Chapter 5- The Fragile Crust

Unit 5.1: Plate Tectonics

In 1620, Francis Bacon was the first to notice that on a world map, nearly all of the continents could
fit with another in one orientation. However, it was not until 1915 when someone decided to prove
this. That man was Alfred Wegener, and he suggested that all the continents were once joined into a
supercontinent called Pangaea. In order to prove his theory, he enlisted a number of devices. These
included:
Several two hundred million year old fossils were found across several different southern
continents, some of these now separated by thousands of kilometres. It is suggested that
the organism travelled the continents when they were joined, and thus was left to fossilise
in different parts of the globe.
Rock types, structures and compositions in mountain ranges in North America and Europe
seem to match, as do the mountain ranges in South America and Africa.
It was also suggested that the magnetic poles of igneous rocks in each of the continents
have a certain alignment. If all the continents were put together, all the continents align to
the same place suggesting they were formed together and then split apart.
Ancient glaciers have left matching valleys and debris across multiple continents, including
those which are now in zones too warm to support ice.
Coal has been found in the Arctic Circle, and coal can only be made from compressed
decomposing plants. It is far too cold to support any form of plant life now, so these regions
must have shifted from a warmer zone to their current positions.
During the 1940s, around World War Two, a major advancement was made due to the military
requiring accurate maps of the seabed. They did this with a recent invention known as sonar, and
this returned some remarkable results that are in favour of Wegeners theory. These include:
Large underwater volcanic mountain ranges which run through the centre of the oceans.
The largest is the Mid- Atlantic Range, which runs for 65 000km.
Some of the rocks in the seabed were brand new whilst others were 200 million years old,
which is still far younger than the rock that the continents are formed from.
Large and very deep trenches were scattered, with the deepest trench surpassing 11km
deep.
The ocean floor is denser than the rock of the continents- the continents appear to float on
it.
The rocks on the ocean floor have magnetic columns which align parallel to the underwater
ridges. The youngest rock is next to ridges whilst the oldest rock is next to trenches.
All of this evidence suggests that new rock is formed at mid ocean ridges and is then carried away
like a conveyor belt until it reaches the trenches at the other end.
This is possible because the Earth is made of layers. We live on the crust, the thinnest layer at
anywhere between 11 and 70km thick. The next layer is the mantle, at 2900km thick. The upper
mantle is solid, and combined with the crust forms the lithosphere. Below the lithosphere is the
asthenosphere, a slow moving liquid layer that moves the lithosphere, or tectonic plates. The Theory
of Plate Tectonics is based on this information and was developed in 1962 by an American named
Harry Hess. His theory was eventually accepted, but scientists still dont know for sure why the
plates move. Convection currents are the most widely accepted theory- that the heated rock rises
and is then cooled, then falls to become heated again and again but whilst causing a motion in one

direction on the surface. The more times this occurs, the more movement and the more collision
there is.
The next layer is the lower mantle, and then the outer core. The lower mantle is semi liquid whilst
the outer core is liquid. The inner core, however, is solid due to the forces that are put on it by the
weight of the Earth. It also generates the Earths magnetic field. The bottom of the outer core is
5100km under the Earths surface, where the innermost of the inner core is 6378km under the
Earths surface.

5.2: At the Edges

There are three main types of plate boundaries:
Spreading boundaries, in which plates move apart. They are also constructive boundaries as
new rock is created on the ocean floor.
Collision boundaries, in which plates collide with each other. They are destructive
boundaries as rock is melted during the collisions and is returned to the mantle to be
reused.
Transform/ scraping boundaries, where plates scrape along each other. These are
conservative boundaries as rock is not created or destroyed.
Regular mapping of the ocean floor tells us that some plates are moving apart at rates of up to 20cm
a year. Weakened lines in the crust (called faults) cause cracks or rift valleys to form. When this
happens, magma forces its way up from the mantle in order to fill the gap. The instant the magma
leaves the mantle, it begins to cool before finally solidifying as it hits the water. This creates
underwater mountain ranges, and with it new lithosphere. Most rift valleys are underwater but
there are also a few on land. The largest is the East African Rift Valley, which includes lakes like Lake
Victoria and mountains such as Mt Kilimanjaro.
The process of rock being destroyed occurs at subduction zones. These are regions where oceanic
plates move away from mid ocean ridges and collide with other oceanic plates or with a continental
plate. There are also regions where continental plates collide with each other. As the oceanic plates
are denser, they are forced under continental plates when they collide. The oceanic plate takes an
angled dive anywhere between 20- 60 degrees relative to the surface. This is a subduction zone. As
the upper plate gets crushed, it thickens and forms fold mountains along its edge. As soon as the
oceanic plate reaches a depth of 200km it melts and becomes part of the asthenosphere again. As
the two plates have immense friction between them and when they slip it is sudden and thus
generates earthquakes. Magma is also generated from the heat from the friction. This magma is
produces along the top of the oceanic plate, and the magma will try to force its way to the surface.
Occasionally it succeeds and forms mountains such as the Andes. Ocean trenches also form where
the oceanic plate drops below the continental plate. Some of these are filled with sediment, whilst
others are incredibly deep.
When two oceanic plates hit each other, their densities are equal. Thus, the faster moving plate
sinks in the collision. Once again a subduction zone forms, and it generates volcanoes on the upper
plate, some of which push out of the water to form island chains.
When two continental plates collide, they crumble and fold. Rock is melted but then forms a solid
mountain root that resists weathering. These are often tall and solid mountain ranges, such as the
Himalayas. With continental plates, both have similar densities and neither can push the other
underneath entirely. Instead, they push up, crumble and elevate.

The final form of plate boundary is a transform boundary. These dont construct mountains or
volcanoes but cause earthquakes. Most of these boundaries are underwater, but some are on land.
The San Andreas Fault, which runs 1300km through California, causes Los Angeles to move 5cm
closer to San Francisco every year.

Unit 5.3: Earthquakes

The focus and epicentre of an earthquake are two different things. The focus is the point where it
begins, where the plates slip and usually on a fault line. The focus can be close to the surface or as
deep as 200km. The size of an earthquake and its focal depth are unrelated.
The epicentre is the point on the Earths surface that is directly above the focus and is the point that
suffers the most visible damage.
When an earthquake strikes, it releases energy in the form of vibrations known as seismic waves.
These travel both through and around the Earth. An instrument called a seismometer can measure
seismic waves, and this data is recorded in a seismograph. This gives the time delay of the arrival of
each different wave type and also gives an indication of their energy. The more energy there is, the
higher the amplitude of the seismogram.
There are two main types of seismic wave: body waves and surface waves. There are two types of
body waves- Primary and Secondary waves and these travel through the Earth. Primary waves move
the fastest and are the first to be recorded. They are longitudinal or compression waves, meaning
that they push and pull in a vertical manner rather than rolling and moving horizontally such as an
ocean wave. Primary waves can also move through both liquid and solid rock.
Secondary waves are slower than Primary waves and are the next to be recorded. They are
transverse waves meaning they have the same movement as ocean waves. Secondary waves can
only travel through solid rock- they cant pass through molten rock.
The speeds of Primary and Secondary waves depend on what medium they are passing through. The
denser the rock, the faster they go. Each wave changes speed with each medium, however they also
change direction slightly. This is called refraction and happens to all kinds of waves when they pass
from one medium to another. When an earthquake happens, all the seismographs around the world
are consulted in order to build up a detailed picture of the spread of the earthquake. Some
seismographs will have different combinations of waves due to refraction and the limited mediums
that Secondary waves can travel through. For instance, an area directly opposite the epicentre of an
earthquake is a region where no Secondary waves will be recorded as the outer core is liquid. There
are generally also two shadow zones where the waves become too refracted to travel through them.
No Primary or Secondary waves are recorded here.
In order to find the epicentre, scientists use the time difference between the arrival of Primary and
Secondary waves on the seismograph. This gives the distance away from the seismometer, but not
the exact location. In order to find the exact location, we need three seismometers at three different
locations. Once we have this, we draw a circle from each seismometer with the radius being the
earthquakes distance from the seismometer. This gives three circles. The point where all three
intersect is the epicentre.
As with body waves, there are also two types of surface waves. These are known as Rayleigh and
Love waves. The surface waves arrive after the body waves as they have further to travel, and they
are generally more damaging. Surface waves travel like ripples from an object being dropped into
stagnant water, where the location where the object hits is the epicentre.

Rayleigh waves resemble ocean waves and roll the Earths surface. They are the slowest type of
wave but also potentially the most destructive. Love waves are faster and move with a sideways
motion resembling a snake.
Scientists use seismographs to estimate the energy of an earthquake at its epicentre, but an
earthquakes strength can be measured on two main scales: The Richter and the Mercalli. Today, the
Richter is used most often. It was invented by the American Charles Richter in 1935, and is an open
ended scale starting at 0. No known earthquakes have exceeded 9 on the Richter scale. Every
number on the Richter scale indicates a 10 times increase in the size of the earthquake and a 30
times increase in the energy released by it. Any earthquake above 7 on the Richter scale has the
potential to cause major damage and is considered dangerous. The Richter scale does not measure
the damage of an earthquake as this is affected by the location, population and infrastructure of the
impacted zone.
The Mercalli scale is more suited to giving a damage report rather than actual facts. It is not used as
it relies on observations. Guiseppe Mercalli invented the scale in the 1890s, before seismographs
were in use. It measures earthquake intensity rather than damage.

Another potential earthquake hazard is its aftershocks. These occur when large earthquakes loosen
large slabs of crust and rock. As these rocks settle, they produce small earthquakes, or aftershocks.
Whilst they are generally smaller, they can cause immense damage due to damaged buildings from
the initial earthquake.
A further hazard is fire. Due to modern society, if a gas pipe is damaged during an earthquake it
wont take long for a large fire or explosion to result. Tsunamis are also another problem. Any
earthquake with its epicentre under the ocean floor can cause a large wave to be formed. It starts
off small but fast, but as soon as it encounters shallow water it grows in height to up to 35 metres.

Unit 5.4: Volcanoes

Around the world there are approximately 1500 active volcanoes. There are many more volcanoes,
some extinct and others dormant- this means that it may not be active for a long period of time.
Most volcanoes occur at the edges of tectonic plates, and when gas in the mantle pushes magma up,
there is only a certain amount of pressure it can withstand until it blows. This produces lava, ash and
steam. Eruptions may occur out of a single vent, or out of many. They may also occur through long
cracks known as fissures.

Most volcanoes release clouds of gas (known as fume), steam, ash and rock. Magma is formed in the
magma chamber deep below the surface. It is lighter than the surrounding rock as it is full of gas.
Pressure forces it upwards until the volcano erupts and the lava exits through the vent. Lava is made
of magma and gases such as hydrogen sulfide and steam. Hot volcanic ash, steam and gases form a
large and fast moving cloud that can reach incredible heights. The ash is carried by the wind and
eventually falls to earth as a smog. Rain will often turn the ash cloud into lahar, a river of mud that
flows extremely fast. If the ash reaches the jet stream winds, it can block out the sun and make the
Earth cooler. Gas explosions can also grow so violent that they destroy parts of the volcano itself and
blow out large pieces known as volcanic bombs. They can also form from lava being thrown into the
air. If rock is blocking a vent, it will also become a volcanic bomb when it is expelled.

Unit 5.5: Landscaping the Crust

Faults are fractures in the Earths crust that are caused by pressure from slow moving rocks in the
asthenosphere. There are three main forms:
Normal
Reverse
Transcurrent
Normal and reverse faults occur
vertically and are formed by forces
pulling the crust apart (normal fault)
or by forces compressing the crust
(reverse fault). Movement is generally
straight up and down, creating what
is called a fault scarp. If the rock is
hard and weathering slow, a cliff will
form whilst if the rock is soft then
erosion will cause it to form a gentle
slope. If two faults occur a block of
rock can be shifted upwards to form a
horst or it can sink downwards to
form a rift valley, or graben. Erosion
can sometimes change these into
parallel mountain ranges.
Transcurrent faults are horizontal and
they are caused due to movement in
a sideways direction. No mountains
are formed but the movement
shatters rock.
When continental plates collide, the
rock of the Earths crust is under
extreme pressure both horizontally
and vertically. Rock acts like a flexible
material and can buckle and fold
without breaking. This is called plastic behaviour. It can be folded to form mountain. If the folded
rock forms an arch, it is an anticline, whilst if it forms a trough it is a syncline. If it folds over another

fold, it is called an overfold. Eventually the surface will erode and level the folded layers. When
sediment is layer on top of this, unconformity is created where the folded layers cease and the flat
layers begin.
There are three main ways in which volcanic mountains can be constructed. The biggest form
located away from the plate boundaries is called a shield cone. These gradually form from lava
running downhill and solidifying. The slopes are gentle and resemble a shield lying flat on the
ground.
The second type is a cinder cone. These are common and relatively small. They are formed when any
lava, rock or cinder spewed out of the vent create a pile. This pile forms around the volcano and is
reused every eruption.
The type of volcano that surrounds a subduction zone is called a composite cone. These volcanoes
erupt with explosive force as the magma is too thick to allow gases to escape.
During a volcanic eruption, there are times when there is not enough force for the volcano to erupt.
The magma cools, sometimes in the vent, and forms a cap. As the sides of the volcano erode, this
becomes a volcanic plug. If the magma cools inside the volcano, it becomes an igneous intrusion.
There are different igneous intrusions based on their location. These include:
Dyke: Masses of igneous rock which cut through the other layers of rock
Sill: A layer of igneous rock which has horizontally intruded between older layers of rock
Batholith: A very large and very deep igneous rock intrusion which extends to an unknown
depth under the Earths crust
Laccolith: A dome shaped igneous rock intrusion which pushes between older layers of rock
Hot spots or plumes are regions where there is a large amount of gaseous pressure below, but with
no recognisable weakness on the crust. Most of these are underwater and are the reasons for island
chains forming, however some are on land, the biggest being Yellowstone National Park.
Many natural resources can be found near plate boundaries either past or present. Fossil fuels can
be found near weaknesses in the crust. The fossil fuels are created from kerogen, the compound
formed when plants and animals decompose. This is stored for millions of years to form compounds
known as hydrocarbons. Fossil fuels are common at weak points due to the heat required to cause
kerogen to become a hydrocarbon. They also contains porous rock which allows oil to be filtered
through.

Unit 5.6: Geological Time

Palaeontologists study fossils in an attempt to add to our knowledge of Earths history, as a fossil is
evidence of past life. It may be the remains of an organism or it may just be a footprint. Occasionally
an entire organism can be preserved. Fossils form when an organism dies or is trapped or leaves a
mark and then that is covered by sediment. It is then covered by rock and preserved. The
preservation of a complete organism is exceedingly rare as most organisms will decay too quickly or
be crushed. Occasionally they are preserved as shells, skeletons or moulds or even as a mineral such
as quartz or limestone. Any fossil that lived for a long period of time and was relatively common is
known as an index fossil as it can help determine the age of the rock layer.
Rocks contain radioactive substances that change gradually or decay. This can be used to date rock if
it is known how long the decay process takes.

Scientists now believe the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old, and modern humans have only existed
for a small fraction of that. As time went, the world went through multiple phases and changes.
These are called eras and each era is divided into periods.