F085 INTRODUCTION TO SEISMIC INTERPRETATION Bryn AustinNy, SOUTH EAST ASIA G7 AND AUSTRALIA Mb PROGRAMME Introduction to Seismic Interpretation © 2009 by Nautilus Limited and Bryn Aust All Rights Reserved. This manual, or any portion thereof, may only be reproduced, for non-commercial purposes, by any member(s) of the SEAA Geoscience Training Alliance, for use by the employees of such member(s) in the conduct of the business of such member(s). Notwithstanding the foregoing, no member's) of the SEAA Geoscience Training Alliance may copy, reproduce, disseminate, use, Publish, store in a retrieval system, or transmit any portion of this manual as part of any training course that such member may conduct for its own employees, its independent contractors and/ or others. 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RG18 OXY Tel: 44 (0) 1635 248910, Fax: 44 (0) 1635 247324, NAUTILUS | E-Mail: [email protected] wiw.nautilusworld.comAN INTRODUCTION TO SEISMIC INTERPRETATION PrN U aU Table of Contents Tab 1 - Introduction Tab 2 - Seismic Methods Tab3 - Project Preparation Tab 4 - Tools of Trade Tab 5 - Borehole Seismic (VSP) Methods Tab6 - Interpretation Techniques Tab 7 - Structural Interpretation Tab 8 - Stratigraphic Interpretation Tab9 - Depth Conversion Tab 10 - The Reservoir: Lithology & Fluids Tab 11 - Special Topics Tab 12 - Workflow An Introduction to Seismic interpretation FOUNDATION PROGRAMMEay @ NAUTILUS Course: Course Code: Location: Neausu Correct ag at 29/05/09 Participants List Introduction to Seismic Interpretation FOSSAS. Tutors: Bryn austin Crowne Plaza Hotel Dates: lath - 12th June 2009 Venera Yessimbekova Prabir Routray Jana Bikashkali Cameron Hamilton Trinetta Herdy Sukerim Waryan Nguyen Hanh Thao 8G Group - Kazakhstan Cairn India ltd ~ India Cairn India Itd - india Origin Eneray - Brisbane Origin Energy - Briisbane Premier Oil - Jakarta Premier Oil - VietnamAN INTRODUCTION TO SEISMIC INTERPRETATION ey 1. Introduction An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation FOUNDATION PROGRAMMEIntroduction Seismic Interpretation Courtesy of Landmark Grapiics + Seismic data, especially 3D, is a mainstay of the petroleum industry. + Such geophysical information provides subsurface images & other products that can be used not only by geophysicists, but geologists & engineers alike to identify, study & then effectively drain hydrocarbon reservoirs. + Seismic data shouldn't be interpreted in a stand-alone fashion. Geological, geophysical (&, arguably, engineering) expertise should be integrated in a "complete" interpretation FOUNDATION PeaeHAune An Introduction to Seismic InterpretationIntroduction Course Objectives “+ Emphasise the geological interpretation of seismic data for the exploration and development of hydrocarbons = Where the geoiogst is most kely to be involved = Review geological cancepts for geophysicists ~ Consensus growing that interpretation truly stats at survey design phase & continues through processing: Survey design > processing - interpretation + Touch on certain aspects of acquisition and prosessing + Provide a basic tool set ane workflow fr interpretation + Focus on the principles underlying the interprotation process - Nuts and bolts of specific software applications discussed in other courses Course Content + Begins with a review of the physical basis of the seismic method. + demonstration of the standard processing tools, their application and the considerations pertinent 10 inlerpreters, + Construction of a working interpretation database & other aspects of project preparation (knowing your purpose & using suitable tools forthe task) are important consideration ~ Establishing a context forthe interpretation ~ Ensuring that the database is complete and accurate ~ Optimisation of interpretation through knowledge of acquisition & processing parameters + Basic tools when preparing for interpretation: synthetic seismograms, seismic modelling, velocity data, post-stack processing & (usually) coherency processing, + Adeeper lock at VSP’s - What are they, and what are their uses? + 2D versus 3D seismic methods’ Their uses, particular characteristics & pitfalls, ~ Techniques for viewing seismic data that can help an interpreter + Letting regional tectonic environment be you guide when Undertaking structural interpretation. + The process of depth conversion that takes seismic interpretation from geophysical word into the geologic / engineering world Different methods available, each with their advantages/disadvantages. + Stratigraphic interpretation: from the regional to the reservoir scale, + Seismic inversion, AVO & attributes + Advanced topics: multi-component seismic, 4-D time-lapse methods (to be briefly discussed). + Summary Interpretation workflows, + Lecture material supplemented by hands-on exercises. FOUNDATION 4 An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation PROGRAMMEAN INTRODUCTION TO SEISMIC INTERPRETATION NAUTILUS 2. Seismic Methods An Intreduction to Seismic Interpretation FOUNDATION PROGRAMMESeismic Methods Introduction & Basics FOUNDATION PROGRAMME An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation aSeismic Methods Introduction & Basics History of Geophysics + Imaging Simple Structures = Potential Fields (Gravity, Magnetic Surveys) - 1900's = Seismic Refraction Surveys - 1910's ~ Simple Reflection Surveys - 1930's + Complex/Deeper Structures = Mulli-Fold Acquisition - 1950's = Imaging Software - 1960's + Lithology & Fluid Prediction ~ Seismic Attributes - 1970's Gravity Value Gravity Survey Seismic Refraction Survey Here are a couple of diagrams of two older techniques that are still used today but have been rather ‘eclipsed by the seismic seflection method. On the left is the signal we would pick up if we walked with @ gravimeter over the top of a shallow salt dome. Because salt has a low density, we get an anomalously low gravity reading. This was used extensively to map shallow bodies, and is still used in regional studies to get an idea of the main geological structures. and also in specialized tools to detect how close we are to salt bodies, On the right is a diagram of a seismic refraction experiment, By analysing the ime taken for the sound waves to arrive, the shape of the top of salt can be determined. Modern seismic reflection profiling developed from this concept. Note that in both cases, the success of the technique relies on large contrasts in density and/or other rock properties between the abject being detected and the surrounding material, One of the great strengths of the seismic reflection method is its ability to work with very small contrasts. FOUNDATION 4 An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation PROGRAMMESeismic Methods Introduction & Basics shot receivers 2D Seismic Reflection Survey 3D Seismic Reflection In the seismic reflection method, targets are typically deeper and have less contrast with the Surrounding rocks. The industry has developed clever ways to maximise the infermation we get, both through acquisition design and in processing, We will look at both) aspects in the rest of the course In these diagrams we see the ray concept to ilustrate the path the seismic energy takes in the earth, a topic we shall return to later The Seismic Process Secu) Processing ve y eset) Inthis course, we will describe the elements of the seismic process from data acquisition & processing to interpretation, but focus on issues relevant to imaging structures, mapping reservoirs & predicting lithology, fluid content & structural elements. FOUNDATION PROGRAMME An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation 5Seismic Methods Introduction & Basics Seismic Source Generation Land Seismic + Depending on the surface conditions. a variety of seismic sources may be used on land, but in the petroleum industry, specially-adapted vibroseis trucks with under-slung vibrating plates are used wherever conditions allow (most environments, including urban & desert conditions), however dynamite will be used in the more extreme environments of heavy mountainous terrain (¢.g. canyons, jungle or high dune desert) Geophones i Surtace Seiemic ray ‘Wavelet ——»! Rock aver rock Layer Rock Layor Marine Seismic + For marine environments, air-guns are almost exclusively used, their pulse strength dependent on a number of factors. Multiple air-guns may be used in certain circumstances, AIR GUN PRESSURE PULSE (aka SOURCE SIGNATURE OR WAVELET) FOUNDATION 6 An Introduction to Seismic interpretation PROGRANMESeismic Methods FS ‘Seismic Rock Properties a Wavefront Acoustic Pulse + Conventional reflection seismic technology uses acoustic waves (’sound'’) to image the subsurface. + Conceptually, as shown above, we begin by generating a bang. The sound travels down into the earth, some of it gets reffected off buried interfaces and we record the reflected energy (‘echoes’), The source generates a wavefront, which we can represent as a wavelet. + Its crucial to understand that the distance from the surface to buried horizons is measured in time, more specifically Two-way Traveltines (TWT), as we are measuring not only the downward pulse to the reflector, but also the retum joumey from the reflector the receiver. If we know the velocily of sound in the propagating medium we can derive the apparent depths, + Inpractice however, there are several factors we need to consider ~ the optimal source of acoustic energy for the situation at nang, ~ there will be more than one interface in the subsurface, = we wil need to repeat the exercise many times in order to generate a seismic profile ar volume made up of these numerous wavelets,Seismic Methods Seismic Rock Properties P&S Waves From Freeman, WM., Understanding Ean’: 1997 + Most seismic surveying is designed to recgrd the fastest of the seismic body waves. namely, the compressional, primary (or push’) P-waves. + Second to arrive, will be the body shear (or "shake’) S-waves. These are of two types, horizontally and vertically polarized, known as SH- & SV- waves respectively, S-waves as a whole are notable for being unable to propagate through fluids. +The third set of waves to be generated by the seismic source. the surface or direct (air) ‘waves will be slowest to arrive and are not of interest to us. They willbe fillered out by on-site processing, + Inthis course, we will focus particularly on basic P-wave seismic methods. However, time- permitting, we will touch on the most common use of S-waves in petroleum industry applications, Le. multi-component recording, both at the surface and down-well. which is seeing increasing usage. FOUNDATION 8 An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation PROGRAMMESeismic Methods Seismic Rock Properties Seismic Modulii Modulii Courtesy of Coe Labs Gai Modulus K {incompresstultity) stress-strain ratio feedey stsapis Ryavoctadle prosemce: _ ett P Delta V/V (Arvone Modulus N (righty) te the strons- T strain ratio for ae —_ simple shear; where Pis hydrostatic pressure, V volume, Fis shearing force & L.side-length Before we look at the interpretation of seismic data in its various forms, relationships between rock seismic properties anc the rocks themselves, is of value to look at the underlying In the Fgure above two of the moculi that relate directly to the seismic response are defined. ‘Tho bulk modulus isa moasure of the compressibility of the rock and fluids contained therein, the shear modulus is a measure of the rigicity, which isthe reluctance of the rock to change shape. So the bulk modulus defines a change in volume but not shape under simple hycrostatic pressure, the shear modulus defines a change in shape but not volume under simple shear. ‘The graph on the next page shows values ot the bulk and shear moduli for different rock types and flui fills pictted against each other - Very low values for shale and sandstone represent highly unconsolidated rocks, zero values of shear modulus rep'esenting material acting more as 2 fluid, - High values for sands and shales represent highly consolidated rocks which would generally be of lite interest othe seismic interpreter after hydracarbons (unless itis a “Tiaht Gas’ play) - The middie values of between 15 and 30 GPa bulk modulus and 8 to 30 GPa shear modulus for sandstones represent typical reservoir cocks. - Increasing values for sandstones generally represent decreasing porosities The gas effect (red dotted line) compared with the black dotted sandstone tine, shows the change in bulk modulus with changing fluid content, brine to gas, for various poresities. Tho fact that these lines are close {0 paraiie! aver much of the range indicates that there is litle change in shear modulus with changing fluid content FOUNDATION PROGRAMME An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation aSeismic Methods Seismic Rock Properties 0 20 40 60 80 % bulk modulus (GPa) Trem Lybern tr, Fp Bulk & Shear Modul Moduli, density and velocity Shear modulus N nih Ve ‘The bulk and shear moduli are related to compression (P-wave) and shear (S-wave) velocities by the equations given above. p= Density Courtesy of Core Lats Key to note is that the relationships are only valid provided the rocks are isotropic (propenties are the same in all tirections) and overall stresses are low (i.e. there is no permanent distortion of the rock), a5 isthe case for such on-earthquake seismic waves. Hence, plenty of reasons why the relationship may not always work as per the theory. Bulk modulus K' in these equations, particularly for sandstones, is @ combination of €) bulk modulus of the rock matrix _D} the fluid contained in the pore space and ¢) 2 rock frame modulus representing the compressibilly of the porous rock without any fluid present ae FOUNDATION 10 An Introduction to Seismic interpretation PROGRAMMESeismic Methods ‘Seismic Rock Properties Poisson's Ratio Amptiiude-versus-ottset effect results may be understood in terms of + S.wave to P-wave velocity ratio VerVp, or + P-wave fo S-wave velocity ratio VplVs, oF + Poisson's Ratioo V.;/Vp and Poisson's Ratio () % Poisson's ratio essentially expresse's how much a material cesponds when stretched relative to its response when compressed. Its value cannot be less than -1 nor greater than 0.5, due to the fact that both the bulk and shear moduli ‘must remain positive. Most materials lie in the 0 to 0.6 range. Atone extreme, cork has a value close to zero, showing almost no Poissonian contraction, whereas rocks lie in the 0.2 10 0.45 (sand 0.2 to 0.46, clays 0.3 to 0.45) range. A practically incemprassible substance (e.g. ruober) would have a value verging on 0.5. Rocks are subject to Poisson's effect while under stress and strain. Over geological ime. erosion and sedimentation instigate significant stresses upon the rock. (e.g. normal compaction process), which will expand or contract in the direction of the applied stresses. The ratio of the compression and shear velocities, VpiVs, is an important relationship when using seismic to establish fluid content and ithology and we shall come across it ater in the course, (as Acoustic Impedance), however Poisson's Ratio is another way of expressing the Vp ‘e ¥/s telationship and can, in some cases, be a better indicator of fluid content FOUNDATION PROGRAMME An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation ”Seismic Methods The Seismic Wavelet Seismic Wavelet 12 we Amplitude we Side lobes Peak Troxsh * ‘A simple sinusoid waveform is shown on the lel, just to help define some of the terminology associated with wavelets. As all surfers will know, natural waves are necessarily complicated, with variations occurring in both spaceidistance as well as the important time domain. Reallifo seismic wavelets however are even more complex, with a more realistic example shown on the right, nevertheless still idesized Wavelels may be measuredidescribed in a variety of ways: ~ Wavelongth () + Distance between successive repetitions of the waveform + Meters or feet ~ Amplitude + Positive values ("peaks") * Negative values ("roughs") & Frequency (F} + Number of wavelots that pass by a given paint in a given time + Cyclesisecond ~ Hertz (ime domain) Key relationship, Therefore Fh=V 8 F=W/\ ‘The seismic trace and, in particular, the seismic wavelet can also be described in terms of its ‘amplitude and phase spectra. To conven from time to amplitude and phase the Fourier transform isused. FOUNDATION An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation PROGRAMMESeismic Methods The Seismic Wavelet Fourier Analysis & Transformations ‘Af ourerranstorm provises a representation of the seismic trace as a series of sineswaves, each of a single frequency, The amplitude of each wave component is a measure ofthe energy contribution tothe vace al at frequency, A plot of the amplitude ofall sine-waxes against their specific frequencies provides the amplitude or power spectrum. Frequency Components. Amplitude Spectrum 7 : fit st al Frequency (Hz)-> Seismic Waveform eerie Pe Tine (5) Fourler Theorem: Any time series (seismic trace or waveform) can be expressed as the sum of a series of sinusoids of different frequencies. The graph of the amplitudes of the frequencies is the “Amplitude Spectrum” The se'smic signal contains a range of frequencies (left) Not all frequencies have the same amplitude. indeed some are not present at all |The broader the bandwidth, the sharper the pulse (smaller side lobes) FOUNDATION PROGRAMME {An Introduction to Seismic Interpretation 13