Electrodes and Potentiometry

Introduction
1.) Potentiometry

Use of Electrodes to Measure Voltages that Provide Chemical Information

-

Various electrodes have been designed to respond selectively to specific analytes

Use a Galvanic Cell

-

Unknown solution becomes a -cell

Add Electrode that transfers/accepts
electrons from unknown analyte
Connect unknown solution by salt
bridge to second -cell at fixed
composition and potential

Indicator Electrode: electrode that

responds to analyte and donates/accepts
electrons

Reference Electrode: second cell at a

constant potential

Cell voltage is difference between the

indicator and reference electrode

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Introduction
2.) Example

A Heparin Sensor
-

Voltage response is proportional to heparin concentration in blood

Sensor is selective for heparin

heparin
Negatively charged heparin
binds selectively to positively
charged membrane.

Binding generates
potential difference.

Potential is
proportional to
[heparin]

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Reference Electrodes
1.) Overview

Potential change only dependent on one cell concentrations

Reference electrode is fixed or saturated doesnt change!

[ Fe 2 ]
0.05916

E cell 0.771
log
3

[ Fe ]

Potential of the cell

only depends on
[Fe2+] & [Fe3+]

Unknown solution of
[Fe2+] & [Fe3+]

0.222 0.05916 log[ Cl ]

Reference electrode,
[Cl-] is constant

Pt wire is indicator
electrode whose
potential responds
to [Fe2+]/[Fe3+]

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Reference Electrodes
2.) Silver-Silver Chloride Reference Electrode
Eo = +0.222 V
Activity of Cl- not 1E(sat,KCl) = +0.197 V

Convenient
-

Common problem is porous plug becomes clogged

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Reference Electrodes
3.) Saturated Calomel Reference Electrode (S.C.E)
Eo = +0.268 V
Activity of Cl- not 1E(sat,KCl) = +0.241 V

Saturated KCl maintains constant [Cl-] even with

some evaporation

Standard hydrogen electrodes are cumbersome

-

Requires H2 gas and freshly prepared Pt surface

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Reference Electrodes
4.) Observed Voltage is Reference Electrode Dependant

The observed potential depends on the choice of reference electrode

-

Silver-silver chloride and calomel have different potentials

Use Reference Scale to convert between Reference Electrodes

Observed potential relative to Ag|AgCl
Observed potential relative to SCE

Observed potential relative to SHE

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Junction Potential
1.) Occurs Whenever Dissimilar Electrolyte Solutions are in Contact

Develops at solution interface (salt bridge)

Small potential (few millivolts)
Junction potential puts a fundamental limitation on the accuracy of direct
potentiometric measurements
-

Dont know contribution to the measured voltage

Different ion mobility results

in separation in charge

Again, an electric potential is generated by a separation of charge

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Indicator Electrodes
1.) Two Broad Classes of Indicator Electrodes

Metal Electrodes
-

Develop an electric potential in response to a redox reaction at the metal

surface

Ion-selective Electrodes
-

Selectively bind one type of ion to a membrane to generate an electric

potential

Remember an electric potential is generated by a separation of charge

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Indicator Electrodes
2.) Metal Electrodes

Platinum
-

Most common metal indicator electrode

Inert: does not participate in many chemical reactions
Simply used to transmit electrons

Other electrodes include Gold and Carbon

Metals (Ag, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg) can be used to monitor their aqueous ions
-

Most metals are not useable

Equilibrium not readily established at the metal surface

Example:
E+o = +799 V

Reaction at Ag indicator
electrode:
Reaction at Calomel reference electrode:

E(sat,KCl) = +0.241 V

0.05916
1

log
Cell Potential from Nernst Equation: E cell E E 0.799
[ Ag ]
1

Cell voltage changes as a function of [Ag+]

Potential of Ag
indicator electrode

0.241

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Indicator Electrodes
3.) Example

A 10.0 mL solution of 0.0500 M AgNO3 was titrated with 0.0250M NaBr in the
cell:
S.C.E. || titration solution | Ag(s)
Find the cell voltage for 10.0 mL of titrant

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Indicator Electrodes
4.) Ion-Selective Electrodes

Responds Selectively to one ion

-

Contains a thin membrane

capable of only binding the
desired ion

Does not involve a redox process

Membrane contains a ligand (L) that
specifically and tightly binds analyte
of interest (C+)

The counter-ions (R-,A-) cant cross the

membrane and/or have low solubility in
membrane or analyte solution
C+ diffuses
across
the
due of
toon
Aacross
difference
themembrane
concentration
C+
Potential
outerinmembrane
depends
gradient
resulting
in charge
exists solution
across
the outer
membrane.
[C+]concentration
in analyte
difference across membrane

Remember an electric potential is generated by a separation of charge

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Indicator Electrodes
4.) Ion-Selective Electrodes

Responds Selectively to one ion

-

Contains a thin membrane

capable of only binding the
desired ion

Does not involve a redox process

C+ diffuses
across
dueof
toC +
A difference
in the
the membrane
concentration
Potentialconcentration
across inner membrane
depends
on
[C+]
gradient
resulting
in charge
exists across
the inner
membrane.
in filling difference
solution, which
ismembrane
a known constant
across
Electrode potential is determined by the potential
difference between the inner and outer
membranes:

E E outer E inner
where Einner is a constant and Eouter depends on the
concentration of C+ in analyte solution

Remember an electric potential is generated by a separation of charge

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Indicator Electrodes
4.) Ion-Selective Electrodes

Responds Selectively to one ion

-

Contains a thin membrane

capable of only binding the
desired ion

Does not involve a redox process

Electrode Potential is defined as:

0.05916
E constant
log[C ]
n
where [C+] is actually the activity of the analyte and
n is the charge of the analyte

Electrodes and Potentiometry

pH Electrodes
1.) pH Measurement with a Glass Electrode

Glass electrode is most common ion-selective electrode

Combination electrode incorporates both glass and
reference electrode in one body

Ag(s)|AgCl(s)|Cl-(aq)||H+(aq,outside) H+(aq,inside),Cl-(aq)|AgCl(s)|Ag(s)
Outer reference
[H+] outside
[H+] inside
electrode
(analyte solution)

Inner reference
electrode

Glass membrane
Selectively binds H+

Electric potential is generated by [H+] difference across glass membrane

Electrodes and Potentiometry

pH Electrodes
2.) Glass Membrane

Irregular structure of silicate lattice

Cations (Na+) bind oxygen

in SiO4 structure

Electrodes and Potentiometry

pH Electrodes
2.) Glass Membrane

Two surfaces of glass swell as they absorb water

-

Surfaces are in contact with [H +]

Electrodes and Potentiometry

pH Electrodes
2.) Glass Membrane

H+ diffuse into glass membrane and replace Na+ in hydrated gel region
-

Ion-exchange equilibrium
Selective for H+ because H+ is only ion that binds significantly to the
hydrated gel layer

Charge is slowly carried

by migration of Na+
across glass membrane

E constant (0.05916) pH

Potential is determined
by external [H+]

Constant and b are measured when electrode is calibrated with solution of known pH

Electrodes and Potentiometry

pH Electrodes
3.) Calibration

A pH electrode should be calibrated with two or more standard buffers

before use.
pH of the unknown should lie within the range of the standard buffers

Measured voltage is correlated

with a pH, which is then used to
measure an unknown.

Electrodes and Potentiometry

pH Electrodes
4.) Errors in pH Measurements

Standards
-

Junction potential
-

A dry electrode will not respond to H+ correctly

Temperature
-

Takes ~30s to minutes for electrode to equilibrate with solution

Hydration of glass
-

At high [H+], the measured pH is higher than actual pH, glass is saturated

Equilibration Time
-

At very low [H+], electrode responds to Na+ and the apparent pH is lower than
the true pH

Acid Error
-

Caused by slow changes in [KCl] and [AgCl] re-calibrate!

Sodium Error
-

If ionic strengths differ between analyte and standard buffer, junction

potential will differ resulting in an error of 0.01

Junction Potential Drift

-

pH measurements cannot be more accurate than standards (0.01)

Calibration needs to be done at same temperature of measurement

Cleaning
-

Contaminates on probe will cause reading to drift until properly cleaned or

equilibrated with analyte solution

Electrodes and Potentiometry

pH Electrodes
4.) Errors in pH Measurements

pH measurements are accurate to 0.02 pH units

Larger errors occur at high

and low pH readings

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Other Ion-Selective Electrodes
1.) Solid-State Electrode

Based on an inorganic crystal

-

Fluoride electrode: LaF3 crystal doped with Eu2+

E constant (0.05916) pF

F- migrates across crystal by jumping

into crystal vacancies caused by Eu2+

Potential caused by charge imbalance from migrating ion across membrane

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Other Ion-Selective Electrodes
2.) Liquid-Based Ion-Selective Electrodes

Similar to solid-state electrode

-

Hydrophobic membrane impregnated with hydrophobic ion exchanger

Hydrophobic ion exchanger selective for analyte ion

E constant (
Binds Ca+2

0.05916
) pCa 2
2

Hydrophobic counter-ion

Hydrophobic solvent

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Other Ion-Selective Electrodes
2.) Liquid-Based Ion-Selective
Electrodes

Remember: ion-selective electrodes

create a potential from a charge
imbalance caused by analyte ion
migration across membrane

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Other Ion-Selective Electrodes
3.) Compound Electrodes

Conventional electrode surrounded by a membrane that isolates or generates

the analyte to which the electrode responds

pH electrode surrounded by membrane

permeable to CO2.
As CO2 passes through membrane and
dissolves in solution, pH changes.
pH change is an indirect measure of CO2
concentration

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Other Ion-Selective Electrodes
4.) Standard Addition

Corrects for analyte dissolved in complex or unknown matrix

-

Blood, urine, biomass, etc

Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Measure potential for unknown analyte solution

Add small (known) volume of a standard solution
Measure new potential
Repeat and graph data

( Vo Vs )10 E / S 10 k / S Vo c x 10 k / S c sVs
y

where:
Vo is the initial volume
Vs is the added volume
E is the measured potential
cx is the unknown concentration
cs is the standard concentration
s is a constant (RT/nF)ln10

Electrodes and Potentiometry

Other Ion-Selective Electrodes
4.) Standard Addition

Corrects for analyte dissolved in complex or unknown matrix

-

Blood, urine, biomass, etc

Procedure:
5.

x-intercept yields the unknown (cx) concentration

Only unknown

b Vo c x
x intercept
m
cs