32. Switch Mode Power Conversion: Basic Theory and Design. K. Kit Sum 23. Pattern Recognition: Applications to Large Data-Set Problems. Sing-Tze Bow 24, Custom-Specific Integrated Circuits: Design und Fabrication, Stanley L, Hurst 25, Digital Circuits: Logie and Design. Ronald C. Emery 26. Large-Scale Control Systems: Theones and Techniques, Magdi S. Mahmoud, Mohamed F. Hassan, and Mohamed G. Darwish 27, Microprocessor Software Project Management. Eli T. Fathi and Cedric V. W. Armstrong (Sponsored by Ontario Centre for Microelectronics) 28. Low Frequency Electromagnetic Design. Michael P. Perry 29. Multidimensional Systents: Techniques and Applications, edited by Spyros G. Tzafestas 30. AC Motors for High-Performance Applications Analysis and Control, Sakae Yamamura eeSS 31. Ceramic Materiais for Electronics: Processing, Properties, and Applications, edited by Relva C. Buchanan Microcomputer Bus Structures and Bus Interface Design, Arrhur L. Dexter 33, End User's Guide to Innovative Flexible Circuit Packaging. Jay J. Minier 34. Reliability Engineering for Electronic Design, Norman B. Fuqua _735. Design Fundamentals for Low-Voltage Distribution and Control. Frank W. Kussy and Jack L. Warren 36. Encapsulation of Electronic Devices and Components, Edward R. Salmon 37. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, J. Lewis Blackburn 38. Testing Active and Passive Electronic Components, Richard F. Powell 39, Adaptive Control Systems: Techniques and Applications, V. V. Chalam 40. Computer-Aided Analysis of Power Electronic Systems, Venkatachari Rajagopalan 41. Integrated Circuit Quality and Reliability, Eugene R. Hnatek 42. Systolic Signal Processing Systems, edited by Earl E. Swartzlander, Jr. 43. Adaptive Digital Filters and Signal Analysis, Maurice G. Belanger 44. Electronic Ceramics: Properties, Configuration, and Applications, edited by-Lionel M. Levinson 45. Computer Systems Engineering Management, Robert S. Alford 46. Systems Modeling and Computer Simulation, edited by Naim A. Kheir 47. Rigid-Flex Printed Wiring Design for Production Readiness, Walzer S. Rigling 48. Analog Methods for Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis and Diagnosis, edited by Takao Ozawa 2 49. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman 50, Power System Grounding and Transients: An Introduction, A. P. Sakis Meliopculos Additional Volumes in Preparation Signal Processing Handbook, edited by C. H.Chen Dynamic Models and Discrete Event Simulation, William Delaney and Erminia Vaccari Electronic Product Design for Automated Manufacturing, H. Richard StillwellEee Electrical Engineering-Etectronics Software 1, Transformer and Inductor Design Sottware for the [BM PC. Colonel Wm, T. McLyman 2. Transformer and Inductor Design Sottware for the Macintosh, Colonel Wm. T. McLyman 3. Digital Filter Design Software for the [BM PC Fred J. Taylor and Thanos StouraitisPower System Grounding and Transients AN INTRODUCTION A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos School of Electrical Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York and BaselLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Meliopoulos, A. P. Sakis Power system grounding and transients ; an introduction / A.P. Sakis Meliopoulos. pe om. — (Electrical engineering and electronics ; 50) Includes index. ISBN 0-8247-7908-8 1. Electric currents—Grounding. 2. Transients (Electricity) I. TRle. IL. Series. TK3227.M45 1988 621, 31'7--de 19 88-10919 cIP Copyright © 1988 by MARCEL DEKKER, INC. All Rights Reserved Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo- copying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. MARCEL DEKKER, INC. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Current printing (last digit 0987654321 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICADedicated to My daughters, Dee Anne and Victoria My wife, Kathy My parents, Victoria and PanagiotisPreface Since the installation of the first electric power transmission system a century ago, electricity has infiltrated our industrial and every- day life. As a result, the need for electric power transmission facilities has been increased amazingly. With it, numerous problems associated with the reliable and economic transmission of electric power have emerged. Through a century-long evolutionary process, the design of transmission equipment has been advanced to an amaz- ing degree of sophistication, and the operating reliability of these systems is very high. As electric power systems grow larger and larger, the need for comprehensive analysis techniques, design, and optimization procedures has arisen. On the other hand, the avail- ability of low-cost computing equipment resulted in the development of such techniques. Cost-conscious electric power designers and planners strive for optimal designs and highly reliable systems. The objective of this book is to provide coverage of modern analysis tech- niques employed in the design of electric power transmission systems. ‘The book has been developed over a number of years of teaching undergraduate and graduate courses in electric power engineering and many years of research and consulting activities in related problems. The first chapter is an overview of electric power transmission and defines the basic concepts and nomenclature. The next four chapters of the book are devoted to modeling of transmission systems. Simple, well-established models are presented together with the basic concepts underlying modern computer-based modeling techniques. The modeling in these chapters is approached from the electromag- netic fields point of view. The interrelationship between the simplevi Preface models and the rigorous computer models is emphasized. Modeling of grounding systems is addressed as an integral part of the trans- mission system. Chapter 6 presents techniques that result in circuit models of transmission systems. This chapter provides the connecting bridge between the electromagnetic phenomena in transmission systems and the well-known circuit models of transmission systems. The impact of power system grounding on circuit parameters is emphasized with numerous actual system examples. Chapter 7 presents the utilization of transmission system modeis to power system fault analysis. The conventional approach based on symmetrical components is presented. The limitations of this ap- proach to specific applications, for example, design of power system grounding, are pointed out. Modern fault analysis methods are also presented, which explicitly represent power system grounds and asymmetries. These methods are suitable for the computation of a ground potential rise of grounding systems, which is the single most important parameter in the design of grounding systems and protec- tion of communication systems. Chapter 8 discusses the utilization of the models and analysis methods in the design of power grounding systems. A coordinated approach is presented by which the distributed grounds of a power system are utilized to meet safety objectives, The impact of various Parameters affecting the design of grounding systems is discussed with many examples. Chapter 9 presents analysis procedures for computing electrical transients in a power system. The analysis procedures utilize models presented in earlier chapters. Emphasis is placed on the selection of appropriate power system models for specific applications. Simple analysis methods are presented, as well as modern computer-based numerical methods for transient analysis. Emphasis is placed on the practical application of these methods to power system transients. The most commonly occurring electrical transients in a system are Studied, such as switching and lighting transients, fault transients, transient recovery voltage, breaker restrike, and transformer inrush current. Models and methods for each of these transients are pre- sented with a discussion of the effects of these transients on the de- sign process. The chapter concludes with a discussion of overvolt- age protection apparatus. My intention in writing this book is to provide rigorous modeling procedures of power system components and their utilization in the design process. These procedures are essential for present-day de- sign practices of grounding systems, transient analysis, and over- voltage protection. The material in this book is applicable to power system modeling for harmonic analysis. It is my hope that the book will help those engineers who are increasingly concerned about the injection of harmonics into the power system. The book should be==—_—_ © — Preface vii useful for students and practicing engineers concerned with ground- ing systems, transient analysis, and harmonic analysis of power sys~ tems. Many have contributed to the realization of this book. First, 1 would like to recognize my students, especially my doctoral students Dr. Feliachi, Dr. Cokkinides, Dr. Bakirtzis » and Dr. Paplexopoulos, for their contributions to ‘the development of this book through their many stimulating questions and their suggestions for the improvement of the manuscript. The material in Chapters 3, 7, and 8 was in- spired from a multiyear research Program sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). The succes of the research prog- ram is due to John Dunlap of EPRI. His leadership and support are acknowledged as two of the primary forces in the realization of this book. In the early stages of the EPRI research program, the author worked with Professors Joy and Webb. This collaboration is also neknowledged. Recognition is due to the EPRI project advisors. 1 have benefited and learned from their practical experiences and sug- gestions. I was also fortunate to be a member of the IEEE working group on the revision of Standard 80, Our work resulted in the foae edition of the guide. My association and work with the working group influenced the structure of this book and, hopefully, increased fig value to the industry. { would also like to thank Tony Ayoub and Shashi Patel of Georgia Power Company for providing many actual sys~ tem data for the examples of the book ‘and for sharing their experi- ence with me. ‘The permission of the Georgia Power Company to uti- lize these data is gratefully acknowledged. Last but not least, | would like to thank Peggy Knight for her patience in the many hours of typing and revising the manuscript. A. P. Sakis MeliopoulosContents Preface 1. POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS Introduction Basic Definitions and Nomenclature Transmission Line Design Distribution System Design Power System Grounding Power System Transients Summary and Discussion Mamaone 2. TRANSMISSION LINE MODELING: LINE INDUCTANCE 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Magnetic Field of an Infinitely Long Circular Conductor 2.3 Magnetic Field of Two Circular Infinitely Long Conductors Interpretation of Inductive Reactance Components Practical Considerations: Use of Tables Inductive Reactance of Typical Line Configurations Transposition Method of Geometric Mean Distances Applications of the Method of Geometric Mean Distances omens we uane 13 14 20 23 2 34 37 40Contents 2.10 Inductive Reactance of the Earth Path aq 2.11 Summary and Discussion 51 2,12 Problems ol TRANSMISSION LINE MODELING: LINE RESISTANCE 58 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Conductor Resistance to the Flow of DC Current 31 3.3 Skin Effect in Circular Conductors 38 3.4 Resistance and Geometric Mean Radius of Magnetic Conductors 16 3.5 Current Distribution in Earth 8 3.6 Summary and Discussion 90 3.7 Problems 90 TRANSMISSION LINE MODELING: LINE CAPACITANCE 93 4.1 Introduction 93 4.2 Electric Field Around a Circular Infinitely Long Conductor 94 4.3 Electric Field of Two Parallel Infinitely Long Circular Conductors 96 4.4 Capacitance of a General n-Conductor Overhead Transmission Line 100 4.5 Practical Considerations: Use of Tables 104 4.6 Applications 105 4.7 Effects of Earth and Neutral/Ground Wires 110 4.8 Summary and Discussion 116 4.9 Problems ut POWER SYSTEM GROUNDING |: MODELING TECHNIQUES 119 5.1 Introduction 119 5.2 Analysis of Simple Grounding Systems 121 5.3 Body Currents Due to Touch and Step Voltages 128 5.4 Grounding System Safety Assessment 133 5.5 Numerical Analysis Techniques 135, 5.6 Analysis of Spatially Small Grounding Systems 159 3.7 Simplified Equations 168 5.8 Equivalent-Circuit Representation of Grounding Systems 111 5.9 Parametric Analysis of Substation Ground Mats 178 5.10 Summary and Discussion 183 5.11 Problems 183a ——————— Contents 6. TRANSMISSION LINE ANALYSIS Introduction ‘The General Transmission Line Model Transmission Line Models for Sinusoidal Steady State Modal Decomposition Equivalent Circuits Computation of Sequence Parameters of Three-Phase ‘Transmission’ Lines 6.7 Transmission Line Models Based on Admittance Matrix 6.8 Admittance Matrix Model of Mutually Coupled Transmission Lines 6.9 Computation of Transmission Line Sequence Parameters from the Admittance Matrix 6.10 Comparison of Transmission Line Models 6.11 Transmission Line Power Equations 6.12 Summary and Discussion 6.13 Problems DABAAA eanwbe POWER SYSTEM FAULT ANALYSIS Introduction Review of the Theory of Symmetrical Components Sequence Models of Three-Phase Apparatus Fault Analysis Based on Sequence Models Ground Potential Rise During Faults Fault Current Distribution Based on Sequence Models Direct Phase Analysis Transfer Voltages During Faults Summary and Discussion Problems POWER SYSTEM GROUNDING II: DESIGN PROCEDURE 1 Introduction 2 Basie Problems and Solutions 3 Determination of a Soil Model 4 Computation of Ground Resistances 5 Maximum Ground Potential Rise 6 Investigation of Touch and Step Voltages 1 8 9 1 Safety Assessment Mitigation of Touch and Step Voltages Design Examples 0 Summary and Discussion wn mannn owe xi 187 187 188 195, 200 209 214 226 233 236 240 245, 249 250 253 253 255 262 266 277 278 291 300 305, 305 309 309 310 312 317 319 324 330 333 334 3389. POWER SYSTEM TRANSIENTS. 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Models for Transient Analysis 9.3 The Ideal Distributed-Parameter Line 9.4 Graphical Techniques 9.5 Analytical Techniques 9.6 Numerical! Techniques 9.7 Time-Domain Numerical Techniques 9.8 Transient Analysis of Three-Phase Systems 9.9 Simulation of Frequency-Dependent Models 9.10 Basic Power System Switching Transients 9.11 Transformer [nrush Currents 9.12 Lightning Overvoltages 9.13 Overvoltage Protection Devices 9.14 Summary and Discussion 9.15 Problems References Appendix Table A.1 Characteristics of Copper Conductors Table A.2 Characteristics of ACSR Conductors Table A.3 Characteristics of Copperweld Conductors Table A.4 Electrical Characteristics of Alumoweld Ground Wires Table A.5 Electrical Characteristics of Seven-wire index Bethanized Steel Conductor Contents 339 339 341 343 347 356 369 369 381 391 398 417 421 422 427 427 433 440 442 444 445 446 447Power System Grounding and Transients1 Power Transmission Systems 1.1. INTRODUCTION ‘This book addresses the topics of power system grounding and tran- sients. The two topics are as old as power engineering itself. Since the early days of power system engineering, the two topics were in- vestigated experimentally and appropriate solutions were invented which resulted in established practices. As power systems grew in size and complexity, it became necessary to reevaluate present pracé tices and to improve design procedures of grounding systems and protection against transient overvoltages. Recent technology advance- Rents coupled with research efforts resulted in improved models for the analysis of grounding systems and analysis of transient phenomena in power systems. The improved analytical models are the cornerstone for better designs of power systems apparatus and installations. Analytically, the two topics are closely interrelated. Specifically, the theoretical bases for building analytical models for the study of these phenomena are similar, In subsequent chapters we introduce the modeling procedures and examine specific applications, such as design of grounding systems, protection against electrical transients, ‘and so on. In this chapter we introduce basic definitions and nomen- @lature and discuss the general characteristics of the systems and phenomena to be studied in this book. 1.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND NOMENCLATURE In this section we introduce basic definitions and nomenclature that will be utilized throughout the book. First, instantaneous values of voltages and currents will be denoted by lowercase letters. For2 Chapter 1 example, v(t) and i(t) denote the instantaneous value of voltage and current, respectively, as a function of time. Many power system analysis problems deal with the power system operating under steady-state conditions. The generating units of the system generate nearly sinusoidal voltages and currents. In this case the voltage or current at any point of the system is varying sinusoidally with time. In general, the sinusoidally varying voltage or current is expressed as follows: v(t) = v2 V cos(ut + 4) (1a) i(t) = V2 I cos(ut + 8) (1.1b) where V or I = rms value of the voltage or current w = angular frequency @, 8 = phase angles ‘The sinusoidal voltage or current of (1.1) can also be represent- ed with phasors. The phasors are complex numbers and provide an alternative way for representing sinusoidal waveforms. The phasors will be denoted by uppercase letters with a "~" above them. Thus the voltage and current phasors representing Eqs. (1.1) are denoted by Vand TI, respectively. The instantaneous values of the voltage or current is by definition vit) = Re (Vel) (1.2a) i(t) = Re (iel”t} (1.2) where Re(Z} means the real part of the complex number Z, By equat- ing Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2), it is apparent that @ = vel* (1.38) el (1.3) ‘The majority of power systems comprise three-phase arrangements. It is expedient to introduce terms and definitions that will be used extensively in describing these systems. In general, a three-phase system is constructed with single ele- ments that are connected in a three-phase arrangement. Examples are electric loads, transformers, and motors. The elements may be connected in a delta or a wye configuration or any combination of these two. The delta and wye connections are illustrated in Fig. 1.1. For the description of three-phase systems, the following definitions are introduced:EGEEESCcCrKGKre Power Transmission Systems 3 Definition 1.1: Balanced Set of Three-Phase Voltages. A set of three-phase voltages, vg(t), Vp(t), Vo(t), is called balanced if and only if: The voltages vary sinusoidally with time. ‘The amplitudes of the voltages are equal. ‘There is a 120° phase difference between any two. As an example, the following set of three-phase voltages is balanced: v(t) = 72 V cos(ut + 6) (14a) vpit) = v2 V cos(ut — 120° + 4) (1.4b) v,(t).= V cos(ut — 240° + 4) (1. 4e) In Eqs. (1.4), the phase difference between the phase a voltage and the phase b voltage is 120° and positive. This phase relation- ship among the three phases will be called the positive phase se~ quence. A three-phase generator generates a set of three-phase voltages that are nearly balanced and of the positive phase sequence. It is expedient to introduce the concept of an ideal three-phase source, which is illustrated in Fig. 1.2. An ideal three-phase source generates a set of balanced three-phase voltages of the positive or negative phase sequence. It is apparent that a set of balanced three- phase voltages is completely described with the voltage magnitude V, the angular frequency w, the phase angle ¢, and the sequence. Al- ternatively, it can be completely defined with the phasor of the phase a voltage, Vg = Veit, and the sequence. Throughout the text, when phase a phase a phase b phase ¢ (a) (b} FIG. 1.1. Three elements forming a three-phase system. (a) Delta connection, (b) wye connection.Chapter 1 Veith i Volt) Volt) fa) {b) FIG. 1.2 Ideal three-phase voltage source. (a) Delta connected, (b) wye connected. the sequence is not specified, it will be assumed to be the positive sequence. A similar definition exists for a set of three-phase currents. Definition 1.2: Balanced Set_of Three-Phase Currents. A set of three-phase currents, ig(t), ip(t), ig(t), is called balanced if and only if: The currents vary sinusoidally with time. ‘The amplitudes of the electric currents are equal. There is a 120° phase difference between any two. As an example, the following set is balanced: i,(t) = /2 I cos(ut + 6) (1. 5a) ip(t) = 7% I cos(ut - 120° + 4) (1.5b) A(t) = ¥% I cos(ut — 240° + 4) (1.5¢) The set above, as in the case of voltages, is called a positive phase sequence. A third definition is introduced for a three-phase system. Definition 1.3: Symmetric Three-Phase System. A three-phase pas- sive system is called symmetric if and only if the following two state- ments are true: It is a linear system. If a balanced set of three-phase currents flows into the system when it is excited with a balanced set of three-phase voltages.teaeS_"~ }}© Power Transmission Systems 5 The definition of a symmetric three-phase system is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. Practical three-phase systems comprise three-phase com= ponents that are symmetric or nearly symmetric, Three-phase trans- formers are symmetric three-phase devices, three-phase synchronous generators are nearly symmetric devices, overhead transmission lines are nearly symmetric, and so on. ‘Traditional power system analysis techniques (i.e-» load flow, fault analysis, and transient stability techniques) have been developed on the assumption of symmetric three-phase systems. 1.3 TRANSMISSION LINE DESIGN Power transmission lines are designed to transmit ac or de electric power. Ac transmission lines may be three-phase or single-phase. The components of overhead transmission lines are illustrated in Fig- 1.4, A three-phase overhead line consists of the three-phase con- ductors a, b, and c, which are suspended with insulators from towers. Most designs include an overhead ground wire (OHGW or shield wire) to provide protection against lightning. The OHGW is typically connected to the neutral of the system and may be ground- ea at each tower. The tower grounding system may consist of ground rods (illustrated in Fig. 1.4), rings, counterpeises, and so Sn. A typical overhead transmission line terminates to two substa- tions. The OHGW is typically connected to the grounding system of the substations, which are illustrated in Fig. 1.4a as ground mats. ‘A single-phase overhead distribution line js illustrated in Fig. 1.4b. It consists of one phase conductor and a multiply grounded neutral conductor. Overhead power lines are suspended on towers or poles. ‘The design of transmission towers depends on the operating voltage L-~------ IDEAL THREE- PHASE SOURCE FIG. 1.3 Definition of a symmetric three-phase system. Balanced Voltages\ _ {Balanced Currents’ egtt)ey(t) se Q(t) } 1,0) g(t) sf C8)6 Chapter 1 phase conductor neutral conductor {b) FIG. 1.4 Components of overhead transmission lines. (a) Three- phase transmission line, (b) single-phase distribution line. of the line and other mechanical strength considerations. Three trans- mission tower designs are illustrated in Fig. 1.5, 1.6, and 1.7 for 230-, 115-, and 12-kV transmission lines, respectively. Note that the 12-kV line, which is typically used in distribution circuits, does not have an OHGW. Instead, it has a fourth conductor, the neutral, which is suspended below the phase conductors. The size of the neutral conductor is comparative to that of the phase conductors. ‘The reason for this practice is the fact that distribution circuits are normally operated under unbalanced conditions, in which case the neutral conductor may carry a substantial electrical current. Recent advances in technology have made de transmission an econ- omically attractive alternative over long distances. A typical de trans- mission line is illustrated in Fig. 1.8. It consists of two conductors, [Ann awanhaad cmannd eanduetorPower Transmission Systems 7 10.9" 10.9" 20" 20° FIG. 1.5 Design of a 230-kV H-frame transmission tower. (Courtesy of Georgia Power Company.) The illustrated designs of transmission lines will be utilized as examples throughout the book. Appropriate models of transmission lines will be developed. Specific examples are: 1. The sequence models of three-phase power lines will be developed. ‘These models are applicable for power flow studies, short-circuit analysis, and stability studies. 2. Power line models with explicit representation of transmission tower grounding systems and substation grounding systems will be developed. These models are applicable for ground potential rise computations and the design of grounding systems. 3. Distributed parameter models of power lines will also be developed. ‘These models are applicable for electrical transient analysis and the design of overvoltage protection.Chapter 1 FIG. 1.6 Design of a 115-kV single-pole transmission tower. (Cour- tesy of Georgia Power Company.) 1.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN A distribution system comprises power lines and voltage-step-down equipment for electric service at industrial, commercial, and residen- tial cites. A distribution system may comprise three-phase transmis” sion ines, with typical operating voltages of 12 to 25 kV line to line, and three-phase, two-phase, or single-phase tapped lines. The con- struction of these lines may be by overhead or underground cable lines. These possibilities are illustrated in Fig. 1.9. TET TENeutral © FIG. 1.7 Design of a 12-kV single-pole distribution tower. (Cour- tesy of Georgia Power Company.) Pole conductor: 2x 1590 MCM ‘Neutral conductor: 1033.5 MCM FIG. 1.8 Design of a + 400-kV HVDC tower. (Courtesy of the Elec- tric Power Research Institute.)10 Chapter 1 Distribution St a — Residential/ Commercial Loads industrial/Commercial Loads Pad—Mounted Transformer Residential/Commercial Loads Underground Cable FIG. 3.9 A distribution system. Fig. 1.9 suggests that distribution systems may operate (and in fact they do operate) under unbalanced conditions. This means that distribution systems present some unique analysis problems. In ad= dition, recent advances in end use equipment technology has resulted in clectric loads that may be interacting with the system dynamically. For example, solid-state motor controllers, rectifiers, and so on, in- ject harmonics into the distribution system. Analysis and understand- ing of these phenomena require that the distribution system be mod- eled and understood not only for the power frequency (60 Hz in theI Power Transmission Systems u United States, 50 Hz in Europe) but also for other frequencies, such as the harmonics of 60 Hz. The models discussed in this book are especially suitable for power frequency and harmonic analysis of the general distribution system of Fig. 1.9. 1.5 POWER SYSTEM GROUNDING For several technical and safety reasons, electric power installations must be grounded. Grounding of power systems is achieved by em- bedding metallic structures (conductors) into earth and electrically connecting these conductors to the neutral of the power system. In this way a low impedance is provided between the power system neu- tral and the vast conducting soil, which guarantees that the voltage of the neutral, with respect to earth, will be low under all conditions. Grounding is necessary for several reasons: (a) to assure cor- rect operation of electrical devices, (b) to provide safety during normal or fault conditions, (c) to stabilize the voltage during tran- sient conditions, and (d) to dissipate lightning strokes. The im- portance of grounding has long been recognized in power engineer- ing. Today there are several standards that deal with various as- pects of grounding on the performance of a power system. For ex- ample, ANSI/IEEE Standard 80 [18] addresses the impact of ground- ing system design on the safety of personnel in a power substation. ANSI/IEEE Standard 487 [58] addresses the topic of communication circuit protection serving power substations, which is primarily de- pendent on grounding. In this book we examine methods of analysis of grounding sys- tems and how these methods are utilized to assess the effects of grounding on power system performance or to design grounding sys~ tems. 1.6 POWER SYSTEM TRANSIENTS Electrical transients in power systems play an important role in the design of electrical installations. There are numerous sources of electrical transients in power systems, such as lightning, switching, faults, and resonance conditions. Today, the phenomena leading to electrical transients are fairly well understood. It is important that power systems are designed so as to withstand the possible electrical transients that may occur. Overvoltage protection schemes are de- signed to ensure that the possible electrical overvoltages will not ex- ceed the withstand capabilities of power apparatus with a certain pro- tection margin. Recent trends in power apparatus design have re~ sulted in increased significance of electrical transients. Two factors have contributed to this trend: (a) power apparatus is operating at higher voltage levels and with stricter voltage withstand capabilities,12 Chapter 1 and (b) the proliferation of apparatus can cause electrical transients, such as voltage correction capacitors, power electronics, series com- pensation capacitors, ae/de converters, and so on. In this environ- ment it is absolutely necessary that the mechanisms of possible over- voltages in specific systems be well understood and effective protecé tion schemes designed. We shall examine modeling techniques and analysis methods for the study of electrical transients in power systems. These methods are the basic tools for predicting possible problems in power systems and procedures for the protection of power apparatus. 1.7. SUMMARY ANO DISCUSSION In this introductory chapter, a general discussion of concepts related to gréunding and transients of power systems has been presented. ‘Typical designs of transmission circuits have been introduced and the major design factors have been discussed. It has been pointed out that models for the analysis of grounding systems and transients are related, In subsequent chapters we introduce the modeling pro- fedures and the application of the models to the analysis and design of grounding systems, as well as to transient analysis and surge pro- tection.2 Transmission Line Modeling Line Inductance 2.1. INTRODUCTION In this chapter we are concerned with the inductance of a transmis- sion line or the induced voltage along transmission lines due to the inductance. Analysis procedures are presented for the induced volt- age along a line and the inductance of the line. Emphasis is placed on overhead transmission lines. Conceptually, the phenomena to be studied can be explained through the simple one-conductor system illustrated in Fig. 2.1. Assume that electric current i(t), which is time dependent, flows through this conductor. The current generates a magnetic field that is time dependent. Consider an infinitesimal length dx of con- ductor. Let da(t) be the magnetic flux linking the electric current i(t) flowing in the infinitesimal length dx of the conductor. By de- finition, the inductance of the length dx of the conductor is dL, where = JAH) aL ict) (2.1) Since the magnetic flux linkage is time varying, a voltage dv(t) will be induced along length dx of the conductor: avit) = 240 = ap sic Now assume that the inductance of the conductor is L henries per meter; then dL = L dxChapter 2 wn + avit) — | FIG, 2.1 A conductor carrying electric current i(t). Path of return is not shown, Upon substitution in the equations above and subsequent solution for L, we have dy(t)/dx Ls aicbiat henries/meter (2.2) Equation (2.1) o (2.2) defines the inductance of & conductor. Spe- cifically, Eq. (2.1) states that the inductance equals the magnetic flux linkage divided by the electric current. Alternatively, Eq. (2.2) states that the inductance equals the jnduced voltage divided by the time derivative of the electric current. In our conceptual vy cussion of the inductance, we neglected a very important consid- gration. Specifically, we neglected the path of return of the elec- ore cuyrent i(t). ‘The path of return drastically affects the induced voltage dv(t), and thus the inductance of the conductor. This point Will fo clarified further in our discussion of specific ‘transmission line configurations. | transmission line is a complicated structure, comprising mon than one conductor. Our objective in this chapter is to characterize cach conductor with its inductance and also any pair of conductors with a mutual inductance. 2.2 MAGNETIC FIELD OF AN INFINITELY LONG CIRCULAR CONDUCTOR In this section we introduce the basic concepts by considering the magnetic field of an infinitely long conductor of circular cross sec~ tion. For simplicity, assume that the conductor material is nonmag~ netic. In other words, the permeability of the conductor material is ug. A cross section of the conductor is shown in Fig. 2-2a. The tedius of the conductor is a. Further assume that the conductor carries an electric current i(t), which is uniformly distributed in the cross section of the conductor (i.e., constant current density). Under these assumptions, it is relatively easy to compute the mag- netie field of the configuration and subsequently the inductance of the line. Because of the existing cylindrical symmetry, the magnetic field intensity H at a point A, illustrated in Fig. 2.2a, will be perpendi-Transmission Line Modeling: Line Inductance 15 (b) FIG. 2.2 Infinitely long circular conductor. (a) cross section, (b) magnetic flux density along a radial direction. cular to the segment OA and the magnitude will be constant on the circular contour with center O and radius OA. In other words, the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity, H, is a function of the ra- dius OA = r only {i.e., H(r)}. H(r) is computed with a direct ap- plication of Ampére's law on the described configuration, There are two cases. Casea. The point A is located outside the conductor: OA >a Application of Ampére's law yields it) = f H(r)+dg = 21(OA)H(r) = 2urH(r) c Upon soluting for H(r), we obtain Hor) = HO (2.3) The magnetic flux density is given by gilt) Qur B(r) = pgH(r) = (2.4)16 Chapter 2 Case b. The point A is located inside the conductor: OA Example 2.1: An infinitely long hollow conductor of average Tadius d and infinitesimal thickness carries an electric current i(t). Show that the magnetic flux linking a rectangular surface of dimensions 2 and D, with one f-long side located on the axis of the conductor, is vg i(t)2 act) = in Solution: The magnetic field density around this configuration js illustrated in Fig. E2.1b. Specifically, the magnetic field den- sity is 0 r tb) FIG. 2.1 Magnetic field around a hollow conductor carrying elec- tric current. The magnetic flux linkage is D upitt) Upi(t) & A(t) = Sa ler dr = ne In alo The induced voltage across the conductor due to the magnetic flux is readily computed from io ® BO. D dict) vit) = wa at By definition, the inductance of the conductor is » 2 AQ) - 2D LU i) + ny henries On a per unit basis, the inductance is “oD L=32in2 _henries/meter (2.10) and One should observe that the inductance of the conductor is de- pendent on the width D of the selected surface S. Since the width D can be selected arbitrarily, the result above does not have any20 Chapter 2 physical meaning. This peculiarity occurs because the path of re- turn of the electric current i(t) has been neglected. It is apparent that in order to compute the inductance of the conductor in a unique and meaningful way, it is necessary to consider the entire circuit, that is, the path of return of the electric current. In any practical situation, all conductors or objects carrying electric current will be located in a finite area. In this case, as we shall see in subsequent sections, the inductance of the conductors can be uniquely defined. Despite the lack of realism of the configuration being considered, the results obtained are fundamental for the computation of the inductances of realistic transmission line configurations, as we shall see in subse- quent sections. 2.3. MAGNETIC FIELD OF TWO CIRCULAR INFINITELY LONG CONDUCTORS In this section we examine the magnetic field around a configuration consisting of two circular infinitely long and parailel conductors. It is assumed that each conductor carries electric current i(t) in oppo- site directions. Let the radii of the conductors be a and b, respect- ively. It is also assumed that the conductor material is nonmagnetic (i-e., » = ug). The configuration is illustrated in Fig. 2.4. The figure also illustrates a rectangular surface S. The magnetic flux linkage through the surface S is to be computed. Assuming linear media, superposition applies. The magnetic flux linkage is computed as the sum of two terms: the flux linkage \gq due to current i(t) in conductor a, and the flux linkage Aap due to current i(t) in con- ductor b, Applying the resuits of Section 2.2 gives us FIG. 2.4 A two-conductor transmission line.