Advances in Vehicle Design

To Ruth
Advances in Vehicle Design
by

John Fenton

Professional
Engineering
Publishing

Professional Engineering Publishing Limited

London and Bury St Edmunds, UK
 First published 1999

This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the International
Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the
purpose of private study, research, criticism, or review, as permitted under the
Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988, no part may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
electrical, chemical, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owners. Unlicensed multiple copying of this
publication is illegal. Inquiries should be addressed to: The Publishing Editor,
Mechanical Engineering Publications Limited, Northgate Avenue, Bury St
Edmunds, Suffolk, IP32 6B W, UK.

© John Fenton

ISBN 1 86058 181 1

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

The publishers are not responsible for any statement made in this publication.
Data, discussion, and conclusions developed by the Author are for information
only and are not intended for use without independent substantiating investi-
gation on the part of the potential users. Opinions expressed are those of the
Author and are not necessarily those of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers or its publishers.

Printed and bound in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press Limted,

Suffolk, UK
 CONTENTS

vii Preface

Chapter 1: Materials and construction advances

2 Steel durability and structural efficiency
3 Vigorous development of light alloys
4 Hybrid metal/plastic systems
7 Recycled PET, and prime PBT, for sun-roof parts
10 Material property charts and performance indices
13 Design for self-pierce riveting

Chapter 2: Structure and safety

20 Structure analysis for interior noise
24 Preparing for statutory pedestrian protection
27 Design for the disabled
31 Adaptive restraint technologies

Chapter 3: Powertrain/chassis systems

36 Powertrains: the next stage?
45 Constant-pressure cycle: the future for diesels?
47 Valve arrangements for enhanced engine efficiency
52 Trends in transmission design
58 The mechanics of roll-over
62 Suspension and steering linkage analysis

Chapter 4: Electrical and electronic systems

70 Automotive electronics maturity
76 Navigation system advances
79 Digital circuits for computation
81 Proprietary control system advances
84 Hybrid drive prospects
90 Automation of handling tests
Chapter 5: Vehicle development
96 Mercedes A-class
102 Ford Focus
108 Land Rover Freelander
112 Project Thrust SSC

Chapter 6: Systems development: powertrain/chassis

118 Engine developments
122 Engine induction systems
124 Refinement and reduced emissions
128 Drive and steer systems
133 Suspension development
139 Braking systems

Chapter 7: System developments: body structure/systems

144 Structural systems
144 Controlled collapse
145 Body shell integrity
147 Chassis/body shell elements
151 Car body systems
151 Occupant restraint
155 Doors, windows and panels
159 Trim and fittings
161 Aerodynamics and weight saving
163 CV systems
163 CV chassis-cab configuration
164 Cab/body fittings
168 Advanced bus/ambulance design

173 References
175 Index
 Preface
This lite'rature survey is aimed at providing the vehicle design engineer with an
update in vehicle and body systems. The author has scanned the considerable
output of technical presentations during 1997- 9 to extract and distil developing
technologies of particular import to the working designer. The easily digestible
presentation, with unusually high dependence on diagrammatic presentation,
continues the popular style used for the original handbooks that were compiled
by the author, and published by Professional Engineering Publishing. These are
listed on the Related Titles page overleaf. Advances in Vehicle Design serves both
as an update to the earlier volumes and as a stand-alone volume. The referenced
leads provided in the text are intended to help designers and engineers from
whatever background discipline. Widespread availability of computing power to
designers and engineers has created the possibility of considerably shortening the
lead-times between design conception and prototype manufacture. Much of the
material covered here will assist in establishing predictive techniques.
Advances in Vehicle Design is an update of vehicle and body systems design
in that it provides readers with an insight into analytical methods given in a wide
variety of published sources such as; technical journals, conference papers, and
proceedings of engineering institutions, for which a comprehensive list of refer-
ences is provided. The analyses are therefore not necessarily fully developed or
rigorously evaluated. Recourse to the original references is necessary particularly
in order to understand the limiting assumptions on which the analyses are based.
Much of the analytical work is centred around impending legislation and, where
this is quoted in the text, it is for illustration only and it is, of course, important to
examine the latest statutes in the locality concerned. The list of references given
at the end of the volume is a key element of the publication, providing where
possible a link to the original publication source. Where the original publication is
not available in bookshops, many of the sources can be found in libraries such as
those of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, or the Motor Industry
Research Association, in Nuneaton, UK,as well as the BritishLibrary.Othersimilar
respositories of techincal information should be able to provide a selection of
original source material. Where the source is a company announcement of
techniques and systems, names, but not addresses, of the companies/consultan-
cies are given. Most operate internationally and have different national locations,
best found by enquiry in the country concerned. For the patent reviews in chapters
six and seven, full specifications can be purchased from The Patent Office, Cardiff
Road, Newport, NP91RH, UK.

JOHNFENTON
 Related Titles

Title Editor/Author ISBN/ISSN

Multi-Body Dynamics HRahnejat 1 80058 122 6

Gasoline Engine Analysis J Fenton 0 85298 634 3
Handbook of Automotive Body Construction J Fenton 1 86058 073 4
and Design Analysis
Cranes - Design, Practice and Maintenance J Verschoof 1 86058 130 7
Handbook of Automotive Body Systems Design J Fenton 1 86058 067 X
Handbook of Automotive Powertrain and J Fenton 1 86058 075 0
Chassis Design
Vehicle Handling Dynamics J Ellis 0 85298 885 0
Handbook of Vehicle Design Analysis J Fenton 0 85298 963 6
Automotive Braking: - Recent Developments D Barton 1 86058 131 5
Brakes and Friction Materials G A Harper 1860581277
Automotive Engineer Monthly Magazine W Kimberley 0307/6490
Journal of Automotive Engineering (IMechE Proceedings Part D) 0954/4070

For full details of all Professional Engineering Publications please contact:

Sales Department
Professional Engineering Publishing
Nothgate Avenue
Bury St Edmunds
IP326BW
UK
Telephone: +44 (0)1284 763 277
Fax: +44(0)1284718693
E-mail: [email protected]
 Chapter 1:

Materials and construction advances

The considerable comeback made by the steel industry in

restating its case for structural superiority over the light alloys,
and the ever moving goalposts of developing aluminium and
polymer composites, open this chapter. The re-emergence of
hybrid metal/plastic structures is also discussed as well as the
creation of reinforced plastics with recycled-polymer matrices.
The move to material property charts which lead to the
creation of performance indices is next examined and the
chapter concludes with the efforts to make self-pierce riveting
a viable alternative to conventional welded joints in body
construction.
 VEHICLE DESIGN

Steel durability a vacuum.

Car body weight reduction of 25%, without
and structural efficiency cost penalty, plus a 20% reduction in part count, has
According to researchers at Lotus Engineering1, mar- been the result of the final phase of the USLAB
ket expectations for durability of vehicle body panels project for light-weighting steel automotive struc-
is typically seven years or 100 000 miles, with an tures carried out by an international consortium of
expectation of 10 years corrosion-free life. British steel companies supervised by Porsche Engineering
Steel engineers2 have shown the main influences on Services. The objective of a feasible design, using
durability with the corrosion triangle of Fig 1. In commercially available materials and manufactur-
product design the traditional approach has been to ing processes, has also been met. An 80% gain in
remove moisture traps, allow better penetration of torsional rigidity, and 52% in bending, has also been
paint and evolve design with greater resistance to recorded and estimated body-shell cost of $947 com-
stone chipping. There had also been gradual adoption pares with $980 for a year 2000 comparison figure for
of one-side zinc-coated steel panels, offering protec-
tion on the inside and good paintability on the out-
side. More recently there had been a move from hot Environment
(including micro environment)
dip galvanized to electrozinc panels, spurred by
Japanese manufacturers; these offer a range of Autobody
ductilities, increased weldability and the ability to
Materials of Design
alloy the coating to provide various coating thick- Construction
nesses and corrosion resistance levels. Now double-
sided coated steels are favoured with differential Fig 1: Triangle of factors affecting corrosion
coating weights: typical thicknesses are now 45-60
g/m2. Future quality improvements are promised by
development work in surface treatment and
formability. Permanent organic based topcoats or
phosphate coatings are providing improved perform-
ance in both weldability and corrosion prevention.
Another new initiative is a drive by the OEMs to
replace electroplated products by 'galvanneal' ones
for outside parts, in the interests of production
economy. These have the ability to provide good
Fig 2: ULSAB body shell
paintability.
In a joint venture between British Steel Strip
Products and Rover Group, trial parts were prepared
for the Rover 600, including front fender, front door
skin, rear door skin and bonnet. In 1997 all new
models were produced with two-sided galvanneal
full-finished panels. In the longer term, the authors
see the development of non-bake hardening, higher
strength steel substrates with enhanced formability
for use with galvanneal coatings, and the introduc- Fig 3: Monoside panel
tion of extra high strength transformation induced
plasticity (TRIP) steels as substrates for zinc type
coating which will offer yield strength approaching
1500 MPa, alongside high ductility. Prepainted body
finished sheet steel, which obviate the electropheritic
primer coat are also expected, as is a possible new
coating process based on vapour deposition of zinc in
Fig 4 : Side roof rail
 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
a conventionally constructed body to a similar speci- Vigorous
fication. The 203 kg body shell (Fig 2), of 2.7 metres
wheelbase, has a torsional rigidity of 20,800 Nm/deg development of light alloys
and a first torsional vibration mode of 60 Hz, using Phase 2 of Audi's aluminium alloy body construction
the well-documented construction techniques. programme was unveiled at a recent Motor Show in
A supercomputer analysis of crashworthiness the form of the A12 concept car, Fig 5. The 3.76 metre
has shown that frontal NCAP and rear moving- long times 1.56 metre high car weighs just 750 kg in
barrier levels have been achieved at 17% higher than 1.2 litre engined form, some 250 kg less than a
the required speed. The body has also satisfied 55 conventional steel body vehicle, it was argued. The
kph/50% offset AMS, European side impact and roof number of cast nodes has been reduced compared
crush requirements. The 35 mph frontal NCAP showed with the Phase-one aluminium alloy structure of the
a peak deceleration of 31 g, considered satisfactory in Audi A8. Most of the nodes are now produced by
that stiffer body sides are required to meet 50% AMS butt-welding the extruded sections. High level seat-
offset requirements. The offset AMS frontal impact ing is provided over a sandwich-construction floor.
deceleration showed a peak at 35g, considered a good Use of internal high pressure reshaping techniques
result in relation to the severity of the test. The has reduced the number of shaping and cutting opera-
simulation was carried out at 1350 kg kerb weight, tions required
plus 113 kg luggage and 149 kg for two occupants. At The 1997 International Magnesium Associa-
the final count, high strength steel was used for 90% tion Design Award for applications went to the die-
of the structure, ranging from 210 to 550 MPa yield, cast instrument panel support beam, Fig 6, on the GM
in gauges from 0.65 to 2 mm. Around 45% of the G-van. It is a one-piece design weighing, at 12.2 kg,
structure involved laser-welded tailored blanks, in- 5.9 kg less than the welded steel tubular structure it
cluding the monoside panels, Fig 3, which ranged in replaced. Proponents of magnesium alloy are point-
gauge from 0.7 to 1.7 mm and was made up of steel ing out that as die-castings in the material solidify
elements having yield strengths from 210 to 350 from the outside in, they enjoy a dense chilled skin
MPa. Fig 4 shows the hydroformed side roof rail. together with a relatively course-grained interior.
To the casual observer the elements of the Skin thickness is said to be relatively constant regard-
complete body shell 'look' more structurally effi- less of total wall thickness so that reductions in
cient but they still seem a far cry from a fully section size can often be made when the material is
optimized shape for the steel 'backbone', as much of used as a substitute. The AZ91D (9% aluminium, 1%
the material seems to be still used in relatively low zinc) alloy is now finding application in removable
stress areas where its function is as a 'cover' rather rear seats for minivans. In the seat systems shown in
than a fully working structural element. Perhaps the Fig 7, Delphi Automotive have achieved 60% weight
next stage in weight reduction should be in designing reduction over conventional construction by adopt-
a highly efficient steel monocoque, then moulding ing a cast magnesium cushion frame and an extruded
over plastic elements for the non-structural covering
and closure shaping details, using the hybrid metal/
plastics techniques discussed later in this chapter.

Fig 5 A12 concept

car and structure
 VEHICLE DESIGN

aluminium back frame. Other magnesium grades are

being used in combination with engineering plastics
for composite instrument panels. VW have also
demonstrated a Polo door in pressure die-cast magne-
sium with a carbon fibre reinforced outer panel,
which offers over 40% weight reduction over con-
ventional steel construction.

Hybrid metal/plastic systems

Metal/plastic composites have been promoted again
by Bayer in a recent presentation to body engineers3.
A compelling argument is made for using simplified
thin-wall structures in high strength metals which are
stabilized by plastic composites which can also cut Fig 9: Front end structure in hybrid metal/plastic
down on welding operations when combined as an in-
mould assembly. The complexity of CV-cab and car
bodies has often ruled against the effective use of
lightweight metal systems on their own.
In the latest version of the technique, the pro-
cesses of inserting, where metal parts such as bushes
are included in a polymer moulding, and/or outserting
where various functions in plastic are moulded on to
a metal baseplate, are taken a stage further. Cross-
sectional distortion of thin-walled metal beams can
be prevented by relatively small forces applied in the
new process by the presence of moulded plastic
supports in the form of x-pattern ribbing.
The deformation behaviour of various section
profiles under bending and torsion is shown in Fig 8
a and b. Interconnecting points between plastic and
metal are preformed in the metal part before it enters
the plastics mould. Either corrosion-protected steel
or aluminium alloy is the normal choice of metal with
glass-fibre reinforced, impact modified, polyamide- Fig 10: Metal/plastic hybrid door structure
6 (Bayer's Durethan BKV) being the plastic choice.
Bayer say it is not always desirable to have the metal
'preform' in one piece, separate sections being joined
by moulding resin around the prefabricated inter-

Fig 6 : Instrument panel beam

Fig 7: Mg and Al used in seat frame
 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

locking points or by means of clinching integrated reduction in component and investment cost, for the
into the mould. It is said that for recycling purposes, same performance capability. Car front-ends with
it takes only a few seconds to break a metal/plastic integrated bumper systems are further good candi-
composite, using a hammer mill, and that the resin dates, Fig 9. A research project has also been carried
element has properties akin to the virgin material, on out on car side doors having sufficient structural
reuse. integrity to transmit impact forces from A- to B-post
Sample applications include instrument panel in the closed position. Fig 10 shows a sample door,
supports. In the cross-car beam co-developed by requiring no further framework to support wing
GM's Delphi a 40% reduction in weight was obtained mirror, lock or other door 'furniture'. Seat frames
against the replaced assembly, along with a 10% with integral belt-anchorages have also been made

0 2 10 12 14 18 20
Fig 8a: Deformation behaviour Deformation
40

Nm

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 2 6 8 10 12 18
Fig 8b: Behaviour in twist Twisting
 VEHICLE DESIGN

for the Mercedes-Benz Viano minibus in the process.

The first volume car to incorporate the technology is
the Audi A6. The front-end design was developed in
association with the French ECIA company. The part
is injection moulded in one piece and incorporates
engine mountings, together with support for radiator
and headlights.
Bayer have also been active in a joint-venture
glazing project with GE Plastics. A $40 million
development programme is under way on abrasion-
resistant, coated polycarbonate vehicle windows as
an alternative to glass systems. An abrasion-resist-
ance equal to that of glass is targeted and high-
volume production of windows is foreseen. Some
40% weight saving is forecast against equivalent
glass systems and greater design freedom plus higher
impact resistance is also claimed. Better resistance to
forced entry, and reduced injuries in side-impact and
roll-over accidents, have also been mooted.

Structural design
in polymer composites
Work reported from Delphi Interior and Lighting4 has Fig 13: Audi A6 sun-roof
shown the possibility of constructing instrument
panel crossbeam and display panel assemblies in
injection-moulded plastics. The structural crossbeam
provides both structural integrity, to the assembly,
and an air passage for the primary air vents; it
attaches to the A-pillars at each of its ends and
operates as a simply supported beam. In one concept
by the company, Fig 11, the beam supports the
display panel but is not integral with it. In the second
concept, Fig 12, the panel and beam form an integral
structure. The advantage of this second concept is the
allowance of further integration of components into
the single total assembly.
Both concepts were built for retrofitting into a
current production vehicle so that proper in-service
evaluation could be obtained. In the CAD analysis Fig 14: Sun-roof with Venetian blind
DEFROSTER DUCT

Fig 11: Plastic structural beam

 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

the initial objective was to develop a design for the Recycled PET, and prime PBT,
plastic structures that would provide static stiffness
equivalent to that of the baseline steel structure. The for sun-roof parts
first natural frequency of the beam was also matched Following the recent interest shown in Chrysler's
to the steel baseline. Both objectives were met with- plan for using low-cost, glass-reinforced polyethylene
out resort to wall thicknesses that would have com- terephthalate (PET) for its China car body construc-
promised conventional injection-mould cycle times. tion, comes an announcement from DuPont that it is
The next requirement was to meet FMVSS supplying recycled PET for corner mouldings of the
impact energy absorption levels resulting from input Webasto sun-roof of the Audi A6, Fig 13. The
loads to the knee bolsters supported by the system in mouldings hold the sliding roof frame's aluminium
a 30 mph crash. It was found that materials with strain rails together and incorporate guides for the cable
rates as low as 2% could absorb this energy without that moves the roof and channels off rain-water. The
overload to the occupant's femur. Finally the struc- material has withstood 30,000 open-close cycles in
ture had to meet these performance levels under trials of the sun-roof. In another sun-roof application,
specified temperature and vibrational environments, DuPont's polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) resin by
necessitating an evaluation of creep and fatigue Westmont Technik of Dusseldorf is used in a new
capability. Temperature range of-30 to +190 F and design of sliding roof incorporating a built-in Venetian
fatigue criteria were based on subjection to service blind, Fig 14. The PBT slats of the blind can be
loads measured under real road conditions. adjusted to deflect cooling air into the vehicle in hot
weather. The company has also introduced a PBT
grade, Crastin 5000, for electrical connectors and
Retention of properties USCAR/EWCAP Class 3 parts. This has improved hydrolysis resistance for
Temperature/Humidity Testing high temperature and high humidity operation. The
Standard Crastin- Standard Crastin. Competitive first variants produced, for connectors, have 30%
15%GRPBT HR5015F 30%GRPBT HR5030F HR PBT glass reinforcement and properties are seen in the
(30% Glass)
Tensile strength, Mpa table, left.
Initial 109 74 145 99 114
After 40 cycles* 57 75 90 104 106 Further details have also been released on the
Retention, % 52 101 62 105 93 Chrysler China car which is now called the Compos-
Elongation, % ite Concept Vehicle. Its shell structure is made up of
Initial 3.0 3.5 2.8 3.3 3.3 four major elements, Fig 15, to fit over a steel chassis.
After 40 cycles" 1.5 2.9 1,3 2.8 2.2
Retention, % 50 83 50 79 67 Target cost of the PET-based GRP is less than £2 per
0 kg, compared with £6.50 - £8.50 for SMC and SRIM.
" Each cycle consists of 6 hr. at 90 C/95% Rh followed by 2 Hr. at 125'C with humidity vented

DEFROSTER DUCT

JOINED SURFACES
S4WDEFOGGER

STRUCTURAL I.P. DUCT

Fig 12: Plastic structural instrument panel
 VEHICLE DESIGN
When the four shell elements are bonded to- fibre has been developed by applying the theory of
gether enough torsional stiffness is available without multilayered thin-film interference to a cross section
the need for further reinforcement. Ashland Pliogrip of the fibre. This is the principle behind the iridescent
fast-cure adhesive is used and cycle time for making scales of Morpho butterfly wings. The fibre displays
the four main mouldings is three minutes, seven a high metallic sheen and a clear colour shade under
minutes faster than for equivalent sized SRIM mould- exposure to different types of light, including natural,
ings. The low cycle time has been achieved by a fluorescent and incandescent. The colour properties
sequence of gate openings and gas injections into the and tint also vary depending on the light source used
mould to help guide the process, which was devised and the viewing angle. As the fibre does not use any
using computer-aided mould-flow techniques. An dyes, the production of the fibre reduces environ-
8500 tonne machine injects the PET resins into the mental pollution due to waste dye solutions. It also
145 tonne moulds, which each measure a massive 4.5 prevents any worries about skin rashes or other
X 2.5 X 2 metres. allergic reactions to dyes.
Structural-coloured
fibre has body trim potential
Nissan has announced the development of what is
claimed to be the world's first structural-coloured
fibre, in a joint venture with Teijin Limited and
Tanaka Kikinzoku KK, Fig 16. The colour of the
fibre is produced by its structure and does not involve
the use of dyes. The principles of this technology are
based on research into biometrics, an engineering
practice that looks at prominent functions of living
things and applies them in practical applications.
One of the findings of this research is the principle
behind the iridescence of the wings of Morpho butter-
flies native to South America. Research has been
conducted to apply this knowledge to the production
of coloured fibres for interior and exterior trim mate-
rials, including seat fabric. The structural-coloured Fig 15: Composite Concept Vehicle shell

2.0
Structural-colored filament

1.0

Fig 16: a: right,

Reflective spectra of
some samples; b,
opposite, the 0.4 0.5 0.6
technology explained Wavelength (um)
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION
10 VEHICLE DESIGN

Material property charts and characterizing a particular combination of function,

objective and constraint, as in the beam case, Fig 19.
performance indices In this 'index and chart' material selection
A rigorous method for evaluating the choice of procedure, the index isolates the combination of
materials for new designs has been made by a re- material properties and shape information that
searcher5 of the Cambridge University Engineering maximiszes performance prior to using the chart for
Design Centre which avoids the 'hunch' or 'guessti- selecting the appropriate material as described above.
mating' approach so common in making these deci- Fig 20 shows how the index derived by isolating the
sions. key parameters from the equations describes the
The author points out that it is seldom that the objective function after the constraints have elimi-
performance of a component depends on just one nated the free variables.
property of its constituent material. So by plotting Design of a mechanical component, Ashby
one property against another (stiffness and density, asserts, is specified by three groups of variables: the
say, for lightweight components), and mapping out functional requirements F (need to carry loads, trans-
the fields of materials in each material class, rapid mit heat, etc.), geometric specifications G and some
assessment of material suitability is possible. combination of properties p so that maximized per-
Fig 17 shows how, on a log scale plot of elastic formance
modulus and density, the data for a particular class of
materials clusters together in envelopes. The sloping P=f(F,G,p)
lines show how other derived properties, based on the
two basic ones, can also be plotted on the graph. The When these three groups are separable such that
elongated envelopes refer to material classes in which
there is structure-sensitivity, in that properties can be P=f1(F),f 2 (G),f 3 (p),
altered significantly by such techniques as micro-
alloying and heat treatment. While the modulus of a as they usually are, the optimum choice of material
solid is a relatively well defined quantity, the author can then become independent of many of the design
explains, strength is not and the envelopes take up details and a merit index can be much more simply
different shapes, Fig 18. The shapes alter again when defined. Thus the steps in Fig 20 involve identifying
fracture toughness and other properties are plotted primary function, writing down the equation for the
against density and the author provides explanations objective (could be the energy stored per unit volume
for these in the book, based on the behaviour of the in a spring example) then identifying the constraints
material's molecular structure. that limit the optimization by this last process in
In general the charts show the range of any terms of a specific value of stiffness, say. The free
given property accessible to the designer and identify variables can then be eliminated in leading to the
the material class associated with segments of that index value (the objective function).
range. In the case of a beam, for a simply supported
Logical design involves asking such questions length L, under transverse load F, there might be a
as 'what does the component do; what is to be constraint on the stiffness 5" such that it must not
maximised and minimised; what non-negotiable con- deflect more than 8 at mid-span. Here
ditions must be met and what negotiable and desir-
able conditions ...', defining function, objective and S = F/s>/= CEI/L3
constraints. Property limits can be derived from these
together with indices that will optimize material where E is modulus and / section second moment of
selection. Performance indices are groupings of the area, C being a constant depending on load distribu-
material properties which can maximize some per- tion. For a square section beam, width b, I is A2/12
formance aspect of the component, ratio of modulus where A is section area ,which can be reduced in order
to density being the classic one of specific stiffness, to lessen weight, but only until the stiffness constraint
which would be a key consideration in the design of is met. Eliminating A in the objective function gives
a light, stiff tie-rod. Many such indices exist each the mass
 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 11

m >/= (C12S)1/2(l5/2)(p/E1/2)

and the best materials for a light, stiff beam are those
with large values of the material index

M = El/2/p

where p is density. 0 =2
Because section shape is critical to bending
stiffness a shape factor is defined as

0 = 4phiI/A2

which is dimensionless and can take values as high as

100 for very efficient sections.
Cross-substitution of these equations can be
carried out to eliminate the free variables and a Fig 79. identifying the primary function

Fig 17: Specific stiffness property chart Density (p), Mg/m3

 12 VEHICLE DESIGN

modified performance index would include a shape-

factor term.
so includes perform
The author also
Function
for panels. with in- plane compression
buckling failure, anlong the many case
Tie
Objective se for vibration limi
book, as well as those
Beam Minimum cost
V Constraints
A A
Stiffness specified —
Shaft Index

Maximum
Column Strength specified
energy storage

Minimum
Fatigue limit
environmental
Mechanical, impact
thermal,
electrical... Geometry

material performance index

Fig 20 • Establishing material

Fig 18: Specific strength property chart Density(p), Mg/m3

 MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 13

Design for self-pierce riveting binder containing both zinc and other protective
solids.
More widespread use of aluminium alloys, and light- Similar to that for spot-welding, installation
weight coated steels, in automotive body construc- equipment can be floor-mounted or portable, suspen-
tion is leading to alternatives to the old certainty of sion-mounted, and have manual or robotic manipula-
spot-welding. Textron's Fastriv system is proving a tion. Fasteners can be either tape-fed from reels or
reliable substitute, a leak-proof system with fully blow-fed from a vibrating bowl, through plastic
automated installation equipment, and claimed greater tubing. Fig 25 shows proportions of the riveting
dynamic strength than spot-welding. module, from which an idea of joint access can be
The Fastriv self-piercing fastening system, Fig obtained. Various rivet head forms are available as
21, can join two or three metal sheets with combined well as the standard oval head, including flat counter-
thickness from 1.5 to 8.5 mm. In the placing sequence
of Fig 22, a tubular rivet is driven by a hydraulically
operated press tool into the materials to be joined;
first the rivet pierces the top sheets then it flares
radially into the lower sheet against the die, without
breaking through, and forms a mechanical interlock,
the assembly process being complete within 1-2
seconds.
A single Fastriv joint is said to be close to the Fig 21: Fastriv configuration
shear strength of an equivalent spot-weld and stronger
in peal strength, without the disadvantage of a heat-
affected zone; the suppliers say at least 30% of spot-
welding applications could be displaced by its use.
There must, however, be access for tooling on both
sides of the sheets and sheet thickness/hardness must
fall within a given range.
Optimized Fastriv joint performance is ob-
tained when the sheet material with the higher elon-
gation is placed on the die side, when joining sheets
of dissimilar material. For joining sheets of dissimi-
lar thickness, the thinner sheet should be placed on
the punch side and a large-head rivet should be used.
Since joint elements of self-pierce fastening are not
symmetrical on both sides, joint arrangements need
special attention and suggestions are given in Fig 23.
Suggested automotive application areas are
shown in Fig 24, the company recommending com-
bination with adhesive bonding for load-bearing
carrier beams. Steel panels can be joined to alu-
minium ones, where necessary, and the pre-painted
panels can also be successfully joined by the process.
A number of finishes are available on the rivets to
ensure against corrosion. The standard finish used is
electroplated bright zinc but Almac mechanically
applied coating has higher corrosion resistance than
zinc. Kalgard has an organic binder containing alu-
minium; Deltaseal has an organic microlayer top- Fig 22: Installation Fig23: Suggested rivet
coat with PTFE; finally, Dacromet has an organic sequence orientations
14 VEHICLE DESIGN

sunk and a 'tinman' head which is a flat head which

stands proud for occasions when a visual feature is
required to be made. Head diameters can range from
ID
5.38 to 9.78 mm for rivet diameters from 3.10 to 4.78 *
mm. For the 5 mm (nominal) rivet size, fatigue Riveting module
performance is as shown in Fig 26.
100 NOTE:- LARGER THROAT DEPTHS
OR CUSTOMISED C FRAME SHAPES
CAN BE DESIGNED TO SUIT

C-frame

STANDARD RIVETING MODULE CONFIGURATION

STANDARD DAYLIGHT RIVETING MODULE LENGTH APPROXIMATE
SIZES "D"(mm) "L'(mm) WEIGHT (KG)
25 302 6-25
40 317 6.5
1
55 332 6.75
1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
Life Reversals STANDARD "C" FRAME SIZES (FOR 4Omm DAYLIGHT)
Sourc: Rover Group Ltd ARM DEPTH FRAME DEPTH APPROXIMATE
THROAT "G'"(mm)
DEPTHT "G"(mm) WEIGHT(KG)
5.5
Fig 24: Automotive body applications (below) SO SO 120
100 71 190 8.5
Fig 25: Riveting module sizes (right) 150 81 280 15
200 as 360 20
Fig 26: Fatigue performance (above) NOTE:- FOR OTHER RIVETING MODULE SIZES PROPORTIONS WILL CHANGE.
 Chapter 2:

Structure and safety

Vehicle structural design innovation continues to be driven

by the impetus for improved passenger protection and light-
weighting for lower fuel consumption and reduced CO2
emission. With the perfection of controlled collapse front-
ends the next stage in development is an analysis of footwell
deformation so that controlled-collapse can be extended to
that region. For further integrity of the occupant survival shell
attention is also being paid to pillar/rail joint stiffness in
reducing the likelihood of body shell collapse. Techniques of
structural analysis are also being used for the prediction of
noise level within the body shell. Attention is also finally
turning from the protection of the vehicle occupant to that of
the pedestrian road-user and realistic pedestrian models are
now being produced for authentic laboratory crash analysis.
In vehicle packaging, generally, is beginning to focus on the
ageing and infirm section of the population and occupant
restraint systems are being designed to be adaptive in their
performance.
16 VEHICLE DESIGN

Understanding footwell speed-photography techniques for a qualitative ap-

deformation in vehicle impact praisal. Obtaining orthogonal frames of reference is
Recently published work by researchers at the US considered difficult with any conventional cine-photo
Automobile Safety Laboratory, and its collabora- technique.
tors1, is suggesting a way of better understanding the Post-crash measurements can only provide in-
collapse mechanism for a passenger-car footwell trusion data for the last instant of impact and no
during frontal and front/side impacts. Hitherto, the elastic effects occurring during or after the crash can
authors maintain, the study of structural intrusion in be evaluated — nor can a progressive sequence of
this region has been based on toe-board mounted toe-pan translations and rotations be obtained. Hence
accelerometers set up to measure in the direction of the stimulus for these researchers to use a sled system
the vehicles longitudinal axis. Since the instrument for obtaining a toe-pan deformation pulse, akin to
itself can easily be disoriented from its measurement that obtained by sleds for vehicle deceleration as a
axis, during the intrusion process, reliable dynamic whole. To design an intrusion system using a labora-
deformation data has been difficult to forecast. In tory sled, work commences with obtaining a simple
particular, a three-dimensional characterization of translational intrusion profile parallel to the ground,
the collapse and buckling of the thin metal structures Fig 1. The intrusion simulator has been designed to
is difficult to obtain, except perhaps using X-ray allow rotational components and asymmetrical load-

Pre-Crash
NCAP
Offset rigid
Barrier
Representative
Intrusion Simulator
Final Toepan
Position

Fig 1: Post-crash profile of

toe-pan intrusion
10 20 30 40 50 60
cm (From arbitrary reference location)

7.62cm
Fig 2: Hydraulic
decelerator:
projected view of
programmed row
of holes
 STRUCTURE AND SAFETY 17

ing effects, at a later stage.

The toe-pan produces a typical 20 kN force
Cylinder applied to both legs, about twice that of the axial
Rod tibial breaking strength. The panel is generally capa-
ble of 25 cm maximum displacement during a crash
Toepan/ event and it has been found by accident-studies that
Footplates
85.6% of below-knee injuries are sustained with less
than 14 cm intrusion. The sled therefore moves the
toe-panel in a progammed displacement time profile,
with these maxima, by integrating the actuation of
the panel components with the function of the sled's
hydraulic decelerator. The sled and test buck are
Buck typically accelerated to a predetermined velocity
Support
and decelerated according tot he crash pulse. The
Guide Rail
decelerator is configured as a cylinder with an array
Fig 3: Intrusion simulation mechanism of discrete orifices over its length, Fig 2 suggesting a
flat-pattern view. At the start of an impact, hydraulic
pressure is transmitted to both sides of the slave
cylinder, holding the toe-pan stationary with respect
to the buck. When the decelerator piston passes the
control-side output port, pressure on that side drops
and the toe-pan moves under the force of the hydrau-
lic drive lines remaining in front of the sled piston. A
constant force internal stop in the cylinders at the
maximum mechanical stroke is used to determine
maximum toe-pan travel according cylinder posi-
tion. The intrusion pulse is controlled by variation of
orifice sizes on the drive and control sides. Fig 3
shows the physical set-up, the simulator consisting of
a toe-pan carriage with separate footrests for each
Fig 4: Sled deceleration vs toe-pan acceleration in foot. Toe-pan carriage travel is 25 cms and the
a sled frame hydraulic cylinder diameter is 6.4 cms. The rear
mounting position is adjustable to limit toe-pan
travel in increments of 2.5 cm. Controllable toe-pan
intrusion parameters, during the impact event, in-
clude initiation, by location of a control line within
the hydraulic decelerator; stroke, controlled by cyl-
inder mount location and cylinder stop; and accelera-
tion profile, depending on a combination of passive
orifices in the drive lines forming an hydraulic accu-
mulator so that dynamic effects of the sled pulse can
be used to tailor the toe-pan pulse.
The researchers demonstrated the use of the
intrusion simulator with sled tests carried out with
zero to 7.9 cm intrusion, using the ALEX dummy
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 developed by NHTSA. The test buck was configured
as a mid-size car and based on a crash pulse measured
Fig 5: Left distal tibia load for intrusion and no- by damped accelerometers. Sled velocity at initia-
intrusion sled tests tion of the crash pulse was fixed at 58.2 km/hand full
18 VEHICLE DESIGN

intrusion stroke is selected to be at 71 ms into the sled Pillar to rail joint stiffness
impact. In Fig 4 of a representative sled decel pulse Low frequency vibration characteristics of a vehicle
and toe-pan intrusion pulse, intrusion decel relative body structure are considerably influenced by the
to the test sled is approximately sinusoidal, with 80 compliance of joints between the main pillars and
g peak, or 100 g relative to the ground. Net effect of rails, according to researchers at Kookmin Univer-
sled and toe-pan decels is movement of the toe-pan sity2. While these effects have been examined at the
into the occupant compartment, providing a poten- design stage by using torsional spring elements to
tially realistic translation intrusion pulse most rel- simulate the joint stiffnesses, apart from the inaccu-
evant for lower extremity injury. Left tibia axial racy of the assumption it has been difficult to analyse
compressions are shown in Fig 5 for both representa- the whole structure using the NASTRAN optimiza-
tive and no intrusion cases, the significant effect of tion routine because these mass-less spring elements
toe-pan intrusion being demonstrated after about 70 cannot be represented. Because the rotational stiff-
ms. The second peak of the intrusion means tribial ness of the joint structure has a major influence, the
axial compression is more than doubled from the no- authors have proposed a new modelling technique for
intrusion run. the joint sub-structure involving an equivalent beam
roof rail roof rail
element. Fig 6 shows the traditional and proposed
spring element 1 mm y - equivalent modelling techniques applied to a B-pillar to roof
Joint beam
joint. The joint stiffness is computed using familiar
triad finite element methods, Fig 7. Unit moments are
spring stiffness applied at the tip of the pillar, with both ends of the
reference coordinate
B pillar roof-rail fixed. FE static analysis gives the deformed
rotation angle from which rotational stiffness can be
derived.

Fig 6: Traditional and

proposed modelling
technique
9

C
0
•
0
l ,1
0 0 0
-

Fig 9: Joint stiffness results

 STRUCTURE AND SAFETY 19

In the subsequent MSC/NASTRAN optimiza- tion rotational stiffness of the B-pillar joint needs to
tion run, if the section moments of inertia are chosen be increased while the other directional stiffnesses
as design variables, their optimal values can be may be decreased. Detail study then showed the
obtained to meet the vehicle's frequency require- thickness and shape of the reinforcement panel needed
ments. The table in Fig 8 shows a design change to be altered in this case, establishing thickness and
guideline to obtain optimum joint stiffness in this nodal co-ordinates of the panel as design parameters.
respect. The joint stiffnesses in the X and Y planes, The reinforcement may be optimally posi-
plus the rotational stiffness about the Z-axis of the tioned anywhere between the inner and outer panels
section centroid can be obtained. When these results of the joint, to satisfy the stiffness requirements, and
are plotted out as a bar-graph as in Fig 9, the authors by setting the objective function of the optimization
explain that it is relatively simple to which stiffnesses run for minimizing mass, the constraints can be
need increasing and which could perhaps be reduced. evaluated for achieving the required rotational
The example in the figure implies that the Y-direc- stiffnesses, Fig 10.

unit: %
IY Iz J
A-pillar to roof +25.6 -34.9 +39.9
B-pillar to roof +30.0 +7.0 +7.0
C-pillar to roof +16.9 -66.9 -46.0
FBHP to A-pillar -63.6 -20.8 -16.1
FBHP to rocker -0.2 +8.9 -3.1
B-pillar to rocker +20.6 -1.1 -53.4
C-pillar to QLP -63.8 +0.1 -0.6

Fig 7: FE model of joint Fig 8: Design change guideline

+7.48
Stiffness + 34.15

+ 7.18

design thickness +33.33

variables
shape refer to Fig. 8
(a) initial (b) optimal

Fig 10: Joint configuration

20 VEHICLE DESIGN

Structure analysis for interior noise most systems gives poor levels of prediction and
A researcher at Rover3 insists that refinement at his experimental test methods have to be used. Cur-
company is now designed-in at the concept phase of rently, statistical energy analysis (SEA) techniques
new products. In a recent paper he differentiated are being evaluated in conjunction with ISVR and a
between component and system modelling for NVH number of trim suppliers that eventually will allow
and pointed out the difficulties of examining high accurate prediction of vehicle interior noise from 300
frequency behaviour, above 70 Hz. At these fre- Hz upwards. Rigid lumped-mass representations of
quency levels, the author explains that vehicle prob- bodies are giving way to models which allow the
lems are dominated by flexible modes of the compo- effect of flexible modes. However, usually structural
nents direct-connected to the body and care is needed models for crashworthiness analysis are unsuitable as
in interrogating information from the standpoints of they do not incorporate closures and trim. Since the
non-linearities arising, for example, in rubber an- BMW acquisition of Rover the ability to add trim
chorages and structural complexity where crude beam items to the models has been developed. Large trim
models are typically 25-30% inaccurate. areas such as head-linings are modelled as non-
Suppliers are now requested to carry out de- structural masses, additional damping effect being
tailed modelling for analysis purposes with predic- added to the elements representing the adjacent
tions of natural frequency for something like a panel. For other items such as facia panels, which add
subframe being to 10 % inaccuracy. Fig 11 compares stiffness to the structure, tuned spring/damper ele-
a beam-element model with an accurate supplier ments are added to the structural model.
model for a subframe and Fig 12 shows the driving The author suggests that a current 90,000 ele-
point modal response of these two models. While it ment model for a vehicle body will increase in terms
can be seen that the mass is predicted well in both of number of elements by 50% every time that a new
model cases (amplitude at low frequency before model is introduced. He thinks model solution time
resonance is proportional to the mass of the compo- will remain constant as machine speed is increasing
nent), the bem element model only recognises two at similar rate. Another development is studying
main resonances and misses the smaller ones be- effects of modifications to body structures by means
tween 300 and 350 Hz because these modes are out of super-element whole-vehicle models which com-
of the plane of excitation they are poorly excited. bine body and powertrain, Fig 13. The company also
Above 300 Hz, the author argues, FE model- employs SYSNOISE software for acoustic model-
ling is unsuitable because the non-linear behaviour of ling activities, specifically for problems with engine
intake and exhaust systems. Vehicle interior acoustic
modelling, Fig 14, has been used for some time to
assess panel sensitivity and work is underway to
couple the acoustic models to the full-vehicle mod-
els.
A case study in assessing the refinement ben-

Frequency Hz
Fig 11: Beam model vs superelement Fig 12: Correlation of FE models
 STRUCTURE AND SAFETY 21

Fig 13: "Whole vehicle" model

efits of a compliantly mounted front subframe was
given by the author. Fig 15 shows typical interior
noise measurement for a vehicle driven at constant 50
kph along a surface of 20 mm cold-rolled chippings.
At 25-45 Hz global modes of the vehicle body
structure are evident; from 75-130 Hz excitation of
the 1st and 2nd longitudinal cavity modes of the
vehicle occurs and main noise source is tyre tread
blocks impacting and releasing from the road sur-
Fig 14: Acoustic model of vehicle cabin face; at 220-260 Hz strong excitation is generated at
the wheel hub by an acoustic resonance of the air
Interior Noise LHF outer ear
Interior Noise LHR outer ear
within the tyre, seen as two modes describing waves
travelling forwards and backwards within the tyre.
The proposed subframe involved a front sus-
pension system with body mounted MacPherson
strut with an L-shaped lower arm mounted to the
subframe at two locations; steering rack and anti-roll
bar are similarly subframe mounted. The lower tie for
the engine mounting is also attached to the subframe
but the upper tie-bar is body-mounted. There is also
a primary vibration route via the drive-shafts to the
Frequency Hz
wheel hubs and back through the suspension system,
Fig 15. Road noise characteristics the primary one for structure-borne high frequency
gear noise.
When in-service recorded load inputs were
applied to the model, results for the left hand front
subframe mount are shown in Fig 16 as a level of
force going into the body (not interior noise). Below
100 Hz there are additional resonances attributable to
rigid body modes of the subframe on its mounts.
Beyond 100 Hz there is marked improvement for the
Frequency Hz
compliantly mounted set-up.
Fig 16: FE model prediction
22 VEHICLE DESIGN
According to a researcher of Ove Arup and but cabin and boot airspaces are modelled using 2-D
Partners, in his paper to the recent FMechE Vehicle elements.
Noise and Vibration conference4, NVH refinement A typical structural model is in Fig 17 and a
rivals crashworthiness as the major contemporary boundary element model in Fig 18. The latter can be
automotive design target. The author described an created in a proprietary pre-processor and can be
indirect boundary element method used to predict the rapidly created from the structural mesh. A field
noise sensitivity of a vehicle body. A modal model of point mesh, Fig 19, has also to be generated so
the vehicle body is coupled to a boundary element occupant ear sound pressure level (SPL) functions
model of the interior cavity, with unit forces, in the can be calculated and the pressure field visualised. A
three transational degrees of freedom, applied at the surface impedance model is used to simulate seat and
engine mounts and damper towers. The method then other trim absorption. The indirect BEM model
depends on noise transfer functions being predicted works in the inverse of impedance, the admittance
between these force input locations and the occu- (velocity normal to the element divided by pressure).
pants ear positions. The coupled indirect BEM requires a so-called
In normal finite element modelling, the author surrogate structural model (SSM) and an acoustic
explains, predicting the body acoustic sensitivity model. The structural modal model is transferred on
starts with generating a finite element mesh, which to the SSM and the search algorithm maps a vector
might even simulate glazing, closures and trim (it component of each of the structural nodes on to the
could contain 200,000 elements for extracting some nodes of the BEM model. The modal model is
800 modes); normal modes in the frequency range considerably reduced by this process as the number
below 200 Hz are then extracted to obtain vectorial of structural nodes is much greater than those of the
data, along the modal damping ratios, for making the BEM. For the example in the figures, a 2000 element
modal model. acoustic model is involved; there are 531 structural
The airspace cavity is modelled using 10-20 modes, 91 frequencies and 24 load cases so consider-
modes, depending on cabin space geometry. A modal able computer power is involved.
damping model is used which effectively 'smears' Results of the example analysis illustrated here,
the damping over the entire model rather than just solved by supercomputer, gives the NTFs displayed
representing local area absorptions such as seat
surfaces. Wavelengths of these acoustic waves are
much greater than those of the body structure in this
under 200 Hz range so elements up to 50-100 mm in
length can be used for the model compared with
element lengths for the structural model of 10-20
mm.
The two models are next coupled together and
the loads applied to solve for airspace pressure. As
the design progresses the models can be modified to
account for the greater complexity brought about bey Fig 18: Cabin acoustic model
added features. At the early crude modelling stage
focus is on the low-frequency noise sensitivity. The
main drawback with FEM, however, is the time
required for mesh generation.
With boundary element modelling (BEM), is
suitable for acoustics applications where there are
exterior or interior fields. The indirect BEM is pro-
posed by the author in this case because the interior
noise problem has several domains, cabin, seats and
boot airspace. While BEM uses the same structural
modal model as the FEM method described above, Fig 19: Cabin field point mesh
 STRUCTURE AND SAFETY 23

on a magnitude/phase plot, Fig 20, and cabin/boot Fig 17: Vehicle body FEM
airspace sound pressure distribution as in Fig 21. boom occurs. Panel contribution and modal partici-
Where NTFs are above target, as at 144 Hz a noise pation analysis is used to determine the controlling
SEDAN ACOUSTIC MODEL NTF factors at this frequency.

Fig 20 left: Vehicle body NTF, phase pressure top and NTF
magnification (dB/N) pressure bottom
Fig 21 above: Interior pressure distribution
24 VEHICLE DESIGN

Preparing for statutory Initial impact with pedestrians is confirmed to

be mostly side-on, in road-crossing situations; the
pedestrian protection bumper contacts typically below the knee and accel-
The next stage in structural design for safety, of erates the lower leg against the inertia of the body
trying to design-in protection for pedestrians subject
to vehicle impacts, is being addressed with vigour by
the UK Transport Research Laboratory5 whose first
priority is developing pedestrian impactor physical-
models, to be a base for the development of standard-
ised testing.
Since the historic work of Ralph Nader in the
1960s, culminating in his best-selling book 'Unsafe
at any speed', little has been done for that most
vulnerable of roadway cas ualties, the pedestrian.
Even if motorists can be persuaded to respect the
speed limits in intensively pedestrianised areas, or
have his/her speed more forcibly reduced by traffic-
calming measures, much can be done to vehicle
front-end structures to increase the chance of pedes-
trian survival under impact.
According to TRL researchers a recent survey
has shown more than one third of road deaths were of The knee bending angle (b) can be found from the following formula:

unprotected road users such as pedestrians and pedal

b = C + arcsin ( - x sin C )
cycles, some 60% of whom are struck by car front-
ends. The laboratory produced an experimental safety
car in 1985, with front-end modified using conven-
tional materials, which demonstrated a considerable
improvement in reduced injury level in 40 kph im-
pacts, but this was largely ignored by UK legislators,
despite DoT funding, in terms of ruling in measures
to reduce the death/serious-injury toll of up to 100,000
per year.
Key impact areas, in order of occurrence after
first strike, are lower-limb to bumper, femur/pelvis to
bonnet leading-edge, and head to bonnet-top. There-
fore, in response an EC directive, arising from re-
search by the TNO-chaired Working Group, impactors
now being developed represent knee-joint shear force
and bending moment; femur bending moment and
The shear displacement (d) can be found from the following formula:
pelvis loads; child and adult head accelerations. Each
impactor is propelled into the car and output from d = e x sin D
associated instrumentation establishes whether en-
ergy absorbing characteristics of the car are accept-
able. TRL's responsibility is development of the
upper leg-form to bonnet leading-edge test method
Fig 22a: TRL knee joint at maximum bending
and the laboratory now supply both leg-form and
displacement, above, and maximum shear
upper legform impactors to the car industry. They
displacement, below, showing trigonometric
overcome the unreliability of testing using conven-
calculations for actual displacements
tional dummies.
 STRUCTURE AND SAFETY 25

above and below the contact point, reaction forces

causing bending and shearing with reactions between
foot and road, hip-joint and upper body mass, adding
to these forces. Resulting injuries are bending and
local crushing of leg bones and/or knee ligament
injury through bending and shearing.
Fig 22b: TRL bending ligament The legform impactor thus consists of 'femur'
and 'tibia' sections joined by a mechanical knee, with
sideways loaded joint stiffness, the elements of the
impactor having physical properties akin to a 50th
percentile male. Studies with cadavers, and compu-
ter-simulations, have shown that leg inertia forces
have major influence but foot-road reaction and
upper body inertia only minor influence on these leg
forces. The impactor is not 'fooled' by palliative
efforts to soften only the bumper area which might
reduce lower leg injury at the expense of knee joint
damage. The TRL 'knee' comprises an elastic spring
to produce shear stiffness and disposable deformable
ligaments for the bending stiffness. The elastic spring
is in the form of a parallelogram, a pair of bending
ligaments joining the knee ends of each leg element;
this particular configuration provides necessary shear
stiffness whilst being unaffected by the bending
moments required to deform the bending ligaments.
Individual potentiometers separately determine bend-
ing and shear displacements, their angular outputs
being converted trigonometrically, Fig 22.
The design of the upper legform impactor is
geared to the realisation that while first contact is
made between lower leg and bumper, next phase is
for the pedestrian's legs to be swept away from
beneath with contact then occurring between bonnet
leading edge and upper leg, the first contact having
been found to have an effect on the second one by
modifying upper leg angle and impact velocity to an
extent dependent on vehicle shape. Principally the
upper leg impact causes bending of the femur and
corresponding forces in the hip joint, the mass seen
by the car bonnet being a combination of that of the
upper leg and the inertia of body parts above and
below it, its effective value again dependent on body
shape. To determine the effect of shape, testing a
wide range of body configurations has led to the
recording of data in the form of look-up graphs for the
use in the eventual assessment procedures.
Fig 23 shows the current upper legform impactor
which comprises vertical front member representing
Fig 22c: TRL leg-form impactor the adult femur, supported top and bottom by load
26 VEHICLE DESIGN

transducers on a vertical rear member, in turn mounted concentrated at one point, requiring generously con-
on the end of the guidance system through a torque- toured front ends. Usually the existing heavy outer
limiting joint. The front member has strain gauges to bonnet reinforcing frame should be weakened and
measure bending and is covered with a 50 mm foam moved slightly backwards so as to allow easier
layer to simulate flesh. Since the test procedure has deformation of the leading edge. The bonnet lock
been designed to make the impactor aim at a line should also be move back and deformable clear
defined by the car's shape, highest bending moment plastic headlamp front-faces should be employed and
does not necessarily occur at the midpoint, if the cars a revised mounting system allow the lamps beneath
peak structural stiffness occurs above or below it, so to collapse inwards into space that is normally avail-
measurement is made at midpoint and 50 mm above able rather than rigidly mounting them to a bulkhead.
and below. Provision is made to attach weights to the In terms of the head injury criteria, a limit on
impactor so its mass can be adjusted to the effective acceleration is the key requirement with both child
mass of the upper leg on impact appropriate to each and adult head-forms having a minimum stopping
car shape, described by the look-up graphs. The distance of 70 mm which reduces according to the
torque-limiting joint is specified to protect the guid- amount from which the bonnet inclines from the
ance system from damage on cars with poor impact normal-to-surface impact situation. Some current
protection, its minimum torque setting providing a bonnet skins are acceptable provided underlying
rigid joint on cars meeting the desired protection localised reinforcements could be replaced by more
criteria. evenly spread systems. Proper clearance is also re-
To meet the knee shear and lower leg accelera- quired from suspension towers and engine surfaces,
tion acceptance criteria the car front must be able to the authors point out.
absorb energy whilst to meet knee-bending criteria
the car must make a well distributed contact along the
length of the legform. While the second criterion
might imply a requirement for a vertical front-end, in
fact the TRL authors say that local deformation
effectively "converts a streamlined shape into a more
upright one". While the design of bumpers to meet
mandatory low-speed impact legislation do provide
some advantage to pedestrian protection, the re-
searchers say it is those which have a substantial
distance between the plastic bumper skins and the
strong underlying structure that best meet the re-
quirements of the legform test. Ideally a locally
deformable lightweight outer bumper skin should be
supported by an integrally stiff energy absorbing
foam reacting against the strong underlying struc-
ture, the crush depth being at least 40 mm. A deep
bumper/spoiler making a low contact with the pedes-
trian's leg at the same time as the bumper would
reduce bending cross the knee.
In terms of upper legform impact, for a car with
bonnet leading edge height of about 700 mm the
depth of crush required would be 110 mm for a Holes for Studding
typical 100 mm bumper lead. At 900 mm bonnet to Attoch Skin
leading edge height the crush depth requirement Lood Transducer
increases to 210 mm under the specified impact Fig 23: TRL Flesh, Skin, Spocera
loading. The limit on bending moment also means upper-leg-form and Studding
not Shown
that the contact force on the impactor must not be impactor in this View
 STRUCTURE AND SAFETY 27

Design for the disabled the virtual. Environmentalists talk of reducing the
According to researchers of the Royal College of global impact of human activity by a factor of be-
Art6, a hard look at the realities of environmental tween five and 50 over the next 50 years, and a good
stress, the ageing of populations and the crisis wel- point to start is transportation. The authors have been
fare systems are encountering, suggests that a new- thinking about what this might mean and offer the
concept "Mobility for all" vehicle may be a viable following case studies of staff and student work as an
alternative to car ownership. At the same time, this insight into how this new mix of services and vehicle
shift from 'A Car for All' to 'Mobility for All' is quite typologies might evolve.
in keeping with contemporary thinking about the They argue that for the generation now moving
shift from product to service and from the material to into retirement, personal transport is synonymous
with freedom, dignity and security. This suggests
that mobility, in the future, will mean having a
greater range of transport solutions at our disposal —
a more integrated transport policy that blurs the
traditional boundaries between public and private
services and vehicles. Patterns of car ownership will
change as more vehicles are banished from town and
city centres, increasingly pedestrianised to ease con-
gestion, improve security and provide a better quality
of life for all those who work, live and pursue leisure
activities there. While reservations about public trans-
port — mixing with other people, lack of comfort and
security, etc — can be greatly improved by interior
layout, better seating, lighting to aid security and
privacy, and higher grade interior materials and
accessories to promote a feeling of ambient luxury.
The increasing pressures to reduce materials
and energy consumption in vehicle manufacture, and
use, will lead to vehicles that last longer, can be
adaptable throughout their working life and recycled
or re-manufactured at the end of it. In simple terms
cars will last longer and be more adaptable. For
example, the traditional family car may encompass
the needs of a growing family for its younger users,
and act as a social space — and extension of the house
— as they grow older. In America, older people are
taking to the highways in their retirement to explore
the vastness of their native country which they have
been unable to enjoy during their working lives.
Future trends indicate that vehicles and transport
systems will have to respond to an increased empha-
sis on freedom, versatility, variety of use and social
interaction, and do so by exploiting technical ad-
vances. Over the past twenty years personal security
has become a prerequisite of everyday life: theft,
vandalism and personal attacks are more prevalent
and directed not specifically at the elderly or vulner-
able. Consequently, security in and out of the vehicle
Fig 25: The "urban rickshaw" has become a priority across the age ranges.
28 VEHICLE DESIGN
Where restrictions in the range of movements extra support or to pivot for ease of entry. The driver
are encountered, ergonomics remains an area of is assisted with automatic gear change and power
significant interest to drivers of all ages, in particular steering, and is offered joystick type controls in one
as expectations of comfort, fatigue reduction and design, which give the driver more space and make
personalisation of the driving environment have risen the car usable for people who would presently require
substantially. This leads to a great deal of interest in an adapted vehicle.
increased flexibility, adaptability and user-friendli- Instrumentation is by 'head up display', pro-
ness in the mainstream of vehicle design. jected on the windscreen to aid driver concentration.
The problem is that the major car manufactur- Information is 'hierarchically driven', and only what
ers of the world continue to realise new designs is important is presented at any time so as not to
around the slow and calculated evolution of a generic overload the driver.
product. Experience tells them that if they get things The format of a large coupe, Fig 24, reflects the
wrong the costs can be enormous, like the profits if lifestyle of a prosperous semi-retired couple, and the
they get things right. So, advances in new directions designs portrays qualities of sophistication and value.
are difficult to accommodate. Where age-friendly The cars features high shoulder lines to give a feeling
design can succeed is in offering a new direction for of security and the front and rear sections have soft
research and innovation, the results of which can be reactive surfaces that aid protection and reduce repair
introduced to mainstream product ranges and tar- costs. The car would be manufactured from light-
geted at the age sectors which are at present expand- weight steels and re-cyclable plastics.
ing and will continue to do so in future. Designed
correctly, such improvements can appeal to a wider Taxis and people movers
market sector by diminishing age differences and The London Cab has been recently re-designed to
offering real benefits to younger purchasers—a 'car offer more interior space and be wheelchair friendly.
for all' that the marketing people can understand! The London Cab is not only an icon of the capital, it
also offers one of the most flexible transport systems
The 50+ private car
Vehicles targeted at particular user groups e.g. 'la-
dies' or 'oldies' cars, can be seen as patronising and
be rejected by both target group and other potential
purchasers, whereas off-road and MPV's have dem-
onstrated the benefits of a large cabin area, easy entry
and exit, high roofs and large door apertures which
appeal to a majority of consumers and that can be
particularly helpful for older people. The seat height
allows the user to sit 'on' rather than 'in' the car, Fig 26:
aiding parking, improving visibility, and making it Short-haul
easier to turn in the driving seat. taxi
Although few older people are wealthy, a sig-
nificant proportion are 'comfortably' provided for
and some have considerable disposable income. Two
examples from Royal College of Art students Jim
Das and Geoff Gardiner, address this market sector
by exploring a 'classic' solution in terms of styling,
taking care to integrate many of the age-friendly
elements identified above to appeal to drivers of all
ages. Features include sliding doors, level floor,
spacious cabin, increased roof height, lowered boot
access etc., and the interior components are designed
to be adaptable: e.g. the seats can be upgraded to give Fig 27: Driverless taxi
 STRUCTURE AND SAFETY 29

available. Ideally it should form the core of an Short-haul taxi

integrated transport system within the capital, bridg- In designing this taxi, Fig 26, Peri Salvaag envisaged
ing the gap between people's homes and other trans- a future where large parts of the city are closed to cars.
port services like the bus and underground. The The function of this vehicle is move people from
problem is that it is relatively expensive and not easy place to place within the city centre and link tourist
to order for short trips, which means that for many and leisure attractions with public transport. The taxi
older people it is not a viable travel option. A number runs on electricity, with the batteries forming the
of alternative scenarios have been investigated at the floor pan of the vehicle. It would be used for short
Royal College of Art, all of which seek to keep fares journeys, typically lasting less than 20 minutes at
at an affordable level by reducing the capital and relatively slow speeds, and would be able to enter
running costs of the taxi, use information technology pedestrianised areas. Safety is therefore an important
to offer transport on 'demand' — with passengers feature, along with accessibility. The passengers
booking by telephone or teletext — and extending its would order the cab electronically — in the foyer of
user profile to include disabled and older users. a museum say — and be advised about when to
expect it to arrive. The driver is there to provide
security and assistance, and payment would be by
The urban rickshaw credit card.
On London's congested streets a black cab is unlikely Short trips do not require the same level of
to travel more than 60 miles in a day, making an passenger comfort as longer ones do and the vehicle
alternative power source (electricity, hydrogen, LPG) exploits every inch of its tiny footprint with an
feasible. This would reduce space requirements and interior design that features a centrally mounted
design limitations by eliminating engine and gear- driving seat with either two passengers perching
box. Sotoris Kavros drew the inspiration for his behind on small half seats (bum rests), or a wheel-
lightweight taxi, Fig 25, from the Tuk-Tuk rickshaw chair passenger who would enter through a door and
of Indonesia, reworking the idea around an alterna- ramp at the rear. The exterior is designed to look
tive power source. The two passengers sit behind the strong, stable and dignified.
driver, and the Urban Rickshaw has been designed to
be as narrow as possible, to aid travelling through city
streets and parking, while offering good headroom Driverless taxi
and easy access through doors that fold back along- The most radical proposal for a city taxi that has been
side the vehicle. The exterior is styled to look 'taxi- investigated is for a driverless vehicle that would
like' with soft bumpers to prevent pedestrian injury. work within pedestrian zones. The taxi, Fig 27,
The greatly reduced capital cost of this vehicle follows a guidance system in the road surface and is
compared with a new Metro cab costing £28,000, in constant communication with a control station that
could cut fares in half and still offer the driver a good locates vehicles as demanded, manages their jour-
living.

Fig 28: Kyoto tram

(left and next page)
30 VEHICLE DESIGN

neys in the most efficient way and parks them in bus is optimised to work within conventional city
parking zones when not in use. During peak periods, streets and carries ten passengers and their shopping
the vehicles cruise the streets until 'called' by a to keep the journey and waiting times down. Luggage
passenger, just as in the case of the short-haul cab provision is under each seat, wheelchair access being
above. The individual vehicle then picks up the by ramped entry aided by external wheels which
passenger, and the user also advises the drop-off allow the bus to kneel, and the bus is driven by hub
point so that the control station can plan its next motors in the wheel rims, saving valuable space. The
journey. driver will provide security and assistance as re-
The cab is shared by up to four passengers to quired.
reduce costs and optimise use. It has large glass areas
to give the passengers better visibility and a sense of Kyoto tram
security, while gull-wing doors aid entry and protect Kyoto is an historic city and the challenge here was
the interior from the weather. As there is no driver, to design a tram which suits a very wide user profile,
the interior is designed so that passengers face one including older and disabled people, mothers with
another around a central unit on which information children, and tourists, as well as commuters. The
about the city and route is projected. internal layout is spacious with groups of seats re-
placing conventional benches, providing flexible
Shopping ferry seating options for single passengers, couples and
This is a ferry service to be offered by a supermarket people with small children as well as extending the
with the vehicle being commissioned or leased by the clear floor area to aid wheelchair access.
supermarket from the manufacturers. Out-of-town To further aid access the tram has a low floor
developments mean that more people rely on cars, to and large doors that open flush with the sides of the
the detriment of older and disabled people. Back- vehicle and the interior has built-in grab handles.
ground research for this vehicle demonstrated that The tram, Fig 26, features large glazed areas
most supermarket journeys are weekly and less than that offer visibility to seated passengers and those in
one trolley-load of goods per person is purchased. wheelchairs, as well as to standing passengers. Infor-
Regular transport to and from appropriate points, or mation is presented graphically to the passengers on
following a route around housing areas could reduce the internal window surfaces with LCD technology,
road traffic and build customer loyalty. while the exterior of the tram has a low ride height to
In Mike Leadbetter's scenario, the bus would appear non-threatening and a soft, smooth front to
be owned and run by the supermarket and would be minimise accidental injury. At night lighting effects
called or booked by the customer, who would be similar to those used on aircraft would enhance the
collected from a point near their home. The size of the ambience, security, and safety of the vehicle.
 STRUCTURE AND SAFETY 31

Adaptive restraint technologies compartment, to detect a crash through vehicle de-

Airbag systems is considered by Delphi Automotive7 celeration. Using a complex algorithm, the SDM
to be the fastest growing sector of the automotive determines the appropriate conditions and timing for
components market. deploying the airbag. Airbags are triggered at the
The limitations of current technology centre lowest vehicle speed that might produce injury yet
around the fact that most airbag systems today deploy are designed to provide maximum restraint in the
with constant force, regardless of occupant position, worst crash scenarios. Typically, airbags are de-
weight, size or seatbelt usage. Although the majority ployed above 14-22 km/h Equivalent Barrier Speed
of airbag deployments occur in impacts with signifi- (EBS) and require only 50-75 ms to deploy. Adaptive
cantly lower speeds than are used for regulatory Restraints require an estimate of the potential occu-
testing, current system designs make no distinction in pant injury severity to make the best restraint activa-
the level of protection for restrained or unrestrained tion decision. Although they are not necessarily the
occupants, crash severity or the type or position of same, crash severity can be related to occupant injury
occupant involved in the crash. The next generation severity potential. Total change in vehicle velocity
of airbag system will take these factors into account, during the crash, for example, can be used to estimate
monitoring occupants' characteristics and the crash the maximum occupant injury potential. This infor-
severity then tailoring airbag inflation to the situa- mation is needed early in a crash, to determine
tion, Fig 27. severity and appropriate deployment.
Fundamental sensing and control elements for Due to the filtering effect of the vehicle struc-
such systems include: characterisation of vehicle ture during a crash event, the total delta velocity may
crash severity; detection and recognition of occupant not always be established early enough with a single
size and location; sensing restraint system compo- point sensor. To support the crash severity algorithm
nent configuration — seat belt usage, seat position in the SDM, an accelerometer-based sensor located
and presence of a child seat; also adapting restraints in the crush-zone of the,car could be used. This
to achieve maximum protection while minimising information would be sent to the SDM and used for
risk of injury. A Delphi team is developing sensors situations where multi-level deployments are avail-
and restraints for Generation I ART systems targeted able. Delphi is also exploring Anticipatory Crash
for late 1998 and Generation II systems targeted for Sensing (ACS), which senses the speed at which the
2001, Fig 28. vehicle approaches exterior objects, to provide ear-
lier crash severity estimates and significantly im-
Crash severity sensing prove deployment decisions. A rollover sensing mod-
Current airbag systems utilise a Single Point Sensing ule is also being studied which can predict impending
and Diagnostics Module (SDM), in the passenger rollover and pitchover so as to trigger rollover safety
devices, including seat belt reelers, inflatable cur-
tains and side-airbags. Algorithm simulations sug-
gest that it can predict rollover as much as 300
milliseconds in advance of those events, critical for
the occurrence of occupant injury.

Occupant sensing
The company is also developing technologies to
measure occupant mass and position in order to
enable airbag suppression for occupants below a
specified seated weight. This technology could also
be used to classify occupants into weight categories,
thus improving the adaptation of restraint force for
various impact situations. Transponders or 'tags' are
also available for use with rearward facing child
Fig 27: ASI passenger-side low-mount air-bag
32 VEHICLE DESIGN

seats. They can thus be detected by a seat-based This is also true for the desired classification of
sensor and used to disable the airbag. Occupant occupant weight and height based on the restraint
sensing systems can work together with the SDM to system properties. Thus, sensors and airbags devel-
control airbag deployment. oped together will utilise the full capacity of both,
Delphi's Occupant Position and Recognition whereas a 'system' formed by individually devel-
System (OPRS) recognises the passenger position as oped components may be less efficient and more
well as monitoring a specified zone around the airbag complex.
for occupant presence. The system determines whether Collecting, processing and utilising the occu-
a passenger is in the immediate proximity of the pant and crash situation data required for fully devel-
airbag at the time of a possible deployment and oped adaptive restraint systems is a challenge to be
initiates appropriate action. Now under development met by developing a Safety Bus and Distributed
it will initially detect empty seats, rearward facing Restraint System Architecture, based on the 'plug-
infant seats and dangerously close occupants (pas- and-play' concept used in the personal computer
senger airbag only). Several sensing technologies are industry. The new system allows the addition or
under consideration, including infrared, ultrasonic, deletion of sensors and deployment loops (actuators)
thermal and capacitive. However it is likely that the without redesigning the system.
final system will require a combination of these. The Safety Bus concept uses two wires; each
node derives its electrical power directly from the
System integration bus. The 'arbitration' bus architecture allows any
A complete system approach ensures that the limita- device to initiate a transmission when the bus is in an
tions of current airbag systems will be remedied in idle state. The design accommodates two transmis-
the most efficient way. For example, the time at sion rates: high speed (500 kHz) for rapid system
which the crash sensors have to make deployment parameter updates and low speed (10 kHz) for diag-
decisions in order to properly protect the occupant is nostic/sensor information — seat occupancy, weight
closely related to the characteristics of the airbag. and seat belt status. Message throughput on the

Fig 28:
Adaptive
restraint
technologies
 STRUCTURE AND SAFETY 33

company's bus is eight times faster than existing occupant, but that also means it takes up valuable
CAN-bus protocols, it is claimed. space and reduces the leg room for the driver and
A complete system approach also ensures that passenger.
many of the limitations of the current airbags will be Hence, deployable knee-bolsters are now made.
effectively remedied. For example, the time at which This makes it possible to move the dashboard for-
the crash sensors make deployment decisions in ward in the vehicle, as the knee-bolster automatically
order to properly protect the occupant is closely positions itself in proper proximity to the occupants
related to the airbag's characteristics. The desired knees if a crash occurs. Recent development work
classification of occupant weight and height based on has also shown that a properly designed, deployable
the restraint system properties would work in a knee-bolster has the potential to reduce lower leg
similar way. The company offers a complete line of injuries, keeping the legs in a more favourable posi-
highly integrated driver, passenger and side impact tion during a crash.
airbag systems and is an experienced manufacturer The company offers an unique, low-mount
and integrator of steering wheels, dashboards, door airbag for application on the passenger side. It incor-
modules, door trim and airbags leading to fully porates a deployable knee-bolster, which is filled
integrated modular cockpits. Products such as the immediately when the bag deploys. An intricate
Snap-In, Recessed and Invisa-ModTM Integral Steer- chamber system then makes the gas fill different
ing Wheel and Driver Airbag Module consolidate parts of the airbag at different times, thus eliminating
component function in this way. the need for aggressive, immediate inflation of the
whole system . The arrangement allows more free-
Attention to Leg Injuries dom in the design of the passenger area, not only
A conventional airbag system supplements the safety because it eliminates the need for a knee bolster, but
belt in that it offers additional protection to vulner- also because it wraps around and covers the instru-
able areas such as the head, the neck and the spine. ment panel completely, helping to protect the passen-
However, lower body injuries have been put in focus ger from potentially harmful surfaces.
recently because the introduction and use of safety
belts and airbags have greatly reduced the severity of Controlling restraint deployment
most upper body injuries and also because many leg The ability to control airbag deployment force is a
injuries have been found to have long-term conse- critical aspect of any adaptive restraint system. Del-
quences. Traditionally, a 'kneebolster' is used: a phi's Pyrotechnic Actuated Venting (PAV) airbag
padded structure that faces the occupant's knees and module utilises a slide mechanism to direct inflator
applies restraint force to the occupant's lower body energy into the airbag, Fig 29. When combined with
through the femurs. In order to work properly, the developing sensor technology, PAV will provide full
knee-bolster must be positioned fairly close to the or 'lower-power' performance based on sensor input
on occupant and crash characteristics. The system —
available for both driver and passenger applications
— combines the advantages of variable inflation
with the cost-effectiveness of a single output inflator.
Multiple inflators and pyrotechnically control-
led venting help maximise occupant protection and
minimise injury risk by adapting airbag inflation
speed and stiffness to the occupant characteristics
and crash situation. A new generation of algorithms
for these technologies is being computer simulated
and sled testing to evaluate the cost/benefit ratio.
Airbag restraining stiffness can remain 'HIGH', as is
the case with all current airbag systems, or can be
modified to 'NONE' or 'LOW', based on various
Fig 29: Pyrotechnic actuated venting
34 VEHICLE DESIGN
sensor inputs. Note that the 'HIGH' level airbag able as part of the so-called Catcher's Mitt Seating
restraining force is only needed when the occupant is from the company to be introduced this year, Fig 30,
an unbelted adult and the crash severity is moderate where it combines with a high-retention seat and the
to high. ABTS integrated seating and seat belt system in
While fully adaptive restraint systems are not which the belt is attached to and moves with the seat.
yet available, Delphi already produces a unique The seat absorbs energy during rear impact by allow-
airbag design to protect out-of-position passenger- ing the pelvis and lower back to penetrate the seat
side occupants from injury during airbag deploy- squab in a controlled way, safely pocketing the
ment. The patented Bias Deployment Flap airbag occupant during the course of the impact. The Pro-
incorporates a box-shaped guide element, a 'flap' of tech head-restraint is activated by the energy of the
material that diverts the deployment direction of the impact, rearward motion of the occupant actuating a
airbag away from an occupant located too close to the pressure plate and system of levers to move the
deployment surface. Through the Aegis joint ven- restraint. ABTS involves the use of a high-strength
ture, they are able to offer the D-60 driver airbag with seat structure and floor attachment to absorb belt
pyrotechnic, non-azide inflator. The use of non-azide anchorage loads. It particularly suits open car loca-
propellant means that it creates virtually no residue tions where no B-pillar anchorage is available, also
or toxic gas. removable seat situations or those where a large
The Hybrid Inflator System, which was co- amount of adjustment is provided. A low-mass ver-
developed with OEA, provides a smoke-free gas to sion is available weighing 25 kg. Bosch has an-
inflate the cushion; deployment is aided by a small nounced that its Smart Airbag System is being imple-
pyrotechnic charge. Cushion inflation is precisely mented in three stages, the end of 1997 seeing start of
controlled for specified occupant energy manage- production of the SMINC smart inflation concept to
ment and a future adaptive inflation technology will control the sequence of inflation according to the
provide dual-stage inflation of the airbag. particular crash situation. Currently being introduced
is the Automotive Occupancy Sensoring (AOS) sys-
Safety seating developments tem seen in Fig 31 which offers adult and child seat
Other innovative restraint systems by the company occupancy and out-of-position detection devices. In
include the Pro-tech self-aligning head restraint which a latter phase a pre-crash sensor will be able to detect
has been specified for the latest Saab 9-5. It is the relative crash speed before a collision, triggering
designed to reduce whiplash injuries during low individual protection mechanisms before impact.
speed rear impacts, by lifting and moving forward
and upward into the optimum position for occupant
head and neck protection. The system is also avail-

Fig 30: Catcher's Mitt seating Fig 31: AOS system

 Chapter 3:

Powertrain/chassis systems

The challenge of natural gas engines increases as emissions

legislation toughens for petrol and diesel engines. However,
the further development of the small HSDI diesel, and the
direct injection gasoline engine, is showing, thus far, that they
are up to the challenge. The future could also lie in revised
combustion cycles such as the constant-pressure one; there is
considerable scope too in revised valve arrangements on
otherwise conventional 1C engines. In transmission design,
clutch-to-clutch automatics vie with electronically controlled
CVT, while in chassis systems, the mechanics of roll-over
has come under the spotlight again, in vehicle handling
analysis, as has the computer-simulation of suspension linkage
motions.
36 VEHICLE DESIGN

Power-trains: the next stage? drive cycle. These speeds ranged from idling to 120
Careful comparative studies are revealing some strong km/h. Two diesel vehicles were tested for this work.
emissions advantages for natural gas engines, but The vehicles had a normally aspirated IDI engine and
LNG may be preferred to CNG for CVs. For lighter a medium sized turbocharged IDI diesel with cata-
duty vehicles, lean burn natural gas competes with lyst, Fig 2. All three gasoline-fuelled vehicles pro-
advanced diesel and gasoline concepts but the ulti- duce few particulates at idle and low power condi-
mate solution may be IC-engines operating in a tions. Particulates that were formed did not show any
restrictive speed band in conjunction with continu- identifiable distribution. At higher power conditions
ously variable transmission. there were large particulate populations, Fig 3.
Important work on rating particulate emissions Of the fuels tested, 'Vehicle Petrol 1' produced
in terms of environmental damage has been carried the fewest particulates. A significant increase in
out by MIRA's Powertrain & Emissions Technology particulate numbers started as low as 30 km/h and 1.0
team. Using the test set-up seen in Fig 1, a feel for the kW. The peak position developed at around 34 nm.
relative merits of gasoline, diesel and CNG engines 'Petrol 2' produced distributions that were narrower
is obtained in this respect. The research team under and only developed above 80 km/h and 7.1 kW. The
Simon Greenwood have shown that particulate nu- peak first formed at 25 nm, corresponding to the
clei start to grow as they leave the combustion Nucleation Mode, before abruptly shifting to 70 nm
chamber and pass down the exhaust tracts, as tem- at high powers. This shift occurred as the particulates
peratures drop below 300C. Soot particles are found started to aggregate and received condensate from
to agglomerate into chains with hydrocarbons and excess fuel. 'Petrol 3' showed similar behaviour but
nitrates/sulphates condensing on to them. Some 90% at a higher particulate concentration, the higher
of the particle size distribution is below one micron power peak diameter being 40 nm rather than 70 nm.
as measured by the Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer The two CNG-fuelled vehicles produce few
(SMPS) particulates at idle and low load, Fig 4. However
Greenwood explains that particle sizing tests unlike the gasoline vehicles/fuels described above,
used a 20 cm diameter particulate dilution tunnel, the particulates that are formed at low powers tend to
with an exhaust dilution of about 20:1. The exhaust form an identifiable and typically bi-modal nature.
sources were various motor vehicles on a 50 kW The first peak is at 60 nm, the second at 120 nm
emissions chassis dynamometer. The SMPS probe diameter. At higher powers a smaller diameter peak
was a steel tube facing the aerosol flow connected to appeared and grew sharply to produce a very large but
the SMPS inlet. Vehicle and tunnel were precondi- narrow particulate size distribution, with total
tioned by driving at 50 km/h and constant speeds particulate numbers similar to those seen in diesel
were chosen as being representative of the constant and gasoline vehicles. In these tests, this vehicle peak
modal conditions within the European emissions occurred at 20-30 nm.
The diesel vehicles produced similarly shaped
distributions but with the normally aspirated engine
producing rather more particulates. The difference
may be the result of the catalyst on the turbocharged
car. The diesels were the only vehicles to produce
significant quantities of particulate matter at idle.
The measured loaded peak positions were in the
range 70-90 nm for the normally aspirated diesel and
50 -60 nm for the turbo diesel. The particulates at idle
were smaller at 32 and 46 nm respectively. The
particulate diameters pass through a maximum in the
medium power range before decreasing again. This is
the result of the two competing processes. At idle,
there are fewer particulates produced as there is less
fuel delivered to the engine, meaning that the number
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 37

MIRA PARTICULATE SIZE

ANALYSIS EXPERIMENT

Fig 1: Particle size

analysis test set-up
of particulate cores is lower than under load. With around 50 km/h and 3 kW for two of the three
fewer cores available, the particulate chains cannot vehicles. The growth in the distribution is rapid at
grow as long as under load. In addition, the concen- road loads over 10 kW. In two of the gasoline
tration of excess hydrocarbons is low so less conden- vehicles, this growth is paralleled with a shift to
sation occurs. As the fuelling increases, the mean higher diameter, 40 nm and 70 nm respectively,
chain length and condensation rate increase. How- clearly showing the bi-modal nature of the particulate
ever, at high powers, although the number of size distributions as the shift is the change between
particulates is very large, the exhaust throughput is the Nucleation mode and an Accumulation mode. It
also rapid. This means that whilst agglomeration has been suggested that the engine oil also has a role
does occur, it has less time to proceed to completion. in this behaviour, Greenwood points out. The
In general the gasoline vehicles produced much particulate numbers at high power are similar to those
lower particulate concentrations than the diesel at seen in the diesel experiments.
low and medium powers. At higher loads a peak Generally, the natural gas vehicles produced
forms in the range 20 to 30 nm, half that seen in the few particulates at low load. However there was a
diesel experiments. The initial peak is formed at clear bi-modal distribution at this load. This indicates

Fig 3: Gasoline particulate size

distribution
38 VEHICLE DESIGN
that there is a mechanism working to produce these
particulates unlike in the gasoline vehicles. At high
loads, the number of particulates increased very
sharply. The high load distributions are very narrow
and have peak values an order of magnitude higher
than for diesel and gasoline although at a smaller
diameter. This allows the total number of particulates
under the distributions to be quite significant even in
comparison to the diesel and gasoline vehicles.
Greenwood concludes that all three fuel cat-
egories produce significant numbers of particulates Fig 5: Road traffic NOx emissions, AD 2000 estimate
at high engine loading but at low loads it is the diesel
which is the significantly heavier polluter and
particulate size, too, is significantly higher.

Truck and bus emissions

In a seminar held by Millbrook Proving Ground, the
results of tests on truck emissions were reported
which were based on what the GM facility calls 'real-
world' emissions testing. This is an important dis-
tinction because current heavy-duty vehicle legisla-
tion is based on engine-dynamometer rather than
whole-vehicle testing. Using Millbrook's VTEC fa-
cility complete vehicles are evaluated for emissions
under simulated operating conditions approaching
field service.
The Proving Ground's Andrew Eastlake dem-
onstrated the importance of using equipment such as
VTEC since on choosing a catalyst formulation for a
London bus, to give best results on the legislative
dynamometer tests, this actually showed a conver-
sion efficiency of only 40% under the 'real-life'
conditions of the VTEC tests. By examining tran-

Fig 6: Brake specific HC (top) CO

(middle) and NOx (bottom) emissions

Fig 4: CNG particulate size

distribution
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 39
sient- operation emission data Eastlake found con- seminar by the pie chart of Fig 5, referring particu-
siderable cooling-off of the catalyst over long peri- larly to NOx emission in the year 2000. This is
ods, typified by long periods of idle experienced, say, despite the far lower vehicle volumes in this category
in Oxford Street. On re-selecting a catalyst formula- than those of passenger cars. In the case of buses,
tion to give best results on VTEC tests, 90-95% however, the engine emissions for passengers carried
conversion levels were obtained. are much lower than those applying to passenger
The crucial importance of truck and bus testing cars. With the European 13 Mode test for heavy-duty
was also demonstrated by the projected emissions vehicle engines, testing is carried out at a series of
levels for different vehicle categories, shown at the steady speeds and loads, emissions being measured at
each point. There is no measurement of transient
acceleration effects nor cold-start emission effects.
Because one type of engine is used in a variety of
different heavy-duty vehicle types, the engine manu-
facturer only needs to design and calibrate one engine
iteration. Once this is homologated it can be sold to
many different vehicle builders who are likely to
optimize the installed engine for fuel economy and
driveability rather than reduced emission levels. It is
Fig 7: BOC DS LNG-powered ERF therefore proposed to adopt a new transient cycle test
for Europe in AD 2000. However, it is still likely to
be based on engine, rather than vehicle, testing.

CNG's advantage over gasoline

Research at the University of British Columbia1,
carried out over a wide range of air/fuel ratios, has
shown while generally power output is reduced by
some 12% with CNG (compared with gasoline) due
to the displacement of air by the gas, emission levels
were substantially reduced. While both fuels exhib-
ited nearly equal thermal efficiency, importantly
natural gas showed increased efficiency at very lean
mixture running, due to an extension of the lean limit
of combustion over gasoline. The authors argue that
by using a lean-burn strategy, with a carefully
optimized SI CNG-engine, this might result in both
light- and heavy-duty engines meeting current and
Fig 8: Gas storage requirement for equivalent
proposed emissions regulations without the need for
range, CNG (top) against LNG (bottom).
a catalytic converter.
Tests were carried out in the university' s Alter-
native Fuels Laboratory in a Ricardo Hydra engine at
three speeds and for one full-load plus two part-load
conditions. Emissions results are shown in Fig 6 as a
function of relative air/fuel ratio (RAFR) for gasoline
(G) and natural gas (NG). At wide open throttle, HC
emissions are some 50% lower with CNG while CO
was 100% lower for all operating ranges. NOx levels
have similar peak values, for both fuels, under full-
load conditions but the advantage increases for CNG
Fig 9: Torque characteristics: diesel vs gas under part-load conditions.
40 VEHICLE DESIGN

Liquified natural gas (LNG) engines. However, with a relatively large injector
The 12.2 litre Perkins Eagle LNG engine has demon- and small bore, the space available for valves was
strated the effectiveness of natural gas in a real naturally at a premium. The critical section was
operating environment, used in ten ERF tractor units between the fuel injector and inlet valve centres, Fig
operating for BOC Distribution Services, Fig 7. The 10. The maximum size of inlet valves was limited on
320 bhp engine is developed from the Perkins 2000 one side by the clearance to the cylinder bore and on
Series of gas engines and Eagle TX range of diesels. the other side by the requirement to achieve a coolant
The so-called TxSi unit is air-to-air charge cooled, path between the inlet port and the injector, also
fitted with a wastegated turbocharger and two-way between the valve springs and injector. The use of a
oxidation catalyst. LNG has a fuel density over separate injector sleeve, in preference to a cast boss,
double that of CNG, allowing more energy to be has allowed for the maximum possible inlet valve
stored in a smaller volume, Fig 8. LNG also has size whilst maintaining cooling and casting integrity.
consistently high methane content, which allows Together the inlet valves shown gave a total flow area
reliable running in high compression ratio engines of around 15% of the bore area which was shown by
and gives more consistent emission control, say simulation to allow performance targets to be reached.
Varity-Perkins. Fig 11 shows three possible porting arrange-
The IMPCO electronic air and fuel manage- ments: (a) shows two directed inlet ports and a
ment system is a key feature of the engine. It simul- tandem exhaust port. This achieved a swirl ratio of
taneously measures the mass of both air and gas, in a 2.5 Rs and was also unrestrictive, leading to high
direct manner and with very fast response, so that the volumetric efficiency — but had the disadvantage
unit returns very low emission levels even under that narrow water jacket sections under the ports
transient operating conditions. It meets AD 2000 would result in weak sand cores and potential casting
legal requirements and, because LNG contains virtu- problems. The small bore of 70 mm meant that it was
ally no sulphur, long catalyst life is predicted. Noise not possible to separate, with coolant, the long inlet
emission is also very considerably less and at idle the port wall from the exhaust port of the next cylinder,
level is down by 7 dBA against diesel. As seen in the
torque characteristic of Fig 9, the engine can lug
comfortably down almost to low idle speed.
Exploiting the low CO2
emission of small HSDI diesels
Ricardo engineers2 have shown the possibilities of
using diesel propulsion for sub-B class cars which
will emit less than 90 g/km CO2 exhaust emission.
Potential fuel consumption less than 3 litre/100 km is
also mooted for a 1.2 litre 4-cylinder engine with 70
mm bore. Such a car would have weight of 750-800
kg and power rating of 45-55 kW. Fuel injection and
maximum cylinder pressures (140-150 bar) are both
considerably higher than existing HSDI diesels and
common rail fuel distribution, with 17 mm dia injec-
tor, is suggested.
According to the authors, the current industry
'standard' 17 mm diameter fuel injectors are more
suitable for truck engines than small passenger cars
when packaging for diameter and length. Experience
has proved that an injector mounted vertically and
central in the bore between a 4-valve pattern typi-
cally provides the best overall performance for HSDI Fig 10: Injector/inlet-valve positions
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 41

introducing the possibility of inlet charge heating, (b) integral solenoid which fits completely inside the 17
shows two helical ports, one long and one short. This mm body of the injector. The figure shows that an
arrangement had similar performance but the added injector with an integral solenoid offered improved
advantage that if inlet port deactivation was consid- packaging into the 300 cc/cylinder engine. This
ered, a better range and control of swirl was possible, injector allowed for more freedom of valve-train
(c) shows side by side helical inlet ports, found to be design and achieved the smallest overall package
restrictive and also limited to a maximum swirl ratio size in the cylinder head area. Another advantage was
of 2.1. Their structure does not improve cylinder that, due to its relatively short length and top fuel
head stiffness, unlike the tandem arrangements. feed, it was possible to design a novel fuel rail which
The packaging of the fuel injectors considered would also function as an injector clamp on a multi-
was dependent on their type, Fig 12. Two types of cylinder engine.
common rail injector were investigated: internal and The main constraints on the valve-train were
external solenoid designs. Both B and C had external that the four valves had to be close to vertical and the
solenoid designs where the solenoid is attached to the injector had to package in the centre of the bore. Fig
injector either in-line or at 90 deg to the body. With 13 shows the alternative valve-train layouts that were
this type the solenoid envelope requires a space of considered most feasible. DOHC direct-attack was
approximately 30 X 70 mm; A, however, has an the simplest and potentially least expensive valve-
train, but required a 9 deg valve included angle to
allow for the central injector. This meant that dead
volume in the head increased, which dropped the 'K
factor' below the minimum desirable level of 70%. A
DOHC valve-train was feasible, however, when us-
ing finger followers which allowed positioning of the
camshafts away from the centre of the engine and
provided adequate clearance to the fuel injector.
a) Directed ports b) Long and short helical ports c) Side by side helical ports Although this design would be more expensive and
less stiff than the direct-attack design the vertical
valve inclinations allowed the least possible dead
Fig 11: Alternative porting volumes and hence the lowest predicted engine emis-
sions. Both alternative SOHC valve-train layouts
used bridge pieces to connect the inlet and exhaust
valve pairs.
The SOHC-rocker design had a low camshaft
and hence potentially the smallest overall package
height when also considering the camshaft pulley.
However, this design would be more expensive than
the SOHC-finger design because of the extra rocker
shaft machining required. OHV-pushrod/rocker was
Injector A Injector B considered feasible for a low cost design but the
performance of the engine would probably be limited
by the high inertia and low stiffness of the valve-train
components, making it impossible to produce the
accelerations required to achieve the desired valve
performances. Electro-hydraulic operation of the
valves was investigated briefly, and potentially the
freedom to have variable control over valve timing,
lift, and duration would naturally allow for better
Injector C optimization of the gas exchange process including
Fig 12: Alternative injector installations internal EGR.
42 VEHICLE DESIGN

The main structure could be conventional, liner is inserted. With this arrangement it was possi-
using separate cylinder block and head, or a ble to achieve acceptable tool clearance with valve
monoblock, Fig 14. Aluminium was considered a sizes large enough to achieve the required perform-
good compromise between cost and performance, a ance. In order to achieve good fuel consumption,
possible engine structure being shown left, the alu- parasitic losses to engine ancillaries must be mini-
minium head and block being through bolted from mized. Mechanical drives to these components means
underneath, which allows extra packaging space for they are driven at speeds in a fixed ratio to engine
valve-train and fuel equipment in the cylinder head. speed rather than at their most efficient operating
The pistons are shown running in the parent bore conditions. An alternative to a conventional alterna-
aluminium which would be surface treated to achieve tor is to use a flywheel starter/generator which could
acceptable wear resistance. A monoblock engine be used to crank the engine at high speed for starting
structure is shown right. The head and block are and then generate the required electrical output once
integral, and the structure is completed by a bolted the engine is running. High speed cranking would
bedplate. The more uniform loading and cooling of help to reduce start- up emissions and electrical drive
the upper cylinder would reduce bore distortion and input could improve idle stability and reduce emis-
hence reduce oil consumption and oil sourced emis- sions during critical phases of the drive cycle. This
sions. Satisfactory manufacture of a monoblock system would be more commercially feasible if the
presents some difficulties. Firstly, the cylinder bore HSDI engine were used in a hybrid diesel and electric
cannot be through-honed due to the closure of the vehicle. With vehicle demands for greater electrical
cylinder by the gas face, which means honing would outputs the demands on alternators has increased.
stop short of the gas face. A piston with a deep top Alternator manufacturers are developing water cooled
land would then be required, penalizing emissions alternators which have higher outputs and are less
due to the increased crevice volume. This honing noisy than their air cooled predecessors, the authors
problem could be solved by inserting a fully honed point out.
dry liner into the bore, the only penalty being a small A novel approach to packaging the ancillaries
increase in engine length and weight; also machining for a 1.2 litre HSDI engine is shown in Figure 15. The
the valve seat insert bores into the gas face has to be air conditioning compressor is mounted at the front
done through the bore. However, using a dry liner of the engine with its clutch being driven directly
means that extra clearance is available before the from the crankshaft. A belt from the crankshaft

SOHC - Rocker SOHC - Finger OHV - Pushrod/Rocker

Fig 13: Alternative

valve-train layouts DOHC-Direct Attack DOHC - Finger
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 43

pulley would drive a water cooled alternator, also sion configuration were considered, conventional
front-mounted. Electrical power steering would be transaxle and an integrated engine and transmission
used. This arrangement reduces the width of the structure. A transverse mounted engine with front
engine and in a transverse installation would mean wheel drive was assumed in both cases. A conven-
either increased frontal crash protection or the possi- tional bolt-on transaxle transmission provides the
bility to reduce bonnet length. Two types of transmis- opportunity to easily adopt a range of transmissions
Timing belt housing for the vehicle. These would probably include manual,
Water cooled automatic, CVT and AWD. It is also known current
alternator technology. An integrated engine and transmission is
shown in Fig 16. This arrangement has the transmis-
sion components housed in the cylinder block with
the final drive on the split line between the block and
the bedplate. This powertrain would be stiffer and
hence quieter than a conventional design, and would
also be lighter. Overall powertrain length is reduced,
which allows the engine to be mounted more cen-
trally and for the drive shafts to have equal lengths,
reducing torque steer and part-count. The disadvan-
tage of this arrangement is that it would be more
Fig 15: Ancillary packagi difficult to have vehicles with a range of transmis-
sions when compared to a conventional bolt-on
transaxle transmission.
Direct injection gasoline
Ricardo engineers are also taking direct-injection
gasoline engines closer to production realization
with work on the optimization of the combustion
system3. In-cylinder gas sampling has been used to
obtain local air-fuel ratio measurements in the devel-
Transmission opment of a suitable piston bowl design. The meas-
integral with engine
urements are used to validate CFD codes valuable to
the design process. Stable combustion at 50a-60:1A/
Fig 16: Integrated engine/transmission F ratios has enabled unthrottled operation down to

Fig 14: Through-bolt (left) and monoblock (right) configurations

44 VEHICLE DESIGN

zero load.
Relatively low cost electronically controlled
common-rail fuel injection systems are spurring a
renewed interest in stratified-charge combustion, say
the authors, using the technique of early injection at
full load and late injection at part-load. Reduced
cold-start enrichment and improved fuelling control
in transient operation are also in sight, with the
eventual goal of achieving the theoretically possible
fuel economy of a diesel coupled with specific power
of a gasoline engine. Success will depend on efforts
now being made to control NOx emissions in the lean
exhaust. Fig 17: Fuel stratification and transport mechanism
The optimum-shaped piston bowl of the com-
bustion chamber is one which can produce an ignit-
able mixture at the spark-plug at a crank angle for
phased combustion to occur, producing best trade-off
between thermodynamic efficiency and HC/NOx
emissions over a wide speed/load range. Ricardo
have modelled the process in the four steps of Fig 17:
(a) applying Bernoulli's theorem to the fluid flow in
the injector nozzle to calculate spray characteristics;
(b) comparing spray penetration with piston position
to predict time when impingement on the piston is
reached; (c) fuel flow along the piston until it de-
taches as a vapour cloud; (d) assistance by air motion
in bringing the vapour to the plug in time for ignition;
Fig 18 shows a dynamic visualization of the flow-
field using CFD.
Fig 19 shows an example result of the total
calculation over the four steps, its use being in the
quick screening of combustion chamber design op- Fig 18: Dynamic visualization of in-cylinder flow field
tions. Here, four different start-of-ignition timings
have been used in calculating the fuel spray trajecto-
ries prior to piston impingement. After flow along the
piston and departure as a spray-cloud, it is assumed
the tumble motion, measured at BDC by CFD, is
compressed into the bowl as the piston rises and an
angular momentum calculation is used to estimate air
velocity at the edge of the piston bowl and hence the 20
transportation time for the cloud to reach the plug. In-
cylinder sampling tests were carried out using flat-
piston crown, square and spherical bowl shapes,
start-of-injection being varied between 310 and 330
deg and injection duration held at 20 deg, equivalent TDC

to a load of 2.5 bar BMEP. Resulting A/F ratio at the

-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5
plug is seen in Fig 20. SampleValve Timing At Maximum Lift (deg. ATDC)
Fig 19: Fuel spray transport calculation result
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 45

Constant-pressure
cycle: the future for diesels?
Researchers at Newcastle University and the Dalian
Maritime University in China4 have hinted that the
limitations on diesel development, imposed by se-
vere exhaust pollution control regulations, may be
solved by unlocking the cycle efficiency of the
constant-volume cycle.
A variable engine cylinder volume controlled
by cylinder pressure has been achieved in a diesel
-35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 S 10 15 20
engine modified by a hydraulic cylinder, Fig 21,
Sample Valve Timing At Maximum Lift (deg. ATDC)
inserted into the connecting rod. The diesel engine
Fig 20: Effect of injection timing on A/F ratio at with oil-cushioned piston gives the unit its name of
the plug Deocp. It is characterized by high cycle efficiency,
improved low-load performance and good starting
ability. The theoretical combustion cycle for the
engine is seen in Fig 22 (points 123451) overlaid on
the conventional cycle (12'3451).
The effective stiffness K (with corresponding
Piston constant pressure Pk) of the hydraulic cylinder can be
altered to change the characteristics of the engine, the
Hydraulic table of Fig 23 indicating that engine compression
cylinder ratio £ and efficiency n increase as the engine load p1
Connecting Piston rod decreases. A solid connecting rod is given by k= 2.26
bolt
X 109 and here it is seen that efficiency does not
Hydraulic change with load.
oil In tests of a physical engine, account had to be
Fig 21: Hydraulically-sprung connecting rod taken of the fact that piston movement on the Deocp
is not exactly dependent on crank angle, owing to the
hydraulic spring, hence the measurement technique
shown in Fig 24 was used by the authors. Tests were
carried out at 100, 90, 75, 50 and 25% full load.
Results in Fig 25 (the PV diagram) show the 9%
increase in thermal efficiency at 25% full load and
the 1.6% gain at full load.
The authors attribute the gain in thermal effi-
ciency to the piston of the Deocp reaching its highest
position, at the end of the exhaust stroke, because of
its inertial force. Improved scavenging results from
small clearance volume, and high static compression
ratio, especially at low loads. Swirl is also created at
this point by the rapid increase in cylinder pressure.
The authors have calculated that the combus-
tion process finishes about 7 degrees of crank angle
earlier than that of a comparable conventional diesel.
In examination of the indicator diagram, in crank-
angle form (Fig 26), it can be deduced that the
Fig 22: Ideal cycle for Deocp engine cylinder pressure of the conventional engine (CE) is
 46 VEHICLE DESIGN

higher than the Deocp at the beginning of the com- and the expansion line of the Deocp is resultingly
pression stroke because the CE has a relatively large higher. The diagram also shows significant compres-
amount of remnant waste gas. After about 55 degrees sion of the hydraulic spring occurs at about 4 degrees
of crank angle BTDC the Deocp's compression pres- BTDC, where combustion starts, with maximum
sure increases faster because of its high compression compression taking place 10 degrees ATDC.
ratio. During the expansion stroke, as cylinder pres- SFC results are shown in Fig 27 and the de-
sure falls, the compression energy stored inside the tailed test results in Fig 28.
hydraulic spring is released to the engine cylinder

K (N/m) (bar) (bar) p2

7
Displacement
1.49 X 10 49.05 2.455 12.52 1.235 .569 60.27
1.962 13.22 1.228 .608 61.20 Pushing rod
1.471
0.981
14.17
1 5.46
1.218
1.197
.653
.719
62.37
63.86
I5 DMC-101

61.57 Displacemei
2.26 X 10 9 39.24 2.455 1 1 .67 1.010 .732
1.962 11.67 1.008 .895 61.57 2 transducer
1.471 11.67 1 .006 2.116 61.64 I Spring
0.981 11.67 1 .004 2 548 61.70

Fig 23: Ideal cycle efficiency Fig 24: Piston displacement measurement
80 Engine Load
70 100% DEOCP
Static TDC
60 100%'CE
DEOCP pislon displacement at 100% load
Spring low end displacement 50 25% DEOCP
40
25% CE
30
Engine Load
100%OCDE 20
100%CE 10
25%OCDE
0
25% CE
10 20 30 40 56 60 70
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 100 120 140
Cylinder volume (x10" m )5 3
Crank shaft angle (°CA)

Fig 26: Cylinder pressure vs crank-angle Fig 25: Cylinder pressure vs volume

Diesel engine with an oil cushioned piston Comparison engine

Load (%) 100 90 75 50 25 100 90 75 50 25
11.72 13.28 14.95 15.93 13.29 13.29 13.29 13.29 13.29
p\ (bar) 1.76 1.65 1.47 1.23 1.05 1.76 1.65 1.47 1.23 1.05
n (r/min) 1010 965 905 799 636 1010 965 907 794 630
Ni (kW) 6.29 5.01 4.59 3.34 1.97 6.20 5.61 4.63 3.14 1.59
39.17 35.82 37.39 36.26 32.91 38.56 40.19 37.46 35.28 30.19
g, (g/kW h) 215.22 235.38 225.47 232.50 256.21 218.63 209.79 225.05 238.94 279.23
p3 (bar) 79.59 76.75 69.53 58.66 50.47 80.14 70.88 63.99 51.43 41.37
45.07 4629 47.25 47.46 47.63 45.38 42.75 43.48 41.61 39.05
Ne(kW) 5.23 4.68 3.86 2.62 1.13 5.42 4.96 4.06 2.73 1.33
ne (%) 32.59 33.64 31.42 28.47 21.83 33.70 35.55 32.91 30.70 25.18
ge (g/kW h) 258.67 250.60 268.28 296.09 386.30 250.15 237.13 256.13 274.64 334.78
t1 (°C) 16.5 17.0 17.5 17.5 18 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.0
tc (°C) 250 242 244 236 200 250 242 249 242 224
Remark e0 = 18.47, K = 1.68 X K)7 N/m, = 38 bar
Fig 28: Full test-results
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 47

Valve arrangements for opment work was therefore carried out on a 10.5:1
compression ratio 4-valve per cylinder engine, fitted
enhanced engine efficiency with air-assist fuel injection.
Three recent contributions to the literature of engine Previous work had shown that increasing barrel
design and development show how major changes in swirl alone was not enough to achieve charge dilution
engine efficiency can be effected by different valve tolerance and hence the decision to increase both
control systems and configurations axial and barrel swirl with an arrangement as seen in
Fig 29 used for high activity, homogeneous charge
Intake valve disablement
control. Prior to disabling the second inlet valve, an
According to Rover researchers5 the technique of
inducer in the form of a port mask was fabricated to
disabling airflow through one inlet valve (Rover
give barrel swirl ratio of 2.4 with both ports flowing.
Asymmetric Combustion Enhancement, RACE) is a
Flow testing of the cylinder head the gave the results
way of generating stronger axial and barrel swirl to
of Fig 30.
improve engine combustion efficiency. In conjunc-
Air/fuel ratio loops at a 2000 rpm/2-bar BMEP
tion with EGR it improved efficiency from 3 to 7%
test condition were obtained for the RACE engine,
and with lean burn from 7 to 11%. Because high
with and without the inducer, and compared with the
levels of EGR or excess air normally lead to poor
base engine as shown in Fig 31. A very good lean burn
ignitability, slower combustion, instable combustion
limit and large fuel economy benefit resulted, with
and unburnt HC emissions, a method has to be found
the low-swirl engine working slightly better than the
of increasing the tolerance of charge dilution. Devel-
high swirl one. Generally, high activity of the RACE
engine speeds up the early burn and stabilises lean
300 combustion. Lean burn NOx limit emissions were
also lower than the base engine although emissions
280 were higher at stoichiometric due to the faster burn
of the RACE system. Higher EGR tolerance and
260 greater fuel consumption better than the base engine
were also achieved.
240 Hot-wire anemometry measurements were used
to show that high levels of turbulence were present
220 while maintaining low bulk velocities in the combus-
tion chamber, believed by the authors to be the key to
200 igniting a dilute mixture.
550 660 750 850 960 1050
Engine speed (rpm)
Fig 27: Specific fuel consumption
Exhaust valve
removed for
Air+fuel( +EGR) previous project

Fig 29: High activity, Port blanked Central spark

plug
homogeneous charge concept
Barrel swirl Axial swirl ratio
ratio
Base head 1.2 0.0
Base head with port blanked ("RACE, low 2.2 2.6
swirl")
Port blanked + 2.4 inducer ("RACE, high 3.2 4.5
Fig 30: Results of flow tests swirl")
48 VEHICLE DESIGN

Late intake valve closing compression device for reducing clearance volume.
Researchers at Sheffield Hallam University have 6 The Sheffield Hallam approach of allowing a
shown fuel savings as much as 7% can be obtained by two-state LIVC control involves a relatively simple
the elimination of most of the pumping work energy mechanism compared with that used by earlier work-
loss inherent in late intake valve closing (LIVC) load ers, some of the load control being carried out with a
control. They have also shown that, combined with a conventional throttle. Seen in Fig 33, the arrange-
variable compression ratio device, LIVC can achieve ment consists of an intake camshaft with a profile to
up to 20% savings and a two-state LIVC control cause late closing of the intake valve at all times
mechanism is under evaluation. while for full-load operation a reed valve in the intake
Energy loss in pumping gas past the throttle, to manifold prevents the charge being rejected from the
the point where no useful output is generated at idle, cylinder. At low loads the reed valve is bypassed to
is considered by the authors to be an important allow the charge to return to the manifold. The
contributor to engine inefficiency. The LIVC con- authors point out that the reed valve must be posi-
cept achieves engine power modulation without the tioned as close as possible to the inlet valve while
need for a throttle valve, trapped charge mass being leaving sufficient space for the bypass. Future devel-
reduced by keeping the valve open during a portion opment is seen as incorporating the system within an
of the compression stroke, allowing excess induced Otto-Atkinson cycle engine
charge to be returned to the intake manifold. Fig 32
compares the throttled and LIVC engines by their PV
diagrams, shaded areas depicting pumping losses.
While conventional variable valve-timing mecha- Conventional throttling Late intake valve closing

nisms can alter valve phasing by some 30%, the

authors consider that for pure LIVC operation altera-
tions in excess of 100% are necessary.
Earlier workers reportedly noted a slight loss in
indicated thermal efficiency with LIVC, mostly Pumping loss
caused by a reduction in effective compression ratio.
Some workers used a secondary camshaft above the
rockers, on a push-rod engine, to achieve LIVC of up
to 90 degrees of crank angle. Other workers report-
edly tackled the loss of thermal efficiency by adopt- TDC
ing the Otto-Atkinson combustion cycle, restoring
the compression ratio at light loads by a variable Fig 32: Part load modulation by late intake valve closing
102 -

100

92

90
20 22 24 26 28
Fig 31: Effect of AFR on fuel AFR
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 49

Multiple valve arrangements

With the trend to increasing efficiency by the use of
multi-valve combustion chambers, researchers at
Queen Mary and Westfield College, London Univer-
sity7, have developed a simple method of making
preliminary assessments of such schemes, based on
calculation of valve effective flow areas for cham-
bers with eight or less valves. Seven valve heads are
seen as an upper limit, with 5-7 valve systems
meriting investigation in view of 4-valve heads being
shown to have a 37% increase in valve area over the
traditional 2-valve systems.
Effective area is calculated from the steady
flow equations applied to a constant pressure model
for obtaining steady mass flowrate. The authors
quote expressions for effective area in both choked
and unchoked modes of flow. They obtain a non-
dimensional effective area by dividing the above
values by the generic area of the valve seat as pd 2 /4.
Six valve Eight valve
The resulting values are compared in Fig 34/35 for
(b)
different poppet valves as a function of valve lift.
Maximum ideal area, generic area, of a single
valve (Fig 34) is given by the authors as

[R/(l + cosec a)] 2p

and for TV valves the half angle a is p/N and the

Single valve Three valve Five valve
generic area ratio
(0
Fig 34: Generic areas for (a) single, and
4n.(r/R)2
Fig 35:(b) even number and (c) odd
number of valves

Fig 33: Reed valve location

50 VEHICLE DESIGN

where j = i or e, the ratio of valve and cylinder radii

and area ratios being shown in the table of Fig 36; the
generic flow area ratio of the different valve arrange-
ments is seen in Fig 37. These two figures describe
the authors' key ideas, the last figure having curves
intended only to show curves, just the points having
physical meaning.
The analysis above is based on inlet and ex-
haust valves of identical head diameter and Fig 38 has
been provided to show an extension of the analysis
for unequal size heads. This three valve case has the
same exhaust area as that for the two valve head while
the inlet valves have a 58% combined larger area.
The method could be used to optimize valve areas,
possibly, the authors suggest, by slightly increasing
exhaust while reducing inlet valve head sizes, to give
significant overall gain.
A special case for 5-valve heads is made (1)
with two inlet valves the same size as in the four-
valve head, giving 37% increase in area over the two-
valve case and (2) with three exhaust valves the same
size as those for the six-valve case, giving a 33% area
increase. These points are shown in Fig 39. Fig 38: Ideal 3-valve scheme

Ref 4 Cylinder diameter 8.255 cm

Ref 4 Cylinder diameter 10.16cm
Ref 3
Ref 6

Fig 39: Poppet valve

0.2 0.3 0.4
effective area
Valve lift l/d
comparison
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 51
O Inlet' valves
A Exhaust valves
• Inlet and exhaust valves,
2.4- number of

2.2- Curve for N - 1 valves

used for inlet
Seven valve
2.0-

V - 2 inlet
1.8- valves

1.6-

1.4-

Fig 37: Generic area ratio to

total number of valves for van
multi-valve schemes
Cases considered
Area ratio Area ratio
Total number Half angle Number of Number of for number for number
of valves subtended Radius ratio inlet exhaust of inlet of exhaust
used by one valves valves valves valves
valve a K ne nc

1 180° Practical value 1 — 1

say 0.5
2 90° 1/2 = 0.5 1 1 1 1
3 60° 0.4641 2 1 1.7231 0.8616
4 450 1 3 1 2.0592 0.6864
2 2 1.3728 1.3728
1+ 2
5 36° 0.3702 4 1 2.1927 0.5482
3 2 1.6445 1.0963
6 30° i = 0.3333 5 1 2.2222 0.4444
4 2 1.7778 0.8888
3 3 1.3333 1.3333
7 25.7143° 0.3026 4 3 1.4656 1.0992
8 22.5° 0.2768 7 1 2.1448 0.3064
6 2 1.8384 0.6128
5 3 1.5320 0.9192
4 4 1.2256 1.2256
7 — 1/3 = 0.3333 4 3 1.7778 1.3333
Special
case

Fig 36: Poppet valve half angles, radius ratios, area ratios and number of valves considered
52 VEHICLE DESIGN

Trends in transmission design in the table of Fig 42. The elimination of the two parts
meant that two separate approaches to maintaining
The design of the 4-speed all-clutch-to-clutch elec- the performance criteria had to be taken.
tronically-controlled automatic transmission devel- When the conventional transmission shifts up
oped by Honda for the 1998 Accord was described from 1st to 2nd, engine torque output first is transmit-
recently by company engineers8. Newly developed ted to the main shaft via the torque converter, then on
technology guarantees improved shift quality and to the idle gear, secondary shaft, 1st clutch, 1st gear,
fail-safe at high speed without dependency on one- one-way clutch, countershaft and finally to the drive
way clutches as in the more conventional system it shaft. The computer starts to engage the 2nd clutch
replaced. Already, by 1996, the company had devel- when 1st to 2nd gear requirement is indicated, and
oped an all-clutch-to-clutch 3-shaft design of short when 2nd-gear torque has increased to equal mainshaft
overall length. Old and new gear train schematics are torque, the transmission changes to the inertia phase
shown in Fig 40. and 2nd gear takes over all power transmission. At
In the conventional system seven engaging this point the one-way clutch overruns so that 1st gear
elements involve five multiple disk clutches, a 1-2 does not contribute to power transmission and the
one-way clutch and a servomechanism. The shift quality is governed by the drive shaft torque as
countershaft-mounted one-way clutch transmits driv- the product of mainshaft torque Tm and ratios i of 2nd
ing torque when accelerating in 1 st gear but it overruns and final drive F gears.
without torque transmission when decelerating in When shifting up from 1st to 2nd gear with the
this gear or when driving in other gears. In 1 st gear the new transmission, operation is the same as for the
holding clutch engages to apply engine braking for conventional one up to the point when the computer
deceleration. The one-way clutch thus performs dual starts to engage the 2nd clutch. Then, when second
functions of improving up-shift quality from 1st to gear torque has increased to the sum of mainshaft and
2nd and preventing 1st gear drive when a high speed Ist-gear torques, the transmission changes to the
malfunction occurs. inertia phase. As the transmission does not have a
In the new system there are five engaging one-way clutch, the 1st gear contributes to power
elements comprising four clutches and a servomecha- transmission and the drive shaft torque is given by:
nism. The 1st clutch transmits torque, while acceler-
ating in 1st, to the 1st range and applies engine T m i2 if -T (i1 -i2) if
braking for deceleration. Cross-section of the new
transmission is shown in Fig 41 and its specification The minimum drive shaft torque value, when
3rd 4th
1 st Gear Holding Main Shaft Reverse Main Shaft

Counter Shaft
a a_
a
1 Servo Secondary Shaft

11I
a

1
1-2 One-way

Fig 40: Gear train schematics for conventional (left) and new Honda (right) automatic transmissions
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 53

the clutch-to-clutch transmission changes from the

torque phase to the inertia phase, is reduced by T](il
- i2) ip. At this time the driver senses that the torque
has dropped and the shift quality has deteriorated.
Therefore, in order to prevent this deterioration in
shift quality, it was necessary to establish a method
for accurately controlling the 1st and 2nd clutch
hydraulics at highly precise timing so that T1 = O
when Tm = T2 Dealing with the occurrence of high
speed malfunction in the conventional transmission
involved a fuel cut operating as engine speeded
above its set limit and overunning of the one-way
2nd clutch clutch. With the new transmission a centrifugal hy-
draulic cancellation device eliminated centrifugal
pressure build-up by the rotating 1st and 2nd clutches;
the control system is reworked and two linear sole-
noid added which switch clutch hydraulics at the
appropriate timings. There is also a new shift-logic
hydraulic circuit employing a fail-safe system, in-
volving three non-linear switching solenoids, to pre-
vent downshifting into 1st with an engine overspeed.

CVT for 2-litre engined vehicle

Fig 41: Honda automatic transmission Nissan engineers9 have succeeded in commercializ-
ing continuously variable transmission for the upper-
middle class of car, and improving accelerative per-
formance from rest over existing CVT systems by the
incorporation of a torque converter which has also
resulted in better creep capability. The electronic

Model F23A
Engine Version 2.31 SOHC VTEC
PGM-FI
Torque Type 3-element. 2-phase
Converter with Lock-up Clutch
Size 232mm
Gear Train Type Constant-mesh Type with
Three Parallel Shafts
1st 2.528
2nd 1.427
Gear Ratio 3rd 0.931
4th 0.620
Reverse 1.863
Reduction Ratio 4.466
Used Oil Type Honda ATF
Total Amount 6.21
Repair Weight (wet) 83.5kg
Overall Length 390mm
Fig 42: Honda transmission specification
Fig 43: Nissan CVT for 2-litre cars
 54 VEHICLE DESIGN
control system has achieved improved fuel economy force required in overdrive operation. On the second-
by attaining fine-tuned driveability and lock-up op- ary pulley, because of its particular high speed opera-
eration at low speeds; also a manual shift mode has tion, a cancelling chamber is incorporated into the
been successfully incorporated. hydraulic cylinder; it prevents any loss in perform-
A cross-section through the new unit is seen in ance due to centrifugal effects on the hydraulic fluid.
Fig 43 indicating the principal elements of (a) torque
converter, (b) forward/reverse actuator, (c) ratio-
change mechanism, (d) electro-hydraulic circuits High-torque manual transmission
and e. reduction gears. Specification and configura- Engineers at New Venture Gear10 described the de-
tion are in Figs 44 and 45. The structural layout is velopment of the company's NVT-750 gearbox, de-
similar to a conventional automatic transmission,
only the change-speed mechanism being adapted to
belt and pulley layout of a CVT. Overall length,
including torque converter, is thus much the same as
a conventional automatic gearbox for a 2-litre car.
Less booming noise than that of a conventional
automatic's geartrain is inherent in the new unit,
however, because inertia of the belt and pulleys is
Control system
larger. The lock-up clutch has been given facing
material with twice the durability of that on a conven-
tional automatic to give lock-up speed of around 20
kph compared with the normal 50 kph, providing the
main fuel economy benefit. The ratio-change mecha-
nism uses a newly developed 30 mm wide Van
Doorne belt, with nine layer steel band and 400
friction elements. The additional width over the
normal 24 mm gives the unit its higher torque capac-
ity. Fig 46 shows the enhanced performance over a
system used for a 1.3 litre Nissan car.
The variable-ratio pulleys are arranged such Shift device
that a tandem piston design on the primary pulley
gives two-stage operation to generate the necessary
Fig 45: Nissan CVT configuration

Applicable engine Displacement. 2.0L Nissan belt-drive CVT 1.3-L class 2.0-L class
Max power: 1 90ps/7000rpm
Belt working radius at Low ratio 27.1 mm < 33.9 mm
Ratio change range 2.326 - 0.434 (Primary pulley)
Pulley force at Low ratio 28.9 kN < 37.6 kN
Basic Torque converter with (Primary pulley)
construction Launch element low-speed lock-up clutch Friction coefficient between
Forward/reverse Planetary gearset elements and pulleysu 009 = 009
actuation mechanism + wet multiplate clutch
Ratio change 30-mm-wide steel belt Pulley angle 11° = 11°
mechanism pulleys
Fx R 783.2 kNmm < 1274.6 kNmm
Oil pump type Hypotrochoid gear pump
F x R ratio 1 < 1.63
Final gear ratio
5.473
Fluid type used Nissan Genuine ATF Fig 46: Torque capacity potential of belt-drive CVTs
(special-purpose CVT fluid)
Fig 44: Nissan CVT specification
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 55
signed as a high torque density transaxle suitable for
heavy duty FWD operation. The development objec-
tives were the achievement of greater durability than
the 650 unit while achieving world-class gear noise
reduction targets. The 5-speed unit has torque capac-
ity of 290 Nm, synchronization on all forward gears,
13.08 maximum reduction and a 200 mm distance
between input and output, Fig 47.
Greater gear durability was obtained chiefly
with a 15-20% increase in face-width but this was
obtained without any change in the length of the
gearbox over the previous model. This was achieved
by developing net-forming clutch teeth tucked inside
the gear width and reducing shaper cut tool clearance
by going from one to two-piece welded construction,
Fig 48. Gears were designed with total overlaps less
than three times the sum of helical and profile; some
10-15% compressive stress reduction resulted.
Fig 47: New Venture Gear NVT-750 gearbox The bearing installation was redesigned so as to
increase effective shaft rigidity, the input shaft now
being supported on a roller-ball combination de-
signed to negate the effect of differential thermal
expansion between aluminium alloy and steel with-
out loss of support. The front intermediate shaft
taper-roller bearing is now fitted with a high tempera-
ture polymer cage which allows more rollers to be
included within a given space envelope, despite the
narrower width constraint placed by the increased
gear face-width.The taper bearing cup is first pressed
into the case, during assembly, the bearing then
seated in the cup and, finally, the whole intermediate
shaft assembly pressed into the taper bearing cone
bore without brinelling the rollers. Easy gauging of
Fig 48: Net form clutch teeth the bearings is thus permitted with a simplified
assembly process.
The dual-cone synchonizers have organic fric-
tion material, the 3/4th and 5th synchonizers being
arranged with a common blocking ring, giving a
claimed 400% increase in energy absorption over the
conventional brass ring set-up. The reverse idler is
engaged between the input shaft and an external spur
gear on the 3/4 synchronizer sleeve, torque transmit-
ted resulting in lateral motion of the sleeve during
drive and coast reverse engagements. This motion is
limited to 1-1.52 mm by using the 3/4 fork as a thrust
surface, Fig 49; clutch teeth are located away from
the sleeve by 1.27 mm to compensate for the remain-
ing motion left in the sleeve, preventing premature
Fig 49: 3/4 shift system engagement with the blocker ring.
 56 VEHICLE DESIGN

Control strategies for CVT

A timely study of the control criteria for continuously
variable transmission has been made by researchers
at Ricardo-FFD11 who have provided a most lucid
explanation of engine/transmission matching. They
remind us that too little overlap in the torque curves
for different ratios of a stepped transmission results in
gaps in the shift sequence with engine speed, and
hence power, having to drop too far between shifts —
thus breaking the gear-change rhythm. Connecting
the peak power points in a group of typical 2-D graphs
of this sort would show a 100% efficient transmission
characteristic working with an engine held at full-
power continuously. When plotted in 3-D form,
physical 3-D steps can be seen between the torque
curves and these become a smooth surface with CVT.
The surface has depth in the sense that part-throttle
performance characteristics also exist and navigating
through the resulting solid volume is the job of a CVT
control system.
The FFD PDSL simulator allows control sys-
tems to be tried out on a sophisticated computer
model of the powertrain. Control strategies analo-
gous to those in-built into human responses for
manual gearbox control can be tested, for example.
Fig 50 compares PDSL interpretation of a base
strategy 'if in doubt move up the ratio range' with a
higher level one of 'kick-down' for possible overtak-
ing, say. Similar strategies are also provided by the
authors to demorstrate the operating rquirements of
Fig 50: Base (above) and high level (below) strategies racing cars and delivary vehicles as extrems exa

Fig 51: Proposed CVT engine

torque curve matching to wide
range CVT
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 57

pies, the first wanting to hold maximum power

through the accelerating sequence while the second
is wanting a narrowing of the performance corridor to
preclude cargo-damage. FFD believe a CVT strategy
should be broadened from merely providing an infi-
nite number of ratio selections to sophisticated en-
gine/transmission interaction in a way that the driver
sees no limiting characteristics of the transmission.
The opportunity to map the control domain exists
rather than moving from one rigid strategy to another,
giving the driver hints and feedbacks as to the right
way to use the transmission. Matching conventional
engines to conventional transmissions requires, in
the case of heavy haulage, for example, engine torque
back-up for reducing the need to change gear. How-
ever, this flexibility in power delivery is paid for
because the engine is compromised between two
duties, providing maximum power at maximum speed
and maximum torque at usually a much slower speed.
With a wide-range CVT there is no need for such
flexibility and engine operating speed range can
potentially be considerably narrowed down. This
scenario has been modelled in PDSL, Fig 51.
In the case of the German maker ZF's CFT20
CVT, flow of signals between driver, engine and
transmission is seen in Fig 52. Fuzzy logic control is
involved and the ECU is adaptable to different driver
strategies. Achieving optimum drive characteristics
was done by arranging for automatic specification of
the engine operating point, accounting for the special
Fig 53: Drive strategy for influencing factors
features of each driveline. With the extensive range
of possible system modes available an adaptive strat-
egy is necessary and this led to the use of fuzzy logic
in specifying the operating point, Fig 53 showing the
system structure. The operating point is generally
fixed by the need to optimize fuel economy and is
only adapted to higher engine speeds (more power)
by driver demand or operational task such as gradient
negotiation. Converting performance demand into
increase in operating point involves the evaluation of
many parameters; for example, a distinction being
made between setting off in an urban environment
and overtaking out-of-town. Performance level evalu-
ation takes the form of an adaptation factor infinitely
variable between minimum fuel consumption and
maximum road performance. A large adaptation area
is also covered by the range of engine characteristics,
plus accounting for all driveability requirements,
Fig 54: Adaptation ranges of drive strategy Fig 54.
58 VEHICLE DESIGN

The mechanics of roll-over over threshold, usually around 0.95 the author ex-
plains, but quite a lot higher for a low-slung sports
As economy vehicles for urban operation become
car. Solid axles, with high roll-centres, reduce the
shorter, and therefore taller so that volume capacity
effect of lateral CG shift compared with many inde-
and visibility are not compromised, the problem of
pendent suspension systems with roll-centres at near
roll-over intensifies. The appearance of new software
ground level. Lateral deflection of the tyres adds a
from American Technical Publishers for allowing
further 5% reduction of the threshold, it is explained.
calculation in the fundamentals of vehicle dynamics
However, for an accurate assessment complete
gives an opportunity to better predict likely vehicle
modelling of the vehicle suspension is required ac-
performance in this respect at the design stage.
counting for such factors as lateral shift of roll-centre
According to Gillespie12, who originated the
and lateral movement of the line-of-action of tyre
software, the initial simplified quasi-static behaviour
vertical force, due to cornering forces and deflections
of the vehicle in cornering can be studied with the
arising from changes in the overturning moment
elementary model of Fig 55. The vehicle is assumed
under combined cornering and cambering effects.
to be in a steady- state turn without any roll accelera-
Such modelling would result in quasi-static roll
tion and the tyre forces shown represent the sum of
response, indicated by Fig 58. This shows the linear-
front and rears. Super-elevated (banked) highways
ity of the response breaks when one of the inner
help to resist the overturning effect and the symbol j
for the road-banking angle is used in calculation as
positive when tilted towards the cornering vehicle.
Lateral acceleration in gravities can thus be ex-
pressed as:
\
{(t/2) + (p/h- (Fz/Mg)t}/h

and the limiting value when load on the inner wheel

becomes zero is:

fh}/h

thus on level roads only the CG height and track are

necessary for a first estimate of resistance to roll-
over. Though this term gives conservative values for Fig 55: Forces inducing roll-over
propensity to roll-over it is useful for comparison
purposes and the author gives the table of Fig 56 to
illustrate this. Since the peak tyre-to-ground friction
co-efficient is quoted as 0.8, the table suggests that
the lighter vehicles are safe from roll-over as they
would slide out of the curve, which of course has been
disproved in practice.
In fact, by neglecting the compliances of the
tyres and suspensions, roll-over threshold is overes-
timated as the lateral offset of the CG is unaccounted
for. Thus by considering the more refined model of
Fig 57, incorporating the hypothetical roll-centre,
lateral acceleration, related to roll rate R0, becomes:

Fig 56: Roll reactions on suspended vehicle

the curly bracketed term showing the factoring roll-
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 59

wheels lifts off. The plot suggests that highest roll-

Vehicle Type CG Height Tread Rollover Threshold
over threshold will be achieved by maintaining sprung
Sports car 18-20 inches 50-60 inches l.2-1.7g
mass roll rate at the highest level by using high roll
Compact car 20-23 50-60 1.1-1.5
stiffness suspension and designing so that simultane-
Luxury car 20-24 60-65 1.2-1.6
ous lift-off of front and rear inner wheels occurs at the
Pickup truck 30-35 65-70 0.9-1.1
cornering limit.
Passenger van 30-40 65-70 0.8-1.1
Medium truck 45-55 65-75 0.6-0.8
Transient roll-over
Heavy truck 60-85 70-72 0.4-0.6
To examine vehicle response to rapid changes in
Fig 57: Threshold comparisons lateral acceleration a transient model is required. The
simplest one would be that of Fig 57 but with a roll
moment-of-inertia term added. This is useful for
responses to step inputs such as changes in road
surface friction or release of brakes after wheel-lock,
the response of the system being similar to a single
degree of freedom system, Fig 59. The fact that roll-
angle can overshoot, depending on the degree of roll
damping, the author explains, means that wheel lift-
off may occur at lower levels of lateral acceleration
input in transient manoeuvres, hence a lower roll-
Fig 58: Equilibrium lateral acceleration over threshold.
In the case of sinusoidal lateral acceleration
input, as approximated by the slalom 'moose' test,
roll-over threshold response is shown in Fig 60 as a
function of frequency for different classes of vehicle,
the values approaching the steady-state cornering
case at zero frequency. Heavy trucks are seen as being
particularly sensitive to this effect since their roll
resonant frequency is often less than 1 Hz and lane-
change or certain roundabout manoeuvres of around
0.5 Hz could result in roll-over. Cars having lower
Time
Fig 59: Roll response to step input CG positions usually have roll resonances at about
1.5 Hz.
The most complete and accurate picture is
provided by models which simulate both yaw and roll
response. Using such a model to examine sinusoidal
steer inputs reveals the important additional effect of
front and rear tyre force phasing lag caused by the rear
tyre not building up side force until a slip angle builds
up. Fig 61 illustrates the effect. Here the front to rear
lateral force build up lag is 0.2 seconds for the 1 Hz
steer input case. The lateral acceleration for the
whole vehicle is diminished from 0.8 to 0.5 g and to
the driver there is a perception of lack of responsive-
ness in transient manoeuvres. Four wheel steer cars
eliminate this lag and improve responsiveness; how-
1.0 ever, the author points out, it could contribute to roll-
Frequency (Hz) over propensity.
Fig 60: Threshold as a function of sinusoidal steer In tractor-trailer vehicle combinations the phase
60 VEHICLE DESIGN

lag is particularly pronounced and the response in Fig St Input Name Output Comment
Unit
Fundamentals of Vehicle
62 is typical. Here a 2 second sinusoidal steer input Dynamics
by Thomas D. Gillespie
excites both a rearward amplification of the yaw Chapter 9: Rollover
response and roll-resonance of the full trailer, such Quasi-Static Rollover of Rigid
Vehicle
that it experiences much larger lateral acceleration Eq. 9-1 , p. 31 1 , and Fig. 9.2, p.
313
than the tractor, creating a dangerous whip-lash
effect. The effect is prevented by using a tractor- 40 V mph Velocity
500 R ft Radius of turn
trailer coupling which transfers roll-couples from ac .21394745 g's Lateral acceleration (horizontal)
60 t in Track width (tread)
tractor to trailer. 20 h in Height of CG
2200 W Ib Weight of vehicle = M*g
9 1 9's Acceleration of gravity (default: 1
Software example g)
M 2200 Ibm Mass of vehicle
Gillespie used the quasi-static model to demonstrate .1 ay g's Acceleration along vehicle y-axis
the effect of highway super-elevation on vehicle az 1.0177296 g's Acceleration along vehicle z-axis
Fzi 1046.1692 Ib Normal force on inside tire
occupants. The objective here is to find what angle Fzo 1192.8359 Ib Normal force on outside tire
would make the occupants experience 0.1 g lateral phi 6.4644744 deg Road cross-slope angle
acceleration in a 40 mph steady-state turn of 500 ft Rollover thresholds:
Vroll 120.5635 mph Velocity
radius in a vehicle of 60 inches track, 20 inches CG acroll 1.9436535 9's Lateral acceleration (horizontal)
height and weighing 2200 pounds. ayroll 1.8187084 g's Acceleration along vehicle y-axis
azroll 1.2124722 9's Acceleration along vehicle z-axis
Fig 63 shows the data input spread sheet with
Fig 63: First input spreadsheet
these values entered. On solving, the sheet generates
the first three views of Fig 64, the third of which is a
vector diagram showing the relationship between the
vectors ac and g (relative to horizontal and vertical)
st: Input Name Output Unit Comment
and ay and az (relative to the vertical axis). The point Fundamentals of Vehicle
common to the upper left corners of both rectangles Dynamics
by Thomas D. Gil espie
represents the CG location while the line from the CG Chapter 9: Rollover
Quasi-Static Rollover of Rigid
to G is centrifugal acceleration ay and the vertical Vehicle
line from CG to the other G is gravity acceleration g. Eq. 9-1, p. 31 Land Fig. 9.2,
p. 313
On the other rectangle the line slanting right and V 29.109577 mph Velocity
upwards from CG to point V is lateral acceleration 500 R ft Radius of turn
ac .11330756 g's Lateral acceleration
experienced by the occupants ay and the one slanting (horizontal)
right downwards to the other V is the vertical accel- 60 t in Track width (tread)
20 h In Height of CG
eration they experience. 2200 W Ib Weight of vehicle = M'q
g 1 9's Acceleration of gravity
Neutral speed is that at which the occupants (default: 1 g)
experience no lateral acceleration relative to the M 2200 Ibm Mass of vehicle
vehicle and the program allows back-solving for this 0 ay g's Acceleration along vehicle y-
axis
case by changing 0 from an output to an input az 1 .0063988 g's Acceleration along vehicle z-
variable, changing the input instruction for ay and axis
Fzi 1107.0387 Ib Normal force on inside tire
blanking the V input field. This produces the sheet of Fzo 1 107.0387 Ib Normal force on outside tire
6.4644744 phi deg Road cross-slope angle
Fig 65 and the fourth view of Fig 64, a vector diagram
Rollover thresholds:
in which G = global axes (ac and g); V = vehicle axes Vroll 120.5635 mph Velocity
(ay and az). acroll 1 .9436535 g's Lateral acceleration
(horizontal)
The neutral speed for this curve is 29 mph and ayroll 1.8187084 g's Acceleration along vehicle
y-axis
the equilibrium lateral acceleration plots are the azroll 1.2124722 g's Acceleration along vehicle
same for this solution because the radius, super- z-axis
elevation, track and CG height are unchanged. How- Fig 65: Second input spreadsheets
ever, the vector plot is different because centrifugal
acceleration ac is smaller and the lateral acceleration
ay is now zero.
62 VEHICLE DESIGN

Suspension and steering scrub at full-bump spring deflection, as well as large

weight transfer and roll angles in cornering, against,
linkage analysis with high roll-centre, reduced weight transfer but
For light vehicles, advances in modelling techniques increased lateral scrub and the jacking effect. Key
are making the analysis of handling behaviour a objective in design was to restrict the movement of
much more realistic process than was possible with the roll axis to a minimum to ensure constant levels
classical quasi-static techniques. The same is true of of weight transfer in different operating conditions.
analysing suspension behaviour with respect to road Fl practice is to adopt long parallel wishbone arms in
damage by heavy vehicles. order to minimize camber sensitivity to change in
The change from active suspension systems in suspension ride height.
Formula One race-cars brought about by the 1994
revised regulations focused a new interest in the
perfection of passive systems. According to Brescia
University researchers13, double-wishbone configu-
ration, with either tie-bar or compression-strut brake
force reaction, remains the favourite means of con-
trolling wheel-to-chassis relative movements impor-
tant for maintaining roll-centre location and stability
of the tyre-ground contact patch.
Continuing conflict existed, the authors main-
tained, between low roll-centre to reduce lateral
Fig 66: 16-node suspension model

Piano XZ Piano YZ

Fig 67: Orthogonal projection of Fig 66

 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 63

The authors have developed MMGB design ation during wheel travel and full bump rebound
software for race-car suspension, in conjunction with situations can be examined with the chassis effec-
Dallara Snc, for a complete 3-D analysis. Fig 66 tively held still. Main suspension property outputs
shows a prototype configuration involving a 16-node are seen in the graphs of Fig 68. A graphic animation
kinematic system, the wheel, hub-carrier and spring is also available to simulate the motion of the suspen-
rocker lever being assumed to be infinitely stiff. The sion for observation by the designer. The force mod-
wishbones are each represented by two pin-ended ule computes link loads, rocker-pivot loads and spring
members connected at the outer node. The spring- force for given wheel displacement and external
damper unit is modelled as a variable length beam loading. There is also a compliance module which
while the spring-reaction and steering arms are con- effectively measures the interaction between the first
sidered to be rigid. The program permits the linkage two modules but taking into account link elasticity.
to be seen in orthogonal projection as seen in Fig 67. Additional modules have been developed since
Data input files handle spring rate and road loads and the program was first launched. These allow study
the program is based on algorithms for kinematic of wheel rate and sprung mass frequency variation as
solution and force equilibrium. the vehicle progresses along its track, arising from
The kinematic module computes geometry van- rising-rate or preload effects, also the effect of reduc-

's <^ 6040

c
V. 20
A

-40

.
40
20
0

-40

Fig 68: Main suspension geometry outputs from analysis

Fig 69: Chassis

roll of 4 degrees
64 VEHICLE DESIGN

ing fuel weight and aerodynamic downforce inputs.

Anti-dive and anti-squat configurations can also be
examined. A roll-centre module can examine not just
vertical but also lateral motions of the roll-axis. The
very considerable lateral movement for a nominally
ground-level roll-centre suspension design is seen in
Fig 69 for a chassis roll of 4 degrees.
The authors also referred to the work on sus-
pension compliance of John Ellis whose book on
vehicle handling dynamics was published in the same
year14. Ellis recommends a vectorial approach to
suspension analysis which is not dependent on loca-
tion of roll-centre and which can be applied at any
vehicle attitude. For two-dimensional analysis, in
Fig 70, the origin O is fixed in the vehicle body plane
and an outboard point O is at the wheel-ground
contact. His analysis considers the velocities of these
points in relation to the body and wheel velocities,
relating them by the rigid link which effectively
exists between the inboard and outboard points.
Referring to the co-ordinates of these points,
shown in the figure, velocity of the inboard point is

That of the outboard point is composed of the wheel

velocity V and a component p due to rate of camber
rotation of the wheel in

Fig 70: Two-dimensional analysis

the two velocities acting at the opposite ends of link
AD. Since the relative velocities of these points along
the line of AD is zero, the scalar products of these
velocities with the unit vector of the link must equal
each other, Ellis explains. By representing the link as
unit vector

ad = mj + nk

where m and n define the spatial position of the link

defined by co-ordinate geometry. Velocities of body
and wheel/road interface then become related by the
expression:

(-pza)m + (W + pyjn = (V - pzd)m -p'yd n

By repeating this procedure for each link con-

Fig 71: Compliance representation
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 65

necting body and wheel, a set of equations is obtained the directions of the force vectors for joints D and C.
which can be solved simultaneously by matrix meth- The lower suspension link is under the action of
ods to give useful design relationships such as the rate spring force along FE and the forces at B and C.
of contact patch lateral velocity with bounce velocity Directions of the reaction C and the spring force are
of the suspension; tyre scrub due to roll; and camber known and intersect at b, so the direction of the
change due to bounce and roll. reaction at b can be obtained and the vector diagram
Ellis also carries out a three-dimensional sus- drawn. By inputting the stiffness of the joints 1 and
pension analysis using these techniques and finds the 4, the deflections of these joints can be obtained and
interrelationship with the steering system, as well as new positions of the inboard nodes of the suspension
modelling the effects of tyre stiffness. Compliance linkage obtained and the change in handling behav-
effects are examined for the flexible mountings of the iour calculated. A similar analysis for a 3D suspen-
suspension. He defines the change in suspension sion model is given in the book.
characteristics due to external forces as the compli- He uses the steady state roll angle of the
ance and describes its quantification using the two- suspension, derived from energy and work equations,
dimensional representation of Fig 71. and expressed in terms of the suspension derivatives,
Forces on the inboard bearings are found by to examine roll attitudes and load transfer. The roll of
static equilibrium equations, the stub axle OCD the body causes potential energy to be stored in the
being under the action of normal and lateral forces at springs and work is done by the tyres in developing
the road/tyre interface, which can be expressed alge- lateral forces to keep the vehicle in a corner; and
braically for this purpose. The line of action of the developing lateral motion as a result of the roll. As
force within the suspension link AD intersects the the vehicle moves on its curved path, the lateral
force vector at a. The vector O 3 is known, so also are inertial force acting at the centre of mass gives rise to
an overturning moment, transferring normal load
from inner to outer wheels. Because redistribution of
normal forces causes the lateral forces generated by
the tyres to change in a non-linear way, the balance
of the vehicle may change, Ellis explains.
Roll-induced steering is possible at both front
and rear axles, the relative roll stiffness of the suspen-
sions affecting the proportion of the load transfer
carried by each axle. Added to this are the effects of
steering of the road wheels under roll-displacement,
components of the lateral velocity at each contact
patch due to tyre scrub also the camber of the wheels
with roll displacement. Fig 72 (top) shows a 2-
dimensional suspension for the case in which roll is
the only motion and it is seen that the kinematic
design of the suspension will constrain the motion of
the road wheels in response to the roll of the vehicle.
The kinetic energy of the system due to roll is

2T = Ip2 + (m'V'2 + I'p'2)

but as V ' = dy'/do.p and p = df/do.p, suspension

derivatives referring to the centres of mass of the
suspensions, then for the whole vehicle, Fig 72b, the
effective inertia in roll is

Fig 72: Roll effects

66 VEHICLE DESIGN

Current review of road-friendliness 'Road-friendliness' assessment tests should:

Cebon joined with colleagues from Warwick and 1 account for the effects of tyre and axle arrangements and static load
Nottingham Universities to give an up-to-date as- sharing as well as dynamic loading performance;
2 use testing equipment which is not dependent on the arrangement of
sessment of road-friendliness research15 with particu- axles and tyres, and therefore does not bias vehicle design towards
lar reference to the common case of the articulated particular configurations;
3 be based on assessment criteria which reflect the potential of the
HGV. Recent thinking is that the dynamic compo- vehicle to inflict fatigue and rutting damage to representative
nent of tyre forces is the main factor in contributing pavement structures;
4 be conducted for representative conditions of speed, road roughness
to road damage. Not only is this significant compared and road constaiction;
with mean (static) tyre force but it is believed that 5 account correctly for whcelbase filtering;
different vehicles generate similar spatial patterns of 6 account for the effects of all axles of the vehicle on the pavement;
7 resolve/sample correctly both high- and low-frequency dynamic
dynamic loading. At a given speed, the tyre force tyre forces;
time histories generated by a particular vehicle are 8 utilize statistically significant samples of tyre force-time histories;
9 account for the effects of spatial repeatability of dynamic pavement
repeated closely on successive runs over a given loads;
stretch of road, the phenomenon of spatial 10 account for the dynamic interaction between the suspensions of
repeatability. This means that certain points along tractors and trailers.
the road will be subjected to the peak dynamic tyre Fig 73: Assessment procedure criteria
forces generated by many vehicles, thus significantly
increasing the damage incurred at those points, the
authors explain. Assessment procedures should there-
fore follow the criteria shown in the table of Fig 73.
As well as the dynamic loading effect on road
damage discussed above, a road stress factor has also
been used based on the so-called fourth power law:

where P(t) is tyre force; E[] an expectation operator;

P stat the static tyre force; and —s the co-efficient of 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
variation of dynamic tyre force (the die). However, it
must be noted that the stress factor does not account
for the spatial distribution of tyre forces and is no Fig 74: Dlc results (2a and 3a refer to 2/3-axle
more than a 'plausible rule-of-thumb'. air suspension and 2a/3a to 2/3-axle steel
The need to have road damage criteria that suspension respectively)
relate to specific points along the road has involved
summing the measured dynamic forces of each axle
raised to a power n, applied to each location along a
road, or sensor in a road measuring mat. This is
known as a weighted aggregate force model, the nth
power aggregate force Ank measured at location k
being given by

Z. ,(Pnjk) for k = 1,2,3,..., N

the power of n being chosen to represent the type of

road damage being considered (4 for fatigue damage
and 1 for rutting). The dlc and aggregate force
methods have been compared in tests on a trunk road,
Fig 74 showing the dlc averaged over all suspensions Fig 75: Fourth power results, error bars showing
in each class of axle group for all trailer axle groups standard deviation
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS SYSTEMS 67

for which suspension type was identified. Fig 75

shows the fourth power results for the same trailer
axle groups, normalized using the static weight of the
axle group to enable different vehicles to be com-
pared directly. The two criteria rank the suspension
classes in different orders; this is due to spatial
correlation between the tyre forces in an axle group
which is not handled properly by the dlc.
Generally it has been observed that dynamic
wheel loads increase with increasing road speed and
road roughness; that walking beam and pivoted spring
tandem bogie suspensions generate the highest loads,
leaf spring suspensions generate less, and air and
torsion bar suspensions generate the smallest levels
of dynamic loads. An important feature of dynamic
loading is that all suspensions and tyres on a vehicle
are involved in the sprung mass modes of vibration
and so effect of tractor-trailer interaction is impor-
tant. A trailer performing well with one tractor may
perform badly with another. A practical assessment
test is therefore likely to require a standard tractor for
testing with every trailer and a standard trailer for
testing with all tractors.
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 Chapter 4:

Electrical and electronic systems

The maturity of automotive electronics is seen in the desire to

see the controller as seamlessly integrated with the vehicle
system. This is evident in new developments in engine knock
sensing, suspension, steering and drivetrain control. Vehicle
system development is also being driven by telematic traffic
management systems and the goal of vehicle headway control
is not far away. Engineers from different disciplines are seek-
ing knowledge of the digital systems used in electronic cir-
cuits and applying the knowledge to driver-vehicle man-ma-
chine control systems for creating information links with the
surrounding road infrastructure and the driver becoming a
predictable control link within refined electronic steering sys-
tems. The greater sophistication in hybrid, electric and IC en-
gine, drive for vehicles is seen in the more accurate matching
of performance to the actual drive cycles which such vehicles
are likely to experience. The use of map-controlled drive man-
agement is emerging and some of the latest control techniques
are seen in the first production hybrid, the Toyota Prius. Fu-
ture possible hybrid development is considered by some to be
with the use of supercapacitors to work in conjunction with
energy storage systems based on batteries. Electronic control
is even seen to be advancing into vehicle test engineering with
the appearance of automated handling systems for track use.
70 VEHICLE DESIGN

Automotive electronics maturity sis of the condition is made possible by measuring

The seamless electro-mechanical vehicle is the cur- voltage/current between plug-gap and ignition due to
rent aim of automotive electronics engineers who the magnitude of ion formation. In so doing the need
seek to bring an end to inefficiencies caused by is removed for sensors of EGR or knock and a plug-
grafting on electric controls to systems originally gasket type pressure sensor.
designed for mechanical operation. This approach is While it is expensive to provide an ion detector
seen here applied to engine, suspension, steering and for each cylinder, here the authors propose a tech-
drivetrain control. Meanwhile the principal growth nique in which the spark plug electrodes are used for
area, telematics, is beginning to see firm proposals detection. But to avoid damage being caused by high
for OE navigation systems for less expensive vehi- tension voltages a point on the ion response curve,
cles in the adaptive cruise control and headway Fig 2, must be used after high-tension discharge.
sensor described here alongside a proposal for a However, some increase in circuit complexity is
guidance system to allow vehicles to follow roadway involved, Fig 3. To measure ion density a coil is used
white lines. Major proprietary system releases reveal to generate several 100 V pulses consecutively with
the latest in engine management and rival systems for the spark ignitions, the electrical circuitry providing
business driver communication with his/her office.
According to Chrysler Advanced Technolo-
gies specialist Dr Chris Bodoni-Bird1, the emerging Height Suspension
sensors ECU Height
technology of mechatronics is set to bring about the control
seamless electro-mechanical vehicle which can learn Lateral
from Nature in its development. The theme is reduc- acceleration -
tion in mass by using seamless electro-mechanical Steering
Longitudinal steer ECU sensor
integration by either exploiting intelligence and/or acceleration
developing multi-functional componentry. This will L
Vertical
also suit the increasing demand for new features acceleration
within a fixed space envelope. Biometics is the study
Yaw Stop lamp
that sees how man-made systems can emulate Na- sensor switch
ture. In the key field of sensors and actuators perhaps
man can learn from the sensing capabilities of certain Shift
bird species, for magnetism and light polarization, Engine position
ECU
and electric eels and rattlesnakes for electricity and Vehicle
speed -
heat, he suggests. Exhaustive historical analysis of
patents has shown that systems tend to evolve from
mechanical through chemical and electro-mechani- ECU
cal to electro-magnetic (optical), and vehicle sensor Fig 1: Systems integration effect on sensors
development is said to reflect this. Because elec-
tronic systems also have the capability for integra-
tion, sensors can be shared between vehicle func-
tions, as seen in Fig 1. Because, however, mechanical
systems are often cheaper and difficult to replace,
institutionally and technically, the compromise dis-
cipline of mechatronics is seen by the author as set for
growth.
A way of providing an on-board control system
without the addition of hardware is described by
researchers at NGK Spark Plug2 who show how ion
formation around the spark-plug can be used as an
engine control technique. While the ion density
represents the condition status of combustion, analy- Fig 2: Ion current response
 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 71

the means to measure voltage decay with time, which Smart materials
is proportional to ion density, Fig 4. The ECU analy- for suspension control
ses combustion by examining the pressure-wave Conventional mechanical suspension systems are
pattern (magnitude and pulse-width) using ion-den- potentially convertible to active control with the use
sity and decay-period data. Input ignition signals, of electronically monitored smart materials, in the
firing pulses, misfiring signals and the decay curve opinion of researchers3 at TRW Inc. Effective control
(and periods) are seen in the lower part of Fig 3. of the motions of sprung and unsprung masses of a
Amount of fuel injected is controlled so as to reduce spring-suspended vehicle can only be achieved by
the difference between fluctuation rate of the decay interconnecting hardware responding and adapting
period and its standard fluctuation rate. Knock can to changing disturbances. Optimum performance is
also be detected because ignition and ion density obtained, it is argued, when system energy can be
waves are synchronized during detonation. But the decreased and increased as necessary. Achieving
decay period measurement technique alone cannot variable spring rate with conventional active suspen-
be used. The ion density voltage pulsation must be sion systems requires high amounts of energy, with
measured continuously. A capacitor is used to accu- serious drain on the vehicle's capability.
mulate current generated by ion density voltage By using smart materials, controllable by an
pulsation, and current flowing through an associated external energy field, performance can be made to
resistor in series with it, in order to sense the onset of change in a predictable and repeatable manner. Among
knock. the smart solids, piezo-electrics exhibit a control-
lable energy transformation between electrical and

30
08
5
-

0.2 •

Fig 3: Secondary voltage ionised current method Fig 4: Determining flame resistance around plug gap
72 VEHICLE DESIGN

mechanical modes, hence their use in noise and In controlling the fluid, the output signal from
vibration control, the authors explain. Smart liquids the ECU is transformed from an analogue voltage
include those of Nature such as elastically deform- into a frequency, in the V/F converter, and used in a
able red blood cells suspended in plasma which may pulse-width-modulated power driver causing a cur-
be reshaped with reduced diameters for easier flow rent level to flow to a set of electro-magnets. Fig 8
through small blood vessels. shows a schematic of the ECU, the left side depicting
In suspension applications, rheological fluids
are attractive and their behaviour is represented in a
simple way by Fig 5: constituent particles which are
randomly distributed in a zero-energy field, become
aligned with the field under excitation. Considerable
changes in shear force between the plates occurs
during excitation by the field, hence viscosity is
controllable. Both electro- and magneto-field ex-
cited types have been studied for many years.
So-called electro-rheological magnetic (ERM)
fluids can develop very high levels, above 50 psi, of
fluid shear stress while operating on vehicle battery Fig 5: Particle orientation in rheological fluid
voltage levels or moderate currents. This fluid also
has the ability to set up shear forces independent of
velocity, so no fluid flow is required. With such a
fluid, a variable suspension damping characteristic is
possible while reverting from current, space-wasting
types to the more compact rotary configurations of
earlier years. A typical parallel lower control arm
suspension is shown in Fig 6. The electronic control
allows an algorithm to process information for the
control of the ERM fluid shear forces, hence the Fig 6: Parallel lower arm configuration
torque which the RACD can generate. Its cross-
section in Fig 7 shows that energy is absorbed purely
in shear mode between sprung and unsprung masses.

Fig 8: Electronic control unit

 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 73

the inputs from the sensors which are converted for The multi-degree of freedom matrix equation
processing by the DSP and then reconverted to ana- to control the dampers according to both vehicle and
logue for transformation to the appropriate pulse- road dynamics is represented by the algorithm of Fig
width-modified signal. The ECU can tune the vehi- 9. For the future, more complex algorithms and
cle through software without any hardware change. integrated electronics are forecast by the authors.
This could involve mere days of work compared with Microprocessor instructions could be executed at the
the months currently involved in tuning the dampers rate of millions per second, transforms between time
for a new vehicle platform. and frequency domains becoming possible and hence
more complex control strategies permitted.
ROTARY POSITION
SENSOR
Electronic control
HOUSING
of electric steering
- BLADE
Following Honda's successful pioneering of electric
steering on the NSX car, company engineers4 have
SEAL reported a new-generation system for future applica-
tion of intelligent steering, Fig 10. Its lighter and
HOUSI NIG
more compact construction allows its substitution for
SHAFT ELECTROMAGNET hydraulic PAS on a wide range of light vehicles.
ASSEMBLY
F L U I D CHAMBER The torque sensor, Fig 11, on the steering
column relates steering input torque from the driver
Fig 7: Cross section ofRACD damper unit

Fig 9: ERM/RACD control algorithm

74 VEHICLE DESIGN

with axial displacement and senses change of induct- with a resultant 35% reduction in part-count. Be-
ance in its field coil. The steering servo motor driving cause the steering motor requires some 10 amperes
the rack has current feedback control and as well as for control, MOSFET switching and metal strip
the input from the column torque sensor also has a conductors are exploited with specially developed
vehicle input related to instantaneous road speed; a connectors. Motor and control-unit are now adjacent
PWM drive with power MOSFET is involved. to one another so as to minimize cable losses.
The seamless design of the torque sensor, inte-
grated into input shaft, allows driver input and road Information from input shaft side
Input shaft Torsion bar • Input steering torque
kick-back to be evaluated. On the input shaft, steer- • Rotating speed at start of steering handle
ing wheel turning speed is derived from differential
value of the torque as well as the direct value. On the
output shaft, motor assist-torque data, and the reac-
tion torque from the road, is obtained as a micro-
vibration trace. Information on the inertia of the rotor
is also obtained from the output shaft and the detri-
mental increment of inertia is cancelled out electri-
cally to prevent its transmission to the steering wheel.
In the ECU for the new generation system, the
microprocessor performance has been raised from 8
bit 12 MHz to 16 bit 16 Mhz. ASICs are now
employed to customize the input and output circuits, Fig 11: Torque sensor Torques sensed by torque sensor
Driving circuit

Fig 10: Honda intelligent steering system

 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 75

Drivetrain control absorbing or developing torque between tyre and

The farther future in mechatronics is seen by re- road with positive or negative value on any surface —
searchers at Vairex Corporation5 as the electric with a dramatic improvement in traction, braking and
drivetrain. Full drive-by-wire will eliminate me- handling performance. A particular advantage would
chanical connections and replace them by electri- be the introduction of electro-magnetic braking of a
cally powered components and electronic controls, type that is more efficient than regenerative systems
with the eventual reality of each wheel being capable being pioneered on electric and hybrid propulsion
of instantaneously, accurately and independently vehicles. With regen braking, maximum braking

Conventional Drivetrain Electric Drivetrain

1)150kwICEngine
2) Automatic Transmission B) 75 kW Alternator
3) Logic Module C) Power Module
D) Logic Module
4) Transfer Case
5) Driveshafts E) 35 to 50 kW Wheel Motors
6) Differentials
7) CV Joints
8) Disc Brake Assemblies
Fig 12: 9) ABS/SC Hydraulic Module
Conventional
10) Brake Hydraulic Pump/Accumulator
(left) and
electric 1 1 ) Power Steering Rack F) Steering Rack
(right)
drivetrains
13) 40 L Fuel Tank G) 20 L Fuel Tank
compared
H) Battery/Ccpacitor Module
76 VEHICLE DESIGN

force is limited by the rate at which the energy storage tudinal control method. An electronically controlled
system can absorb and dispense power; without the throttle valve, electrically controlled brake and auto-
use of ultracapacitors, therefore, only supplementary matic transmission work co-operatively to provide
braking is possible electro-magnetically. Also brak- smoother acceleration, better shift performance and
ing effectiveness is reduced to the degree that to the better fuel economy in ACC mode (at a desired
degree that zero braking force is reached slightly headway distance detected by a micro-wave radar
before the vehicle reaches zero speed. If reverse sensor), while, in manual driving, wheel torque is
power rather than a load is applied to the generator, proportional to throttle pedal displacement.
braking force down to zero speed can be generated The management system seen in the lower part
and held there. The braking requirements of an of Fig 13 selects signals from throttle-control, trans-
average saloon car, say the authors, would require mission and brake to send commands which depend
wheel motors, on each of the four wheels, with upon the requested wheel torque. Conventional cruise
individual capacity of 35-50 kW. Fig 12 shows the control is obtained by adding a speed controller to the
author's electric drivetrain proposal alongside a con- wheel torque manager, and on top of this, headway
ventional drivetrain. This would suit a 1750 kg control computes a command speed and sends it to
vehicle, having all-wheel-drive, electronic torque the speed controller which calculates the required
split, traction control, automatic transmission, ABS wheel torque. Block diagrams for the speed and
braking and stability control. For safety, a conven- headway controllers are shown in Fig 14.
tional friction park-brake would probably be re-
quired.

Navigation system advances

The 1998 SAE Congress in Detroit was the occasion
for the reporting of important telematics develop-
ments bringing closer the prospects of intelligent
transportation systems on public highways.
Researchers from Hitachi6 described an adap-
tive cruise control (ACC) system using a wheel
torque management technique and involving a longi-

Fig 13: Constituents of ACC

20
Fig 14: Speed controller (top) Time [sec]
and headway controller Fig 15: Experimental results of ACC
 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 77

Tests carried out with the system installed in a Freeways and inter-state highways with a mini-
vehicle showed the ACC performance as in Fig 15. mum curve radius of about 500 m require a lateral
From ACC start-up at t = 0, the preceding vehicle detection angle as shown. A monostatic three beam
increases its speed v at time t1 then decreases its frequency modulation continuous wave (FMCW)-
speed at time t3 by braking and at time t4 its speed is type radar is employed, working at 76-77 GHz, all
kept constant. The wheel torque shows its peak at the three beams sending and receiving simultaneously.
beginning of acceleration and keeps it a constant as Characteristic data for the radar are:
speed increases; in the deceleration phase, at about Frequency allocation 76 - 77.0 GHz
-2.5 m/s2, the torque becomes negative under electri- Total average output power 1mW
cal braking. Bandwidth 220 MHz
Number of beams 3
Headway sensor design Beam width (measured at the 4°
The development of a suitable radar sensor for ACC -6dB point of the radar-
has been described by engineers at Bosch7 which is diagram)
due for European introduction in the current model Overlap of two beams 2°
year in its initial form as a high-cost option on top-of- (,,Squint Angle")
the-range vehicles. For more general application a Total angular range +/-5°
less expensive version is under development, the first
A block diagram for the integrated system is
stage of which is an integrated sensor and control unit
seen in Fig 17.
described in the paper. This would be incorporated in
a typical ACC system depicted in Fig 16. Road guidance for drowsy drivers
The main functional advantage of integration To provide vehicles with a guidance means based on
is improved communication between sensor and white road-line recognition, a system based on lane
controller and that not only the prime target preced- region extraction and line edge detection has been
ing vehicle is considered but up to 8 objects in the described by Matsushita engineers. The proposed
path of the vehicle (valuable when a vehicle ahead of method uses both low and high spatial frequency
the preceding vehicle brakes suddenly). Basic speci- image data, respectively, to detect these two at-
fication of the sensor is as follows: tributes of the white lines. The company has shown
Range 2-120m that detection from 5 to 40 metres in front of the
Relative speed -60m/s ... +60m/s vehicle is accurately performed at a detection rate of
Angle ...+/-5° over 99.4%. As well as protecting drivers who be-
Resolution cell 0.6m, 1.7m/s
Measurement rate 10 Hz come drowsy the system also is used to distinguish

Fig 16: ACC system

components
78 VEHICLE DESIGN
present lane from adjacent lanes in automatic cruise white lines are calculated using a spline of 3 degrees,
control. The two separate modes of image detection the detection process illustrated being implemented
described above are intended to overcome the prob- on a network of transputers. Camera-angle error
lems of intermittent white line fading and the prob- compensation is based on distance between the lines
lem of the detection camera vibrating in sympathy being constant, contour points of lines in the image
with the vehicle. Fig 18 distinguishes between the being transferred to points on the world co-ordinate
two modes. Lane region extraction uses a knowl- mapped image seen in Fig 19.
edge-based brightness rule to distinguish the inside
lane area and/or a low spatial frequency image in Detected white lines
order to smooth the brightness of the lane region. The
system checks there is a smooth transition between
the dark area in front of the vehicle and the bright area Parallel white lines
further away. Edge data are determined using each
threshold in each scan direction between 50 lines and
200 lines, the following contour points being re-
moved: those which are more than 20 dots away from
the end-of-lane region (extracted from the low-fre-
Lateral distance
quency image); all non-continuous points and those
which do not fit within the road width. Resultant Fig 19: Mapped image

Fig 17: Block diagram of

ACC-SCU

Fig 18:
White lines detection process
 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 79

Digital circuits for computation

Logic gates (switching circuits) are known as build-
ing blocks for electronic circuits used in computer
control. A recent work8 on engineering mathematics
provides an unusually accessible description of the
building of such circuits, in the author's chapters on
Boolean Algebra and Digital Systems.
The Boolean variable, he explains, involves
Fig 21b: 7408 and 7402 integrated circuits
the realization of the two logical states, 0 and 1,
analogous to the open and closed positions of a
mechanical switch but in digital electronics repre-
sented by low and high voltages in 'positive' logic.
The logic gates, Fig 20, provide Boolean functions
analogous to multiplication, division, inversion and
their different combinations.
Further combination of the basic gates may be
used to form functional logic circuits such as that in
Fig 2la which might be used for a vehicle warning
buzzer so that it sounds when the key is in the ignition
(A) and a door open (B) or when the headlamps are
on (C) and a door open (A). Here there are two AND
gates and an OR gate. The first two give the output
A.B + C. A which is the input to the OR gate which has
output A.(B + C).

Fig 21a: Warning buzzer circuit

Fig 20: Logic circuits, a. AND; b. OR; c. NOT; d. XOR; e. NAND; f. NOR
80 VEHICLE DESIGN

In multiple combinations they come as rela- gate. A full adder circuit is seen in Fig 23b; the sum
tively inexpensive integrated circuits, Fig 21b illus- output arriving from the three inputs, first, second
trating the 7408 and 7402 circuits. The first has four and carry-in number. This provides a 1 output when
two-input AND gates supplied as a 14 pin package, there is an odd number of 1 inputs, obtained by two
with power supply connected to pins 7 and 14, XOR gates. The carry-out output is 1 when any two
supplying the operating voltage for all the four AND of the inputs are 1, obtained with three AND gates and
gates. A notch is cut between 1 and 14 to show at an OR gate.
which end of the package pin 1 starts. In the 7402 The half and full adder circuits can be com-
package there are four two-input NOR gates. The use bined to realize multi-bit adder circuits. Thus, for a 4-
of 7408 as a clock enable circuit is shown in the view bit adder, Fig 24 is an appropriate circuit, in which the
in Fig 21c, where signals are passed on to a receiving full and half adders are represented as blocks for
device only when a switch is set to an enable position. simplicity. By connecting the carry-out from one 4-
The clock emits a sequence of 0 and 1 signals bit adder to the carry-in for another one, an 8-bit
(pulses), Fig 22. The AND gate will give an output adder circuit can be obtained (used for adding posi-
when both input signals are 1. tive numbers together), Bolton explains.
Computer control usually involves implemen-
tation of arithmetic operations for which the binary
numbering system is used having binary digits (bits)
0 and 1. Fig 23a shows a half-adder circuit giving the
sum equal to 1 when either first or second input
numbers, but not both numbers, is 1, obtained with an
XOR gate. The carry-out bit is to be 1 when first and
second numbers are both 1, obtained with an AND

Second number

Fig 21c: Clock enable circuit using 7406 1C Fig 23a: Half-adder

Fig 23b: Full adder Fig 24: 4-bit adder

 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 81

Proprietary control
system advances
The Delphi Personal Productivity vehicle is a com-
bination of information technologies, Fig 25, for per-
mitting business drivers to remain in constant com-
munication with their offices. First demonstrated in
a Saab car it has involved co-operation between the
suppliers and Microsoft/Mecel. By means of Win-
dows CE, installed in an on-board computer, the sys-
tem links with office-based Windows PCs. A speech
interface called Auto PC allows hands-free commu-
nication for the driver with voice commands being
Fig 25: Personal Productivity info-technologies used to send E-mail messages, for example. The fa-
cility also uses speech synthesis to convert incoming
messages for the driver. There is, too, the option of
using steering-wheel mounted controls instead of
audio communication. The Delco Mobile Media Link
employed is a high-speed fibre-optic serial data link
capable of transmitting data at 98 MB/sec. It also
has sufficient band width to allow reception of up to
50 channels of stereo audio and 15 channels of TV-
quality compressed video. A cellular modem connec-
tion allows information like traffic updates to be in-
put from an internet provider.
Following the introduction of the Magneti-
Marelli Route Planner in-car navigation system, the
next generation TEC mobility system under develop-
ment, Fig 26, will allow the driver to access Pentium
Fig 26: TEC mobility system computer power through ConnectCar-PC via a voice

Fig
27:Motronic
MED 7
engine
management
system
82 VEHICLE DESIGN

recognition interface. As well as helping the driver to as its power source. This can be especially important
navigate, he/she will be able to place and receive to drivers who experience an engine stall while
telephone calls and even browse the internet or send turning a sharp corner or rounding a steep mountain
an E-mail. curve.
The Bosch Motronic MED 7 engine manage- Traditional hydraulic systems can be sluggish
ment system, Fig 27, is designed for direct-injection until fluids warm up, especially in very cold climates.
gasoline engines and calls on a wide variety of sensor The Delphi system provides cold-weather rapid start.
inputs before computing engine torque response to With its engine independence and fluid-free design,
throttle-pedal displacement. Some 15-20% fuel sav- the system is less sensitive to cold temperatures even
ings are claimed for DI engines using the system
compared with conventional state-of-the-art gaso-
line engines.
Delphi's E-STEER electronic steering incor-
porates a steering gear assist mechanism, Fig 28, and
electronic controller to provide responsive steering
assist, in several configurations, Fig 29. Sensors
measure two primary inputs—vehicle speed and
driver torque (or effort) on the steering shaft at the
assist unit. These two primary inputs, along with
other system variables and inputs, are continuously Fig 28: Assist mechanism
fed into an electronic control module, which analyses
the data and determines the direction and the amount
of steering assist required. The controller then gen-
erates a command to the variable-speed, 12-volt
electric motor. Using intricate control algorithms,
the controller's command varies the torque of the
electric motor, which drives a gear mechanism to
provide the required assist. A permanent magnet
brushless motor is used, which allows the smallest
package size, the smallest mass, and the lowest rotor
inertia (for more responsiveness). The motor is also
quieter, more reliable, and more powerful than many
types of electric motors; it uses the vehicle's battery Fig 29: Different configurations

Fig 30a: Vehicle fuel consumption rating — comparison between manual steering and E-Steer;
 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 83

at -40C The system also eliminates the large energy Damping option that helps to provide a smoother feel
loss typically involved in those first few minutes of and reduce the effects of issues such as free control.
warm-up. When a major European manufacturer A conventional hydraulic steering system would
conducted a fuel economy test, it found virtually no require time-consuming and expensive mechanical
difference in fuel usage between this EPS and manual modifications, but with E-Steer this can be achieved
steering, Fig 30a. with software.
This EPS is an 'on-demand' system, running Fast system tuning The operating characteris-
in a monitoring mode until assist is needed. Typically tics of any steering assist system must be carefully
using less than 0.5 amp at idle and with the average tuned to match the vehicle design objectives. With
usage between 1 to 2 amp, the system has extremely conventional hydraulic systems, tuning requires the
low parasitic energy losses for maximum efficiency. removal of the steering gear and the manufacture and
In addition to reducing engine drain, the system may fitment of modified valves and torsion bars. This
also reduce overall mass. The system also provides process limits testing to two or three configurations
improved stability for greater passenger comfort, per day, with the whole process typically taking from
control, and safety. There is smoother transition from one to six months. E-Steer allows very fast tuning
one effort level to another—without compromising without mechanical intervention, allowing the de-
power steering assist between parking manoeuvres sired feel and performance to be achieved in a small
and highway driving . fraction of the time previously required. All that is
System design with more options Speed-sensi- required is a laptop computer with Delphi's propri-
tive variable effort steering is an increasingly popular etary tuning package.
option, but the need for a controller makes it a costly Reliability In addition to engine independ-
addition to conventional hydraulic systems. Delphi's ence, there are specific reliability features built into
E-Steer can calculate the required assist level, based the system. During development, company engi-
on vehicle speed and driver torque input, using its neers set up testing situations to simulate possible
existing software and controller, Fig 30b. This makes faults in the system. With this knowledge, they built
speed-sensitive variable effort steering (and other in several reliability features. The system continu-
options) available for very little added cost. ously runs detailed self-checks and diagnostics, en-
A further benefit of electric power steering is suring that all areas of the system are functioning
that assist can be provided in both directions, so it is properly. Redundancy (back-up or 'repeat' system
no longer necessary to compromise suspension de- elements) has been engineered into the system to
sign in order to achieve the required returnability provide reliability.
characteristics. The system's optional Assisted Re- Packaging flexibility With no pumps, hoses, or
turn feature allows the returnability to be optimized belts on the engine, this simplified packaging pro-
independently, so that when the driver turns and then vides maximum design and engineering flexibility.
releases the wheel, E-Steer returns it safely to centre. The system controller can be incorporated with the
The company has also developed a unique Steer column, the rack, the pinion, or in a stand-alone

Fig 30b: Performance parameters: left: steer damping; centre: tuning capability; right: variable effort
84 VEHICLE DESIGN

location. The controller can be in the engine or the Hybrid drive prospects
passenger compartment. The system frees up the part A neat description of the problems of hybrid drive
of the engine where a belt and pulley to drive the vehicles has come out of the results of the three-year
pump would otherwise be placed. This makes room HYZEM research programme undertaken by Euro-
for other features like pollution control or an air- pean manufacturers. According to Rover partici-
conditioning compressor. And there are no more pants9, controlled comparisons of different hybrid
hoses snaking through the engine compartment. The drive configurations, using verified simulation tools,
system can help reduce the number of parts the car are able to highlight the profitable fields of develop-
manufacturer has to track, order, and store. For ment needed to arrive at a fully competitive hybrid
example, two models in the same platform, a 4-door drive vehicle and demonstrate, in quantitative terms,
sedan and a 2-door coupe, can use the same physical
steering system. With the advanced tuning technol-
ogy of the system, one could custom tune a luxury
feel for the sedan and a sporty feel for the coupe c
instantly. \6
For the future Delphi Steering anticipates the
4
development of several options for future electric
3
power steering systems. Potential combinations in-
2
clude selectable steering to go with a selectable 3
.
chassis where the driver could push a button for a V
sportier feel, for example. Hand-held diagnostic tools
could be used at the dealership, allowing consumers
to request changes to the feel of their steering. As a
cost-reduction strategy, the system could be very
Fig 31: Characterizing a hybrid powertrain
useful in advanced systems integration. With up-
level integration, algorithms/software for other sys-
tems could be combined—like security, collision
avoidance, steer by wire, or automated highway
systems.

Fig 32: Use of vehicle per day

Fig 34: Synthetic urban drive cycle

Fig 33: Daily distances

and trip lengths
 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 85
the trade-off between emissions, electrical energy lossless battery can also be added to the graph, to
and fuel consumption. Only two standard test points show the potential for battery development, Fig 31.
are required to describe the almost linear relation- Confirmation was also given to such empirical
ship: fuel consumption at point of no overall change assessments that parallel hybrids give particularly
in battery state-of-charge (SOC) and point of electri- good fuel economy because of the inherent effi-
cal consumption over the same cycle in pure electric ciency of transferring energy direct to the wheels as
mode. A linear characteristic representing an ideal against the series hybrids' relatively inefficient en-
ergy conversion from mechanical to electrical drive.
The need for a battery which can cope with much
more frequent charge-discharge cycles than one for a
pure electric-drive vehicle was also confirmed. Al-
though electric energy capability requirement is less
stringent, a need to reduce weight is paramount in
overcoming the problem of the redundant drive in
hybrid designs.
A useful analyis of over 10,000 car journeys
throughout Europe was undertaken for a better un-
derstanding of 'mission profile' for the driving cycles
involved. Cars were found to be used typically be-
tween 1 and 8 times per day, Fig 32, and total daily
Fig 35: BMW parallel hybrid drive distances travelled were mostly less than 55 km.
Some 13% of trips, Fig 3, were less than 500 metres,
showing that we are in danger of becoming like
Americans who drive even to visit their next door
neighbours! Even more useful velocity and accelera-
tion profiles were obtained, by data recoding at 1 Hz
frequency, so that valuable synthetic drive cycles
were obtained such as the urban driving one shown
in Fig 34.

518i Hybrid 518i standard

Combustion engine 162 Nm (119 Ib-ft). 162 Nm (119 Ib-ft)
1.8-ltr. 4-cyl 83kW(113 bhp) 83 kW (113 bhp)
Electric motor/ Siemens asynchronous
alternator 200V. max 280A, 95 Nm
(70 Ib-ft)
(l65Nm/122 Ib-ft max).
18 kW (26 kW max)
Transmission ratios 5.09/2.8/1,76/1 24/1.0 5.1/2.77/1.72.'
1.22/1.0
Final drive 3.25
Ni/MH battery DAUG-Hoppecke
Cell type: X40. 180 1 2V
cells,'40Ah/1.06kg, total
energy content 9 kWh.
maintenance-free
Dimensions: 803/465/
418 mm3
Ni/Cd battery DAUG-Hoppecke. cell
type:X35, 1681.2V
cells/35Ah/1.15kg
Energy content 7 kWh,
maintenance-free
Dimensions: 859/400/410
Weight, unladen kg (Ib) 1940(4278) 1418(3127)
Performance weight
kg (Ib) 2139(4716) 1618(3568)

Fig 38: Ragone diagram for the two battery systems Fig 37: Vehicle specification
86 VEHICLE DESIGN
BMW researchers10 have shown the possibility
of challenging the fuel consumption levels of con- Digital Motor
ventional cars with parallel hybrid levels, by using Electronics
map-controlled drive management. The 2-shaft sys-
tem used by the company, Fig 35, uses a rod-shaped
asynchronous motor, by Siemens, fitted parallel to
the crankshaft beneath the intake manifold of the 4-
cylinder engine, driving the tooth-belt drive system
as seen in Fig 36; overall specification compared
with the 518i production car from which it is derived
is shown in Fig 37. The vehicle still has top speed of
180 kph (100 kph in electric mode) and a range of 500
km; relative performance of the battery options is
shown by Fig 38. Electric servo pumps for steering Fig 39: Vehicle management
and braking systems are specified for the hybrid
vehicle and a cooling system for the electric motor is Generator rpin
incorporated. The motor is energized by the battery
via a 13.8 V/ 50 A DC/DC converter. The key
electronic control unit links with the main systems of
the vehicle as seen in Fig 39.
To implement the driving modes of either
hybrid, electric or 1C engine the operating stategy is
broken down into tasks processed parallel to one
another by the CPU, to control and monitor engine,
motor, battery and electric clutch. The mode task
determines which traction condition is appropriate, Carrier
balancing the inputs from the power sources; the
The three vertical lines in the diagram show the
performance/output task controls power flow within shaft in the planetary
the total system; the battery task controls battery
Fig 41: Power interaction diagram
charging. According to accelerator/braking pedal

Fig 40:
Optimized
re-charge
strategy
 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 87

inputs, the monitoring unit transfers the power target electricity acting as a starter to start the engine as well
required by the driver to the CPU where optimal as operating the motor causing the vehicle to move
operating point for both drive units is calculated in a off as at B. For normal driving the engine supplies
continuous, iterative process. Fig 40 gives an exam- enough power and there is no need for generation of
ple of three iterations for charge efficiency, also electricity, C. As the vehicle accelerates from the
determined by the CPU, based on current charge cruise condition, generator output increases and the
level of the battery. motor sends extra power to the drive shaft for assist-
ing acceleration, D. The system can change engine
Production control-system speed by controlling generator speed; some of the
In the Toyota Prius production hybrid-drive car, engine output goes to the motor via the generator as
described in a separate article in this issue, for the extra acceleration power and there is no need for a
power-split device which is a key part of the system, conventional transmission.
company engineers" have provided the diagram of The control system schematic for the vehicle is
Fig 41 to show how the engine, generator and motor in Fig 42, the THS (Toyota Hybrid System) calcu-
operate under different conditions. At A level with lates desired and existing operating conditions and
vehicle at rest, engine, generator and motor are also controls the vehicle systems accordingly, in real
at rest; on engine start-up the generator produces time. The ECU keeps the engine operating in a
predetermined high torque to maximize fuel economy.
The corresponding schematic for the ECU is in Fig
7 43. It is made up of 5 separate ECUs for the major
vehicle systems. The hybrid ECU controls overall
3
drive force by calculating engine output, motor torque
and generator drive torque, based on accelerator and
Battery shift position. Request values sent out are received by
Engine speed Generator other ECUs; the motor one controls the generator
control inverters to output a 3-phase DC current for desired
*
torque; the engine ECU controls the electronic
throttle in accordance with requested output; the
Motor
Brake control braking ECU co-ordinates braking effort of motor-
regeneration and mechanical brakes; the battery ECU
controls charge rate.
Fig 42: THS control system

Fig 44: EDLC model (a), above, and cell (b), below
 VEHICLE DESIGN

Energy storage initiatives

According to researchers at NEC Corp12, the super-
capacitor will be an important contributor to the
energy efficient hybrid vehicle, the absence of chemi-
cal reaction allowing a durable means of obtaining
high energy charge/discharge cycles. Tests have
shown for multi-stop vehicle operations a 25-30%
fuel saving was obtained in a compact hybrid vehicle
fitted with regenerative braking.
While energy density of existing, non-automo-
tive, supercapacitors is only about 10% of that of
lead-acid batteries, the authors explain, it is still
possible to compensate for some of the weak points
of conventional batteries. For effective power assist
in hybrids, supercapacitors need working voltage of
over 100 V, alongside low equivalent series resist-
ance and high energy density. The authors have
produced 120V units operating at 24 kW fabricated
from newly developed activated carbon/carbon com-
posites. Electric double layer capacitors (EDLCs)
depend on the layering between electrode surface
Fig 45: High-power EDLC schematic (above)and
and electrolyte, Fig 44(a) shows an EDLC model.
specification (below)
Because energy is stored in physical adsorption/
desorption of ions, without chemical reaction, good
life is obtained. The active carbon electrodes usually
have specific surface area over 1000 m2/g and dou-
ble-layer capacitance is some 20-30 uF/cm2 (acti-
vated carbon has capacitance over 200-300 F/g). The
EDLC has two double-layers in series, so it is possi-
ble to obtain 50-70F using a gram of activated
carbon. Working voltage is about 1.2V and storable
energy is thus 50 J/g or 14 Wh/kg.
Fig 44(b) shows a cell cross-section, the con-
ductive rubber having 0.2 S/cm conductivity and
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
thickness of 20 microns. The sulphuric acid electro-
Energy density / Wh-kg-1
lyte has conductivity of 0.7 S/cm. Fig 45(a) shows the
Fig 46b: Power density, y-axis in W/kg, vs energy
density for high-power EDLC

Fig 46a: Constant power discharge characteristics Fig 47: ELCAPA configuration
 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 89

high-power EDLC suitable for a hybrid vehicle and to return a 120 mile range per charge. For the farther
the table in Fig 45(b), its specification. Plate size is future lithium-polymer batteries are reported to be
68 X 48X1 mm3 and the weight 2.5 g, a pair having capable of giving 300 mile ranges.
300 F capacity. Fig 46(a) shows constant power There is also less strength in the arguments
discharge characteristics and Fig 46(b) compares the against EVs with news of cheaper solar cells. Rapid
EDLC's energy density with that of other batteries. thermal processing (RTP) techniques are said to be
Fuji Industries's ELCAPA hybrid vehicle, Fig halving the time normally taken to produce silicon
47, uses two EDLCs (of 40 F total capacity) in solar cells, while retaining an 18% energy conversion
parallel with lead-acid batteries. The stored energy efficiency from sunlight. Researchers at Georgia
can accelerate the vehicle to 50 kph in a few seconds Institute of Technology have demonstrated RTP
and energy is recharged during regenerative braking. processing involving a 3 minute thermal diffusion, as
When high energy batteries are used alongside the against the current commercial process taking three
supercapacitors, the authors predict that full com- hours. An EC study has also shown that mass-produc-
petitive road performance will be obtainable. tion of solar cells could bring substantial benefits and
A high energy battery receiving considerable that a £350 million plant investment could produce
attention is the lithium ion cell unit, the development enough panels to produce 500 MW annually and cut
of which has been described by Nissan and Sony the generating cost from 64p/kWh to 13p.
engineers13 who point out that because of the high cell A move towards fuel cells for electrical power
voltage, relatively few cells are required and better generation is also gaining ground. Ballard Genera-
battery management is thus obtained. Accurate de- tion Systems has announced the start-up of a PEM
tection of battery state-of-charge is possible based on fuel cell, natural gas fuelled, with 250 kW capacity
voltage measurement. In the battery system devel- and using Johnson Matthey electrodes and platinum
oped, Fig 48, cell controllers and a battery controller catalysts. Compared with on-board fuel cells, the
work together to calculate battery power, and re- larger stationary generating ones can better exploit
maining capacity, and convey the results to the the high operating efficiency in relation to the rela-
vehicle control unit. Charging current bypass circuits tively high capital cost. The US Dept of Energy
are also controlled on a cell to cell basis. Maximizing argues that over one year 1MW of electricity gener-
lifetime performance of an EV battery is seen by the ated by fuel cells will avoid 45 tonnes of sulphur
authors to be as important as energy density level. dioxide and 19 tonnes of nitric oxides being emitted.
Each module of the battery system has a thermistor to Ballard are also in joint agreement with Daim-
detect temperature and signal the controllers to acti- ler-Benz on in-vehicle fuel cells and an A-class
vate cooling fans as necessary. Mercedes-Benz, thus powered, is scheduled for around
Nissan are reported to be launching the Ultra 2004. Mass production to bring down the cost of fuel
EV in 1999 with lithium-ion batteries; the car is said cells is the objective.

remaining capacity
battery power limit

signal line T: temp, sensor

power
K line V: voltage sensor
Fig 48: Overall system configuration A: current sensor
90 VEHICLE DESIGN

Automation of handling tests vehicle's own electrical system.

Recent publicity surrounding deaths of road users The steering robot gives very precise, smooth
due to accidents caused by OEM's road-test drivers, control of the steering without the need for gears or
and the need to reproduce laboratory conditions of clutch, in a high performance package with mini-
repeatability into track testing, will hasten the ac- mum weight and inertia. The direct drive design also
ceptance of the ABD steering robot, announced by enables the driver to steer the vehicle easily when the
Anthony Best Dynamics. Essentially the device com- unit is de-energized, as there is very little torque
prises a motorized assembly (which replaces the required to back-drive the motor. This enables the
steering wheel) whose stator is linked to a pair of load unit to be used to learn driver inputs, which can then
cells measuring torque reaction; these are, in turn, be replayed by the motor, as well as providing a very
coupled to an adjustable arm clamped on to a pillar simple and inherently safe construction.
member between the vehicle floor and suction caps The stationary side of the motor is connected to
on the windscreen. the vehicle body via a special universal torque reac-
The computer-controlled steering robot pro- tion mechanism utilizing a built-in torque trans-
vides steering inputs to vehicles during track testing. ducer, which is installed in the passenger side of the
Historically, this type of testing has been carried out vehicle between the windscreen and the floor, Fig 49.
manually, but it has been difficult to ensure that The system is designed to be installed easily, to
accurate and repeatable inputs are generated. The provide no access restrictions for the driver, to cause
minimal loss of field of view and to be very rigid. The
system developed by ABD overcomes these prob-
lems, making it easy to obtain meaningful compari- torque reaction system accommodates steering col-
sons between different vehicles and vehicle configu- umn run out without generating side forces or degrad-
rations. The robot, whichcan be used in cars, vans and ing the torque measurement. The motor assembly is
HGVs, is capable of performing the range of tests normally fitted to the steering column in place of the
described in the international standard ISO7401 as vehicle's standard steering wheel, as this provides a
well as many special tests, and has a specification very compact installation with minimum inertia.
born out of detailed discussions with a number of However, an adaptor plate can be supplied to enable
potential customers who all had considerable experi- attachment to the rim of the standard steering wheel
ence in this type of testing. The computer and control for situations where it is difficult to reproduce the
technology employed is a spin off from ABD's splines on the steering column or where only a small
successful Suspension Parameter Measurement Ma- amount of installation time is available.
The steering robot is controlled by a portable
chine (SPMM) installed in both the UK and the US.
The SPMM is a cost-effective four wheel-station industrial PC running a Windows NT based software
machine which can measure the suspension, kin- package. The software enables a database of vehicles
ematic and compliance characteristics of a wide and tests to be built up with great flexibility in the test
range of vehicles. The new steering robot uses tech- specifications. A range of sinusoidal tests are pro-
nology transferred from the SPMM to apply steering vided as standard; single period, continuous and
inputs to vehicles so that their transient response swept sine, as well as step and pulse inputs. Alterna-
characteristics can be studied, providing accurate tively, test profiles can be played out from points
and repeatable inputs even in low frequency sinusoi- stored on a disk file which have been generated
elsewhere (special tests or random inputs for exam-
dal tests.
ple) or learnt from driver inputs. During operation,
tests are selected and initiated using a touch screen,
General objectives
which also provides status information as the test
At the heart of the robot is a direct drive DC torque progresses. Whilst the robot is operating the driver
motor with incremental encoder feedback. This pro- holds a joystick which gives him the ability to adjust
vides the motive force in a small package which fits the steering drift of the vehicle and to attenuate the
within the diameter of a standard car steering wheel. playout amplitude. The robot is automatically de-
The steering robot therefore only requires a DC energized if the joystick is released to enable the
electrical supply, which is normally taken from the driver to regain manual control of the steering.
 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 91

A particular specification
The following specification describes a robotic ma-
chine for applying low frequency inputs to a vehi-
cle's steering system to enable repeatable measure-
ments to be made whilst testing on a track. Fig 50
shows a schematic diagram of the robot. On the right
of the figure is the servo-motor and angular position
encoder which mounts directly to the vehicle's steer-
ing column. The torque reaction frame also functions
as a stand for a flat, touch-screen, display (not
shown). This is the user interface for the computer
system, which is housed in a separate case located
Fig 49 : Steering robot installed
elsewhere in the vehicle (and not shown in the
figure). A second, stacking case houses the motor
amplifier and signal conditioning for the torque
measuring system. Manual steering of the vehicle is
still possible because the servo-motor is a direct-
drive type and will back-drive easily when the power
is removed. The motor has a steering wheel mounted
around it to enable the vehicle to be driven normally.
The motor is servo-controlled using position feed-
back from an encoder. This task is undertaken by a
dedicated motion controller. The user interface, com-
munication with the motion controller, and other non
time-critical functions are handled by a Pentium-
based industrial computer.
Fig 51: Computer test screen A telescopic pole between the vehicle floor and
windscreen functions as the torque reaction frame for
The computer system also has the ability to the motor. The two sections of the pole form a
capture and store run-time data from the robot's own pneumatic actuator which is extended during fitting
transducers as well as up to twelve user-defined by using a low pressure air supply. Once firmly in
analogue inputs and three encoder inputs. The system position, a cross bar may be adjusted to allow the
also provides digital outputs to trigger external data force links to be fitted to the drive unit at the correct
capture, and analogue outputs of motor torque, angle angle. The two force links use charge devices to
and velocity. measure their axial loads. The steer torque is calcu-
The new test systems ABD has developed are lated from these loads by the computer. The torque
a response to an increased thrust in the industry to reaction frame also acts as a mount for a removable
reduce time from concept to production of a new control box which houses the colour, TFT, display
vehicle, with increased use of computer analysis and with a touch screen. This provides the principal
prediction techniques. Initial design parameters may control interface during testing on the track. Another
be based on experience but, increasingly, use is being control box, mounted to the driver's window with
made of measurements on previous models and on suction pads, holds a two-axis joystick incorporating
competitor 'target' vehicles. Steering and suspen- a button for activating closed-loop control of the
sions are refined with the aid of models for which motor. The spring centred left-right plane of the
measured data is essential; also managers need to joystick adjusts the DC steering position, enabling
ensure that development work is carried out only on the driver to cancel any drift of the vehicle during a
vehicles that are known to be built to specification. test, while the forwards-backwards plane adjusts the
All this can be achieved only by making the relevant attenuation of the test amplitude. The forwards-
measurements. backwards plane has a built in friction brake to
92 VEHICLE DESIGN
prevent accidental movement when altering the steer- The steer angle, and torque, are measured and
ing position. A third control box on a flying lead recorded by the steering robot and output on +10V
contains an emergency stop button, to cut all power analogue (DAC) channels for sampling by other
to the motor, and a button which can be used to equipment. In addition, velocity or acceleration can
initiate tests (as an alternative to using the touch be output on a third DAC channel. A further 12
screen). This box can be placed in any convenient analogue input (ADC) channels and 3 encoder chan-
position within the driver's reach. The computer nels are available for monitoring any other signals
system, motor amplifier and signal conditioning hard- during a test. The scale factors (EU/V) and offsets for
ware are housed in two separate rugged cases. These all these channels are adjustable to maximize the
are designed to stack one on top of the other and have dynamic range. The software features a database
strong handles to enable them to be strapped securely which records all the vehicles that have been tested,
within the vehicle. Interconnection cables between and catalogues the tests performed and the results.
the boxes are arranged on one side of the boxes and Fig 51 shows a typical screen for selecting the test
are protected by hinged covers. The connections to vehicle. The results files contain the steer angle,
the control devices, motor, transducers and power velocity and acceleration, the torque values, and the
supply are all on the opposite side. The connectors spare analogue and encoder channels all sampled at
are protected when not in use by removable lids. The 100 Hz. The files are available in ASCII format with
control cases can be mounted at any convenient a header describing the test and each channel of data.
position, typically a front or rear seat. The main A facility to copy files to a network, or other drive, is
power supply is provided via a large DC to DC included to facilitate transferring the results to other
converter. This is typically located in the foot-well of post-processing software. A number of standard tests,
the vehicle.

Fig 50: :
reaction
 ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS 93

or 'templates', are available to make setting up tests quency, amplitude and test time. The playout is
for new vehicles easier. It is possible to add extra automatically ramped at start and finish to help
templates if required. maintain a straight vehicle heading. In the sine sweep
During a test, the steer angle and test time test, the user can select the test time, start and finish
remaining are displayed digitally on the touch screen frequencies and a start and finish amplitude. A facil-
in large text. The steer torque is also displayed but in ity to generate a sweep with constant peak velocity is
the form of an analogue bar graph. In addition up to also available. In this mode the software calculates
four of the spare channels can also be displayed, one the instantaneous amplitude necessary to maintain
digitally (primarily intended for a speed display if the peak velocity constant throughout the test. The
available), and three as bar graphs (for lateral accel- sweep is logarithmic in frequency. There is also a
eration). A target limit can also be set for each spare single period sine test for lane change testing. The
channel. Reaching the target level during the test amplitude, frequency and direction can be specified.
causes the colour of the display to change to give a Pulse tests, in addition, allow step or ramped inputs
clear visual indication to the driver. The bar graphs to be applied as a half cycle (move to an angle, dwell,
also have a peak hold facility to show the maximum move back to zero). The overall time, step angle and
levels achieved in each direction during the test. ramp rate can be specified. In User data test mode the
software outputs data contained in a file. The soft-
Performance modes ware will check the file to make sure that the robot is
The software performs the following types of steer- capable of generating the speed required. The data
ing test: in the continuous sine test, for a fixe will have previously been saved to the file by using
frequency sine output, the user can select the fre- the 'learn mode', or may be generated externally and
imported from an ASCII file. The software also has
a learn mode to record steering movements input by
a driver and save the results in a file. The file can then
be played out as a test
94 VEHICLE DESIGN
Installation and operation after a preset delay (defined in the test setup). A
A hole through the motor assembly makes attach- second digital output will signal the start of the
ment to the steering column easy, Fig 52. Installation playout. During the test, the joystick up-down plane
of the torque reaction system is very simple and controls attenuation of the test amplitude. Releasing
requires no tools other than a low pressure air supply. the joystick button at any time will disengage the
The computer system can be installed at any suitable motor and allow manual steering. Pressing the touch
place in the vehicle within 2 metres of the driver, and screen during a test will stop the test and reset the
the display and joystick are easily attached. steering to straight ahead. Tests may be modified and
The database would normally be set-up for a repeated via the touch screen or by using the key-
new vehicle and any tests defined whilst the vehicle board.
is in the running-shop. A normal PC keyboard (and During the test the display will show:
mouse) would be used at this stage. Simple modifica- 1) The steering wheel angle (large text)
tions can be made to the test setups later while on the 2) Direction of first turn in the test
road, by using the touch screen. Once at the test site, 3) Warning that the robot is not following the test
the driver would set the correct direction and veloc- profile to a user-set tolerance
ity, and would press and hold the joystick button to 4) Percentage test amplitude (100% clearly indi-
engage the motor. The robot will then be in control of cated)
the steering. Any drift of the vehicle may be can- 5) Test time remaining 6) Test and robot status
celled by the driver by moving the joystick in the left- 7) Bar graph displays of ADC and encoder channels
right plane. Pressing the touch screen button (or The data from a series of tests would be saved
remote button) will start the first test in the sequence, to disk for post processing later, but results can be
and cause a digital output to change state to signal to viewed graphically on the touch screen immediately
external data capture systems. The playout will begin a test is complete.
 Chapter 5:

Vehicle development

Among the recent vehicle introductions, four stand out as

marking a major innovative input to vehicle development.
The Mercedes A-class is a significant advance in small car
packaging as well as breaking new ground in secondary safety.
Ford's Focus brings the company's 21st century hard-edge
styling to its most mainstream model and also marks a
completed market repositioning of a class of vehicle starting
as the Mark 1 Escort to a vehicle refined enough to compete
in the neo-luxury sector. The Land Rover Freelander brings
the price of comfortable 4-wheel drive vehicles down to
realistic levels and is a breakthrough in body option versatility.
Project Thrust SSC presents the ultimate in competition
vehicles and gives a taste of the technologies required at the
limits of vehicle-to-ground adhesion.
96 VEHICLE DESIGN

Mercedes A-class
The world's pioneering motor manufacturer, and
possibly still the most prestigious, had a momentous
year in 1998, and seemed to emerge as the senior
partner in Daimler-Chrysler. Its earlier attempts to
break into compact car making have also now borne
fruit in the re-launched moose-proof A-class, Fig 1,
which has become possibly the class-leader in city
cars. The revised suspension system is said to make
the A-class the safest car in its class. The modified
rear suspension, Fig 2, now has the special tie rod, Fig 1: Mercedes A-class
shown, incorporated and all models benefit from
ESP, the company's Electronic StabilityProgramme.
Chassis was also slightly lowered, anti-roll torque
increased, rear track extended slightly, dampers/
tyres replaced, suspension stiffened and greater
understeer built into the handling dynamics.

Secondary safety systems

The sandwich floor concept allows the engine and
drive assembly of the A-class to be shunted back
underneath the body in the event of a frontal impact
rather than penetrating the passenger compartment.
This ingenious layout, Fig 3, means that the new
Mercedes model virtually achieves the high safety
standard of the E-class. Even in the event of a side Fig 2: Revised rear suspension
impact the 'sandwich' concept of the double layer
floor, Fig 4, provides clear advantages, because the
occupants sit about 20 centimetres higher than in
other cars, with the result that the impact occurs
below the occupant cell. The A-class complies not
only with the future EU frontal impact crash test
standard but also with strict safety regulations on side
impacts in the USA and the European Union. In terms
of safety a car measuring only 3.57 metres long with
a kerb weight of only about 1000 kg has a number of
basic disadvantages to overcome — especially if it is
built on conventional lines. The low vehicle mass,
short front-end structure and limited space available
for crumple zones are fundamental handicaps that
until now have left little room in this vehicle class for
further progress in vehicle safety. This situation has
been revolutionized with the A-class.
The main aim in the safety development of the
car was to make maximum use of the short front
crumple zone in a head-on collision and to clear all
components that obstructed the crumpling process
out of the way. Because of the rigid structure of
engine and gearbox, they play practically no part in Fig 3: Slant-mounted power unit
 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 97

the deformation, and in conventional compact cars to three unusual features: the unique inclined con-
they can be pushed back in a single block that can struction of the engine and gearbox, the shape and
intrude into the interior and injure the occupants. installation of which are specifically designed to
Here the innovative arrangement of engine and accord with the crash principle of the A-class; the
gearbox reduces the risk of their forming a single development of a frame-type integral support to
block and therefore makes an essential contribution accommodate the engine and gearbox (Fig 5), which
to occupant safety. In the A-class, the engine and in a crash can disengage at two of its eight fixing
gearbox are positioned at an angle partly in front of points thereby allowing the engine and gearbox to
the occupant cell and partly underneath it, so that in slide downwards; thirdly the design of the stable front
the event of frontal impact they can slide downwards floor panel (pedal floor) as a surface along which the
rather than straight back. This is possible due largely engine and gearbox can slide in the event of a crash.
This maximum possible deformation length
available at the front end of the Mercedes A-class is
due solely to the fact that the rigid engine and gearbox
are displaced under the passenger cell in a serious
head-on collision. Without this capacity for evasion
and the ability of the engine and gearbox to 'duck' out
of the deformation area, the front end of the A-class
would have to be about 25 cm longer in order to give
the occupants the same degree of protection. The fact
that the short crumple zone also does not subject the
occupants to severe stresses as a result of the higher
Fig 4: Double-level floor deceleration values is due to the retaining systems
specially matched to the front end structure.
Other advantages of the new body concept are
the straight side members. They absorb high defor-
mation forces right from the start of body deforma-
tion and thereby permit much more favourable decel-
eration characteristics than in cars of conventional
design. As a result, the occupants share in the decel-
eration of the vehicle earlier and over a longer period,
which reduces the stresses to which passengers are
subjected. The triggering threshold of seat belt
tensioners and airbags on the driver and front passen-
ger side can also be more precisely defined thanks to
Fig 5: Vehicle chassis-frame construction the longitudinal rigidity of the body structure. The
front end structure has deformation zones, Fig 6, on
three levels. The impact energy in the front area of the
A-class is widely distributed over three planes: the
frame-type integral support, which serves to accom-
modate the front axle, engine and gearbox; the straight
side members leading to the aluminium and steel
front module; the second upper side member plane on
a level with the headlamps.
Since most frontal impacts are offset crashes
with unilateral stressing of the front end structure,
there are strong transverse connections between the
impact zones designed to ensure that the deformation
Fig 6: Deformation zones areas on the opposite side, remote from the impact,
98 VEHICLE DESIGN

are also involved. This produces an homogeneous permits an especially realistic simulation of typical
front end structure which will prove effective in all accidents involving oncoming traffic, and specifies a
types of frontal collision. The front wheels also have head-on collision at 56 km/h and 40 percent overlap
a role to play in energy absorption. They form an against a deformable barrier. The A-class passes this
additional load path and in an impact are braced at test even at an impact speed of 65 km/h, correspond-
the stable nodal points of A-pillar and sill. This effect ing to a significantly high stress loading.
is particularly important in the frequent front end Compatibility means that in a collision involv-
crashes with overlap on one side — the so-called ing two vehicles they should activate one another's
offset collisions. crumple zones and be capable of transmitting the
M-B engineers have matched the strength of deformation load uniformly to both bodies. For this
the occupant cell to the high front end deformation to happen it is necessary for the front end deformation
force. The raised flat floor, which is welded from resistance of large and small cars to approximate to
below to a grid-like support structure, gives the one another. As an example, in the E-class the front
occupant cell a high degree of stability so that it is end structure of this Mercedes model is constructed
essentially not deformed either in a frontal impact or so that in a crash the impact energy for the other
in an offset crash with 40 or 50 percent overlap. vehicle is reduced — intelligent safety engineering
Airbags and belt tensioners and a polystyrene insert means mutual protection. In a smaller car, however,
in the footwell, which form part of the standard the design principle is just the opposite. Because of
equipment on all Mercedes cars, complete the list of the lower mass and the shorter front end the Mercedes
measures to protect the occupants. engineers designed the A-class with an especially
From the outset the 'Big versus Small' aspect rigid front end so that in an accident with another,
was a prime consideration in the safety development larger oncoming vehicle it can activate the other
of the A-class. In a head-on collision involving two vehicle's deformation zones. In addition to matching
cars of differing mass a suitable distribution of the the levels of force, the uniform distribution of impact
deformation load between the two vehicles must be forces over the entire height and width of the front
achieved so that there is no danger particular to the end plays a particularly important role. On the A-
occupants of the smaller car. For some time now class this purpose is served by the second impact
Mercedes-Benz has been developing its cars accord- plane with its stable transverse connections to the
ing to this principle and claims to be the first to test lower support structure. Even in a frontal collision
cars through crash tests against a deformable barrier. with a larger car, the occupants of the smaller one are
This test method, which will not be specified for all not at a major disadvantage in this case.
new cars in the European Union until October 1998, The strengths of the sandwich concept of the

Fig 7:
Body-in-
white
 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 99

car are not confined to front-end crashes. They also occupants are height-adjustable in three stages. The
apply to side and rear impact collisions: in the side- seat belt retractors of the front seat belts incorporate
on crash the other car hits the A-class at the precise torsion bars which in a crash are slowly deformed
level where the body of the A-class is at its strongest, from a certain force upwards, thereby reducing the
at the level of the load-bearing structure for the floor. locking action of the inertial reel seat belts. This
The occupants are seated above this impact level and reduces the risk of injury to the occupants who
are therefore optimally protected. The load bearing moreover, thanks to the force limiter, can sink very
structure of straight cross members, Fig 7, and side gently into the airbags. Belt force limiters and airbags
members is better able to contain and reduce the are thus designed to function as part of a precisely co-
impact energy than in a car of conventional body ordinated system. The side airbags in the front doors
design in which the impact mostly occurs above the form part of the standard specifications of the A-class.
floor structure. A newly developed gas generator with liquid gas
The short crumple zones at the front of the A- filling is also used for these. M-B also fits belt
class make it necessary to activate the belt tensioner tensioners as standard on the outer seats of the rear
immediately after the crash. As a result, the occu- seat unit. These ensure that in a crash rear seat
pants not only take part earlier and longer in the passengers also benefit in good time from the decel-
deceleration of the vehicle, but they also have a eration of the body structure. The height adjustment
longer distance for their crash-induced forward move- of the inertial reel seat belts functions automatically
ment. The earlier the safety belt builds up its restrain- on the rear seats. As on the C- and E-class cars, child
ing force, the longer the distance available to the belt seats which fold out of the rear seats at the touch of a
and belt tensioner in which to arrest the forward button are available as an option.
movement of the occupants. In this way, the forces
unleashed on the occupants are low, despite the
massive deceleration of the occupant cell. This also Primary safety system
serves to compensate for the design disadvantages of For the first-launched vehicle, the front axle has a
short deformation zones in small and compact cars. modified McPherson suspension system with coil
The innovative restraint system in the A-class in- springs, twin-tube shock absorbers and torsion bar
cludes full-size airbags for driver and front passen- stabiliszer, Fig 8. The suspension components are
ger. The airbags fitted as standard have a volume of mounted together with the rack-and-pinion steering
64 and 130 litres. They are operated by a new gear, engine and gearbox on a frame-type integral
propellant technology which offers certain advan- support that is bolted to the body at eight points.
tages when recycling: the gas generator for the driv- Unlike the original McPherson suspension, the anti-
er's airbag is filled with an acid-free solid propellant, roll bar of the A-class does not take part in wheel
and the passenger airbag contains an environmen- location but is linked to the suspension strut via
tally safe liquid gas mixture of helium and argon. plastic suspension: the results include better elasto-
The car has inertia-reel seat belts with belt kinematics and increased rolling comfort.
tensioners on the front seats: newly developed com- Ride comfort is also enhanced by the low-
pact belt tensioners compensate for seat belt slack friction suspension struts and damper guide units, the
and ensure that in a crash the occupants are even Teflon coating of the front bearing of the torsion bar
better tied to the passenger cell by snugly fitting and the various noise-damping measures. All wheel
belts. The belt strap is tensioned by small steel balls location, suspension and damping components have
in the seat belt retractors which, when the belt been weight-optimized, such that engineers have
tensioner is activated, are set in motion and rotate achieved an exceptionally good balance between
counter to the belt strap shaft. In this way they first load-bearing ability and intrinsic weight: the effects
stop the belt strap and then coil it back up at high of this balance only become evident in the sum of the
speed. This drive system has two outstanding advan- car's many detailed solutions.
tages: high tensioning capacity and compact con- Another conceptual advantage that is felt in the
struction of the seat belt retractor. handling of the car is the position of the steering gear
The inertial reel seat belts for the front seat in front of the centre of the wheel: this layout is only
100 VEHICLE DESIGN

possible because of the sandwich double-layer floor shock absorbers and springs are located in an other-
concept, with the engine and gearbox located partly wise unused space in front of the wheel centre. With
underneath the floor panel. Steering response is this geometry, the suspension components support
improved by this geometry. the straight side members in a crash, thereby also
A compact servo pump for the steering of the improving occupant safety.
A-class, for the first time in a Mercedes is not The dynamic qualities of the rear suspension
mechanically driven but is powered by an electric are particularly due to special tie-bolts that control
motor with electronic control. Pump capacity can be the elastic deformation of the side members and
adjusted precisely to suit demand and the instantane- combine with them to form a rectangular linkage
ous traffic situation. For example, when driving on structure, Fig 9. Changes in the angle of the side
the straight, the electric motor runs at reduced speed
and consumes less energy. The three-spoke steering
wheel of the car is a new development and is designed
in particular to satisfy the needs of lightweight con-
struction. The 370 millimetre diameter steering wheel
is an aluminium pressure-casting, with a rim of
polyurethane foam coated in plastic or leather, de-
pending on the equipment level and customer option.
The steering wheel material crumples in a controlled
way in the event of high-force collision impact.
The company opted for trailing arm suspension
with coil springs, torsion bar stabilizer and single-
tube gas-pressure shock absorbers. The main advan-
tage is that trailing arm suspension can be designed
with all its components underneath the load floor, so
that it does not encroach on the interior space. The
Fig 8: Front suspension

Fig 9:
Suspension
supports
 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 101

member and wheel about the vertical axis are com- adjusting system compensates for brake pad and
pensated with up to 75 percent efficiency. The sus- drum wear. The parking brake in the A-class is
pension components, side members, coil springs and operated manually, using a lever between the front
shock absorbers are mounted on a suspension subframe seats. The control cables are maintenance-free, since
in a single compact block that is fixed to the body- they have automatic length adjustment.
work on four sound-proofed rubber bearings, partly ESP keeps the A-class directionally stable and
with hydraulic damping. The rear suspension unit is reduces the risk of skidding when cornering by
mounted with the aid of four vertical assembly bolts. selectively applying the front and rear brakes. While
None of the suspension components projects up- driving, the ESP computer compares the actual be-
wards above the level of the floor. haviour of the vehicle with the calculated set points.
The technology and layout of the brakes, Fig If the car is deviating from the safe 'ideal line', the
10, correspond to the particular features of the A- system responds at high speed with a specially devel-
class drive system and vehicle concept. Engineers oped logic, bringing the car back to the right track in
opted for floating-calliper disc brakes at the front and two ways, firstly by the precisely dosed braking of
drum brakes at the rear, because this combination one or more wheels and/or by controlling engine
provides optimal braking safety, stability and endur- torque. By these methods, ESP corrects both driving
ance for a front-wheel drive car, say M-B. A brake errors and skidding movements caused by slippery or
booster and the anti-lock braking system provide wet surfaces, loose chippings or other difficult road
added safety. The drum brakes on the rear wheels are conditions that normally give the driver very little
characterized by a lightweight construction: the sup- chance to keep the car in line by steering and braking
porting body for the wheel brake cylinder and brake action. The A-class is the first and only car in the sub-
shoes, the anchor plate and brake cylinder are made compact and compact car class to have such an
of aluminium. In order to satisfy the high safety innovative driving safety system. The Electronic
requirements, the hubs are made of steel and the Stability Programme also includes the compnay's
brake cylinders of grey cast iron. An automatic electronic Brake Assist System.

Fig 10: Braking

system
102 VEHICLE DESIGN

Ford Focus
Ford's Focus, Fig 11, brings the company's 21st
century hard-edge styling to its most mainstream
model and also marks a completed market reposi-
tioning of a class of vehicle starting as the Mark 1
Escort to a vehicle refined enough to compete in the
neo-luxury sector. The refinement of individual sys-
tems to achieve the transformation is described be-
low.
Fig 11: Ford Focus
Friction within the front suspension struts is
reduced by off-set coil springs that eliminate bending helps to reduce transmission of noise, vibration and
forces acting upon the strut, Fig 12. Zero off-set harshness levels to the passenger compartment. The
geometry — via new A-arms supported by stiff, front control blade, spring link and toe link are all pressed-
A-arm bushes — provides precise lateral wheel steel components. The camber link is the only cast-
control for enhanced precision and on-centre steering ing. Compliant bush provides recession, which al-
definition. Large, rear A-arm bushes permit longitu- lows rear wheels to move both upwards and rear-
dinal compliance for reduced impact harshness and wards to absorb road bumps.
improved ride performance. Negative scrub radius An all new, highly rigid yet lightweight plat-
(-12 mm) enhances braking stability, particularly on form architecture (826 kNm/rad; 1070 kg for the 3-
surfaces in which available grip varies between the door — stiffest and lightest in class) provides best
left- and right-hand tyres. Low steering friction lev- possible base for enhanced ride, handling, steering
els minimize resistance and stickiness for improved and active/passive safety. The combination is
feel, response and driver confidence. . Body-roll is achieved through laser-welding, optimized panel
controlled by anti-roll bars, which are 20 mm diam- gauges, extensive swaging, local reinforcement of
eter front and rear. Large, pre-loaded bushes provide critical points and optimized spot-weld distribution.
immediate linear control. Steering input induces Cross-member and powertrain pick-up points are as
immediate directional change (turn-in) with very much as 150% stiffer than surrounding areas. The
little body roll. Ultra-stiff cross member, attached lightest model weighs just 1070 kg; both lighter and
directly to floorpan, increases the precision of geo- a full 15 per cent stiffer than all recent class entrants.
metric wheel control and further stiffens the body. The rear side rails, for example, are tradition-
Friction within the steering system has been reduced ally made from four separate parts. For Focus, these
20 per cent and damping friction reduced, Fig 14. parts have been replaced by a single laser-welded
Adoption of a fully independent, Control Blade blank, in which the gauge reduces progressively in
multi-link rear suspension system, though similar to three stages from front to rear. The result is a structure
the system used on the Ford Mondeo estate, is rede- that is stiffer, with more rigid mounting points for the
signed for Focus. Here the Control Blade makes suspension, has improved crash performance and
extensive use of stampings for key components, saves more than 1 kg per rail in weight. Similarly, the
which reduces cost, unsprung weight—by 3.5 kg per gauge of steel in the B-pillar is 2.25 mm thick at the
wheel — and assembly time, while offering even top but tapers to just 1.1 mm at the base, providing a
greater geometric precision, Fig 13. It has ride com- stiff upper section for a controlled and superior
fort, steering precision, handling, braking and stabil- performance in the event of a side-impact crash.
ity advantages, as well as NVH and package gains Zero offset geometry gives total separation of
over the common twist-beam axle. There is greater load paths, with lateral forces being fed through the
longitudinal compliance without compromising lat- stiff forward A-arm bush (1) while longitudinal forces
eral stiffness, which boosts steering precision, feel, are controlled by the more compliant rear A-arm
handling and driver confidence. Intrinsic stability is bush (2) shown in Fig 13. Large-diameter coil springs
provided by passive rear-wheel steer. The wider are offset, to feed suspension loads directly to them,
distribution and de-coupling of five separate load eliminating bending forces on the struts for reduced
paths, compared with two for the twist beam design, friction and superior responses, Fig 14.
 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 103

Stability is enhanced by maintaining optimum

braking performance to the rear wheels in all condi-
tions, whether the vehicle is heavily laden or carrying
only the driver. On non-ABS-equipped vehicles, this
is provided by a pressure cut-off proportioning valve.
For the 1.8- and 2.0-litre petrol and diesel estate, a
load-sensitive pressure limiting valve is used.
When ABS is specified, brake proportioning is
achieved using the electronic brake-force distribu-
tion (EBD) system. It uses the ABS sensors to moni-
tor the speed of front and rear wheels and adjusts the
pressure distribution to help the rear wheels retain
traction. EBD is self-compensating for all load con-
Fig 12: Large diameter coil springs are offset so ditions and imperceptible to most drivers. It is de-
that suspension loads are fed to them without signed to reduce stopping distances and improves
bending forces applied to the struts vehicle stability in conditions that fall short of trig-
gering the ABS. ABS also forms the basis of the car's
Traction Control System (TCS) and Electronic Sta-
bility Programme (ESP). TCS is a development of
Ford's dual-mode system with low-speed brake in-
tervention coupled to a cut in engine power, above 31
mph, delivered via the EEC-V engine management
module.
ESP acts whether or not the driver operates the
brakes. In tests, it maintains vehicle stability at much
higher speeds than would be possible without it —
thereby placing less demand upon driver skill and
reducing stress in extreme conditions. ESP uses
software to control engine power and brake indi-
vidual wheels to restore stability when the driver has
exceeded or is beginning to exceed the car's dynamic
capabilities. Driver's intentions — direction of travel,
Fig 13: Zero-offset geometry allows lateral forces
measured via a steering angle sensor — are compared
to be fed through bush (1) while longitudinal ones
against vehicle behaviour. Vehicle behaviour is moni-
are controlled by bush (2)
tored constantly by three additional sensors for yaw
rate (rotation), lateral acceleration (centrifugal force)
and wheel speed, with the latter sensors being inte-
gral to the ABS. Yaw control is achieved via the
vehicle's ABS, with braking being directed to indi-
vidual wheels through the ESP modulator. ESP uses
information from three sensors and the four ABS
wheel-speed sensors to determine the cornering be-
haviour. It interactively compares the data in a dy-
namic handling map stored in a special on-board
computer. Additional ESP sensors monitor steering
angle, lateral acceleration and yaw moment, which
denotes the vehicle's tendency to turn about its
Fig 14: Low friction seals ensure vertical axis. As soon as any tendency for the vehicle
quick response of dampers to move off the chosen line is detected, engine power
104 VEHICLE DESIGN

is reduced, and individual brakes are applied momen-

tarily to bring the car back on course.
Powertrain With the Zetec SE low-friction
engine, Ford used high-compression ratios, knock
sensing and low idle speeds to deliver a 25 per cent
real-world fuel economy improvement over past
engines. The existing 1.4-litre Zetec SE unit, now
fully re-calibrated for Focus to serve as a fuel-
efficient 75 PS power unit, is supplemented by an all-
new all-alloy 100 PS 1.6-litre Zetec SE engine. All
engines require servicing only every 10,000 miles,
with spark plug renewal every 40,000 miles and
valve clearance attention only every 100,000 miles
on petrol versions. All also feature a new torque roll Ford Focus
axis (TRA) mounting system, which helps reduce Fig 16: Current single-piece Control Blade
powertrain shake on rough roads, results in a smoother
idle quality and greatly reduces the degree of noise
and vibration transmitted from the drivetrain into the
body shell, Fig 18. Internally, the Zetec engines fea-
ture an alloy ladder frame between the base of the
block and the crankcase, Fig 19,which boosts rigidity
of the powertrain assembly by 30 per cent. The alloy
block Zetec SE has a similar stiffening member
added as a bearing beam within the crankcase skirt.
These devices — together with new lightweight
pistons and con rods — reduce second-order shaking
forces by 20 per cent. Newly designed cam covers
and low-noise ancillary drive systems generate sig-
nificant improvements in running refinement and
reduce perceived engine noise by 50 per cent.
Cables transmit fore/aft and left/right gear le-
ver movements to the selector mechanism, eliminat-
ing a potential path for NVH to the interior, Fig 20.
Cable shift also is smoother than a rod-operated
system. Hydraulic clutch requires lighter pedal effort
with less travel for a smoother take up. An updated
version of the Ford B5 five-speed manual transmis-
sion has external ribs along the transmission and
clutch housing to increase drivetrain stiffness for
reduced noise and vibration. Internally, first and
second gears are equipped with double-cone
synchronizers for smoother downshifts. Selection of
reverse is also slicker. Durability is enhanced by the
incorporation of strengthened final drive bearings
and a new synthetic oil lubricant, which also eases
gear selection when cold. New sealed-for-life bear-
ings and fluid seals protect from dirt particle ingress Fig 18: Powertrain mass is supported by two
for extended transmission life. mounts in line with the virtual axis of rotation, a
Now available on Focus is a four-speed auto- separate arm resisting torque
 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 105

matic transmission which features an overdrive-top Body structure and systems Focus meets more
and lock-up torque converter. It has been designed than 100 different real-world crash tests, modes and
specifically for use in front-wheel drive applications events, well beyond existing or currently proposed
and is unusually light and compact. It is controlled by legislation, including all mandatory European and
an electronic synchronous shift control (ESSC) mod- US destructive tests. At the front, beyond the bumper
ule linked to the EEC-V engine management system. support beam, the car's cross member is made from
A centrally mounted quadrant selection lever has six ultra-high-strength steel, so it is robust and stable and
positions (P,R,N,D,2,1), while overdrive can be will not tear upon impact, Fig 21. Resistance to
switched by a separate, thumb-operated push-button tearing helps spread crash energy into the car's lower
at the side of the lever. The ESSC works in conjunc- side rails, which is particularly effective in offset
tion with the EEC-V using information read from 18 impacts. Additional to the progressive collapse of the
different engine and transmission sources to calcu- lower side rails, which absorbs most of the energy
late the best possible shifting strategy for the driving ahead of the passenger safety cell, a secondary load
and operating conditions. Fuel economy and per- path channels the remaining energy over the roof and
formance are close to those of the equivalent manual around the doors to ensure safe evacuation of passen-
transmission models, while the system's shift quality gers.
and speed of response set new standards for this class At the rear, the objective is to minimize intru-
of vehicle. sion of the passenger compartment in a rear impact,
while also ensuring that the doors remain operable
and the integrity of the fuel system is maintained.
This is achieved via the progressive collapse of the
rear side rails, supported by the wheel housings.
Stamped and laser-welded, the side rails are made up
of three different metal gauges — changing in thick-
ness from 1.6 mm to 2.6 mm (in the area of the fuel
tank) and 2.4 mm — to provide progressive control-
led collapse. The compound structure avoids over-
gauging near the rear bumper and eliminates the need
to add reinforcement further back. Vehicle weight is
Fig 19: Cast alloy
thus reduced, by 1 kg per side, and the number of parts
bearing beam
and welding operations are reduced, improving as-
reinforces the Zetec
sembly tolerances and providing robust control of the
SE bottom end
collapse performance. For side-impact protection,
the entire side structure, which includes door beams
and anti-burst door latches, is designed to absorb
energy and reduce intrusion, especially above the
door bars. To achieve this, the B-pillar is made from
a laser-welded, high-strength steel blank, with a
gauge thickness that reduces from 2.25 mm at the top
to 1.1 mm at its base. Additional inner reinforcement,
designed to increase rigidity, makes it highly resist-
ant to 'kinking', so it can more effectively channel
crash energy into both the rocker and roof rail, and
support the side airbag during deployment.
All elements of the Focus restraint system
work in harmony so that the whole structure is
integrated and fine-tuned to provide maximum pro-
Fig 20: Cable shift actuation is tection. This starts with the locking of the inertia seat
chosen to reduce noise paths belt reels which occurs approximately 6 milliseconds
106 VEHICLE DESIGN

after impact. (All timings depend upon the nature of

the impact, whether it be straight, angled, offset,
against a solid object or another vehicle). Approxi-
mately 4 milliseconds later, before the head and chest
begin to move forward, the airbag sensors trigger the
front airbags and the small pyrotechnic charges in the
pre-tensioners, which eliminate any slack in the seat
belt and negate the effects of bulky or layered cloth-
ing. The front airbags take approximately 35 milli-
seconds to fully inflate, which is completed just
before the occupant meets the bag, approximately 50
milliseconds after impact. To reduce chest loading
and minimize injury, Focus is equipped with load-
limiting devices within the inertia reel assemblies.
These pay-out belt webbing after a predetermined
load is exceeded. This process is progressive and
occurs between 45 and 70 milliseconds after impact,
ensuring that the cross belt pressure against the
occupant's chest remains fairly constant.
The load-limiting device consists of a torsion
bar within the traditional inertia reel, and the typical
pay-out is 150 mm. The system is calibrated to help
ensure that front seat occupants do not meet the
airbag until the optimum point, which is just as it is
beginning to deflate. The progressive pay-out also
ensures that the upper torso is less likely to twist, an
action that can compromise the efficiency of the front
airbag. Seatbelt pre-tensioners are designed to pull
the buckles down and take up any slack, optimizing
their position on the torso and maximizing the re-
straint provided by the belt webbing.
Focus' new head-and-chest combination side
airbags provide greatly enhanced head and chest
protection in side impacts. In addition to acting as a
barrier between the occupant and the side of the
vehicle, the tall, 15.5-litre side airbag — stored in the
seat back's outer side bolster — is designed to
cushion the head, minimiszing lateral head injuries.
The car is equipped with the latest version of
Ford's Safeguard Passive Anti-Theft System (PATS).
Safeguard is a Thatcham-approved high-security
engine immobiliszer operated via a miniature trans-
ponder within the key head. It transmits a unique
coded signal, with several trillion possible codes, to
a transceiver situated around the steering lock. Once
the key is identified as correct, the engine is mobi-
lized. Without it, the engine will not start and is
effectively dead. PATS offers several advantages Fig 22: Seats are designed to attenuate vibration
over competitive systems. The system arms itself, in the 10-50 Hz frequency range
 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 107

eliminating human error through forgetfulness. The The car's shrouded lock mechanisms and wir-
interception of the key code by a thief is virtually ing present the first obstacle to forced entry, render-
impossible because the transponder only has the ing break-in many times more difficult. A further
power to pass the code by radio to the transceiver obstacle is posed by a double-locking door system,
when it is within the electrical field of the transceiver. which is linked to the car's central locking and
PATS also incorporates a special erasing procedure optional remote-control facility. Once the double
and smart 'learning' mode to maintain security after locks have been set, only the key or remote button can
resale and eliminate the requirement for a master key. release the locks. A further deterrent is presented by
In addition, a new, key-operated hood-release mecha- a tamper-proof perimeter and interior scanning alarm.
nism makes a potential theft even more difficult. By Once armed, it detects the opening of any doors,
eliminating access to the engine compartment via the tailgate or hood, as well as any movement within the
traditional cabin lever and cable, to ensuree that a passenger compartment. The remote-control locking
would-be thief could gain access to the engine or system has a 10-metre range and uses a miniature
alarm siren only with the car's ignition key. transmitter working on a rolling frequency system to
eliminate possible interception by an electronic scan-
ner.
The body structure and seating were tuned to
reduce resonant peaks and move natural vibration
frequencies outside the operating range, Fig 22. Deep
swaging of body panels, especially the floorpan, help
to maintain stiffness while permitting down-gauging
for weight reduction. Where this was not possible,
around the bulkhead for example, dual-function dead-
ening pads were developed, with a viscous layer to
dampen sound and a mass layer to absorb it. As well
as tuned suspension mounts, Fig 23, torque roll axis
Fig 21: High specific-stiffness body shell engine mounts also are used to reduce powertrain
noise, improve idle quality and reduce powertrain
shake on rough roads. Such a mounting system
separates the powertrain mass from its torque reac-
tions by using two rubber-to-metal bonded mounts
located at either end of the assembly, in line with the
axis of rotational inertia, plus a dedicated torque
reaction link. The front mount incorporates a hydrau-
lic chamber so the modulus of the rubber can be
optimized to reduce NVH transmission at high en-
gine revs, without reducing idling smoothness.
Two direct acoustic paths from the drivetrain to
the interior have been eliminated with the adoption of
a hydraulic clutch mechanism and cable-operated
gearshift. A unique flexible exhaust joint, situated
behind the engine manifold, limits the transmission
of drivetrain vibrations along the length of the ex-
haust system. It also has specially tuned exhaust
hangers positioned at the natural vibrational nodes to
provide further isolation. 'Helmholtz' resonators are
Fig 23: Large diameter rear A-arm bushes give used to filter or select individual frequencies so that
longitudinal compliance without compromising an appropriately purposeful, yet subdued sound is
lateral stiffness obtained.
108 VEHICLE DESIGN

Land Rover Freelander provide additional crush resistance under impact.

Front-ends of the underframe longitudinals crush
With prices pitched at under £16 000 the Freelander,
progressively on impact, after initial deflection of
Fig 24, has finally brought Land Rover within grasp
bumper armature and crush cans, a tapered box-
of the profitable small sports-utility-vehicle market
section in the top of each engine bay side-panel also
and first results are showing the vehicle to be per-
forming well financially. Trade sources have pro-
jected higher residual values than the Honda CRV
and Toyota RAV4. It is the first of the company's
vehicles with a unitary construction body shell and
transverse power unit and a well-planned engine
compartment gives good service access, Fig 25.
Structure
The integrated underframe comprises high-strength
steel box-section longitudinals, with eight
crossmembers, all welded through to the floor pan.
Box-sectioned outriggers from the crossmembers
connect the side sills through to the centre tunnel
member. Front and rear suspension sub-frames are
bolted rigidly to the shell to enhance its torsional
rigidity. The upper shell involves monoside pressings;
there is a deep rear-heelboard serving as a further
crossmember; there is a strong integral fascia panel,
too; all these combining to enhance the stiffness of
the superstructure. For the three-door variant the
torsional figure is 13,500 Nm per degree and rises to
17,500 on the Station Wagon.
Within each lower A-post there are five dia-
phragm pressings to stabilize the box-beam and Fig 24: Land Rover Freelander

Fig 25: Under-bonnet access

 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 109

absorbing impact. In more severe crashes, bending of of the vehicle's roof there is a twin-panel targa
the curved portions of the main longitudinals takes structure, with detachable T-bar. Panels can be indi-
place. The suspension towers are braced back to the vidually tilted open at the trailing edge, or taken out
strong A-pillar area via box-sectioned members ei- — at which point wind deflectors spring into posi-
ther side of the bulkhead. The rear bush mountings tion. Detached panels stow in a bag on the back of the
for the lower front suspension arras are designed to rear seat squab. The complete targa unit is con-
break free of the subframe, under severe impact, to structed as a cassette, having a one-piece SMC mould-
minimize intrusions into the front footwells. From ing which is bonded to the bodyshell with a poly-
the bulkhead backwards the floor structure has a urethane seal. Together with a number of the interior
'branching' layout to help spread impact forces as mouldings this is made by a gas injection moulding
widely as possible, with a curved 'horn' box-member technique to increase specific strength and stiffness.
sweeping back from the longitudinal to the central Roof modules for the 3-door vehicle come in
tunnel area, the box-sectioned side sills also being either softback or hardback forms, both of which
brought into play. involve the same tail-door electrically operated drop-
glass as the station wagon, Fig 26. Roofs are thus
Body systems interchangeable for those customers wishing to in-
A spoiler-type electrically operated glass sun-roof vest in the alternative. On the softback variant, Fig
has been engineered to tilt open at the rear and slide 27, the vinyl roof folds upwards and furls within an
backwards above the roof panel, to maximize rear integral tonneau at roof level so rear vision is unim-
headroom, two-stage slides permitting 70% clear paired. PVC sidescreens are zipped in place and can
aperture opening against the usual 50%. At the front be individually removed to leave the rear roof as a

Fig 26: Station-wagon variant

110 VEHICLE DESIGN

canopy with strong air through-flow. Key body di- practice. Rover Cars experience was drawn upon for
mensions are tabulated in Fig 27. the independent suspension system involving
A green-tinted laminated windscreen is bonded McPherson struts on all four wheel stations which
in place and all other window glass is Pilkington provide vertical travels of 7 in front and 8 in rear.
Optikool solar-control glazing, cutting solar trans- There are high levels of fore-aft compliance, around
mission by 50%. Front wing panels are in an engi- twice the normal 5 mm. Steer fight is avoided by
neering polymer chosen for its damage resistance and carefully designed suspension bush configuration,
1.5 kg per wing weight saving. They are jointly aided by a steering rack with centre take-off, giving
painted with the main shell and have to withstand 180 very long track rods. An anti-kickback valve in the
C stoving temperature. Headlamp lens too are poly- power steering hydraulics eases the shocks of cross-
mer-mouldings, a silicon-coated polycarbonate be- country driving, Fig 30. While disc brakes are used at
ing used to allow a complex optical pattern which the front, the rear wheels rely on drum brakes to
maximizes beam control. The front bumper and provide park-brake performance appropriate to the
grille surround is a large polypropylene moulding extremes of cross-country operation. The ABS has a
mounted on an aluminium armature while that at the special control system which builds in electronic
rear is mounted on a compression moulded glass-mat traction control (ETC) and hill-descent control (HDC).
reinforced polypropylene member. Also in
polypropylene are wheelarch mouldings, wheelarch
liners, lower sill flange finishers, tail-door lower
edge finishers and mudflaps.
Interesting interior detail is the facia-mounted
rocker switch construction, Fig 29. The switch con-
tact metal is integrated during the injection moulding
and a common base moulding and contact plate are
used. Switch warning lights are LEDs rather than
bulbs. Another detail is in the driver seating, which
has an adjustable lumbar support that does not stiffen
the squab springing when adjusted outwards.
The side-hinged tail-door carrying the spare
wheel also involves a specialized construction tech-
nique, for mounting the wheel without bridging inner
and outer skins over the space required for the drop-
glass. A large die-cast aluminium drum-moulding
carries the wheel and spreads the mounting bolt loads
over a very wide area. A neat support arm for the
high-level stop-lamp is integrated into the drum. A
gas-spring strut beneath the door has 'keeps' at half
and fully open positions and facilitates operation by
users of all sizes. The drop-glass has a grooved seal
at its top edge and electrical interlocks are provided
alongside a short-drop/lift control system to release
the glass from the groove when the door is opened and
closed.

Vehicle mechanical systems

A key quality of the vehicle is the provision of good
off-road performance while maintaining on-road han-
dling comparable with the best of conventional car Fig 27: Key dimensions
 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 111

ETC adds a further degree of limited slip control, to

that provided between front and rear axles by the
viscous coupling, but across each axle. HDC pre-
vents tobogganing on sharp downhill brake applica-
tions by a hands/feet-off approach in which engine
overrun at idle is detected and brakes gently applied
to maintain maximum descent speed of 4.4 mph.
The powertrain involves either the K- or L-
series engines, the K being specially tuned to provide
power peak 250 rpm further down the speed range.
The engine is also the first to use a returnless petrol
Fig 28: Softback variant injection supply system, with more sophisticated
electronic control over the in-tank fuel pump. The L-
series diesel has water-cooled EGR to reduce NOx
emissions.

Fig 29: Interior features

Fig 30: Steering system

112 VEHICLE DESIGN

Project Thrust SSC

G. T. Bowsher, Chief Designer (Mechanical) Thrust
SSC Project, was responsible for spaceframe/struc-
ture/wheels/brakes/suspension/steering systems/en-
gine mounts/ throttle systems. Seen in Fig 31 with the
Dunlop-made wheel and brake, he described the
engineering to a contemporary specialist journal1.
He explained that Thrust SSC, although en-
tirely new in concept, with twin jet engines and rear
wheel steering , incorporates technology developed
in Thrust 2, which regained the world land speed
record in 1973. A major feature of the rolling gear is
the adoption of solid aluminium alloy wheels and a
power hydraulic braking system which uses two disc Fig 31: Chief Designer G.T. Bowsher with Dunlop
brake callipers acting on each specifically designed wheel and brake
high speed carbon disc. The Thrust 2 experience gave fighter. This proved a major contribution at an early
valuable information on the safe 'footprint' size for stage, and at a time when credibility for the project
transferring vehicle weight to a desert surface. It also was of great importance. To produce the high speed
made it possible to predict how wheel brakes might wheels solid L.77 forged aluminium blanks supplied
effectively be used to stop the vehicle. This is be- by HDA Forging were machined to provide a rolling
cause the same rolling interface applies (aluminium tread width of 10 inches (0.25 metre) for the front
alloy wheels and the low adhesion, friable surface of wheels and 6 inches (0.152 metre) for the rear,
Black Rock desert where the very high speed runs steering, wheels. This is in line with the weight
were carried out). The shape and ground clearance of distribution of the vehicle's 10 ton static weight.
the new car dictated a wheel diameter of 34 inches A straight web design for both front and rear
(0.86 m). At the anticipated peak design speed of wheels became essential in order to minimize stress,
8400 rpm this means that the radial acceleration at the but for the front wheels, with the wider tread profile
wheel periphery is 34,000 g — effectively making 1 and larger peripheral mass, it also became necessary
gm of material weigh 34 kg. to omit the traditional central hole and have a solid
Dunlop undertook the manufacture of all centred wheel; only then could the high speed stresses
wheels for the jet car, both the high speed solid alloy be kept within the limitations of the L.77 material. In
sets (with spares) and the low speed wheels which terms of the wheel installation this did not matter, as
utilized the main undercarriage tyres of the Lightning the decision, already taken, to steer Thrust SSC by the

Figs 31/32: Front and rear wheels after final machining

 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 113

rear wheels and not the front meant that the central progressive take up of load, these were intended to
hole was not essential: its principal use would have penetrate the desert surface and allow the generation
been as a location for machining. As the rear wheels of lateral steering forces, when steering took place, in
were to be steered a central bearing/stub axle hole addition to providing good lateral stability to the rear
was a necessity, but this could still be accommodated of the jet car. The wide spacing of the keels improved
within the material's stress limits because of the the damping capacity at the desert surface interface
narrower tread width and lower peripheral mass. and helped prevent wheel 'shimmy', a feature of the
Three dimensional computational finite element stress first set of rear wheels, which exhibited only a single
analysis techniques were used in the design of the central keel of low damping capacity.
wheels, minimizing errors before a commitment to Although a parachute was the primary means
costly machining. Of interest, the rear wheels are of stopping the jet car from high speed, Fig 34,wheel
slightly higher stressed than the fronts at any given brakes were essential to cover the lower speed range
speed, indicating the effect of the central hole. (200 mph to rest), when the parachute loses much of
The finalized wheel shapes are given in Fig 31 its effectiveness. In an emergency (if the parachute
for the front wheels and Fig 32 for the rear wheels. Fig failed), the wheel brakes would need to stop the
33 shows the three dimensional stress contours of a vehicle from over 300 mph.
front wheel at 8000 rpm., the darkest shade indicating In most respects, the wheel brakes for Thrust
the highest stresses (note those in the bolt holes) and SSC were laid down as a design fourteen years before
the lightest the lowest stresses, with the other shades following the conclusion of the Thrust 2 project: the
giving intermediate values. All wheels should offer best features of that design were retained whilst other
minimal resistance to rolling and yet have a high features were design-developed as a natural follow
lateral resistance in order to provide good vehicle on and improvement. It was simply a question of
control. Three circumferential grooves on the radiused waiting for a new vehicle. Each wheel brake com-
profile of each front wheel tread provided for this, prises a wheel driven disc/rotor and a pair (one
allowing a progressive take up of wheel load and for leading and one trailing) of brake callipers which
desert surface deformation to give the required lat- hydraulically clamp the disc between suitable fric-
eral stability. Twin keels were a feature of each rear tion stators (brake pads). The brake callipers react the
wheel, with the tread shape again profiled to give a friction drag loads developed between the brake pads

Fig 34: The jet car was stopped from full speed with parachute-assist
114 VEHICLE DESIGN

and disc and pass them into the vehicle's structure, pletely unacceptable for the straight webbed wheels
whilst the brake disc absorbs the vehicles kinetic of Thrust SSC. For the new vehicles brake callipers,
energy in the form of heat. The twin callipers equal- the body is fixed, and the disc allowed to move
ize the brake loads in the system, particularly those axially on the slot/lugs in order to provide the neces-
reacting through the wheel bearings, and much im- sary lateral compliance in connection with single
prove the heat distribution in the brake disc. sided hydraulic pistons. Now, the hydraulic pistons
A critical element in the brake design, the would move the outboard brake pad into contact with
author explains, is the drive junction between the the disc, then move the disc laterally into contact with
wheel and brake disc. That of Thrust SSC took the the fixed inboard pad in order to provide the brake
form of its predecessor's brake in having drive slots clamp. This arrangement minimized the space re-
of a particular shape machined into the inner periph- quired for the fixed arm/fist element of the calliper,
ery of the disc, and engaging these with drive lugs and fitted in well with the straight webs of the new
machined into the wheel carriers. The slots, of almost wheels. In a laterally moving disc it is essential that
'keyhole' shape, allowed the disc to expand due all lateral forces are equal and equally disposed about
either to high temperature or high rotational speed by the brake disc's axial centreline, this ensures that the
sliding radially on the drive lugs whilst retaining its disc does not jam in the drive lugs when actuated. The
concentricity with the wheel, the precision of the slot/
lug fit ensuring this. The shape of the 'keyhole' drive
slot minimizes disc stresses, either thermal or rota-
tional, whilst allowing a failure mode which retained
the integrity of the disc as a major safety feature.
A degree of lateral compliance between the
hydraulically actuated brake pads and disc is essen-
tial, partly to provide for evenness in the lateral force
clamp, but also to allow the brake pads to move clear
of the disc when not in use. In the Thrust SSC's
predecessor's brake this compliance came by later-
ally springing the brake disc into a fixed position, and
applying a pair of twin opposed piston callipers: the
opposed pistons would move the brake pads into and
out of contact with the brake disc, whilst the latter
could still expand and contract radially as required.
The webs of the Thrust 2 wheels had been cranked
around the brake callipers, an arrangement com- Fig 35: Calliper and disk assembly

Fig 33: Results of FE stress analysis

on front wheel at 8000 rpm
 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT 115

two callipers (one leading and one trailing), of the and their interest in supplying such discs.
SSC brake arrangement provide for this, but each In order to use this material, the brake pads
calliper has two pistons the pistons: are therefore would need to be from the same material, even
diagonally connected on separate hydraulic lines, so though its thermal properties would ensure very high
that should an hydraulic line failure occur, the brake temperatures throughout the pad depth when com-
disc will still be evenly loaded in both the axial and pared with conventional materials. In view of the
rotational planes. The arrangement of the SSC brake anticipated high brake pad temperatures two changes
is illustrated in Figs 35 and 36. Brake design was were made to the brake calliper design: the fixed
common throughout the jet car, with two brakes calliper bridge/fist, originally specified in light alloy,
applied to each front wheel, and one for each rear became re-specified in steel, and the automotive
wheel: brake effort therefore matched the dynamic style hydraulic pistons were changed to the Dunlop
weight distribution of the vehicle when decelerating Aviation standard screw-in units, which were already
on a low adhesion desert. fitted with a high temperature heat insulator. In
As both the wheels and brake discs were in- addition, the brake discs were slightly reduced in
tended to operate at much higher speeds than in the outside diameter in order to use an available carbon
former jet car, the compacted graphite iron of the disc blank, and the quantity of disc drive slots in-
original discs could not be used again. Several alter- creased to sixteen.
natives were considered, one being to minimize high All rotary components from the wheel/brake
speed stresses by reducing the mass density of the assembly needed proof testing before being passed
disc material. Of three possibilities in this area, one for use on the jet car. Quite apart from any theoretical
was the use of carbon/carbon fibre, used so effec- analysis of wheel/disc shapes, spin testing to at least
tively in aviation and race car brakes. It was with this 9000 rpm would ensure the use of the equipment at up
in mind that Dunlop were approached in order to to the 8400 rpm design speed. Spin testing took place
assess both the suitability of carbon as a disc material, at Pystock/Farnborough, under the good offices of
the DRA, following balancing by Schenck, and all
components passed without problem, particular em-
phasis on the post run inspections being directed to
the relatively highly stressed wheel bolt holes. Be-
cause of the relatively large inertia of the wheels
compared with the available motor power of the
spinning machine, a spin test from rest to 9000 rpm
and back to rest took 35/45 minutes, with a full 5
minute stress soak in the critical region of 8500-9000
rpm. An additional test, for one brake disc only, was
to spin test to destruction: this occurred at 10,500
r.p.m.. For physical reasons, it was not possible to
spin test a wheel to destruction.
In operation the brakes, because of large inter-
face friction variation with generated temperature,
required a learning curve in order to get the best out
of them. This done, the brakes have been trouble free
for the whole of the project, and pad/disc wear has
been small enough for only one complete set of brake
parts to be used for all 66 runs completed. Although
small, a disc/pad damage differential became pro-
gressively noticeable between the front and rear
brakes as the run numbers increased, with the rears
Fig 36a: taking the greater punishment, the likely cause was
Front brake the heavily dust laden air, disturbed from the desert
116 VEHICLE DESIGN

dust by the front wheels, passing with a scrubbing Speed Record at 763.035 mph, (Mach 1.0175), and
action between the rear pads and discs. Generally, taking an intermediate LSR of 717.144 mph on the
brake temperatures peaked in the region of 450/500 way. All runs were officially timed by the United
C, but in a parachute failed situation temperatures of States Auto Club under FIA rules. In the configura-
800 C were reached, these temperatures were easily tion used, with the Spey 202 engines the jet car would
coped with. The high speed wheels were never oper- go no faster, as it could not penetrate the rapidly
ated to their true operational limits, and therefore increasing supersonic drag. An engine change to the
never achieved the maximum stresses anticipated more powerful Spey 205 engines might have helped
from both rotational speed and wheel loading. Tread an increase in speed to 800 mph, but the true super-
damage from stone impacts during the second Jorda- sonic objective had been reached, and it was decided
nian test series became a potential problem as speed to leave that mark to those who follow.
rose to the mid-500's: these damaged areaswould be
stress raisers on an increasingly stressed surface at
even higher speeds.
Wheel interaction with the desert surface be-
came a dominant feature of the Black Rock operation
as speeds rose above 600 mph, and good vehicle
control became even more critical as the variations in
desert hardness and surface texture over a 13 mile run
length played their hand, particularly as an interme-
diate rainy period had changed the desert character-
istics. In general, speeds up to 500 mph allowed the
desert to imprint the shapes of the wheel treads, but
through 600+ mph the desert beneath the wheels
became very broken in their passing, possibly due to
the formation of 'impact' shock waves. In the region
of 650-750 mph the desert both beneath and either
side of the car broke up considerably, probably due to
the formation of large vehicle generated shock waves,
those which were not airborne being dissipated by the
desert itself. Beneath the wheels, to a depth which
varied from 0.75 inch to 4 inches, the desert became
pulverized into a fine dust: it was almost as if at high
speed the jet car ran on a 'fluidized bed' rather than
a solid desert, though sensors still indicated the
dynamic variations in wheel load. In terms of desert
firmness, miles 7-13 were best whilst miles 0-6 were
softer with the measured mile being a combination of
both: it was quite possible to feel the difference in
desert drag over this length when driving a conven-
tional vehicle. Fig 36b: Rear brake
Intermediate rain before the final supersonic
runs changed these characteristics, with reducing
hardness, and with a particular detrimental effect on
miles 4-6, where the surface became particularly
friable. A total of 66 runs completed the programme
for the Thrust SSC jet car, from the first tentative 40
mph on the Farnborough runway to the final pair
which created the world's first Supersonic Land
 Chapter 6:

Systems development: powertrain/chassis

A decade of patents specifications and company product

releases provides an insight into automotive product
development up to the period of new designs covered in the
first five chapters. In the area of powertrain and chassis systems
the trends to reducing both power losses and environmental
pollution are clear in the examples which follow.
118 VEHICLE DESIGN

Engine developments Camshafts are pre-assembled into separate housings

which simplify the main head casting. Valves are 35
Performance 'on spec'
mm diameter for the inlet and 30 for the exhaust and
Cosworth Engineering's MBA high performance have an included valve angle of 40 degrees. The
engine, first built as a technology demonstrator, is a barrel apertures which form the port-throttles are also
high power-density unit which develops near maxi- incorporated into the head.
mum torque over a very wide speed range and Cylinder block side walls are held in tension
incorporates many race-learnt techniques. by the angled head bolts while the cylinder wall is in
Having a dry weight of only 120 kg (overall compression by reaction to the bolt load. Solid fire
dimensions 536 mm high X 20 wide X 490 long), the rings seal each bore while O-rings seal the water and
peak power of the MBA at 162 kW at 7000 rpm is oil galleries. Cross-bolting of the main-bearing caps,
commendable and the maximum torque of 256 Nm is Fig 2, helps to contain costs by eliminating the need
developed at 4500; good in-gear acceleration can be for tight-tolerance machining. Mating horizontal
obtained from 4000 rpm, in fact. Being produced surfaces on the block and iron caps are first machined
independently of any client programme, consider- flat then the bolt holes are drilled and tapped. After
able detail is now available on its design and con- bolting down the caps, dowel holes are drilled in the
struction. The aluminium alloy unit is configured as two vertical clearance slots between each cap and the
a 2.5 litre, 24 valve, 90 degree V-6 and is notable for block. Cross-drilled dowel pins, and then bolts, are
such innovations as inlet port throttling and an then fitted prior to line boring the assembly. A two-
unusual head and block structure. The block itself
weighs only 26 kg with its 87 mm bore and 70 mm
stroke layout. This 1.24 B/S ratio allows the fitment
of large diameter valves for high specific perform-
ance but a lower ratio would be used for more
emission-conscious variants. The block has a contra-
rotating balance-shaft built into it which, running at
engine speed, balances the primary couple inherent
with this cylinder configuration.
This shaft also has a centrifugal oil-separa-
tor incorporated with it, Fig 1, as part of the advance
crankshaft ventilation system. Oil is jetted to the
underside of the pistons for cooling at high engine
speeds. The head has pent-roof combustion cham-
bers, giving 11:1 compression ratio, but the head-to-
block joint is unique and involves angled head bolts.
To induction System

Craw
Bolt
Fig 1: Vertical section through block showing
balance shaft axis above that of crankshaft Fig 2: Cross-bolting of main-bearing caps
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 119

stage camshaft drive is featured with helical gear on residual exhaust gas to flow back into the inlet port,
the cam nose driving two primary gears which inde- the resulting charge reduction lowering NOx emis-
pendently chain-drive one pair of camshafts. The sion. An external EGR system would accentuate this
two-stage reduction thus allows smaller camshaft process with external pipes. The MBA has a patented
sprockets than usual, which reduces the overall size internal EGR system which circulates exhaust gases
of the engine. Chain life is also extended with this rich in HC; this claims to reduce both NOx and HC
slower moving layout, made quiet by individual emissions. A high performance engine usually re-
cases moulded in special grade of nylon, Fig 3. quires long cam durations and a large valve overlap
The crankshaft has offset pins to provide period and the resulting exhaust dilution is greater
even firing, main and big ends being 50 and 42 mm than on a conventional unit. On the MBA the result-
respectively. Connecting rods weigh only 0.49 kg ing rough running that this would cause is obviated
and are 128 mm between centres; piston weight, too, by port-throttling which limits the reverse flows. The
is kept down to 0.4 kg. The induction system com- depression created in the inlet port, during induction,
prises a variable-geometry plenum which helps to recovers after the inlet valve closes, according to
spread WOT torque over a wide speed band. Two speed and load conditions. As the inlet reopens there
chambers into the plenum individually feed one bank is little pressure differential between inlet and ex-
of cylinders; they are linked together by two pipes haust ports. The independent throttle mechanism,
with switchable valves controlled by the engine Fig 4, on the MBA involves a port-throttle upstream
management system. of the inlet valves, the tracts being fed into a common
In a conventional plenum-throttled engine plenum. Thus, at a given speed and load, degree of
there is pressure differential at part throttle between exhaust gas dilution is a function of inlet port depres-
inlet and exhaust ports. Conventionally there is sion. Internal EGR is therefore controlled by the
simultaneous opening of inlet and exhaust valves relationship between the two throttles, Fig 5.
towards the end of the exhaust stroke which allows

Cylinder-head section

Head to block joint

Barrel-port throttle

Fi 4:
Fig 5: Cylinder head details (above left and right) 8 Plenum and port throttles
120 VEHICLE DESIGN

Advanced car and truck engines

Lotus Engineering's Jewel Project, Fig 6, seeks to
meet some of the challenges of future engine require-
ments. It involves a monobloc design to improve heat
flow from the head to the main water jacket, the
cylinder head having hardened surfaces interfacing
with the aluminium alloy monobloc. Resulting re-
duced temperatures for pistons and liners permit a
safe raising of the compression ratio for greater
engine efficiency.
A hollow crankshaft saves weight and lowers
inertial forces — also helped by the use of metal
matrix composite conn-rods. Corrosion of such parts Fig 6: Lotus Jewel
as water pump and thermostat housings is avoided by Project engine
the use of GRP composites; fuel rails, too, are injec-
tion-moulded for both lighter weight and better ther-
mal properties for resisting fuel vaporization. Cam engine speed — where, pressure ratio across the
covers and outer walls of the coolant jacket are also power turbine being high, it still provides enough
of composite construction. A rubber joint isolates the output to drive the compressor. At low speed when
monobloc casting from manifold and sump to reduce pressure ratio across it is reduced, the compressor's
noise transmission. pressure ratio is maintained — partly because of the
Scania has become the first truck manufacturer small turbine housing. Increased charge pressure at
to undertake series production of a turbo-compound low speed thus makes it possible to inject more fuel
diesel engine, Fig 7, with an efficiency of 46%, over and increase torque without air/fuel ratio becoming
10% higher than the best gasoline engine figure. too low. Power turbine is connected to the crankshaft
Exhaust energy is recovered in two stages; the first via a two stage spur gear set and hydraulic coupling.
turbocharger (1) drives a compressor to force more Mass inertia of the power turbine, converted to
air into the cylinders while the second is a power crankshaft speed, is about half that of a normal
turbine (2) supplying additional power to the fly- flywheel (gearratio 1:30); the 'soft' coupling reduces
wheel (4) through a hydraulic coupling and gear train the peak torque amplitudes. The set-up is believed by
(3). Power and torque are about 5% higher at 400 bhp Scania engineers to be a more satisfactory route than
and 1750 Nm. There is also a 6 gm/kWh saving in a variable-geometry turbocharger, some of which
specific fuel consumption. contain more than 100 moving parts and are liable to
At the left of the figure the power turbine is reliability problems. However, it is pointed out that
seen downstream of the turbocharger turbine, the greatest advantage comes with engines operating
latter being small in relation to mass flow at high under heavy and sustained loads.
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 121

Improved engine temperature port connected with the intake-air outlet and an outlet
management and differential port providing bypass air pressure to the flow control
actuator. When airflow paths between intake and
expansion control
outlet ports provides for continuous flow at least one
During the cooling cycle of an engine, after combus- other inhibits through airflow.
tion, there can be an unduly long retention of heat by
Provision of a sprung element in the connect-
some of the components. This heat can flow back into
ing rod of a piston engine is achieved by a series of
the incoming air-fuel charge with resultant loss in
belleville washers in the design of Fig 11. They
engine efficiency. The design in Fig 8 thus aims to
constrain a piston within a piston, the inner one of
make combustion chamber and charge induction
which moves on a steel liner in the aluminium body
surfaces store and release heat selectively, to limit the
piston surface temperature and control thermal ex-
pansion. The use of sprayed insulant coatings on the
inside walls of engine combustion chambers is pro-
posed here to manage the heat release from the
combustion process. A low thermal expansion/high
conductivity insert is also cast into the piston crown
to inhibit differential expansion. An abradeable coat-
ing is also sprayed on the piston walls, above the top
ring, in order to reduce clearance and therefore
enhance heat transfer. Under crown oil-spray cooling
is employed, too, together with a dual wall construc-
tion for inlet and exhaust manifolds, the net effect of
which is to reduce the onset of knock and therefore
allow the use of higher compression ratios to provide
enhanced efficiency.
The problem of differential thermal expansion Fig 8: Patented temperature
of engine cylinder head and block, in different mate- management system by Ford
rials, is said to be overcome in the design of Fig 9. An Motor Co (GB2293863A)
aluminium alloy head is secured to a cast-iron cylin-
der block by extra-long bolts which engage with
threaded bosses deep down in the block. Above the
threaded portions the bolts pass through oil galleries Fig 9: Differential
and are warmed sufficiently to cause the correct expansion control by Rover
linear expansion to compensate for that of the cylin- Group (GB2312020A)
der head, between its support faces.

Improved turbocharger
waste-gate control and move to
constant-pressure cycle
A simple and reliable turbocharger pressure-control-
ler, for providing enhanced operation of the waste-
gate valve, is provided in the design of Fig 10 which
permits standard exhaust bypass operation. The flow
control element is positioned within the exhaust
bypass conduit and the waste-gate actuator is respon-
sive to bypass air pressure for actuating the control
Fig 10: Turbocharger waste-gate control by
element. An air pressure control device has an intake
Cummins Engine (GB2311556A)
122 VEHICLE DESIGN

of the outer piston. A retainer ring at the base of the

liner restricts the movement of the inner piston.
Because, after ignition, the first element of the 'stroke'
is compression of the springs and thus an increase in
clearance volume, there is a drop in cylinder pres-
sure, and temperature, in the combustion chamber.
As the energy stored in the springs is released after
TDC, although ignition occurs before TDC, engine
efficiency is increased because there is no longer any Fig 11: Constant-pressure cycle piston
negative torque occurring before TDC, changing the modification by GF Galvin (GB2318151A)
theoretical air cycle of the engine to a constant-
pressure one.

Engine induction systems

Low-cost supercharging and
electromagnetic valve actuation
An inexpensive vehicle engine supercharger, having
an integral by-pass mechanism, is proposed in the Fig 12: Low-cost supercharging by Tochigi Fugi
design of Fig 12. Of the rotary, positive-displacement Sangyo (GB2301149A)
type, it incorporates a duct within its casing to
communicate with the suction and discharge ports at
each end, for supplying naturally aspirated air to the
engine. Rotors also compress the air entering from
the inlet port on the right to supply the discharge port,
to the engine, on the left. The by-pass passage is
controlled by a valve and actuator on the extreme
right of the mechanism. On the extreme left is the
electromagnetic clutch which drives the supercharger
but drive is broken when the by-pass valve senses a
predetermined maximum boost pressure and opens Fig 13: Electromagnetic vah
the bypass port. actuation by Daimler-Benz
Long valve opening time, and so adequate (GB2312244A)
cylinder filling at high engine speeds, is among the
advantages claimed for this electromagnetically ac-
tuated poppet valve, Fig 13. The armature of the
'solenoid' has switching magnets which hold the
valve in open and closed positions. Compression
springs are positioned between magnets and valve to
avoid free-play in both the opening and closing
modes.

Better fuel-spray atomization,

integrated air/fuel induction system,
fuel injection rethought and storing
swirl energy Fig 14: Better fuel spray atomisation by Ford
The design in Fig 14 exploits the advantage that (GB2312923A)
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 123
suddenly vaporized, or flashed, fuel effectively breaks fuel is subjected to a rapid pressure drop as it dis-
up the spray from a fuel injection nozzle, when the charges into the inlet port or combustion chamber.
The proposed engine incorporates a heat-exchanger
for pre-heating the fuel, upstream of the injectors.
Temperature is maintained at a constant level just
below the fuel's boiling point and the heating fluid
may be coolant water or exhaust gas. Heating can be
assisted by an electrical coil and insulated reservoir.
Efficient engine air-intake silencing with mini-
mum space usage around the engine is achieved in the
design of Fig 15. The intake air-box and manifold
ducts are integrated in one unit, the air-box volume
surrounding the intake ducts. An air-plenum and
throttle valve is also integrated into the assembly
together with the fuel rail delivering to the injectors.
Fig 15: Air-intake A fundamental problem has existed with direct
silencing by Ford (GB2318153A) fuel injection into engine combustion chambers. This
is in the conflict between providing a fuel-rich mix-
ture for ignition at the sparking plug yet providing a
narrow enough spray cone to avoid wetting the
cylinder walls with fuel which would fail to vaporize
and result in unwanted hydrocarbon emissions in the
exhaust. In the design of Fig 16, a poppet valve type
injector provides a narrow conical spray but has a
subsidiary conical arc sprayed towards the sparking
plug. This is achieved by a recess in the annular wall
of the injector downstream of the valve seat.
In an engine designed so that two intake port
Fig 16: Fuel injection rethought by Robert Bosch branches supply each inlet valve, the first branch
(GB2295204A) being connected to a common plenum of an air
supply manifold while the second is connected to a
common plenum of a second manifold, this second
manifold acts as a stratified charge storage arrange-
ment as covered by an earlier patent by Ford. Now the
company have extended this concept to lean burn
engines so as to improve charge preparation and
combustion quality, Fig 17. Air drawn from the first
branch into the second swirls while in storage and
retains kinetic energy for the next intake stroke.
When the intake valve of the left hand cylinder is
closed air is drawn through the lower throttle butter-
fly into the dotted line drawn duct under the action of
the intake depression caused by the adjacent right-
hand cylinder as its valve opens, there being a tangen-
tial swirl connection into the second plenum, down-
stream of which fuel is injected and upstream of
which the plenum duct is shaped to retain swirl
Fig 17: Storing swirl energy by Ford energy. The upper of the two butterfly valves may be
(GB2299373A) opened at high engine loads.
124 VEHICLE DESIGN

optimize power. An eccentric disc controlled by the

Refinement and reduced
EMS alters the phasing of camshaft to crankshaft so
emissions as to lengthen the inlet valve opening period above
400 rpm. A maximum power of 143 bhp at 7000 rpm
More on the Sarich 2-stroke and a propels the 2359 Ib vehicle (MGF) at its maximum
Rover K-series development speed of 130 mph.
The promise of greater fuel economy using two rather
than four stroke engines has been given a new interest
by the Australian Sarich engine which has caught the
attention of the volume builders. Sarich has done
much to advance the cause of two-strokes by allaying
fears of poor emissions performance by devising the
acclaimed system of injecting fuel-air mixture into
the cylinder. The metering and injection system is
shown in Fig 18. Fuel is metered through chamber (a)
via port (b) and compressed gas is introduced via an
air-port (c) to displace the fuel and deliver it to the
engine. Crucial phasing of the valves is controlled to
ensure fuel inlet and outlet (d) valves are closed
before the air one opens and that any residual gas is
expelled before the next charge. Gas inlet to the
chamber is controlled by valve (e) opening at a higher
pressure than it requires to close the outlets.
A stretched version of the Rover K-series en-
gine features variable valve timing in Fig 19. So-
called 'damp-liner' technology has been used involv-
ing bore walls just 3 mm thick and a water cooling
jacket of just 0.65 mm. An extra long crank throw
then brings swept volume to 1.8 litres. The VVT Fig 18: Improved Sarich 2-stroke, in Patent
mechanism continually varies the inlet cam period to GB2210413A

Fig 19: VVT for K-series

 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 125

Variable valve timing made easy, shown at A around 30 degrees of crankshaft angle
enhanced fatigue life for valve gear displacement is involved in the phase-change. In the
3 or 4 position arrangement at B, both camshafts can
and variable geometry engine intake
be controlled and, by using a proportional solenoid
By using a lateral displacement device for the chain valve, a possible future application may be continu-
drive to an engine valve operating mechanism, a ously variable cam-phasing.
phase change can be obtained between the driver and A valve drive system has been suggested which
driven sprockets in a system announced by Sachs combines long fatigue life with maximum stiffness of
Industries, Fig 20. Engine oil pressure is used to all its constituent elements. In Fig 21 an 1C engine
effect the displacement via a chain tensioner device. camshaft is supported by a housing comprising pil-
A check valve, shown in the sectional view of the lars and beams which do not require complex ma-
tensioner, controls the operating pressure and a sole- chining of the cylinder head. A short bearing interval
noid valve connected to the pressure cylinder causes ensures avoidance of camshaft bending vibration and
the device to change from chain tensioning to dis- the beams joining the bearing support pillars are only
placement mode. The solenoid is switched by the interrupted by cut-outs for the extra short rockers and
engine management system and in the arrangement thus form an unusually secure mounting for the
rocker shafts.
Obtaining induction ram effect at more than
one 'resonant' speed is the object of the design in Fig
22. The carburettor or fuel-injection choke tube is
connected to a plenum chamber in a barrel rotatable
by a motor geared to engine speed. The effective
lengths of the intake and outlets vary with barrel
position by their formation, in part, by grooves in the
barrel wall.

Fig 21: Enhanced fatigue life

for valve gear by Mercedes-
Benz (GB2297805A)

Fig 20: Sachs variable valve timing

Fig 22: Variable geometry intake by Tickford, in
Patent GB2205609A
126 VEHICLE DESIGN

Economical flywheel to crankshaft involved. In the design of Fig 24 , a compromise is

connection and secondary engine reached in which a large, crankshaft-mounted, gear-
wheel drives two smaller co-planar gears in opposite
force balancer for motorcycle
directions, one by a further countershaft gear.
A more cost-effective connection between engine
flywheel and crankshaft is possible, without loss in
reliability, with the design in Fig 23. It uses a collar, Low emission CVs
held by an expansion screw, in a concentric opening Initiatives taken by MAN for diesel engine pollution
in the crankshaft. Dog teeth on shaft and flywheel reduction include the air-injection system shown in
form the connection, the joint being made firm by Fig 25 for dealing with visible smoke on initial take-
tensioning of an axial spring acting on an expansion off and subsequent acceleration before the turbo-
screw where the two parts mate. The flywheel has a charger achieves full compression. Normally fuel is
collar which extends into the crankshaft opening, the not completely burnt under these conditions as the
centre of the collar having a hole through which the engine is not supplied with enough air — so an air
expansion screw operates. reservoir is introduced which is fed from the com-
Normally there is difficulty incorporating a full pressor. The injection system comprises a pressure
Lanchester-type harmonic balancer into a motor pipe with solenoid valve and non-return valve in the
cycle engine because of the high rotational speeds charge-air line at the inlet to the air distribution pipe.
By means of an electronic controller, throttle pedal
depression opens the solenoid valve to inject air for

Fig 23: Economical Fig 24: Balancer

flywheel to crankshaft system by Triumph
connection by Fichtel & Motorcycles in Patent
Sachs (GB2301166A) GB2186914A

Fig 25: MAN diesel pollution control

 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 127

a 0.7 second period. Closure of the non-return valve not be burnt off in conventional layouts because
protects flow from the turbocharger while the ECU exhaust gas temperature from low-consumption en-
releases a matching quantity of fuel for injection. The gines is too low. In addition, oxidiszing catalytic
system is used on the company's NL202 and NG272 converters are being developed for exhaust gas post-
low-floor buses. The company has also developed its treatment.
particulate filter technology in which both duplex An exhaust filtering system for diesel
and full-flow arrangements are used to overcome the particulates is now offered on Mercedes bus chassis.
problems of filter clogging with deposits which can- The so-called ceramic candle type filter features
catalytic regeneration. The system, Fig 26, complies
with emission limits for urban buses which came into
force in the US during 1991. The company is reported
to have rejected the philosophy of developing cata-
lytic control systems originally engineered for spark-
ignition engines, on the grounds that diesel emission
control needs solutions with less flow resistance,
proneness to blockage and better thermal and me-
chanical resistance in the harsher CV environment.

Fig 26: Filtering diesel particulates by Mercedes- Speeding engine warm-up, quicker
Benz
light-up time for denox converter
and use of scotch-yoke crank
Exhaust ducting cast in the cylinder head is used in
this design proposal, Fig 27. The ducts allow alter-
nate paths for the engine exhaust according to posi-
tion of two-way valves. As well as warming up the
inlet manifold during initial running of the engine,
exhaust gases also warm up the engine coolant and
lubrication systems.
Faster catalyst warm-up time from engine start-
up is the objective of the design of Fig 28 which
Fig 27: Speeding engine warm-up, by Ford, involves providing excess fuel and air to enter the
covered in Patent GB2199368A converter for part of the combustion cycle. A fuelling
device controls the exhaust gas entering the catalytic
converter such that a combustible mixture is intro-
duced to enable the converter to more quickly reach
light-off temperature or regain it if very cold operat-
ing conditions cause the catalyst to 'go out'.
The Collins CMC scotch-yoke engine, Fig 29,
has attracted considerable interest. Exhibited re-
cently by consultants Emdair who are R&D contrac-
tors to the Australian builders, the engine has in-
verted-tee cylinder formation in the 2-litre two-
stroke version shown here. Compact size is thanks
mainly to the scotch yoke mechanism joining the
pistons to the crankshaft. It has been calculated that
a vehicle designed to exploit the lower package size
of the engine would achieve a 10% fuel saving over
Fig 28: Quicker catalyst light-up time by Rover a conventional design.
Group (GB2316338A)
128 VEHICLE DESIGN

Drive and steer systems rotating rim wheels are at (d), spoke tubes containing
the magnets at (e) and magnetic bearings at (f) — (g)
Transport of the future — guided
and (h) being the pick-up coils and end-bell respec-
lanes or electric/flywheel hybrid car tively.
propulsion?
Tribus, Fig 30, has been described as being to the
trolleybus what light-rapid-transit is to trams. But it
also applies to both goods and passenger vehicles —
to urban and inter-urban traffic. A segmented bar
pantograph collector overcomes the traditional limi-
tations of trolley booms. This results in a multi-lane
high speed equivalent to a trolleybus which could
have attractions both for commuting and dense traf-
fic motorway driving. The overhead wiring structure
is vastly simplified from traditional trolleybus lay-
outs and the ability to 'jump' from lane to lane, and
through junctions, is made possible by reserve energy
provided by on-vehicle fly wheels and/or hybrid elec-
tric/petrol drive systems. On the three lane motorway
installation shown, only the two inside lanes would
typically be electrified. Inset is shown how two or
more elements of the segmented pantograph bar are
always in contact with overhead feed cables. The
originators are Lawrence Designs, 40 Lower Broad
Street, Ludlow, SY8 1PH.
The US company American Flywheel Systems
is claiming ranges for electric cars of 300-600 miles Fig 29: Collins scotch-yoke engine
against the 50-100 miles which is representative of
existing battery-electric technology. The AFS 'me-
chanical battery', Fig 31, stores kinetic energy in
vacuum-enclosed rotors running at high speeds on
magnetic bearings. The charge current causes the
rotors to accelerate up to speed and energy is drawn
from the spinning windings by the unit acting as a
generator. The technology is made possible by new
materials for the fibre windings and the magnetic
bearings. The vacuum housing is shown at (a), fibre
windings at (b) and stationary shaft at (c); counter-

First two lanes

only electrified

A
Fig 31: Flywheel battery Fig 30: Guided lane system
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 129

Ensuring sure-fire gear engagement

and multi input/output gearbox
Inertial effects which might impair proper gear-
selection in a change-speed linkage, between shift-
lever and selector forks, are negated in the design of
Fig 32. An extrusion lever with an inertial mass at its
end is linked by a ball-jointed pull-rod to the gear-
change lever on the selector shaft. The geometry of
the linkage is such that pivot arm of the ball-joint, on
the extension-arm, to the selector shaft is larger than
that between the ball-joint and the arm's own pivot-
point. Also the pivot arm between the ball-joint and
selector shaft axis on the change-gear lever is larger
than that between the hinge-point which connects to
the shift-lever, and that lever's pivot-point, on the
selector shaft axis.
Fig 32: Sure-fire gear engagement by Mercedes- An additional transmission path, providing
Benz (GB2308165A) further gear ratio, is the objective of the design of Fig
C 33. The first input A has the conventional output
while a second input B has a mechanism C associated
with it, and a common gearwheel D, which allows
incorporation of part of the change-speed train of the
main gearbox to be used with the secondary transmis-
sion path which has output to a transfer drive at the
base of the assembly.

Rapid actuation diff-lock, improved

racing clutch and automatic drive
selection
The differential housing in Fig 34 is turned by the
final drive gear and contains a pair of auxiliary drive
Fig 33: Multi input/
gears, engaging their respective pinions. These rotate
output gearbox by
in bearing apertures within the housing. A lockable
JCB Transmissions
part A is coupled to a differential part, turnable in one
(GB2304834A)
direction with respect to the housing. A locking
element B also turns with the housing and a coupling
mechanism C is located between locked and free
elements to block rotation of the differential, oper-
ated by the adjustable member D. A cam mechanism
E increases the coupling force.
Avoiding undue wear in the slipping of high
performance car clutches is the objective of the
design in Fig 35. The main, driver-disengageable,
Fig 34: Rapid- clutch is supplemented by a smaller, belleville-spring-
actuation diff-lock by loaded, clutch between the drive plate and the splined
Tochigi Fuji Sangyo gearbox input shaft. The second clutch is arranged to
(GB2305224A) slip at a higher torque than that of the main clutch,
130 VEHICLE DESIGN

which is of a multi-plate carbon-carbon type. Be-

cause the high torques which cause slipping of the
secondary clutch are only applied for brief periods,
little heat is generated.
Power transmission to the front or rear axle of
a vehicle can be made a function of the speed
difference between the front and rear wheels but, thus
far, the necessary mechanisms have been unwieldy.
In the design of Fig 36, a compact drive splitting
mechanism is devised offering considerable freedom
of location on the underside of the vehicle. A trochoidal
gear pump is mounted between a shaft and co-axially
rotating cylinder, each connected respectively to
front and rear axle prop-shafts. A piston slides in the
cylinder in response to pressure generated by the Fig 35: Improved racing clutch by Automotive
pump to actuate a clutch which locks front and rear Products (GB2294300A)
drive together.

Easy-change CV-UJ assembly,

Better performing plunge joint and
Fig 37: Easy-
better CV-joint packaging change CV-UJ
Ease of replacement of constant-velocity universal
joint assemblies is considerably improved by making assembly by GKN
the hub and joint housing members as separate units, (GB2303428A)
Fig 37. The hub comprises a flange portion, to which
the road-wheel is bolted, and an integral body sup-
ported by hub-bearings for which the body forms the
outer race. Hub and joint housing each have interfac-
ing conical surfaces as well as an interconnecting
splined joint. A spigot on the joint housing has a
projection on it which is deformed on assembly so as
to lock on to the conical surface of the hub.
Attempts have been made to reduce the plunge
resistance of tripode universal joints under high
installed angles by the use of both inner and outer Fig 38: Better performing plunge joint by NTN
rollers mounted to the tripode trunnions, each having Corporation (GB2299393A)

Fig 36: Automatic drive selection by

Daihatsu, covered in Patent
GB2207208A
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 131

spherical outer surfaces and cylindrical inner ones. Fig 38, the inner surfaces of the outer rollers are such
Although induced thrust is lower than in earlier types as to direct a load component parallel to the axis of
further reduction is limited by the tendency of the each trunnion.
outer rollers to follow the inner rollers because of By offsetting the centre of the CV joint out-
friction between them with increase in both contact wards of the centre plane of the front wheel bearing,
stresses and rolling resistance. In the arrangement of several advantages have been achieved in this inven-
tion, Fig 39. A longer drive shaft, resulting, means
less angularity on bump and rebound. Since the inner
tracks of the wheel bearing lie axially adjacent to the
outer running grooves in the outer member of the CV
joint, bearing performance is unaffected by torque
transmitted and the overall bearing diameter can be
reduced. Finally the CV joint can be assembled from
the outside into the hub member, which doubles as
outer race of the CV joint and inner race of the wheel
bearing.

Balanced torque triaxle drive,

sophisticated auto-steer for trailer
Fig 39: Better CV-joint packaging by Lohr and In order to overcome the problems of uneven torque
Bromkamp (GB2295365) splitting between the three axles of a triaxle drive, the
design in Fig 40 by GKN Axles proposes the use of
a spur gear epicyclic differential unit at the point of
torque input to the bogie. This is designed to split
torque unevenly, passing some 67% of the input
torque down a through shaft inside another tubular
shaft which conveys the remaining 33% to the first
axle inter-wheel differential unit. The initial 67% can
then be split evenly between second and third axles
in the normal manner.
Automatic steering of the leading and trailing
axles of a three axle trailer bogie is possible, in the
Fig 40: Balanced torque triaxle drive design of Fig 41, in response to the relative move-
ment of the main chassis with the bogie suspension
sub-frame, a change in direction of the steering being
effected with just one movement of the steering
mounting plate. The movement of the steering mount-
ing plate, relative to the main chassis between its
outermost positions, is such that the line of action of
the joining-ends of the primary link crosses the axis
about which the main chassis rotates. The leading
and trailing axles are pivotable with respect to the
triaxle subframe, a linkage mechanism coupling each
of the steerable wheels to the steering mounting plate
on the main chassis. The mounting plate rotates
Fig 41: Sophisticated auto-steer for trailer by GW between two positions which govern the direction of
Mitchell (GB2315471A) steer-angle.
132 VEHICLE DESIGN

Wheeled tanks challenge tracklayers inboard of the stub axle and the ring gear is attached
and more efficient engine-coolant to and rotates with the hub housing — importantly
permitting a small diameter rotary air seal for the
airflow
centralized tyre inflation system. Suspension is of the
A challenge to tracklaying armoured fighting vehi- double-arm type with two springs mounted on the
cles was made by Timoney Technology of Ireland in lower wishbone, resulting in low overall profile and
a presentation to Autotech, Fig 42. Arguing against minimum hull intrusion. Suspension movement of
the assertion that wheeled vehicles are more vulner- 400 mm is supplemented by high deflection of the
able than tracked ones in a combat situation, the large tyres. Maximum speed for the 24-31 tonne
authors argued that an 8 X 8 off-roader could often combat weight vehicle is over 100 km/h.
keep going with one wheel station out of action. A Reduction in back-flow of air drawn through a
notable feature is overall height of just 1.3 metres to vehicle engine coolant radiator, by the fan, is the
the turret ring, some 500 mm lower than other objective of the design in Fig 43. The cowl which
vehicles of this category. Axles are fitted with in- extends backwards from the radiator, to the fan,
board hydraulic disc brakes and have differential incorporates a C-shaped scoop facing the clearance
lock facility. Patented wheel hubs have a one-piece around the fan. Back-flow is thus inhibited by turning
stub-axle casting with lugs to carry the wishbone it back on itself to create eddies within the fan-blade
ball-joint bearings. The planetary gear system is also tip vortex region.

Fig 42: Wheeled tanks challenge tracklayers

Fig 43: More efficient engine-coolant airflow by

Rover Group (GB2311562A)
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 133

Suspension development
Transverse spring composite Fig 45 :
Optimizing
suspension and optimizing
unsprung mass
unsprung mass with wheel travel with wheel
A transverse single leaf spring made from polymer travel by Rover
composites forms the lower control arms for the Group
wheels and hubs in the suspension system design of (GB2302066A)
Fig 44. Where the spring attaches to the central mounted adjacently on the rear wishbone. The wheel-
mounting it is in the form of an inverted dihedral and carrier pivot is above and ahead of the wheel-axis, to
remains clamped as such even after the normal load achieve anti-dive/squat. The intermediate (fifth) link
of the vehicle has deflected the outer arms of the is a strut which transfers braking torque on the wheel
spring into an upwardly inclined attitude. carrier, through the upper 'wishbone' to the trailing
In the suspension configuration for driven link. Because the strut lower pivot has less velocity
wheels of Fig 45, part of the mass of the transmission than the wheel-carrier pivot on the trailing arm,
unit is supported as sprung mass by the body. At the during vertical travel of the wheel, this velocity is
same time, vertical movement of the transmission is also seen at the upper wishbone. This causes the
allowed so that the wheels can also travel vertically wheel carrier to rotate more slowly than the trailing
over an increased distance before the universal joints link about the wheel-axis, and twisting of the wheel
reach their angular limits. The suspension arm for carrier on braking is suppressed without losing the
each driven wheel is connected to both sprung and horizontal compliance in the anchorage bushes of the
unsprung parts of the vehicle while drive to the diff-carrier at the root of the transverse links. The link
wheels is through articulating shafts. During motion also compensates for horizontal forces on the wheel
of the suspension, vertical motion of either of the either side of the vehicle so no swivelling of the
wheels will be transmitted through the respective whole suspension, with the diff-carrier, takes place.
arm to produce a smaller vertical movement of the The elasto-kinetic function arises from the interac-
transmission unit. tion of the anchorage bushes with the linkage geom-
Advanced suspension linkage etry. In braking, for example, the two links forming
the lower wishbone are subject to differential tension
Active rear axle kinematics is the name given by
and compression. At the same time the anchorage
BMW for its rear suspension design on the 850i
bush of the trailing arm yields. Transverse link
coupe, Fig 46. As well as providing anti-squat and
motions are such as to ensure that resulting motion of
anti-dive, wheel-camber is adapted to reduce tyre
the wheel carrier is purely horizontal, without caus-
strain at high speed and roll-steer is built-in which
ing steer effects as the wheels move vertically. With
achieves load reversal reactions. As well as four
the short wheelbase of the coupe compared with the
wheel control links, a fifth joins two of the others to
saloon, and the comparatively high driving torques,
modify their relative motions. Two lower and one
smooth behaviour under load reversal conditions has
upper transverse link form the 'wishbones' while a
to be ensured. This is helped again by the design of
trailing link provides fore-aft location. This link has
the trailing arm anchorage. At high lateral
a secondary connection via an intermediate link to
accelerations, wishbone links are distinctly skew to
the upper transverse link. Coil-spring and damper are
the body of the tilting vehicle. With load reversal
caused by sudden removal of driving torque, the diff-
carrier swivels due to the resilience of its mounts.
Simultaneously it puts the pivot point of the upper
wishbone link within it, horizontally, and the front/
rear lower wishbone links are displaced by (fv) and
Fig 44: Transverse spring composite (fh) respectively. Tilt of the wishbone also causes
suspension by BV Booker in the USA, lateral displacements of the pivot points (rv) and (rh),
covered in Patent GB2202498A causing understeer in both wheels. This effect is only
134 VEHICLE DESIGN
Fig 46: BMW 850i
suspension

achieved because the suspension of the trailing link

is independent of that of the diff-carrier from which
the transverse links pivot.
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 135

Improved suspension geometry not result in bending of the torsion bar when the
control, avoiding suspension vehicle is subjected to lateral loading, has been
achieved in the design of Fig 48. By ensuring the
compliance conflict/steer fight in
torsion bar axis is at a small angle to the axis of the
braking/accelerating and smoother lower suspension arm fulcrum and laterally dis-
action for suspension strut placed from it, appropriate values of La, Lb, Lc, S
The desire to change from rigid beam axle to inde- and 0 can be chosen so that sufficient suspension
pendent suspension on vehicle categories such as compliance is available in the fulcrum bushes with-
4X4 sports/utility vehicles may be restricted by con- out any bending moment being applied to the torsion
cerns for loss of accurate suspension geometry, par- bar. The spring plate connecting the bar to the arm is
ticularly when an off-centre differential is required to slender enough to be flexible in the fore-aft direction.
clear an engine sump and unequal length drive-shafts Reduction of the steer effect in braking is
are involved. In Fig 47 a compact form of IPS is claimed for this suspension configuration, Fig 49, for
proposed. Tubular members which surround the drive- the steered wheels of vehicles. Compliant bushes, B
shafts are pivotally connected to the hub carrier units and B', normally permit the suspension arm to rotate
and chassis-mounted differential casing in a 'wish- about an axis Am as the road wheel rises and falls but
bone' arrangement. The wishbone length is maxi- this can change to either A or A under appropriate
mized, by the position of the pivots, to give better loading. During braking or acceleration the angle 6
geometric compromise. and the compliance of the bushes allows the suspen-
A torsion bar front suspension system for a sion arm to turn in the horizontal plane and compen-
vehicle which is simple in construction, and yet does sate for steering displacement of the road-wheel hub.
Reduction in ride harshness is achieved in this
independent wheel suspension linkage configura-
tion, Fig 50. The centre portion of the spring-damper
strut is used as an anchorage for the anti-roll bar, a
link from which is angled to the axis of the suspension
strut in such a way that transverse reaction loads from
the ground-level cornering forces are balanced by
loads induced in the anti-roll bar so that sideways
Fig 47: Improved suspension deflection of the damper tube-and-rod is minimized.
geometry control by GKN
Automotive (GB2295988)

Fig 48: Avoiding

suspension
compliance conflict
by Yorozu Fig 49: Avoiding steer fight in Fig 50: Smoother action for
Corporation braking/accelerating by Rover suspension strut by Rover Group
(GB2294668A) Group (GB2311499A) (GB2306411A)
136 VEHICLE DESIGN

Fluid-actuated anti-roll control, non-

stick front forks and freer moving
bogie suspension
Lower weight and greater compactness is said to arise
from the use of this fluid-actuated anti-roll system,
Fig 51, which claims to achieve a high degree of
lateral stabilization. Hydraulic actuators act on the
upper ends of telescopic suspension struts; the actua-
tor pistons are hydraulically linked in a way that
motion in one is mirrored in the other. Excessive load
on one suspension unit is thus transferred to the V
opposite side unit varying according to vertical sus-
pension travel.
Overcoming the problem of high friction in seal
systems used on the front forks of motor cycles is the
subject of the design in Fig 52. The usual telescopic
fork arrangement gives way to a twin-wishbone sus-
pension arrangement. Universal joints at the outer
ends of the wishbones allow steering motions as well
as vertical suspension travel. A pivoting triangular Fig 52: Nonstick front forks by NH Hossack
framework is also used to transfer steering torque (GB2207645A)
from the handlebars to the forks which support the
front wheel.
Less chance of bearing seizure at opposite ends
of the walking beams of a tandem bogie suspension
results from this design, Fig 53. Forked axle brackets
connect to the beam ends via exposed bolts with
bushes and convenient stroke mechanism — which
also lowers the vehicle to the ground on electric jacks.
Steering involves the use of a highly flexible steering
wheel including a fork or ball used to give the user a
stable support. A voice command system is used for
a number of the secondary controls.

Fig 53: Freer moving bogie suspension by the US

Boler Company in Patent GB2192596A

Fig 51: Fluid-actuated anti-roll control by AMG

Motorenbau & Entwicklung (G B2315716A)
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 137

Easy prestressing for swivel pin

bearings, uncomplicated
steering-castor adjustment and a
steering column immobilizer
An unusual arrangement of steering swivel pins on
this steer-drive axle for industrial vehicles, Fig 54,
allows prestressing of the taper roller bearings to be
carried out without difficulty. Outwardly facing swivel
pins are used in a design which is said to be less
Fig 54: Easy prestressing for swivel pin bearings
expensive than normal arrangements of comparable
by Claas KGAA (GB2316050A)
performance. Forked ends of the axle body, contain-
ing the pins, engage with forked ends of the hub
carrier. Each swivel is in the form of a circular pin
provided with central collar and constrained at one
end in a bore of the axle body fork. One of the
corresponding bores in the hub carrier fork has an
internal thread into which a cover is screwed with an
inner collar bearing against the outer race of the taper
roller bearing.
The problem of providing degrees of castor
adjustment without weakening the integrity of wheel
Fig 55a: Uncomplicatec location, or involving heavy expense, is alleviated in
steering-castor adjustnn the design of Fig 55. A steering ball joint incorporates
by Daimler-Benz a wide flange which overlaps the transverse link to
(GB2315469A) which it is connected and there is a connecting dowel
which pivots one part with the other. The parts are
clamped together through cleverly profiled holes for
the securing bolts. These allow three different angu-
lar positions between the joint and the link so as to
provide stepped adjustment of castor with secure fit
Fig 55b: Steering column immobiliser by when the clamping bolts are tightened. A compara-
Marshall Wolverhampton (GB2303108A) tively modest torque can be used to lock a steering
wheel/column against rotation by using a high ratio
gear pair between the column and the clutched lock-
ing device, Fig 55b. A member which has coded input
response to a key or other immobiliszer controls the
action of the clutch, which is based on teeth cut into
the shaft of the pinion of the gear pair.

Back to tiller steering and an anti-

dive motor cycle suspension?
As the concern for driver safety increases, the very
concept of a circular steering wheel attached to a
rigid column will be questioned. This is the view of
an invention, Fig 56, which replaces the wheel with
a laterally moving handle shaped to optimize protec-
tion of the thorax region, on impact. The handle is
Fig 56: Tiller steering by Kazunaga Morimoto in
connected to a rack-and-pinion by deformable arms,
GB2293143A
138 VEHICLE DESIGN

and an hydraulic valve, which transfer the side-to- To overcome the limitations of existing self-
side steering motion into swivelling of the road steering axles, this design by an Italian inventor, Fig
wheels. 59, comprises a tubular member which slides over the
Two fore-and-aft suspension arms form a four- axle while road wheels pivot directly on the frame of
bar linkage which gives anti-dive suspension geom- the vehicle. Two tie-rods positioned on either side of
etry to the front wheel of a motor cycle when braking. the axle have their ends linked eccentrically to the
In the arrangement of Fig 57, geometry is such as to wheel hubs. Thus, while reversing or moving for-
allow positioning of a steering arm which articulates ward, actuators are caused to restore the tie rods and
without steer fight on vertical travel of the suspen- therefore the wheels to their neutral position.
sion. Improved heat insulation for the tyre and greater
space for the brake actuator cam arise in this hub
Control strategy for 4-wheel steer, design, Fig 60. The tapered hub section and necking
self-steering in forward and reverse between the bearings produce the desired configura-
and a necked hub member tion.
Lotus have released more information about the
active rear steer system they have under development
— which they say is an extension to their active
suspension work using closed loop control strategies.
This allows steering to respond to both driver inputs
and external disturbances. Vehicles thus equipped
would therefore respond to crosswinds or split brak-
ing in a controlled manner. There is also less sensitiv-
ity to vehicle load and tyre performance — unlike Fig 59: Self-steering
open-loop and predictive-type strategies which can system by Sansavini
only be optimized for specific operating conditions. Bertozzi, covered in
The system, Fig 58, is said to operate at normal Patent GB2202811A
power-steering system pressures and work is under
way on production-intent actuators and controllers.

Fig 57: Anti-dive suspension

by Elf France, in Patent
GB2201642A

Fig 60: Necked hub by Trailor in

Fig 58: Lotus 4-wheel steer control Patent GB2192959A
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 139

Braking systems
Electronic brake actuation system
Lucas Varity have determined that the typical driver
is usually inhibited against applying optimum pres-
sure to effect an emergency stop. The company are
therefore advocating the use of an electronic actua-
tion system (EAS) based on the electronic booster
seen in Fig 61 that has been replacing the fast-
vacuum booster, fitted to many cars, and which was
limited to providing assistance only at a fixed ratio
and often reacted too slowly in emergency.
A proportional control valve has been devel-
oped such that the output stroke is proportional to the
input control current signalled through the brake
Fig 61: First electronic booster pedal. A control loop is partially closed via an ECU
which measures output/input force ratio and com-
E-Booster Modified Basic Unit LSC 80 (10")
Master Cylinder 22.2CV/CV pares it with a vehicle-specific algorithm. An initial
Function I Automatic Braking specification was as shown in the table of Fig 62 and
Function II Automatic Booster Operation involved electronic booster control superimposed on
Input Rod Force a mechanical booster. Performance curves for a
Input Rod Speed
Kneepoint 80 bar series of possible ratios are in Fig 63.
Response Time 200ms A parallel development of the long-stroke (LS)
Release Time 180 ms booster meant that the benefits of electronic control
Function III Variable Ratio - Pedaloperated could be applied to heavier cars and replace tandem
Input Rod Force 1400 N
Input Rod Speed 0 - IOO mm/s booster arrangements which tend to be restricted to
Kneepoint 125 bar either high-performance cars or heavier van deriva-
Response Time 170 ms tives. The company is concentrating on the develop-
Release Time 180ms ment of the LSC 115 T tandem power unit, Fig 64,
Fig 62: Initial booster + proportional valve which has an integrated electronically proportioning
specification solenoid control valve. Shown enlarged in Fig 65,
this valve is seen to be an electrical analogue of the
proven servo control valve, but with input/output
ratios compared electronically rather than by rubber
reaction disk.
The company believe the full potential of such
systems can only be realized when legal insistence on
mechanical back-up is dropped and 100% reliability
of the electronics can be guaranteed. Money saved
could be used to incorporate other electronic fea-
tures, Fig 66, such as ABS and engine management.
The ECU would be able to compare actual vehicle
deceleration with the theoretical value based on a
given booster output force, and thus forewarn of
brake-fade. The ECU could also relate engine torque
to achieved acceleration for assessing loading on the
Fig 63: Variable ratio characteristic (full-line vehicle so that the system is informed of prevailing
base ratio; dashed line medium ratio; chain line road gradient. In integrating ABS, the booster would
high ratio) provide the energy source and the combined system
140 VEHICLE DESIGN

ECUs could help to create the next stage of automatic equate. For stage three the problem of varying brake
braking, in controlled traffic conditions, involving pressure requirement with degree of vehicle payload
intelligent cruise control. Functions such as traction is tackled. Here, not only is brake booster pressure
control, hill-hold and variable pressure boost for metered but also the pressure level boosted propor-
ABS could be incorporated. tionally to the pedal force (measured by a sensor on
The first stage of the project will be seen on the piston rod) applied, so that constant deceleration
some Mercedes cars early in 1996 as 'brake assist- is obtained with a constant pedal force irrespective of
ant'. For this application the vacuum chamber of a payload.
conventional vacuum booster is equipped with the
Mercedes position sensor. This tells the ECU that the
booster piston has travelled a given distance in less
than a pre-defined time and switches on the solenoid
valve. Atmospheric air then enters the booster work-
ing chamber to amplify driver effort with maximum
available servo power. Without this device full
decelerative advantage with ABS is lost. In an active
stability control feature, the ECU helps to control
side-slipping out of a corner by selectively applying
braking force to one of the outside wheels, generating
braking force from the booster and modulating it by
the ABS. In stage two, hill-hold will be added such
that brake pressure will automatically be applied
when a vehicle stops on a hill and automatically
released when it pulls away. This will involve the
proportional solenoid valve and the booster generat-
ing the necessary braking pressure by metering the air Fig 64: LSC 115 T with integral solenoid valve
intake into its working chamber. Such metering is
also essential for automatic braking and adaptive
cruise control, ACC. Current cruise control, it is
argued, can suffer a lack of sufficient engine decel-
eration on steep gradients such that the vehicle gains
speed; EAS can supply precisely metered braking
pressure to prevent this. Beyond this, EAS can gen-
erate pressure for ACC so that a vehicle is kept at a
safe distance from the one ahead, without having to
rely on engine-braking which might prove inad- Fig 65: Enlargea view of valve

Fig 66: Features of EAS 3 with (right) interaction of ABS, EAS and EMS
 POWERTRAIN/CHASSIS DEVELOPMENT 141

Brake apportioning for solo or

coupled mode, electromagnetic
braking, auto-adjusting electro-
brake and fail-safe electric brake
actuators
A car braking master-cylinder is 'tandem-like' in
configuration and the pressures in front/rear wheel
brake chambers apportioned according to vehicle
Fig 67: Brake apportioning for solo or coupled load. This effect is altered according to whether or
mode by Daimler-Benz from Patent GB2146720A not a trailer is coupled, in the design of Fig 67, by
means of a 3/2 way solenoid valve.
A means of applying braking selectively to
individual wheels is provided in the design of Fig 68.
The brake actuator is rigidly mounted on the disc-
brake calliper and uses electromagnetic operation.
The actuator comprises an electric motor, the arma-
ture spindle of which is threaded so as to produce
Fig 68: Electromagnetic translatory motion/force against the pad pack-plate
braking by Siemens for rotary motion of the armature.
(GB2312260A) An electrical brake actuation system is covered
in the design of Fig 69 which has the advantage that
braking fluid does not have to be relied upon to
balance out brake-pad wear. The electromagnetic
actuator comprises a spindle axially driven by an
electric motor via a threaded roller drive with the
Fig 69: Auto- axial force boosted by a lever mechanism in transfer-
adjusting electro- ring it to a pressure plate acting on a brake piston. A
brake by Mercedes- mechanical correcting device is incorporated for
Benz (GB2315527A) pad-wear balance.
An indication of the applied braking force is
supplied to the driver in this electric, or electro-
hydraulic, brake actuator which is backed-up by
hydraulic brake application upon detection of fail-
ure. A sensor behind the brake pedal detects any
Fig 70: Fail-safe electric electrical faults and triggers the adjacent hydraulic
brake actuator by Delphi system into actuation, while providing a reaction
Automotive force at the pedal. The hydraulic unit has a through
Fig 72: Brake booster (GB2305478A) bore, to the master cylinder, containing two pistons
by Delphi France which can slide relative to one another, Fig 70.
(GB2312718A) Only a relatively small movement of the brake
pedal is necessary in the design of Fig 71, in the event
of hydraulic pressure failure, before mechanical cou-
pling of piston rod and piston takes place within the
master cylinder. Mechanical coupling is achieved
between two co-axially sliding members when the
length of the piston stroke exceeds a threshold value.
Fig 71: Fcat-safe brake actuator by Mercedes-Benz A locking catch, at A, is spring-loaded in the open
(GB2307529A) position normally but is closed by the action of a cam
when the stroke exceeds the threshold.
142 VEHICLE DESIGN
Easy-assemble brake booster, an inordinately long drawbar so that prime-mover
compact integration of clutch servo and trailer do not foul one another on sharp cornering
manoeuvres at low speed. In the design of Fig 76, the
actuator parts and set-speed down-
drawbar is made to increase in length on acute angled
hill braking corners and in normal driving can be set much closer
In the Fig 72 design a booster housing having front than is usually the case, to the advantage of available
and rear walls is held together by through tie-bolts load space within a maximum overall length of
which also form the mountings to a vehicle bulkhead combination. A tractor to trailer angular measuring
and a means of securing the brake master cylinder to device on the tow bar has an arm that engages a stop
the housing. At the master-cylinder side of the booster, displaced from the axis of the towing hook. This
the outer wall of the housing is assembled against a signals a control unit which extends a hydraulic
splined collar which also gives the booster a measure cylinder in the telescopic drawbar.
of controlled collapse on impact.
A compact clutch actuator, which can be easily
installed, is the essence of the design of Fig 73. Fig 73:
Pressurized fluid is used to actuate the clutch and the Clutch
device incorporates a pump and drive, to the left of actuator by
the diagram, feeding a pressure reservoir within the Fichtel &
fluid container, to the right of the diagram. There is Sachs
a valve, shown centre, between it and a servo cylin- (GB23014WA)
der. Between reservoir and container there is a preset
passage-constriction formed, by their integration, to
restrict and control fluid flow.
Problems of automatic down-hill 'active' brak-
ing have been identified as due to uneven axle
loadings due to the shift of vehicle centre-of-gravity
on the incline. This causes wheel-locking in the
lightly laden axle and consequent undue use of the
ABS. In the design of Fig 74 the braking effort
distribution is such that only the highly laden axle is
braked in normal cases. Only when deviation from
the set speed or slip at the braked wheels exceeds a Fig 74: Set-speed braking by Wabco GmbH
certain value will the brakes be applied on the lightly (GB2317930A)
laden axle.
Easy height-adjust for trailer
coupling and auto-adjusting towbar
Existing adjustable-height trailer couplings are un-
wieldy to adjust because of the heavy knuckle forgings,
incorporating the hirth gears, being awkward to re-
move and replace for resetting the engagement of the
gears. In Fig 75 a parallelogram linkage is formed out Fig 75: Height-adjust coupling by Bradley
of the front and rear supports of the coupling. The Doubledock (GB2318107A)
hirth gears are at the lower end of the front support and
a gas spring damps the movement of the mechanism
during adjustment. The geometry is such that up to
half of the total towing force is taken up by the rear
member.
Loss of payload carrying area on a drawbar
Fig 76: Auto-adjust towbar by Fruehauf Corporation
trailer truck combination arises from the need to have
 Chapter 7:

System developments: body structure/systems

A decade of patents specifications and company releases

provides an insight into automotive product development up
to the period of new designs covered in the first five chapters.
In the area of body structures and systems, the trends to
reducing vehicle weight and increasing occupant safety are
clear in the examples which follow.
144 VEHICLE DESIGN

Structuralsystems
Controlled collapse
Safety and weight reduction continue to be the main
drivers of structural developments. Better control of
frontal collapse is receiving particular attention.
Avoidance of bending collapse of the front longitu-
dinal members of a vehicle body in impact is the
objective of the design in Fig 1. Because such mem-
bers usually involve a curved section to provide
clearance with mechanical systems it is difficult to
prevent the onset of bending collapse, under end
load, prior to the desired controlled longitudinal
collapse of the box sections. While vertical beads are
formed into the vertical walls of the box-members to
induce longitudinal buckling, the claimants have Fig 1: Patented front-end by Fuji Jukogyo
found that inclining these at an angle is successful in (GB2318552A)
cancelling the bending moment induced by the front
end-load. Asymmetric side beads have also been
used in vehicle body front-end longitudinals to con-
trol crush characteristics in frontal impact. The beads
act as fold initiators but are not fully effective as the
comers of the members take greater load than the
sides. In Fig 2, asymmetric corner divots are intro-
duced as triggers and the arrangement particularly
suits larger and heavier vehicles which have thick
gauge longitudinals. Because the divots help to re-
duce the bending moment of inertia at the cross
sections where the beads are, this proposed design
relies only on specially configured corner divots —
with long and short axes arranged to pair with one
another as seen here. Two-stage energy absorption is
another approach, avoiding premature firing of the
occupant-protection airbags . This is the object of the
bumper configuration in Fig 3. Two-stage impact
energy absorption is obtained by a soft outer bumper,
supported on relatively weak collapse-tubes, de-
forming under minor impact without firing the airbag. Fig 2: Patented
Heavier impact causes the more rigid inner bumper to controlled collapse
collapse on its support tubes, with sufficient system by Ford
decelerative force to fire the airbag. Structurally (GB2295358)
efficient longitudinals are also needed behind the
front-end. An improved structural efficiency for the
platform underbody of an integral-bodied vehicle
results from the use of a novel design of side-rail in
Fig 3: Two-stage
Fig 4. The side-rail is a built-up beam having channel
energy absorption
section flanges and a form of corrugated web in by Rover Group
between. Preferably a pair of rails are sandwiched (GB2308100A)
between upper and lower floor panels with the whole
structure supporting a pillar-arch and cowl.
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 145

Body shell integrity

In giving structural integrity to the whole body shell
frame a number of new approaches have been tried.
In this body-shell made from rings, a light alloy
integral framework for a car body is made possible.
In the design of Fig 5, which affords minimum
material wastage in the form of off-cuts. Almost the
entire shell framework is made from extruded strip
formed into polygonal looped rings. The rings are
interconnected over the lengths of their side to obtain
Fig 4: Patented longitudinal design by American good structural integrity.
Motors (GB 2187686A) There is much effort to concentrated on im-
proving structural integrity in side-impact. Prevent-
ing intrusion into the passenger survival space of the
sill and rear quarter panel, during side impact, is the
object of the design in Fig 6/7. At the intersection of
sill and rear quarter panel, shown in the cross-section
view, an additional longitudinal crash tube is intro-
duced and the joint is braced across the vehicle by a
U-sectioned transverse member which forms a box-
Fig 5: Patented body shell construction by Honda tube when welded to the floor panel.
(GB2305639A ) Combining rigidity with energy-absorbency is
a further requirement of the structural engineer when
he considers the vehicle interior. The construction of
vehicle body pillars and rails is generally such as to
provide the highest possible strength and rigidity for
a given weight of material and cost of fabrication.
This conflicts with the requirement for a degree of
energy absorption when these structural members are
exposed to the vehicle occupants. So a better compro-
Figs 6/7: Patented side impact protection structure mise is achieved by using the elements shown in this
(and section) by Fuji Jukogyo (GB2306922A) typical section, of a windscreen pillar, Fig 8. The
conventional pillar section has an extra member
sandwiched between its outer and inner 'panels' so
that panel thicknesses can be reduced accordingly.
Then the inner panel has an extra, U-shaped section
spot-welded to its walls so as to provide an additional
energy-absorbent panel of yet thinner gauge. The
usual deformable plastic garnish panel then separates
the absorber from direct contact with the occupant in
an impact situation. Also shown in the sectional view
are the door pillar and weatherseals which define the
shape of the basic windscreen pillar section.
Exploiting wall forces to grip occupants is
another interesting approach. An unusually high
Fig 8: A novel
degree of occupant protection in side impacts is
windscreen pillar
afforded by the seat and airbag layout of Fig 9. The
patented by Toyota
(GB2293798A) upper portions of the seat backrests are extended
outwards to almost touch one another and the adja-
146 VEHICLE DESIGN
cent areas of door trim. Platforms thus formed con-
tain airbags which fire forwards but exert side pres-
sure on the occupants by reacting against the door or
sidewall trim.
Extra protection from B-pillar impact can also
be designed in. Means to permit the vehicle occupant
to swing laterally in a pendulum effect, with pivot at
the upper side rail, is proposed in the design of Fig 10.
A yieldable portion of the B-pillar to sill joint col-
lapses, with an adjacent section of the floor-pan,
under side impact. The patent also covers proposals
for controlled collapse of the B-pillar based on sepa-
Fig 9: Technique of occupant protection in side-
rate deformable portions.
impact by Mercedes-Benz (GB2309440A)
Taking the injury out of side impact is also
possible with the arrangement seen in Fig 11. Nor-
mally the B-pillar bends under side-impact at the
discontinuity between the upper, window, and the
lower, door, portions of the pillar, at occupant chest
level. Here the centre-pillar has a designed-in strength
Fig 10: Design for
discontinuity portion at seat level. In order to ensure
protection from the B-
this failure mode takes place, top and bottom anchor-
pillar by Fuji Jukogyo
age supports for the pillar also must be reinforced.
KK (GB2311259A)
This is achieved by using a box-sectioned pillar
rooted to box-sectioned transverse members at roof,
X, and floor level, Y, which make up a ring frame
around the vehicle and include reinforcement of the
floor centre tunnel, Z.
An associated proposal, Fig 12/13, to that in
Fig 6/7 comes from Toyota and covers the provision
of an energy absorber within the trim of the door to
further increase side-impact protection. Conventional
cushioning devices added to the trim protrude into
the passenger survival space. Here the cushions are
provided within the thickness of the door and its
associated trim case and configured to optimize the
energy absorbency and allow the occupant to take the
impact at hip level.
Fig 11: An improved survival space under side-
Chassis/body shell elements impact arises from this arrangement proposed by
Slotted construction for chassis frames is an interest- Fuji Jukogyo in Patent GB2292716.
ing way of reducing the weight of vehicle structural
elements. The possibility to make a lightweight
vehicle chassis frame in aluminium alloy, without
the need to form a complex one-piece tapered
sidemember, is clear in the design of Fig 14. Rela-
tively short lengths of constant section extruded
sidemember portions are joined together by strong
light interconnection members of hollowribbedcon- Fig 14: Patented sidemember construction by
struction which can have such items as spring hanger Dana in GB2313577A
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 147
brackets integrated with them.
Protecting chassis sidemember shear strength
is a particular problem which occurs on skeletal
semi-trailers, for container transporting, because of
the comparatively shallow depth of the main longitu-
dinal beams. This means that transverse, bolster,
crossmembers of rectangular section cannot easily be
inserted through them and welded in position. The
cut-outs which pierce the sidemember webs can be
7
too large to allow any residual shear strength in the
sidemembers. In this arrangement by Crane Fruehauf,
Fig 15, a pair of plates and connecting tube are
inserted inside the crossmember so that the plates
correspond to the cutouts in the sidemember. After
welding up they replace the lost web area in the
sidemember.
Even a dual purpose oddments-compartment
Fig 12/13: Associated proposal in GB2292913A, can be used to enhance occupant protection in im-
pact. The proposal for a centre-console locker in Fig
16 includes provision for a measure of side-impact
support and the possibility of having its contents
warmed by heater ducting. The box structure has two
cross bulkheads, two side ones, stiffened by folded
flanges, and a floor bulkhead. The sides also form the
outer walls of fore/aft running heater ducts.
Stiffening up a convertible body is often neces-
sary when the roof panel is removed from a car body
shell. Increasing the torsional and bending rigidity of
the rear-end of an open convertible car structure is the
object of the design in Fig 17. A vertical structural
wall forms the front-end of the hood stowage com-
Fig 15: Technique for maintaining shear strength, partment at the very rear of the vehicle. At its outer
patented in GB2203393A

Fig 16: Oddments box doubling as structural Fig 17: Patented method of strengthening
member in patent by Daimler-Benz (GB2312190A) convertible body, by Porsche (GB2308104A)
 148 VEHICLE DESIGN
edges, and in a cruciform across its leading side, rail fibres in resin transfer moulding. A resin injection
structures react loads imposed on the body structure technology such as RTM or network injection mould-
by the rear part of the chassis, the upper crossmember ing is seen as a key part of the automating process, for
directing the loads to the flux point K. The forces which production rates of between 10,000 and 100,000
reach this bulkhead via cranked box-section mem- per year are seen as optimal by CCL. Fig 19 shows
bers, and a tapered pillar of substantial section, which straight, curved and tapered parts which it is possible
connect to the sills and main chassis. to construct, making the truck chassis frame to be a
A suspension-location structure can be used to potential application as well as body side panels. It is
supplement body shell structural rigidity. This ap- even possible to envisage economical integral con-
plies to Porsche in the chassis construction of the 911 struction of monocoque van bodies provided a large-
Carrera. Of particular interest is the rear suspension enough loom could be found to handle the size of the
arrangement which involves a sophisticated sub- preform.
frame structure, Fig 18, which is elastically mounted Structural/suspension innovations have also
to the body. The LSA lightweight strut axle com- reached production in a Lotus model. Torsional
prises a five-link wheel location system, the links stiffness of 6600 Ibs ft / degree has been achieved for
being arranged in two planes, two forming the upper the open body structure of the Elan, with a steel and
'wishbone' and three, including a tie-rod, forming
the lower one. As the wishbones are effectively each
a pair of tension/compression members, these are
largely relieved of twisting or bending moments.
Combined with its brakes and drive-shafts the whole
is a pre-assembled module. Each suspension strut is
pivot-mounted at either end, to wheel-carrier and
sub-frame respectively. The suspension 'struts' are
die-cast by the Acural process and are of C-section,
with webs reinforced by diagonal ribs. These are in
aluminium alloy AlSITMg with 240 N/mm2 yield
strength. The sub-frame members are of similar Fig 18: For she suspension sub-frame
construction but use a H- rather than C-section. Total
weight of the assembly is 17 kg.
Many of the smaller body-builders consider the
way ahead in structural efficiency lies with compos-
ite bodies. Three dimensional weaving of glass-fibre
preforms by the technique announced recently by
Cambridge Consultants is likely to open up new
opportunities for composite structures. By
computeriszing the complex instructions to a Jac-
quard loom, which works by passing longitudinal
fibres through loops in vertical wires, moved verti-
cally as the shuttle carrying the thread moves be-
tween them, automated construction of the preform is
possible. A box beam having longitudinally oriented
fibres in the flanges and at 45 degrees on the webs can
readily be programmed. Vehicle seats, bumpers and
side beams are seen as other applications as the
technique allows curved forms and flanged edges to
be achieved without difficulty. The main limitation
of the process is the 50-55% fibre content limit in
GRP needed for the resin to penetrate between the Fig 19: Pans made from the CCL process
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 149

polymer composites combination structure, Fig 20. inside rather than outside the front A-panel.
Body panels are produced by the VARI process. A A patented 'interactive wishbone' suspension
constant curing temperature and newly modified assembly is mounted on a separate raft of heat-treated
resin systems have since improved the production aluminium alloy. The raft allows very stiff fulcrum
cure time. Also a new preform system is used to bushes to be employed but without passing road
produce the panels which enables sharper corners to noise; it also permits abnormally low caster angle and
be achieved. Body shape gives 0.34 drag coefficient accurately controls suspension geometry under all
and front/rear lift coefficients of 0.30 and 0.065 conditions. Torque steer effects are also reduced
respectively. The chassis structure has departed from while allowing longitudinal wheel compliance with-
the traditional Lotus pure backbone with the integra- out changes in handling. There is not the normal
tion of the composite platform which is a single-piece excessive loss of caster during braking, caused by
3 mm thick moulding, including inner sill, toeboard, deflection of the fulcrum bushes, and braking stabil-
heelboard, 'A' and 'B' posts. The resin is anisopthalic ity has actually been enhanced by offsetting the hub
polyester reinforced by continuous filament glass spindle rearwards relative to the steering axis. Track-
fibre with additional reinforcement at the mating ing stability is also optimized by commonizing cam-
points with the backbone outriggers. The latter are ber change geometry, with bump travel, on both front
made from 18 gauge steel which is E-coated and wax and rear suspensions. Roll centre heights (30 mm,
injected. Body panels are joined by elastomeric
polyurethane adhesives. There is also a steel subframe
reinforcing 'A' and 'B' posts, sills and rear suspen-
sion anchorages. The relatively large number of
separate 2 mm thick skin panels makes for quite easy
future facelifting, according to the company. Bump-
ers are of RRIM and doors, unusually, swing in an arc

Fig 20: Lotus Elan structure

150 VEHICLE DESIGN

front, 60 mm, rear) remain virtually constant for vehicle impact. Inflation pressure is also controlled
normal roll angles and steering geometry of 60 per so as not to over stress the child during this event. A
cent Ackermann has been chosen. further airbag is mounted in a play-table which is an
Many believe the achievement of optimum integral part of the seat. A weight sensor and infra-red
structural rigidity in car bodies will require the use of sensor determine the mass and size of the child and a
a punt-type structure with sandwich floor panels. A preferred arrangement also includes inflatable shoul-
sandwich structure for a roadster chassis is seen in Fig der and lap belts to increase the restraint effect. The
21/22. Mazda engineers1 released details of this airbag and gas generator assemblies are preferably of
sandwich panel sports-car project in SAE papers, in the plug-in type, the base of the sockets being elec-
which the admirably simple 'punt' structure is de- trically wired to the main harness of the vehicle, as
scribed. This approach is felt to be justified in open- shown.
top cars which otherwise demand costly and weighty
understructure modifications when derived from
standard saloons. Structural efficiency was measured
by calculating the strain-energy involvement of each
panel by finite-element techniques. Aluminium alloy
face and honeycomb core are used to obtain body
bending rigidity of 1.0 X 103 kNm and torsional
rigidity of 0.7 kNm/rad from the 100 kg.structure
whose natural frequency in bending and torsion was
above 40 Hz. The latter figure is well above 'shake'
prone adapted saloon open-tops. Main floor panel is
100 mm thick and attaches to the structural side sills
as shown inset.

Car body systems Fig 23: Child safety seat by VW in GB2290505A

Occupant restraint
Occupant protection has also been considerably af-
fected by developments in vehicle seating and sur-
roundings.
Preventing submarining or similar motion of a
child in its safety seat is proposed in this Volkswagen
patent, Fig 23. The shell of the seat is a carrier body
for airbags which inhibit motion of the child during

Fig 24: Patented pre-

tensioner by Allied-
Signal (GB2304027A)

Fig 21/22: Mazda punt structure

 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 151

Pretensioners for seat belts are another safety

system receiving attention. In Fig 24, a relatively
easily assembled and installed seat belt pretensioner
mechanism has a strong piston locking element which,
while allowing free movement of the piston in the
webbing tensioning direction, locks the piston in the
web-loosening direction. The cylinder is internally
threaded at one end for setting the pretension and at
the other has a toothed profile into which the locking
element engages as well as two O-ring seals spaced
at one tooth pitch.
The hazard of handling seat-belt pretensioners,
while armed is overcome in the design of Fig 25,
which also makes it difficult for unauthorized dealers
Fig 25: Safe install pretensioner by Allied Signal
SpA GB2315983A to fit pre-used units and provides a visual indication
to safety inspectors when this happens. The action of
fitting the unit to the vehicle causes the lever of the
arming bracket to be actuated and the bracket incor-
porates a flange for limiting access to the fixing
screws. The arming bracket is secured to the retractor
frame by a twin headed arming screw, the heads
being separated by a weak portion of the stem. On
tightening, the stem shears to detach the outer head
and leaves the inner one protected by an enveloping
sealing ring.
Energy-absorbing belt anchorages are another
approach to lessening impact injury. In Fig 26, an
upper seat-belt anchorage is provided which incorpo-
rates an additional measure of energy absorption.
The body of the anchorage which supports the web-
Fig 26: Energy-absorbing anchorage by Tokai bing has a specially shaped support-pin passing
Rika Denki Seisakusho (GB2307168A) through it, and the adjacent body centre-pillar, which
engages an exterior reinforcement plate in a special
way. The energy absorber is positioned around the
circumference of the outer end of the pin and is
arranged to expand outwards under crash loading on
the interior belt mounting.
Out-of-view side-impact airbags protect pas-
sengers from impacts in other directions. In the
design of Fig 27, no obtruding into cabin space, or
detraction from the interior styling, results from a
modular side-impact protection airbag which fits
within the seat back. A specially constructed ex-
truded seat-back support housing has a fold over part,
behind which the bag (plus inflator) is stowed, which
allows the bag to deploy forwards, between the
occupant and the door.
Fig 27: Side airbag within seat back by Allied In another ingenious design the frontal airbag
Signal (GB2305638A) module is the horn push, Fig 28. Provision of tactile
152 VEHICLE DESIGN

indication of when sufficient pressure has been ap-

plied to sound the horn is inherent in this steering
wheel configuration which also prevents unwanted
application of the airbag. The airbag module is
movable with respect to the rim of the wheel and is
mounted on three resilient elements which are also
electrical contacts of the horn switch. The force/
deflection characteristics of these elements are such
that the resistive force rises to a maximum during
initial movement and then falls to a minimum and
Fig 28: Airbag module as horn push by Autoliv
rises once more to a second maximum with continued
(GB2309123A)
movement.
Side protection is also possible with an open
window in the design of Fig 29. Protection of vehicle
occupants during side impact, when a side-window is
either broken or open, is the objective. A strap that
threads through the deflated airbag is anchored to
structural pillars either side of the window. When the
bag inflates, the strap is tensioned by the disposition
of inflating cells around the strap such that the
occupant is constrained inside the window opening.
One school of thought believes that occupant
protection is best served by having seat belts an-
Fig 29: Protection from side-window shattering by
chored into the seat, particularly in open roadsters. Autoliv Development (GB2312877A)
Seats on the M-B 300 SL, Fig 30, have ten way
electric adjustment with memory pre-set and a struc-
ture which includes anchorage for the shoulder belt
inertia reel. It was designed with the aid of the
material supplier, Norsk Hydro. Possibility to adjust
the seat-belt harness to almost any occupant size is an
important contributor to safety in an open car which
otherwise has to rely on safety-reel anchorage by the
half-height C-pillar. Since the crash loads on the seat
from the safety harness are very considerable the
integrity of the structure and its slide mechanism is
crucial and required a 5800 element FE analysis in
the SL design
A particularly compact seat-belt pretensioner
has been patented by an Asian manufacturer. Avoid-
ance of a long cylinder and rack to effect pre-
tensioning of a seat-belt retractor is one of the objec-
tives of the compact design in Fig 31. The retractor
uses gas pressure to move the rack and rotate the
pinion gear. A clutch mechanism transmits motion
between the member attached to the pinion gear and
a belt take-up spindle, the clutch mechanism being
driven through step-up epicyclic gearing.
More effective seat-belt locking is claimed for
another ingenious design. In particular, a faster, more Fig 30: Seat of Mercedes 300 SL
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 153

effective, release of the clamping wedge and spool

assembly of a seat-belt retractor is achieved, in the
design of Fig 32, when the loading on the belt drops
below the spring bias force. The spool assembly is
mounted so that linear movement with respect to the
wedge housing pushes one or more clamping wedges
vertically to lock the seat belt. Ideally, the spool is
coupled to the wedges by coil springs and it is
supported in a slider which is also the spool-assembly
frame. The slider moves linearly with the spool to
activate the wedges.
An improved manual height/tilt adjuster for a
seat has solved a long-standing problem. Seat adjust-
ment mechanisms using double pinned discs to en-
gage notched racks have previously been impractical
Fig 31: Compact pretensioner by NSK because of the difficulty of turning a coaxial
(GB2292304A) handwheel through 180 degrees. For the design in Fig
33, a 3-pinned disc allows a more manageable angle
for hand-turning and incorporation of such an actua-
tor in the mechanism shown, and when fitted either
end of a vehicle seat slide, allows a convenient way
to provide front and rear height adjustment.
A simplified headrest adjuster is also a wel-
come advance. In many small cars the headrest has
little use, apart from the protection afforded against
whiplash injury, as different sized drivers cannot
adjust the fore-aft position even to make contact with
the rest. In the design of Fig 34, lighter weight
construction and improved comfort follow from a
locking mechanism design for a seat head support
Fig 33: Adjustment mechanism by Dunlop Cox, which allows an adjustable position for the rest. Key
GB2293972A to the mechanism is an actuating lever within the
retaining yoke of the headrest. At its top end is a
release button and at the bottom end the locking
element.

Fig 32: Improved Fig 34: Simplified head rest adjuster by

belt locking by Allied-Signal (GB2300797A) Volkswagen (GB2302706A)
154 VEHICLE DESIGN
Controlling headrest position is also improved
by a mechanism for helping to prevent whiplash
injury. The design in Fig 35 incorporates an antici-
patory crash sensor which signals when an external
object at the rear of the vehicle has greater than a
threshold closing speed. Another sensor determines
head location with respect to the headrest. A proces-
sor works out the correct headrest repositioning to
minimize injury and actuates the mechanism accord-
ingly.
A simpler seat slide control that would seem to Fig 35: Controlling headrest position by
favour powered drive is seen in Fig 36. Substantial Automotive Technologies (GB2301906A)
simplification of a seat slide and adjuster mechanism
follows from the adoption of a system based on belts
and pulleys rather than a serrated rack and pawl. Four
seat-mounted pulleys are involved plus a simple
brake mechanism, at the leading edge of the seat,
which clamps the belt in any position and therefore
provides finer adjustment than is possible with a
toothed channel.
A quieter belt-retractor for a seat belt is seen in
the interesting design of Fig 37. It enables the
ratcheting noise to be eliminated, of the pawl drag-
ging over the locking teeth of a seat belt retractor Fig 36: Patented design for a power-slide by
mechanism, on rewind. A spool with a ratchet is used Rover Group (GB2306880A)
for carrying belt webbing while a rewinder is used for
rotating the spool. An upturned cup-shaped member
acts as a sensor for detecting acceleration of the
vehicle over a given threshold, causing a lever to
move upwards and move a pivotally mounted pawl to
lock the spool. A blocking arm, frictionally coupled
to the spool, disables the pawl when the spool is
rewinding, its movement being limited by arcuately
spaced abutments. Fig 37: Quieter belt-retractor by Allied-Signal
(GB2303044A)
Doors, windows and panels
An interlocked split-tailgate is a way of overcoming
difficulties that have arisen with two-piece tailgates
on cross-country vehicles and estate cars — of inde-
pendent securing of the upper (window) portion and
the lower (flap) portion when long protruding loads
are required to be carried. In the design of Fig 38, a
gas strut is used to automatically open the window
portion when the latch is released. However, if the
window is open when the flap is open, it cannot be
closed unless the flap is closed first, whether the flap
Fig 40: Easy-assemble
is hinged horizontally or vertically. The flap can also
Fig 39: Door seal by door strip by Draftex
be independently locked to the body via the D-pillar.
Draftex (GB230994A) (GB2293191A)
In the closed position the window rests against a seal
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 155

(a) which extends around to the roof, via the side limited by a stop (e). If the unlocking mechanism is
pillars. In its lower part the window rests against seal actuated when the window is closed, the window
(b) on the flap and the window is locked to the flap moves from the closed position into the partially
with a mechanism that prevents the flap being opened open position (f). Further automatic opening of the
while the window is closed. The window raising window can then only occur after a manual push
linkage ensures no damage can be done to it when the because the 'power' lever arm is then too short.
flap is opened and closed. Reference to the inset Closing of the window under manual pressure is
enlargement of the window hinge linkage shows the arranged so that the window pivots a given distance
window to have a horizontally hinged tilting lever until the roller rests again on its track. Under further
(c), with a roller attached to it, which has a second pressure, the tilting lever pivots about axis (g) and the
lever (d) pivoted to it, the angular motion of which is roller moves on its track until the shackle catches
behind the latch at the bottom of the window.
Improvements in door sealing are the subject of
many patent applications. In the design shown in Fig
39 the upper rail of the door frame is made with a
lipped channel section whose open-end faces in-
wards to receive the specially designed weatherstrip
section. The lip of the channel holds the weatherstrip
in place after its integral locking contour has snapped
into position. The door periphery is then sealed, on
closure, in two places by direct compression of an
inbuilt 'balloon' and by shear deformation of the
outer edge of the seal.
Weatherstripping without tools is possible with
the design in Fig 40. The ability to assemble and
remove a door weatherstrip without special tooling
follows from the metal reinforced elastomeric strip
fitting over flange A in the usual way but being
locked into position by a snap-over section of the
Fig 38: Opel split-tailgate proposal covered by resilient strip B which can be withdrawn with modest
Patent GB 2290060A force.
A successful yet inexpensive window winder
for curved glass taxed designers for many years.
Unless a complex compensating mechanism is intro-
duced into a window regulator used for curved win-
dows, there is a tendency for a wrenching force on the
glass-holding clamp. This is because the clamp rises
in a linear path while the glass rises in a curved one.
In the design of Fig 41, the glass clamp is rotatably
mounted to the raising linkage so no unwanted torque
is induced.
A long-life window-winder drive is promised
by the design of Fig 42. Deterioration in operation of
window regulators can occur in conventional chain
driven systems due to stretch of the associated wire
rope — and the inability of the spring-tensioner to
compensate for the stretch. Here an integrally formed
Fig 41: Winder mechanism by Nifco Inc chain has interior teeth and a flat outer side with a
(GB2313873A) wire rope wrapped between inner and outer sides. An
156 VEHICLE DESIGN

electric drive is used with the endless chain, which

engages driver and driven gears enclosed by a chain
protector. The chain-runs lie in flexible tubes.
Easy access for door hardware assembly is the
object of the design in Fig 43. A further improvement
in modular door construction comes in this design in
which hardware mechanisms such as door latch/lock
and window regulator are built into a central frame-
work. It also forms the structural integrity of the door
and supports items such as rear-view wing mirrors
and hinges. Inner and outer non-structural skin and
trim panels are snap fitted to the central framework
after it has been fully assembled with the necessary
hardware, without access hindrance.
An extending door handle to ease operation is
seen in the design of Fig 44. The problem encoun-
tered by relatively small stature people, in driving
two-door cars, of being able to reach the door handle
to close the door from its fully-open position, is
addressed by this design. A strap-type door handle is
made extensible by means of a linkage between the
door and its frame-surround. As the door is pivoted
Fig 42: Long-life winder by Chin-Yun Huang
open, one end of the resiliently flexible handle is
(GB2313407A)
moved towards the other end causing it to bow
outwards and be easier to grasp by the vehicle occu-
pant.
The current sophistication in door latching and
locking systems is exemplified by the Bosch inte-
grated door latch, lock and auto-closing system. The
company have revealed details of their electronically
controlled automatic door closing and security sys-
tem in a recent paper2. Only one actuator motor is
involved and the functions of the device are inte-
grated into one system. In an effort to minimize the Fig 43: Easy access to door hardware by Honda
number of mechanical parts, for closing and locking, (GB2315513A )
only motor, gearbox, driving/stop plates, guide mecha-
nism and ratchet are required; door slider and lock
slider are located on one bracket. Door position is
seen by the displacement of the drop latch, monitored
by two proximity switches, while that of the driving
plate is seen by two Hall-effect sensors. Shown at Fig
45 (a) are the door in open and the first ratchet
positions; the auto-closing system is inoperative when
the closing pin is introduced in the first ratchet
position as this actuates the controller via a proximity
switch. The ratchet then holds the drop latch and
prevents the door from springing open. The driving
plate is connected to the gearbox output which turns Fig 44: Extending handle by Prince Corporation
the drop-latch into the closed position via a sprung (GB2318385A)
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 157

stop-plate. The drive plate then completes one revolu-

tion and the door can then be mechanically opened by
the exterior/interior handles. A console switch signals
the actuator, via the CAN bus, to enter the central
locking mode. The driving plate is then motored to the
door-locked position (b). The driving pin on the stop
plate prevents the drop latch from being handle-
opened from the outside — but interior handles will
turn the stop plate against its spring with the slider.
Turning the locking key signals the actuator to enter
the anti-theft mode in which the driving plate takes up
the position monitored by the sensor; both inner and
outer handles are then disconnected as in (c).
Another way of foiling the thief is with a
vehicle locking system which overcomes the grave
limitation of many existing systems, that once the
thief has prised the lock from the body the latches
can be operated by the pull rods linking them to the
lock. In this arrangement, Fig 46 , the lock actuator
is a key-driven rack and pinion, the rack of which is
connected to a Bowden cable that links with
the latch. The lock, rack and pinion, and the end of
the Bowden cable are all located in a casing such that
Fig 46: Rack and pinion mechanism by Rover the locking function cannot be operated without the
Group, covered in Patent GB2291109A key to the lock, even if the lock is prised out of the
door.

Fig 45: Integrated latch/lock system by Bosch

158 VEHICLE DESIGN

A way of minimizing operating forces on a

central-locking system is the design of Fig 47 in
which the electric motor only needs to be sized
according to the operating forces of the locking lever
system. Manual operation can also be carried out
only against the resistance of these forces, in the
event of motor power failure. Thus a rotary latch,
pawl and release lever have an operating lever which
comprises at least one operating lever plus a locking
lever system. This involves an interior locking lever,
central locking drive and locking element connected
to it. The drive is a reversible motor with power take
off having an eccentric control pin. The pin is con-
trolled in a way that it rotates in either direction to
move the central locking element into 'locked' or
'unlocked' position. This element has a forked re-
ceiver with control surfaces on its sides which cause
the interior locking lever to be rigidly connected to it.
Part of the control pin arc of rotation is outside the
forked receiver and the central locking element has
a stop face on both sides, for the control pin. Control Fig 47: Reduced locking force system by Kiekert
movements of the pin are restricted by its striking one AG (GB2292768A)
of these faces and the motor being switched off as this
happens.
A particularly compact power door latch is
obtained from the design in Fig 48. Existing pow-
ered-closing devices for vehicle doors cover a large
projected area of the door. This is because the cancel-
ling lever normally projects beyond the output mem-
ber. In this design a compact layout is achieved by the
cancelling lever overlapping the output member, as
well as the member connecting the output member to
the intermediate lever being shorter. The output
member is rotated by a motor, moving the latch from Fig 48: Compact door latch by Mitsui KKK Kaisha
a half-latched to a full-latched position. The cancel- (GB2313408A)
ling cam surface is brought into contact with the
connecting member to disconnect the output mem-
ber, and the intermediate lever, when the opening
handle is turned.
Another body mechanism which receives
considerable design attention is that for convertible
hoods. A compact folding-roof arrangement for boot-
stowage is covered in the design of Fig 49, which
maximiszes the space within the stowage cavity. To
pivot the boot-lid frame upwards a hydraulic jack is
extended and a slot in the lower end of the jack slides
down over a fixed pivot. This initial motion of the slot
causes the foot of the jack to pull on a cable, to unlock Fig 49: Boot-stowage of folding roof by Mercedes-
the boot lid. Further jack-extension raises the boot Benz, covered in Patent GB2300671A
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 159
lid; jacks are positioned at each side of the boot, Trim and fittings
behind the wheel arches. Leaf springs are positioned A mirror system without rain-blur is seen in the
at the side of the slots to stabilize the pivot positions. design of Fig 50. Substitutes for conventional rear-
view mirrors have been proposed which avoid the
considerable protrusion of the mirror from the sidewall
of the vehicle. However, a drawback of such systems
is the blurred image obtained in wet weather when the
image is distorted by rain droplets. In this patented
design, a housing on the vehicle side has a concave
mirror inside it to reflect light collected by a circular
concave lens at the rear of the housing. The lens is
coated with a water repellent and is mounted in
Fig 50: Mirror system by Murakami bearings so that it can be spun by gear teeth, on its
Kaimeido, covered by Patent periphery, driven by a motor pinion.
GB2299560A An improved sliding-door drive which does
not require exclusive use of power is suggested in Fig
51. A clutch mechanism, for transmitting power from
motor to movable member, has racks fixed to station-
ary members and engages with gears to drive the
movable member. The clutch unit is supported on a
swinging member, spring-biassed to a central neutral
position. Gear A is engaged with the output gear B,
and the stationary rack, while gear C is frictionally
coupled to gear A. On energizing the motor the
assembly swings away from the neutral position to
engage with the movable-door drive gear.
A more positive and reliable bonnet release
mechanism is proposed in the design of Fig 52. This
improves on the conventional type comprising a
headed striker pin mounted on the bonnet and adapted,
Fig 51: Sliding door drive by Mitsui as the bonnet is closed, to pass through an opening in
(GB2305228A) a catch plate attached to the grille surround and
become engaged by a catch lever. Here a latch for
retaining a striker pin does so by the action of a
latching member in the latch on the head portion of
the pin. The latch has a resilient member, which is
chordal to the bore, to retain the striker pin in the
latch. A release ring rotates about the axis of the bore
and has an abutment which engages with the resilient
member to spring it from the bore and release the
strike pin.
Cushioning a bonnet top impact is the object of
the design in Fig 53 for a pedestrian protection
device. In the cases of frontal impact with the vehicle,
uses an external airbag triggered by a deceleration
sensor. Protection is given particularly against vio-
Fig 52: Reliable bonnet latch by Bloxwich lent head impact from the whiplash effect of the body
Engineering (GB2312921A) folding after leg impact from a low bonnet. The
airbag is stored in a protective cover which ruptures
160 VEHICLE DESIGN
on inflation of the bag, the cover being contained in
a nudge-bar extension of the normal bumper bar,
which is itself covered with soft material to minimise
leg injury.
Protection of the occupants is the object of this
controlled-collapse trim system in Fig 54. Providing
a crash impact waveform with a number of progres-
sive deceleration peaks is an objective of a trim
finisher for fitting to the interior of the windscreen
pillar. Earlier attempts to do this have usually re-
sulted in undue bulk of the trim member with conse-
quent intrusion into the passenger space and/or ob-
struction of the front doorway. Here the generally Fig 53: Pedestrian protection device patented by
channel-section plastic trim member has reinforcing Concept Mouldings Ltd (GB2316371A)
ribs at right angles to its surface and arranged with
different clearance dimensions from the screen pil-
lar. Fastening of the trim to the pillar is via integral
bosses parallel to the ribs which engage with a sprung
plate with lugs engaging spring-clip fasteners fitted
in holes in the pillar.
A simplified level-sensing system for lamp
adjustment is seen in Fig 55. Undue complexity, and
a large number of individual parts, in existing vehicle
level-detection devices have resulted in costly solu-
tions for automatic on-vehicle headlamp adjustment
and suspension levelling. In this proposal a sensor is
used having just two angularly moveable parts, re-
spectively coupled to the vehicle body and suspen-
sion. The 'fixed' part is attached to a body-structure
member in a way that allows the sensor to be coaxial
with the fulcrum of a wheel suspension control arm,
an attaching leaf-spring from which holds the 'mov-
ing' part of the sensor. The rubber bush of the
suspension control arm compensates for any motion Fig 54: Controlled-collapse trim by Nissan
of the arm at right angles to the axis of rotation of the (GB2318551A)
sensor moving-part.
A system of fibre-optic light division for head-
lamps is seen in the design of Fig 56. This headlamp
design uses fibre-optics so that only one high inten-
sity discharge bulb is required for both main- and
dipped-beam operation. Light conducted from the
upper (main beam) source, by the optical fibre at the
rear of the lamp, serves as a source for the lower,
dipped-beam unit, a shutter mechanism controlling
the amount of light passed. The arrangement is also
said to improve colour distribution between each
source, give better balance of luminous intensity and
thus better forward vision. Fig 55: Simplified level-sensing by Mercedes-Benz
Body system innovation in the fuel tank region (GB2292614A)
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 161

includes the fuel delivery system of Fig 57. Simpli- forms a vapour reservoir. An acceleration-sensitive
fied assembly and test can take place of this fuel valve controls the opening between the two ullage
distributor system, which is an add-on unit to a fuel spaces which are also interconnected by a small bleed
tank, rather than fabricated within it. The carrier valve.
casing, which is mounted to the fuel tank, has a non- An exhaust clamp without bolts is an interest-
return valve, bottom right, and an ingenious jet-pump ing piece of underbody innovation, Fig 59. Problems
arrangement, for filling. The jet-pump, left side of of looseness in an exhaust pipe assembly, following
carrier, involves excess fuel flowing back through a the fixing clamp nuts becoming untightened in serv-
duct from the engine. ice, are overcome in this relatively easy-to-assemble
An improved fuel tank, overall, is covered in design. The ubiquitous bolted exhaust pipe clamp is
the patented design of Fig 58. Prevention of overfill- replaced by a spring-clip-shaped member which at-
ing on refuelling, and avoidance of any bad effects of taches to a support arm by notched engagement with
vapour formation on vehicle acceleration, are the its flattened end. The rod is hung from a flexible
objectives of this fuel tank design. Two separate mount in the usual way.
ullage spaces are formed by means of an inverted
canister suspended from the roof of the tank, which Aerodynamics
and weight saving
Attention to underbody panel shape is also important
in extracting the last mph of speed. Dr Dominey of
Durham University3 points out that the stability of
regulations has led to a convergence of design which
means that competitive circuit performance now
depends on fine tuning of aerodynamic design. As
ground clearance beneath the front wing is reduced
Fig 56: Fibre-optic light division system by Fuji flow can no longer tolerate the pressure gradient and
Jukogyo (GB2315538A) the aerofoil stalls in the limiting condition. The
limited permitted span of the aerofoils makes it
necessary to control the associated tip effects. The
end-plate solution aimed at maintaining approximate
two-dimensional flow increases loading at the wing
Fig 57: Fuel delivery
tips but does not eliminate strong tip vortices — for
system by Mercedes-
which semi-tubular guides along the lower edges of
Benz (GB2304821A)
the end-plates has been one of the ways of containing
them. To overcome the compromising effect of the
front wing on engine cooling performance, the use of
flapped aerofoils has been introduced — with chord
and camber at the outer end of the flap greater than at
the chassis end. Combining this with taller and
narrower engine air-intakes ensures that only the
wake from the inner section of the wing impinges on
the intake. With rear-wing aerofoils the requirement
Fig 58: Improved fuel for high downforce to be generated from already
tank layout by Ford disturbed airflow has necessitated the use of highly
GB2306952A cambered multi-element configurations which are
inefficient in terms of drag. The trailing edge of the
Fig 59: Exhaust wing is governed by regulations while leading edge
fixing by Calsonic position is chosen as a compromise between a high
Corp (GB2313581A) one better exploiting airflow and a low one allowing
162 VEHICLE DESIGN

a larger aerofoil to be used. The undertray of the car ent sections of the floor. Also obtained were interest-
is the other important factor, Fig 60, air flowing ing results due to the progressive alteration of rear-
beneath the car leading to a high-pressure stagnation end shape between the limits of notch- and hatch- (3)
point on the upper surface and a separation bubble and of adding on and progressively increasing the
below the entry lip. Addition of a diffuser creates a depth of a front spoiler (6).
further zone of low pressure and its design is crucial An innovative body construction material is
to obtaining marginal advantage. low density structural RIM. An LD-SRIM system has
How the influence of a vehicle underbody been trailed as a RRIM replacement for production of
affects aerodynamic drag was also discussed by automotive interior trim panels via the Strappazini
Rover engineer J.P. Howell4. He showed, Fig 6la, at process. Trials at United Technologies Automotive
(a) the contributions made by different elements of confirm that Id's MDI-based polyurethane LD-
the body on the overall aerodynamic drag of a saloon SRIM system has exhibited advantages over the
car. By fairing the complete underbody of an 800 commercial RRIM system. The Strappazini process
saloon it was found possible to improve drag by is a patented method of moulding in place multiple
factors of 0.39 and 0.46 for a notchback and hatch- covers with well finished joints and seams. The
back configuration respectively. So as to gauge the process is useful in moulding complex automotive
effect of progressively adding fairing panels (b), interior trim components, including interior door
wind-tunnel tests were made with successive in- panels. 'RIMline' SL-87339, a system containing an
crease in the numbered panels to obtain the results in internal mould release (IMR), was tested in a Cor-
(c). The extremities of the floor gave the largest gains vette RRIM door panel tool at UTA. In a closed
but there is evidence of interactions between differ- mould, with only slight variations in mould tempera-
tures and throughput of the current production equip-
ment, the 'RIMline' system was poured directly onto
a glass mat using the Strappazini process. Multiple
releases were demonstrated with Id's new IMR
technology. During initial evaluation, 15 releases
were achieved. Based on previous production expe-
rience, it is expected that in a plant environment at
least 30 to 40 additional releases between external
mould release applications can be achieved. In com-
Fig 60: Aerodynamic under-layer parison, the current RRIM system is not available
with IMR technology.
The LD-SRIM part, Fig 61b, weighed 20 per-
cent less than the same door part moulded from the
RRIM material. This was accomplished without op-
timization of part thickness or density. An additional
20 to 25 percent weight reduction can be achieved by
reducing part thickness due to the superior strength
properties of low density SRIM composite. RRIM
requires substantially thicker sections to meet stiff-
ness and thermal stability requirements as well as
adequate impact resistance.
Fig 62: GM Corvette doors: front in RRIM rear
view in LD-SRIM

Fig 61: Drag factors involved

 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 163

CV systems design gives high torsional rigidity necessary to

mount the independent suspension assemblies. Out-
CV chassis-cab configuration
board of it are also hung fuel tanks and air reservoirs,
Advanced-concept trucks are the trendsetters in truck while inside houses the major elements of the
design; DAF's future concept vehicle (FCV), Fig 62, drivetrain. The apertures in the box tube are for
is a fully driveable working unit whose features all
access to various parts of the drive train, the front
have prospects, individually, for eventual production rectangular one giving engine access. A flat-bottom
fitment. The chassis-frame is a fabricated rectangular
sump is fitted to the engine which is installed as low
section aluminium alloy box beam; the box girder
as possible within the box-tube, forward of the front
wheels centre-line.
While engine, semiautomatic transmission and
prop-shaft are otherwise conventional, the rear wheel
drive is novel, in the form of a 'double drive differ-
ential system,. A torque apportioning device trans-
mits two-thirds of it through a straight-through shaft
to the second axle, the other third passing, via an
annular gear drive, to the input pinion of the lead
axle. Being a hypoid gear, its pinion offset allows the
through-shaft to pass beneath the cross-shaft of the
front differential. A short propshaft then connects the
drive to the second axle. Independent suspension is
fitted to both front and second 'axles', the latter both
driving and steering. Special low-profile air-springs
are employed which bear on saddles on the stub-
axles. Lower links of the wishbone suspension, whose
roll-centre is at ground level, are cranked downwards
to clear the inboard disc brakes. In the second axle,
drive extends outwards to the wheel hubs via a ring-
type kingpin housing. Suspension travel is 80 mm to
bump and 160 mm to rebound stops. For the third
axle, twinned wheels on special two-flange hubs are
supported by stub axles on a rectangular frame. Its

Fig 62a: DAF concept

truck, with suspension and
drive detail above
164 VEHICLE DESIGN

Fig 62b: Concept truck suspension and drive detail

slender, deep sidemembers have brackets extending

outwards, beyond the inner road-wheels, to give as
wide a spring-base as possible.
Concept has become production in the case of
the important breakthrough which has been made by
Dennis Specialist Vehicles. It involves a dedicated
space-frame chassis for the new Rapier fire-appli-
ance vehicle, Fig 63. Dramatic improvement in ride
and handling is claimed over the conventional lad-
der-frame and leaf-spring layout — with the avail-
ability of a more rigid frame to mount a suspension of
greater sophistication. Over a tonne of weight has
been pared from the conventional structure and a low
deck height has also been achieved — with a particu-
larly low-slung engine. The latter has permitted the Fig 63: Dennis Rapier space-frame chassis
cab to be mounted 250 mm lower than usual, remov-
ing the need for entry steps. The entire crew cab tilts
in one piece and the lightweight body is made in
corrugated aluminium alloy sheet over an extruded
section frame — incorporating water tanks made
from plastic. Substantial coil springs suspend both
front and rear wheels and, at the rear, wheels are
independently suspended by a double wishbone sys-
tem. Body roll, under 0.6 g lateral acceleration, has
been reduced to 3.1 degrees compared with 8.5
degrees for a comparable conventional vehicle.

Cab/body fittings
Recent patent specifications reveal a number of the
detailed improvements which have been made to
truck systems. An example is the suspended cab-tilt
pivot design in Fig 64. Here a truck cab suspension
which is sympathetic to the cab-tilt system, without
causing discomfort to the occupants, is proposed. Fig 64: Soft-mounted cab tilt by ERF, in Patent
The cab itself hinges on the uppermost pivot of the GB2188884A
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 165

mechanism shown while beneath it a second pivot

forms the scissor linkage of the suspension mecha-
nism — based on a rubber 'doughnut' compression
spring and hydraulic damper.
A return-load tanker is the subject of the inter-
esting patented design in Fig 65. The classic diffi-
culty is tackled here in the operation of tankers and
bulkers, not being able to fill the tanks with a return
load, which might contaminate the principal product
carried. According to the claimants, existing efforts
to build dual purpose vehicles, carrying both dry
goods and flow products on flat-topped tankers, have
involved overweight structures. Here the lower por-
tion of the vehicle, for flow products, comprises
typically two large cylindrical vessels which form
substantial structural members of the vehicle. Cra-
dles around the vessels support the upper floor for
carrying dry goods as well as proving a mounting for
Fig 65: Return-load tanker by Clayton the running gear of the vehicle.
Commercials (GB2298830 A) A number of attempts have been made to
produce 'variable cube' bodies. A means of, literally,
raising the roof of this van body is proposed by the
design in Fig 66. An air-inflatable bag is positioned
between the body wall and a lever which compresses
the bag. Inflation of the bag moves the lever and pulls
cables to operate the roof-raising device. Shown in
this example mounted to the step of a step-frame
trailer, cables from the pulleys shown pass beneath
the chassis to operate jacks in the body corner posts.
Another proposal also concerns raising the roof with
airbags. Previous efforts have made been made to lift
the roof of curtain-sided vehicle by an amount corre-
sponding to the depth of the projecting border which
covers the curtain tracks, to allow easier loading of
tall cargo items. Because such efforts have thus far
involved cumbersome mechanisms, the design of Fig
Fig 66: Variable cube body by York Trailers in
67 is aimed to simplify the approach by the use of air-
Patent GB2198091A
bags. A scissor linkage is associated with the air-bag,
positioned at the top front/rear corners of the vehicle
body. The compressed air supply would normally be
reservoir tanks fed by the vehicle's air-compressor
and air-lines would run through the roof support
uprights.
Improved cargo retention is the object of the
design in Fig 68. Problems of complexity, and asso-
ciated proneness to wear, of existing cargo retention
devices for goods vehicles can be reduced by the
Fig 67: Air-bag system van-cube system by JR adoption of this mechanism in the design shown.
Cramp, covered in Parent GB2299311A Channels on each side of the deck anchor bracing
166 VEHICLE DESIGN

beams, by means of a socket beneath each channel.

The beams are either stowed within the channels or
tilted upwards to brace the load. The beam is released
from the load-retention position by raising it towards
the vertical and then displacing it axially, from where
it is pivoted to the stowed position. The interior of the
beam encloses a restraining strap which is withdrawn
to secure the cargo, the strap retracting into the beam Fig 68: Improved cargo retention system suggested
automatically when not in use. by Boalloy Industries, covered in Patent
The object of the Fig 69 design is to provide an GB2301067A
easy-access curtainsider. Means to avoid complex
slider mechanisms for the body-side support pillars
of a curtainsider are provided in the arrangement
shown. In order to move the pillars to ease side-
access of bulky loads, the pillars are mounted on a
hinged linkage.
Hinged corner-posts for a curtainsider are cov-
ered by the design of Fig 70. The need to provide
front-corner posts, of curtain sided CV bodies, which
are faired in plan view to achieve aerodynamic
efficiency, results in a dead space behind the section
profile when loading the container body by fork truck
from the side. In order to avoid a secondary loading Fig 69: Easy-access curtainsider by Cartwright
operation, to enable pallets to fill the dead space, Freight Systems (GB 2185715A)
hinged post sections are suggested. When the flaps
are in their closed position the side-curtain is wrapped
around them and secured in socket catches prior to
tensioning.
Considerably reduced effort to open and close
the side-curtains of a curtainsider truck-body is
claimed in the interesting roller arrangement of Fig
71. The roller track section is profiled to allow tilting
of the rollers as they roll along the track. The rollers
comprise ball bearings with convex sectioned tyres
of hard plastic over their outer races. This set-up
overcomes the problem with conventional systems of

Fig 70: M &G Tankers & Trailers have suggested

Fig 71: Improved curtam-sider by Montracon hinged post sections, in Patent proposal,
covered by Patent GB2291095A GB2293144A
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 167

binding of the rollers when the curtain is displaced

sideways by the operator during pulling. Each hanger
bracket is supported by two or more rollers.
A simplified support post for curtainsider CV
bodies is proposed in the design of Fig 71. The
cumbersome toggle linkage provided at the lower
end of the column is dispensed with. The upper end
slides on the cant rail, as normal practice, but the
lower end locks to the side-rave, by means of a simple
spigot linkage shown here.
A compact sliding door gear system is offered
in the design of Fig 73. The difficulty is overcome
here of accommodating two ISO pallets lengthwise
across the platform of a goods vehicle — within the
maximum legal vehicle width and the clearance
envelope of the door gear. This design uses a 'master'
Fig 72: Simplified curtainsider support post in
plug-and-slide door suspended from a carriage and
Patent GB2209712A by John J Cameron
swing-arm assembly.
Tail-lift in a door is the result of the ingenious
design of Fig 74. A tail-lift platform which doubles as
a part-closure to prevent cold air fallout from refrig-
erated vehicles is raised and lowered by carriages in
the rear doors of the body in this design. The body
comprises a number of refrigerated compartments
and a separate folding canopy can temporarily close
the upper ones.
Levelling a lifting deck is the object of the Fig
Fig 73: Compact sliding door gear by Bedwas 75 design. Existing mechanisms used to raise the
Bodyworks, in Patent GB2203184A decks of goods vehicle bodies, to achieve two-tier
stowage of the payload, suffer from the moving deck
becoming unlevel as it is raised on jacks. In this
design movement of the deck is synchronized by the
interaction of two toothed racks mounted on the body
and toothed wheels mounted on the moving deck.
Fig 74: Tail-lift Connection of the wheels by shaft or endless chain
in door by Tidd ensures the level movement of the deck regardless of
Strongbox, ram motions.
covered in Folding catwalk rail is covered by the design of
Patent Fig 76. Added safety for road tanker operators is
GB2207112A provided by this pivoting catwalk rail. When access
to the top of the tanker is not required the rail lays flat
across the catwalk to prevent ingress by unwanted
intruders. When legitimate access is required hy-
draulic rams raise the rail to an upright position while
interlocks ensure the vehicle's brakes stay on, in this
position.
Perhaps the ultimate in cab access is offered by
Fig 75: Upper-deck levelling achieved by the UK the Fig 77 design. Overcoming the ingress and exit
Lift Company, covered in Patent GB2299791A restrictions for driver and operators of crew-cabbed
168 VEHICLE DESIGN
commercial vehicles is the objective, particularly controlled by the driver, or 'rider' in a semi motor-
suited to vehicles with front overhead loaders. The cycle situation, sitting behind the single steering
driver's seat and controls are centrally mounted front wheel of the vehicle. Retractable outrigger
while those for the crew are mounted above and wheels would also be used to provide cornering
behind, on either side of the cab and over the wheel stability in less dense traffic conditions. Translucent
housings. Doors of 1.9 metres in height open in- panelling around the patient compartment would
wardly to prevent pavement obstruction. The floor is reduce the claustrophobic effect as would careful
inclined upwards at the front and level at the back and colour selection for the interior.
provides cross cab access ahead of the engine com- A joint venture between MAN and Voith has
partment. resulted in the NL 202 DE low floor concept city bus,
Fig 79, designed to carry 98 passengers at a maxi-
Advanced mum speed of 70 km/h. No steps are involved at any
of the entrances, which lead directly to a completely
bus/ambulance design level deck height of between 317 to 340 mm. The
Rethinking the ambulance configuration is behind rear-mounted horizontally positioned diesel engine
the design of Fig 78. Emergency transport of accident allows fitment of a bench seat at the rear of the bus;
victims in heavy traffic was the impetus behind an it drives a generator with only electrical connection
interesting vehicle to handle urban emergencies dis-
cussed at a recent Autotech congress. Authors Da
Silva and Miranda of Lisbon Technical University
explained that the key design factor was provision of
an efficient life condition support for the patient in a
vehicle with exceptional traffic mobility. That in-
volved a highly compact layout yet a comfortable
posture and space for medical assistance to the pa-
tient in transit. The short journeys inherent in the
duties of the vehicle make it an attractive proposition
for electric traction and in the proposed design the
patient would be positioned above the battery con- Fig 76:
tainer. Twin rear wheels would be mounted on an Pivoting cat-
oscillating axle, the 'banking' of which would be walk rail
proposed by
Safewalk
Railings in
Patent GB
2203390A

Fig 77: Easy-access cab by Britannia Trucks

Fig 77: Short-haul ambulance (GB2297951A)
BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 169
to the Voith transverse-flux wheel motors, which
drive the wheels through two-stage hub-reduction
gear sets. The diesel is rated at 127 kW and the
Fig 79a: NL 202 DE generator at 135 kW; the controller is of the IGBT
concept MAN bus converter type and also developed by Voith. It pro-
with propulsion vides a differential action to the wheel motors on
system detail below cornering. Permanent magnet synchronous wheel-
motors are rated at 57 kW and have a maximum speed
of 2500 rev/min; see Table 1 in Fig 79a. The bus is 12
metres long and has water-cooling for its generator,
converters and wheel motors. As well as providing
virtually jerk-free acceleration, the drive system is
seen by MAN as providing the possibility of four-
wheel drive on future articulated buses to improve
traction and stability in slippery road conditions. The
term 'transverse flux motor' refers to the means used
to guide the magnetic flux in the stator; this is new to
inverter-supplied PM types and involves a novel
collector configuration. Double-sided magnetic force
generation is also new and involves a patented double
air gap construction having high idling inductances
and force densities up to 120 kNm/m2, with relatively
low losses.
A new control process permits operation of the
motor in a field-weakening type mode, in spite of
PM excitation. The generator is almost identical in
concept but involves no field weakening. Each has
concentric construction of permanent magnets, ro-
tor/stator soft-iron elements and stator winding; see
Fig 79a. Armature elements are U-shaped cut strip-
wound core sections, embedded in the ring-shaped
supporting structures of inner and outer stators. Each
core surrounds the windings and forms a stator pole
with its cut surfaces facing the rotor. The latter is
pot-shaped and positioned between poles of the outer
and inner stators. In the stator pole region it com-
prises magnet and soft iron element while in the wind-
ing region a ring of GRP serves as the connecting
TFM wheel motor TFM generator
Power 57 kW 135 kW
Rated speed 735 rev./min. 1 ,750 rev./min.
Approx. max. speed 2,500 rev/min. 2,400 rev./min.
Max. fundamental frequency of stator 1 ,350 Hz -
Rated torque 740 Nm 740 Nm
Approx. max. torque 1 ,050 Nm 740 Nm
Approx. torque conversion 1:3
Power/weight ratio 1.8kg/kW 0.9 kg/kW
 VEHICLE DESIGN

element. The inverters supply the motors with sinu-

soidal currents and voltages until the nominal oper-
ating point is reached; operating frequency is 10 kHz.
In field-weakening mode the induced voltage exceeds
intermediate circuit voltage and only square wave
voltages are supplied to the motor. Power output then
remains constant and the operating frequency equals
the fundamental motor frequency. A large speed ra-
tio, 1.5:1, is thus possible.
An electric city-bus designed for low drag is
seen in the Centre concept midibus from Capoco
Design, Fig 80. It is intended to show the practicality
of 'available now' electric drive technology for city
centre operation. The 7.3 metre long vehicle would
operate at up to 40 kph and have a range of 40 miles.
Energy consumption is reduced by the vehicle's drag
coefficient of just 0.31 and low rolling-resistance
tyres of modest section profile. A lightweight struc-
ture comprises mechanically fastened aluminium

Fig 81: Aero-style luggage rack designed by

Ikarus covered by Patent GB2209140A

\) EGR electromagnetic control valve

2) Electronic control unit
3) Accelerator position reinforcement
4) Brake pedal switch
5) Clutch pedal switch
6) EGR valve
7) Thermostarter
8) Thermostarter feed valve
9) Instrumented injector
10) Water temperature sensor
11) Engine speed sensor
12) Vehicle speed sensor
13) Water in fuel sensor
14) Water flow and temperature sensor
15) Engine stalling solenoid
16) Engine advance adjustment
17) Fuel flow and temperature adjustment
18) Injection pump.

Fig 79 b: Performance characteristic and

power-unit environmental control system
 BODY STRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 171

alloy extrusions covered by a single-piece roof mould-

ing. In full standee form up to 56 passengers can be
carried and deck height is just 290 mm. Shown also
in Fig 80 is the economical packaging of batteries
and drive motor, with near vertical drive axis. Width
of the vehicle is 2380 mm and height 2550 m, on a
4050 mm wheelbase.

An aero-style bus saloon assembly follows

from modular elements used in this patented roof
liner and luggage rack assembly, Fig 81, for touring
coaches. The arrangement involves zed-shaped brack-
ets screwed to the roof frame which secure headlin-
ing, ventilating ducts and luggage shelves. The shelf
elements incorporate a profiled channel, for housing
light fittings, which is closed by a snap-fit translucent
cover.

Fig 80: Capoco Centra electric bus

This page intentionally left blank
 173
high speed in-cylinder sampling valve, Euro 4chal-
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Proc.I.Mech.E., Vol. 211, Part D, 1997 le. Milburn, S, Integration of advanced functions
2 Perkins and Penny, Design options and perform- into electric drivetrains, 96C050
ance characteristics for 0.25-0.3 litre/cylinder HSDI ...from the bound volume of proceedings of the 1996
diesel engines, Euro 4challenge: future technology Convergence Transportation Electronics Association
and systems, IMechE Seminar, 1997 conference
3 Sadler et al., Optimization of the combustion 2a Kuragaki et al, An adaptive cruise control using
system for a direct-injection gasoline engine using a wheel torque management technique, 980606
174 VEHICLE DESIGN

2b Olbrich et al., Light radar sensor and control unit

for adaptive cruise control, 980607
...from the bound volume of proceedings of the ITS
Advanced controls and vehicle navigation systems
seminar at the 1998 SAE Congress
3 Bolton, W., Essential mathematics for engineer-
ing, Heinemann
4 Jones et al., HYZEM — a joint approach towards
understanding hybrid vehicle introduction into
Europe, Proceedings of the IMechE Combustion
engines and hybrid vehicles conference, 1998
5 Friedmann et al., Development and application of
map-controlled drive management for a BMW parallel
hybrid vehicle, SAE Special Publication SP1331,
1998
6 Nagasaka et al., Development of the hybrid/battery
ECU for the Toyota Hybrid System, SAE Special
Publication SP1331, 1998
7 Saito et al., Super capacitor for energy recycling
hybrid vehicle, Convergence 96 proceedings
8 Origuchi et al., Development of a lithium-ion
battery system for EVs, SAE paper 970238

Chapter 5
1 Bowsher , G, Braking and traction at supersonic
speeds, Special Vehicle Engineer, January 1998

Chapter 7
1 SAE papers 870147/8
2 I.Mech.E .Autotech paper C427/40/108
3 Proc. I.MechE., Vol 206, Aerodynamics of Grand
Prix cars
4 I.Mech.E .Autotech Paper C427/6/032
 INDEX 175

Chassis systems 133

Index
Chassis/body shell elements 147
Child safety seat 151
Chrysler China car 7
Access to door hardware 156 Clock enable circuit 80
Acoustic model of vehicle cabin 21 CNG's advantage over gasoline 39
Adaptive restraint technologies 31 Collins CMC scotch-yoke engine 127
Advanced car and truck engines 120 Compact door latch 158
Advanced suspension linkage 133 Compact sliding door gear 167
Aero-style luggage rack 170 Compliance representation 64
Aerodynamics 161 Constant-pres sure cycle 121
Aged 50+ coupe 27 Constant pressure cycle piston modification 122
Airbag module as horn-push 152 Constant-pressure cycle: the future for diesels? 45
A12 concept car 3 Control Blade rear suspension 104
Alternative injector installations 41 Control strategies for CVT 56
Alternative valvetrain layouts 42 Control strategy for 4-wheel steer 138
Anti-dive motor cycle suspension 137 Controlled -collapse trim 151, 160
Ashland Pliogrip fast-cure adhesive 8 Controlled collapse 144
ASI passenger-side low-mount airbag 31 Controlling restraint deployment 33
Auto-adjust towbar 142 Conventional and electric drivetrain 75
Auto-steer for trailer 131 Cosworth Engineering's MBA engine 118
Automatic cruise control, ACC 78 Crash severity sensing 31
Automatic drive selection 129 Cross-bolting of main-bearing caps 118
Automation of handling tests 90 CV chassis-cab configuration 163
Automotive electronics maturity 70 CV systems 163
CV-joint packaging 131
B CVT engine torque curve matching 56
Bayer Durethan BKV polymer composite 4 CVT for 2-litre engined vehicles 53
BMW for its rear suspension, 850i coupe 133
BMW parallel hybrid drive 85
D
Body shell integrity 145 DAF concept truck 163
Body structure and systems, Ford Focus 105 Dallara MMGB suspension design software 63
Body systems of Freelander 109 Delphi E-STEER electronic steering 82
Body-in-white of M-B A-class 98 Dennis Rapier space-frame chassis 164
Bonnet latch 159 Design for the disabled 27
Boot-stowage of roof 158 Diesel engine with oil-cushioned piston 45
Bosch Motronic MED 7 management system 81 Digital circuits for computation 79
Brake apportioning for solo or coupled mode 141 Direct injection gasoline 43
Braking system of M-B A-class 101 Door seals 155
Braking systems 139 Doors, windows and panels 155
Bus and ambulance design 168 Double-level floor of Mercedes A-class 97
Drive and steer systems 128
Drive strategy for influencing factors 57
Cabin acoustic model 22 Driverless taxi 29
Calliper and disk assembly, Thrust SSC 114 Drivetrain control 75
Cambridge Consultants composite structures 148
Capoco Centre electric bus 170
E
Car body systems 151 Easy-access cab 168
Cargo retention system 166 Easy-access curtainsider 166
176 VEHICLE DESIGN

Easy-assemble brake booster 142 Height-adjust for trailer coupling 142

Easy-change CV-UJ assembly 130 High activity, homogeneous charge concept 47
Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) 88 High-torque manual transmission 54
Electro-rheological magnetic (ERM) fluids 72 Honda automatic transmission 53
Electromagnetic braking 141 Honda intelligent steering system 74
Electromagnetic valve actuation 122 Hybrid drive prospects 84
Electronic brake actuation system 139 Hydraulically sprung connecting rod 45
Electronic control of electric steering 73
Electronic Stability Programme on Focus 103
Emissions of small HSDI diesels 40 Ideal cycle efficiency 46
Energy storage initiatives 88 Intake valve disablement 47
Engine developments 118 Integrated air/fuel induction system 122
Engine force balancer for motorcycle 126 Integrated engine/transmission 43
Engine refinement 124 Integrated latch/lock system by Bosch 157
Engine temperature management 121 Integration of clutch servo actuator parts 142
Engine-coolant airflow 132 Interior noise analysis 20
Equilibrium lateral acceleration 59 Interior sound pressure distribution 23
European 13 Mode test 39 Intrusion simulation mechanism 17
Exhaust fixing 161 Ion current response 70
K
Fail-safe brake actuator 141 Kyoto tram 30
Fatigue life of valve gear 125
Fatigue performance of Fastriv system 14 L
Fibre-optic light division system 161 Land Rover Freelander 108
Filtering diesel particulates 127 Late intake valve closing 48
Fluid-actuated anti-roll control 136 Lateral acceleration of tractor/trailer 61
Flywheel battery 128 LD-SRIM composite panel construction 162
Flywheel to crankshaft connection 126 Leg injuries 33
FMVSS impact energy absorption levels 7 Light-alloys development 3
Footwell deformation in vehicle impact 16 Liquified natural gas (LNG) 40
Ford Focus 102 LNG-powered ERF truck 39
Freer moving bogie suspension 136 Logic circuits 79
Front and rear wheels, Thrust SSC 112 Lotus Elan structure 149
Front brake, Thrust SSC 115 Lotus Engineering Jewel Project engine 120
Fuel delivery system 161 Low-cost supercharging 122
Fuel injection rethought 122
Fuel stratification 44 M
Fuji Industies ELCAPA hybrid vehicle 89
Magnesium Association Design Award 3
G MAN diesel pollution control 126
MAN and Voith NL 202 DE low floor city bus 168
Gas storage requirement 39 Material property charts/performance indices 10
Gear train schematics 52 Mazda punt structure 150
H Mechanical systems on Freelander 110
Mechanics of roll-over 58
Handling software example 60 Mercedes A-class 96
Head rest adjuster 154 Metal/plastic systems 4
Headway sensor design 77 Millbrook VTEC facility 38
Mobility for all 27
 INDEX 177

MSC/NASTRAN 19 R
Multi input/output gearbox 129
Multi-node suspension model 62 RACD damper unit 73
Multiple valve arrangements 49 Racing clutch 129
Rapid-actuation diff-lock 129
N Rear brake, Thrust SSC 116
Recycled PET, and prime PBT, for sun-roof parts 7
Navigation system advances 76
Reduced-emission systems 124
Necked hub member 138
Refinement of individual systems, Ford Focus 102
New Venture Gear NVT-750 gearbox 55
Return-load tanker 165
Nissan CVT configuration 54
Road guidance for drowsy drivers 77
Nissan CVT for 2-litre cars 53
Road traffic NOx emissions 38
Non-stick front forks 136
Road-friendliness, a current review 66
o Roll effects 65
Roll reactions on suspended vehicle 58
Occupant protection in side impact 146 Roll response to step input 59
Occupant restraint 151 Rover Asymmetric Combustion Enhancement 47
Occupant sensing 31
Optimized re-charge strategy 86
Optimizing unsprung mass with wheel travel 133
Sachs variable valve timing 125
Sarich 2-stroke 124
Scania turbo-compound diesel 120
Parallel hybrid drive mechanism 85 Seamless electro-mechanical vehicle 70
Part-load control by late intake valve closing 48 Seat adjustment mechanism 153
Particle orientation in Theological fluid 72 Seat of Mercedes 300 SL 153
Particle size analysis 37 Seat-belt pretensioners 151
Particulate size distribution 37 Secondary safety systems 96
Passive Anti-Theft System (PATS) 107 Self-pierce riveting 13
Pedestrian protection device 160 Self-steering in forward and reverse 138
Pedestrian protection in impact 24 Set-speed down-hill braking 142
PEM fuel cell, natural gas fuelled 89 Shopping ferry 30
Personal Productivity info-technologies 81 Short-haul taxi 28
Pillar to rail joint stiffness 18 Side airbag within seat back 152
Plastic structural beam 6 Side impact protection structure 145
Plenum and port throttles 119 Sidemember construction novelty 147
Plunge joint 130 Sill and quarter panel joint 146
Poppet valve effective area comparison 50 Simplified level sensing 160
Poppet valve half-angles/radius-ratios 51 Sliding door drive 159
Porshe suspension sub-frame 148 Smart materials for suspension control 71
Power interaction diagram for hybrid drive 86 Soft-mounted cab tilt 164
Powertrain on Ford Focus 104 Specific stiffness property chart 11
Powertrains: the next stage? 36 Specific strength property chart 12
Primary safety system of M-B A-class 99 Speeding engine warm-up 127
Production hybrid-drive control system 87 Split tailgate 155
Proprietary control system advances 81 Steel durability and structural efficiency 2
Pyrotechnic actuated venting 33 Steer fight in braking 135
Q Steering assist mechanism 82
Steering column immobilizer 137
Quicker catalyst light-up 127 Steering robot 91
178 VEHICLE DESIGN

Steering system on Freelander 111

Steering-castor adjustment 137
Storing swirl energy 122 Valve arrangements for engine efficiency 47
Strengthening a convertible body 148 Variable cube body 165
Structural-coloured fibre has body trim potential Variable geometry engine intake 125
Structural design in polymer composites 6 Variable valve timing 125
Structural systems 144 Vehicle body FEM 23
Structure of Freelander 108 Visualization of in-cylinder flow 44
Supercapacitors for hybrid drive 88 VVT for Rover K-series 124
Super-element in FEA 20
Sure-fire gear engagement 129
w
Suspension and steering linkage analysis 62 Wheeled battle-tank 132
Suspension compliance conflict 135 Winder mechanism 156
Suspension compliance work of John Ellis 64
Suspension development 133
Suspension geometry control 135 Zero-offset geometry 103
Suspension supports of M-B A-class 100 ZFCFT20CVT 57
Swivel pin bearing pre-stressing 137
Synthetic urban drive cycle 84
Systems integration effect on sensors 70

Tail-lift in door 167

Taxis and people movers 28
TEC mobility system 81
Textron Fastriv system 13
Through-bolt and monoblock configurations 43
Thrust SSC land-speed jet car 112
Tiller steering 137
Torque reaction system for steering robot 92
Torque roll axis engine mounts on Focus 107
Toyota Hybrid System 87
Transient roll-over 59
Transmission design trends 52
Transverse spring composite suspension 133
Tribus guided vehicle system 128
Trim and fittings 159
TRL knee joint model 24
TRL leg-form impactor 25
Truck and bus emissions 38
Tuned suspension mounts on Focus 107
Turbocharger waste-gate control 121
Two-dimensional suspension analysis 64
Two-stage energy absorption 144
u
ULSAB body shell 2
Urban rickshaw 27