ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book was first written and produced in 2003 as part of IMAS
efforts to provide public investor education.
We would like to convey our appreciation to our Education
Committee for their painstaking efforts to review and edit this book to
bring it up to date. In particular, we would like to express our gratitude
to Albert Tse, Joyce Chua, June Chua, Norman Wu and
Toh Lock Lan for reviewing and drafting / updating the
various sections.
We also wish to say a big thank you to Scott Keller for peer
reviewing and putting the sections together in the final
and overall edit.

IMAS Secretariat
One Phillip Street #10-02 , Singapore 048692
Tel No. 65 6223 9353 Fax No. 65 6223 9352
www.imas.org.sg

February 2010 Copyright in the information contained in this Handbook is owned by IMAS. A reader may use the
information for his/her own personal reference only, and the information may not be reproduced and must not be
distributed to any other person or incorporated in any way into another document or other material.

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

PART 1
UNDERSTANDING RETURN AND RISK
. Return
. Risk
. Sources Of Risk
. The Risk-Return Trade-Off
. Applying The Risk-Return Trade-Off

PART 2
DIVERSIFICATION
. What Is Diversification?
. How To Diversify: Using The Concept Of Correlation
. Benefits Of Diversification
. How To Diversify In Practice

PART 3
ASSET ALLOCATION
. What Is Asset Allocation?
. Making Asset Allocation Choices

PART 4
TIME IN INVESTING
. Investment Time Horizon
. Time And Return
. Time And Risk
. Dollar Cost Averaging

PART 5
CASH
. Main Cash Equivalents
. Characteristics Of Cash Equivalents
. Why Invest In Cash Equivalents?

CONTENTS
PA R T 6
BONDS
. What Are Bonds?
. Characteristics Of Bonds
. Default Risk
. Interest Rate Risk
. Why Invest In Bonds?
. How To Invest In Bonds

PA R T 7
SHARES
. What Are Shares?
. Characteristics Of Shares
. Why Invest In Shares?
. Common Ways Of Valuing Shares
. How To Invest In Shares

PA R T 8
UNIT TRUSTS
. What Are Unit Trusts?
. Types Of Unit Trusts
. Evaluating Unit Trusts Performance
. Why Invest In Unit Trusts?
. Areas Of Consideration In Investing In Unit Trusts
CONCLUSION
TEN IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER

INTRODUCTION
Many Singaporeans realise the importance of saving but have reservations about investing. Investing
is often regarded as: gambling; too risky; only for the rich; only for those about to retire; too
complicated ; not necessary. While misleading, such reservations also deter us from investing. We
then forgo the opportunity of growing our savings.
This booklet addresses some of the concerns and questions you may have about investing.
Intended as an introduction to the subject, it will explain important investment concepts; discuss the
investment characteristics of cash, shares, bonds and unit trusts; and describe an investment
strategy called asset allocation.

01

Part 1

UNDERSTANDING
RETURN AND RISK
Return and risk are the two primary considerations in investing. They
are likely to form the basis for almost all your investment decisions. It is
important, therefore, for you to understand what return and risk are,
how they originate and how they are related.

RETURN
You invest to achieve a return. The return is simply what you have gained (positive return) or lost
(negative return) on your investment after you have sold it. Even if you decide not to sell, you can
still calculate your return by comparing the investments market value against your purchase value.
It is important to distinguish between expected return and actual return. When you invest, you
expect a particular level of return. However, the actual return may differ from the expected return.

EXAMPLE
You invest in 1000 shares of ABC at $1 a share. You expect the shares to rise to $ 1.25 by year-end. Your
expected return is 25%. If, however, the shares had risen to $1.10 when you sold them, your actual return
would be 10%.

Investing is based on expected return. It is therefore important that you do not have unrealistic
expectations. Be aware of how you arrived at your expected return on an investment: was it, for
example, the result of informed analysis; a tip from a friend or a hunch?
The return from an investment usually consists of two components:
(i)

An interest or dividend payment in cash. This component is called the income, and
when expressed as a percentage of the purchase price, is known as the yield.

(ii)

The appreciation (or depreciation) of the investments price. This is called capital
gain (or capital loss).

The total return of an investment is the two components added, that is:
Total Return = income + capital gain (or loss).
02

EXAMPLE
You bought 1000 shares of ABC at $2.00 a share, for a total cost of $2,000.
During the year you received a dividend of 10 cents a share, or total income of $100. You then sold your 1000
shares at $2.20, for total sale proceeds of $2,200.
Your total return is:
$100 (income) + $200 (capital appreciation)
$2000

= 15%

For some assets such as bank deposits and bonds, the main component of total return will be
income. For others such as shares, it will be capital appreciation.
You can use annualised returns to compare returns of investments held over different holding
periods. An annualised return computes the rate of return over a full year for an investment held for
more than one year. For example, if you had an investment that gave a return of 30% over 3 years,
your annualised return would be 9.1%.
You should also account for transactions costs and charges when computing returns. These eat
into your returns. You incur brokerage charges when you buy or sell shares. You will also have to
bear management fees and other expenses when investing in unit trusts.

RISK
Most investors think of investment risk as the possibility of losing money. This is certainly a basic and
valid concern. However, investment professionals have a broader definition of risk. They define risk
as the uncertainty of receiving the expected return. This in turn is gauged by the volatility of historical
returns i.e. the variability of returns around their average historical return. Volatility can be
measured and quantified by a statistic known as standard deviation. The larger the standard
deviation is, the greater the tendency for returns to fluctuate, hence the greater the risk. Different
investment instruments have different degrees of risk or volatility.

EXAMPLE
The Singapore Government issues 2 year Treasury Notes that pay a fixed interest or coupon rate. There is
conceivably no risk that the government will not pay the coupon or redeem these notes when they mature.
Such an investment would therefore be regarded as a low risk instrument.
By contrast, shares are highly volatile investments as their prices can fluctuate a great deal. In 2007, for example,
the Singapore Straits Times Index, a widely used barometer of the share market gave a return of 18.7%. In 2008
however, the STI fell 49.2%.

03

The following table shows the annualised returns and risks of Singapore shares, bonds and cash
between January 1995 and August 2009.

Risk & Return Through the Years (1995-2009)

Feb 1995-1999

2000-2004

2005-Aug 2009

RETURN

RISK

RETURN

RISK

RETURN

RISK

Shares

5.5%

31.0%

-4.1%

22.2%

9.1%

24.7%

Bonds

4.3%

12.7%

4.9%

3%

13.6%

7.1%

Cash

3.1%

5.1%

1.3%

2.7%

1.9%

3.7%

Source: Morningstar, SGD, dividend reinvested. Shares refer to MSCI Singapore; Bonds refer to UOB Singapore
Government Securities Index; Cash refers to 1-month Singapore Interbank bid rate. All returns refer to the annualised
average rate of returns. Risk refers to the standard deviation of returns.

Looking at the average annual rate of return as well as the risk between February 1995 and August
2009, one can see that shares have had the highest risk but generally have also produced the highest
rate of return. Bonds have had considerably lower risk but have also produced lower more consistent
rates of return.
The table below shows the annualised returns and risks of S$ cash, Singapore shares (MSCI Singapore)
and global equities (MSCI World) between February 1995 and August 2009.

Risk & Return Through the Years (1995-2009)

Feb 1995-1999
RETURN
MSCI Spore
MSCI World
Spore Cash

2000-2004

2005-Aug 2009

RISK

RETURN

RISK

RETURN

RISK

5.5%

31.0%

-4.1%

22.2%

9.1%

24.7%

23.9%

11.4%

-2.8%

15.5%

-2.2%

15.3%

3.1%

5.1%

1.3%

2.7%

1.9%

3.7%

Note: Returns refer to the annualised average rate of return. Risk refers to the standard deviation of returns. Source:
MAS and MSCI.

Clearly, global stock market have lower levels of risk versus Singapore equities due to diversification.
The performance difference between local stock markets and global stock markets over the period
highlights that there are benefits from diversification. However, diversification within an asset class
like equities does not ensure superior performance over all periods. This concept is explained further
in Chapter 2.

04

SOURCES OF RISK
Risks can be classified into two broad categories: systematic risk and non-systematic risk. You should
understand what they mean as they have important implications for how you can manage risk.
Systematic risk factors are those that affect the market in general and include things like general
economic conditions, changes in interest rates or a sudden adverse change in market sentiment. As
an investor, you cannot avoid systematic risk; it is inherent in investing. Non-systematic risk (otherwise
known as specific risk) factors are those that are applicable only to the investment itself but not to
others. Examples might include the quality of a companys management and the sustainability of
its product development strategy. Unlike systematic risk, non-systematic risk can be reduced by
spreading your investments over a number of holdings.

EXAMPLE
What are the systematic and non-systematic risks for an airline share like Singapore Airlines (SIA)? Systematic
factors would include weak global stock markets. A general market downturn will adversely affect SIA shares
even if SIA is doing well. A specific risk would be the loss of lucrative flight routes. The share may then be
negatively affected even though the stock market in general is rising.

THE RISK-RETURN TRADE-OFF

The risk-return trade-off refers to an important investment principle: investments that offer higher
expected returns also have higher risks. The saying that theres no free lunch also applies to
investing. Simply put, investors who are not willing to take risks have to content with lower returns. In
order to achieve higher returns, they must be prepared to bear more risks.
We can rank investment instruments by their risk-return profile, starting with instruments that have
both low expected return and low risk, and moving through to those with higher expected return
but, correspondingly, higher risk.
Singapore Government Treasury Bills are at one end of the risk-return spectrum. Their expected
returns are relatively low, but the risk that investors will not achieve that return is very low. As can be
seen in the table above, when you invest in other types of assets, like bonds and shares, you have
the potential for higher returns but also take on more risks.

05

APPLYING THE RISK-RETURN TRADE-OFF

The risk-return trade-off is not just a theory that is nice to know. It has practical implications for investing.
The typical investor, when considering an investment, usually focuses on expected return. You should
by now realise that this is too simplistic an approach. Remember that the price or the trade-off for
higher potential return is higher risk. The question, to ask oneself before committing to an investment
is can I accept losing a significant amount?
Conversely, if your concern is risk, you may feel that a product that is capital guaranteed may be
appropriate for you. Again, be aware of the trade-off. In this case, the price of the guarantee is
likely to be the returns over an investment cycle that are lower versus comparable alternative
products that do not contain a guarantee. This time, the question is should I take more risk with my
investments?
When deciding on the appropriate level of risk, you should consider two issues. First, what is your
tolerance for risk? This is subjective. Your best friend may be able to have a good nights sleep, even
when his investments are down. You may not be able to. Know what your comfort level with risk is.
That will be associated with a whole host of factors such as your cash flow, financial position, future
commitments and number of dependents.
Second, consider the length of time for which you are investing. Generally, the longer your investment
horizon, the more risk you can accept. Conversely, you should only invest in low risk assets if you have
a short investment horizon. This concept is explained further in Chapter 4.

CONCLUSION
You invest to earn a return on your money. Return can comprise a mixture of income and capital
appreciation. There is no such thing as a free lunch. The higher the return you aim to achieve, the
more risk you must assume. Risk originates from a variety of sources. The investment decision boils
down to considering the risk-return trade-off of the investment.

06

Part 2

DIVERSIFICATION
The basic idea behind diversification is: dont put all your eggs in one
basket. Diversification is a powerful tool in managing risk. This chapter
will explain what diversification in investing means, how to achieve
diversification and what its benefits are.

WHAT IS DIVERSIFICATION?
Simply put, diversification involves spreading your investments over a variety of assets and securities
to avoid excessive exposure to any single source of risk.
If you invest all your money in a single security, you may lose all of it if the issuer goes bankrupt.
Spread your money equally among ten securities and one-tenth of your capital is at stake with each
issuer. Then, you are not exposed to the specific risk of any one issuer.

HOW TO DIVERSIFY:
USING THE CONCEPT OF CORRELATION
To diversify effectively, you must apply the idea of correlation. Correlation is a measure of the
tendency of the return of a security or investment class to follow that of another. Assets with returns
that move in the same direction are positively correlated; if their returns move in opposite directions,
they are negatively correlated.
What this means to you as an investor is this: when you are investing in assets with high positive
correlation you are figuratively putting all your eggs in one basket. All your assets are exposed to
the same risks. You should hence spread your investments across assets with low to negative correlations.
This will lower the risk of your portfolio.
There are two ways to diversify your investments. First, you can invest in different asset classes like
cash, bonds, shares, commodities, properties and other alternative asset classes. This is known as
asset allocation. It is an important investment strategy and will be discussed further in chapter 3.

07

Here is an example:
PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS ASSET CLASSES IN PERCENT,
FROM 1998 TO 2008
1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

Cash

4.7

1.7

1.7

1.5

0.9

0.5

0.4

Property

-9.7

10.0

18.5

2.3

-3.4

37.9

32.5

0.4

0.6

0.5

0.4

17.6

31.6

-12.9

Commodity

N.A

44.9

29.1

-10.7

24.5

29.4

15.6

20.8

-48.1

-4.0

22.0

-45.2

Global Equities

20.2

24.8

-10.5

-12.5

-25.8

28.1

8.5

9.6

8.8

0.5

-42.0

Global Bonds

11.4

-4.3

7.4

8.2

9.5

10.2

5.0

-2.7

-1.6

2.7

4.9

Best Performing

Worst Performing

Source: Morningstar and Bloomberg, SGD, net dividends reinvested. Performance from Dec 1997
to Dec 2008. Property is represented by FTSE EPRA Developed Real Estate Index. Commodity is
represented by Rogers International Commodity Index. Global Bonds is represented by Barclays Capital
Global Aggregate and Global Equities is represented by MSCI World Index.

EXAMPLE
Shares, bonds, commodities, properties and cash sometimes react differently to the same set of economic
conditions. For example, government bonds tend to do well in a recession while stocks often suffer. A portfolio
having multiple asset classes will then weather a recession better than an all-share portfolio.

Second, you can diversify by investing in different securities in an asset class. For example, a diversified
share portfolio will consist of shares in different industries and of local and international companies.

EXAMPLE
Shares of oil companies might be negatively correlated to airline shares as a fall in oil prices will lower the
profits of oil companies but will raise the profits of airline companies. A portfolio which holds both oil shares
and airline shares will be less exposed to movements in the oil price than a portfolio which holds just one or
the other.

BENEFITS OF DIVERSIFICATION
By diversifying, you will have an investment portfolio that can weather the ups and downs of economic
cycles and market volatility.

EXAMPLE
If you invest all your money in shares, your capital drops by 20 % if the stock market falls by 20 %. What if you had split
your investments equally into shares and bonds? As they are sometimes negatively correlated, a fall in shares may
tend to be associated with a rise in bond prices. Assume that in this case bond prices rise by 5 %. Your share-bond
portfolio will then fall by just 7.5 %, the average of the return for shares and bonds. With reference to the table of
Performance Of Various Asset Classes In Percent, from 1998 to 2008, we can see that there are more diversification
benefits when we include more asset classes in the portfolio.

08

HOW TO DIVERSIFY IN PRACTICE

To diversify effectively, you need to invest in a variety of securities and asset classes. You will probably
have difficulty doing it on your own. For example, you will have to invest in many shares and bonds
spread across sectors. You may also want to invest internationally. Not many investors have the
resources and time to do all these.
Unit trusts and other types of pooled funds such as Exchange Traded Funds offer you a practical
route to diversifying. With an investment of as little as $1,000 you can invest in a well-diversified
basket of securities. Unit trust investing will be discussed in chapter 8.

CONCLUSION
Not putting all your eggs in one basket is a sensible rule for investors. You diversify by spreading your
investments over different securities in various asset classes. Unit trust investing is a practical way to
diversify.

09

Part 3

ASSET ALLOCATION

Despite what many people think, one of the most important investment
decisions you can make is not what particular stocks or securities you
buy but how you allocate your investable funds to the various asset
classes.
This chapter will explain what asset allocation is, the principles it is based
on and how you can use it as an investment strategy. As you will see, asset
allocation uses many of the ideas outlined - for example risk and return,
diversification and time (chapters 1, 2 & 4) and our knowledge about the
various asset classes (chapters 5-8).

WHAT IS ASSET ALLOCATION?

Asset allocation is the process of deciding what percentage of your investable funds should be
invested in cash, bonds, and shares. People often stick to the asset they are most familiar with and
ignore the others i.e. they do not diversify their financial assets sufficiently. Studies have shown that
what really make a difference to a portfolios returns and risks is not which shares or bonds were
chosen but how much was invested in shares and how much in bonds. That is to say, the asset
allocation decision is the main deciding factor determining a portfolios returns and risks and can be
much more important than the selection of individual securities.

MAKING ASSET ALLOCATION CHOICES

The asset allocation decision is very important, but it can also be fairly complex. You may want to use
the services of a professional to help you with it. However, it is important to appreciate how you can
arrive at an appropriate allocation. In this section, we examine some factors to consider when making
this decision.
First, you will have to fix your broad investment goals. Common ones are capital preservation, capital
growth, income or liquidity. Which is your over-riding goal? This will set the theme of your asset allocation strategy. For example, if capital preservation is your key aim, you cannot afford to take too many
chances. Investing the bulk of your savings in shares will not be suitable for you.
10

Second, you have to define your investment time horizon. That comes straight from your goals. Your
broad goals can be related to specific ones like an education abroad for your children or saving
for retirement. Each will have a definite time horizon. Your age is certainly an important factor. If you
are in your thirties and plan to retire when you reach 60, your time horizon is roughly 30 years and
an appropriate allocation in this instance may be 70% in shares and 30% in bonds. As explained
later in chapter 4, the more time you have, the more you can invest in higher risk assets like shares.
Third, know how high your risk tolerance is. Basically, this is the extent to which you are willing to see the
value of your investments fluctuate and are even prepared for the possibility of losses. Risk
tolerance is subjective and varies from one individual to another. If your tolerance is low, your
portfolio would be dominated by bonds and cash instead of shares. You must then accept the
lower expected returns such an allocation will deliver.
Fourth, decide on a suitable asset mix, you need to know what risks and what returns to expect from
the different assets and how they are correlated. Bear in mind that even investment professionals have
difficulty forecasting returns and risks. It is therefore prudent to use realistic, rather than
optimistic, expectations about returns and risks.
Fifth, remember that currencies fluctuate. Singapore is a very small economy and this limits the
range of assets available for investment. To optimize the expected risk and return of your portfolio
often means investing in assets abroad. However this creates an additional risk - that adverse
movement in exchange rates can potentially wipe out all your gains. A professional fund manager
would lessen this exposure by hedging but this may not be easy for the personal investor to accomplish.
Finally, you combine all these factors to arrive at an asset allocation that addresses your investment
objectives and risk tolerance. Different investors will have different objectives and risk profiles.
Therefore, an asset allocation suitable for one investor may not be suitable for another.

EXAMPLE
An investors age is often the natural starting point in developing asset allocation guidelines. Investors in their
twenties can afford more risk. They can hold a high percentage of stocks and smaller percentages of bonds
and cash. Individuals in their fifties tend to be more risk averse as they are usually approaching retirement.
They will now hold a higher percentage of bonds and cash than stocks.

The asset allocation you finally decide upon is your investment plan. Like all plans, your asset allocation
has to be periodically reviewed as circumstances change. For example, you may switch careers or
decide that you need more liquidity. Even if your personal position does not change, the markets
are likely to. A prolonged weakness in the stock market may result in an unintended redistribution
of your allocated holdings and you find yourself with less in shares than you wanted. You must then
decide whether to keep to your existing allocations or rebalance them to their original levels.
11

CONCLUSION
The asset allocation decision is one of your most important investment decisions. To do that skilfully
you will have to define your investment goals, time horizon and risk tolerance. The asset mix you
choose will also depend on your expectations about the performance of the various assets and
possible moves in currency exchange rates. When you invest according to your asset allocation
strategy, you will have a diversified portfolio that addresses your investment goals as well as that can
weather different market conditions.

12

Part 4

TIME IN INVESTING

How often have you heard the saying that time is money? Do you realise
that this saying also applies to investing? Time is of special significance
to investors because it has a critical impact on return and risk. This chapter
will explain why.

INVESTMENT TIME HORIZON

When you invest, you operate with a time horizon in mind. Your time horizon is the number of years
you have available to invest to achieve your financial goals. If you are 35 years old and investing for
retirement at age 60, then your time horizon is 25 years. Your time horizon is important in influencing what
assets you can invest in, how much your savings can grow and how much risk you can take.

TIME AND RETURN

You can think of time as a friend who can help you grow your savings. It does so through the power
of compounding. Compounding works like this: say, you invest $10,000 and get a 5% return a year
while you are invested. You reinvest the annual return alongside your original principal. After the first
year, your investment is worth $10,500, after the second it is $11,025 (1.05 x $10,500), after the third it
is $11,576 (1.05 x $11,025) and so on. The return on returns is helping your money grow faster.
The longer your time horizon the more compounding works in your favour. The impact can be an
eye-opener: a $10,000 investment giving a return of 5% per year compounded after 10 years
becomes about $16,300, after 20 years about $26,500, after 30 years about $43,200 and after 40
years about $70,400.

RULE OF 72
Divide 72 by the rate of return and the answer is the approximate number of years it will take to double your
money. Thus, at 6% annual returns your money doubles in about 12 years; at 8% it will double in about 9 years.

The lesson from compounding is this: start investing early and you increase your chances of meeting
your financial goals.
13

TIME AND RISK

To understand the relationship between time and risk, simply think of this popular piece of advice: do
not take the risk if you do not have the time to recover from your losses. It sums up how your time
horizon affects how much risk you can assume and what assets you should invest in.
If you need your money in a short time, you cannot take chances with your capital. You should invest
in assets that do not put your capital at risk during the period.
If your time horizon is, however, longer, then you can invest in riskier assets that offer potentially
higher returns, like shares. This is because you have time to recover from the periodic losses sustained
by investing in the stock market and to benefit from its long-term upward trend.

What are your chances of losing money if your holding period is:
30%

26%

25%
20%

16%

14%

15%
10%
5%

3%
0%

0%
1 Year

3 Year

5 Year

10 Year

15 Year

Source: Morningstar, SGD, bid-to-bid, dividends reinvested. Period from Jun 1974 to Jun 2009.
Assume that investors invested into Global equities, which are represented by MSCI World Index.

The above chart shows the chances of an investor losing money in global equities given the length
of holding periods over the past 25 years. It shows that in order for an investment to generate positive
returns, in this case global equities, a long term investment horizon is needed. Some believe that one
year is long enough for their investment to grow, but the chart highlights that the chance of losing
money over 12-months is still high as we have learnt this from the past 25 years. As the holding period
lengthens to 3-years or longer, it can be clearly shown that the chance of losing money significantly
falls as the outcome of the investment is less affected by the timing of the entry / exit of the investment.
Therefore, the lesson is: invest with a longer time horizon.

14

DOLLAR COST AVERAGING

Dollar cost averaging can reinforce the risk reduction benefits of a long investment horizon. The idea
is to invest a fixed sum of money at a regular interval, regardless of whether the market is rising or
falling. This is similar to the idea of not putting all your eggs in one basket - if you concentrate your
investing only at certain times, you may be unlucky and buy when prices are at or near the peak. A
regular savings programme is an excellent way of taking advantage of a dollar cost averaging
scheme.

CONCLUSION
Time is a lever that increases your ability to grow your savings. The earlier you start investing to meet
your financial goals, the more you can exploit the power of compounding. Time is also one of the
most important factors in determining how much risk you should take. This is another reason to
begin investing early.

15

Part 5

CASH

Everyone is familiar with cash and cash-equivalents like fixed deposits. In

the short-term, there is very little risk with cash but it offers low returns.

MAIN CASH EQUIVALENTS

Cash is a safe and liquid asset. However, you do not earn a return if it sits in a box under your bed.
There are instruments that are almost as liquid and safe as cash which also provide some return.
These instruments are known as cash equivalents.
Cash equivalents include:
*

Savings and interest-bearing checking accounts;

Fixed deposit accounts;

Certificates of deposit.

Most Singaporeans are familiar with the first two. For example, many of us have at least one bank
savings account. We would normally use a savings account to have our salaries credited into and
from which to make payments. Certificates of deposit are not as widely held. They are like fixed
deposits but there are important differences. For example, the minimum amount for a certificate-ofdeposit can be as large as $250,000.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASH EQUIVALENTS

Cash equivalents are almost like cash in the following ways:
Safety:
The principal invested in them does not fluctuate in value. However, there is the risk that the financial
institution holding your deposit fails. As there is no deposit insurance in Singapore, you may then lose
your money. This risk however should be put in perspective, as the financial system in Singapore has,
historically, proven to be extremely sound.
Liquidity:
They can be quickly converted into cash with little or no loss of principal.
16

Convenience:
Withdrawal is easy. For example, savings accounts held with many banks can be accessed through
ATMs.
Cash equivalents provide a return in the form of interest. These interest rates vary depending on the
institution and the term to maturity. Savings and interest-bearing checking accounts pay relatively
low interest because they are liquid. Fixed deposits pay higher interest, as you have to maintain your
deposit for a specified term. Generally, the less liquid the account or the longer its term, the higher
the interest paid on the account.

EXAMPLE
In 2008, the interest rate on savings accounts averaged about 0.23%, on a six month fixed deposit about
0.55%, and on a twelve month fixed deposit about 0.75%.

Source: Reuters Ecowin

When you hold cash equivalents, you must be prepared to receive modest returns. However, as
cash equivalents are generally short term and interest rates are reset at maturity, their yields can be
adjusted upwards as inflation rises. Hence, they are a better hedge against inflation than fixed
interest rate assets like bonds. However, the returns from cash equivalents usually at best merely
keep up with inflation.

EXAMPLE
Between 1990-2008, the interest on savings accounts with Singapore banks averaged 1.61% while the
consumer price index averaged 1.77%. So, the real return on money kept in savings accounts, after adjusting
for inflation, was negative.

Source: Reuters Ecowin

WHY INVEST IN CASH EQUIVALENTS?

There are several reasons for investing in cash equivalents. First, they provide safety of principal and
liquidity. Therefore, they are suitable for a planned expense due shortly, such as buying a car, as
emergency funds for a rainy day or as a place to park funds temporarily for future investing. Cash
equivalents can help your portfolio weather times of market uncertainty.
Second, cash equivalents are a better hedge against inflation than bonds. They can therefore be
useful in inflationary periods when interest rates tend to be rising.
The drawback of cash equivalents is their modest returns. They often do no more than keep up with
inflation and therefore will not allow your savings to grow in real terms.
17

Part 6

BONDS

Many individual investors are unfamiliar with bonds and do not invest in
them. Bonds, however, are an important asset class which should not be
ignored. This chapter will explain what bonds are and why you should
consider investing in them.

WHAT ARE BONDS?

Think of bonds as long term IOUs issued by governments and companies, which can be bought and
sold by investors. When you purchase a bond, you are effectively lending money at a fixed interest
rate to the issuer for a stated period. Hence, bonds are also referred to as fixed-income securities.
Because bonds have a longer maturity period than cash equivalents, the rate of interest for
bonds (usually referred to as the bond yield) will tend to be higher than for cash.

HOW TO CALCULATE BOND YIELD

Bond yield calculations can get quite complex and technical depending on the market and conventions
used. Here we show a simplified method of calculating a bond yield that does not require complex
mathematical calculations.
Take the case of the Singapore Government Bond maturing July 2015 and offering a coupon of 2.875%.
Todays date is 25 August 2009. Current price of the bond is 106.25%. Redemption value at maturity is 100%.
Remaining life of bond is 5.85 years.
Annual Coupon

2.875%

Capital loss per year

1.07% (6.25% / 5.85 years)

Net return per year

1.805% (2.875% - 1.07%)

Average value of Investment

103.125% (106.25 + 100 / 2)

Bond yield to maturity

1.75% (1.805% / 103.125%)

Source: Bloomberg

The following chart shows the bond yields for various maturities of Singapore Government Bonds in
August 2009. This is also known as the yield curve and is usually a normal upward sloping curve with
longer maturity bonds offering higher yields than shorter ones.

18

Yield Curve for Singapore Government Bonds

(August 2009)
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

10

11

12

13

14

15

Source: Bloomberg

CHARACTERISTICS OF BONDS
The bondholder is a creditor. If the issuer goes bankrupt, creditors are repaid first, before shareholders.
Bonds are therefore regarded as less risky than shares.
When you hold a bond, you receive interest, or coupon payments. The coupon rate is expressed as
a percentage of the principal, otherwise known as the face value of the bond. The face value of
most bonds is $1,000.
Bond prices are usually expressed as a percentage of face value. This is because upon maturity,
bonds are redeemed at face value and bondholders get paid 100% of face value. For this reason
also, bond prices tend to be more stable than equities as there is a fairly high level of certainty of
what the value will be at maturity.

EXAMPLE
In 2009, the Housing and Development Board (HDB) issued a 3 year bond with a coupon rate of 1.795%. This
bond will pay you interest of $17.95 a year (.01795 x $1,000) for every $1,000 face value held. Interest is paid
twice a year, so you will receive $8.975 every six months for 3 years. The principal of $1,000 will then be
returned to you at maturity.

Source: Bloomberg

19

Bonds can be classified by type of issuer. The issuer is important for the bonds credit rating and
perceived risk of default. The main categories of bonds are:
Government bonds: bonds issued by governments of the developed economies are regarded as
the most credit-worthy as there is little risk of default. Singapore Government Bonds are included in
this category. The interest rates on such bonds are lower than other bonds of the same maturity.
Government Agency bonds: these pay slightly higher rates than government bonds. This is because
governments do not guarantee such bonds. In Singapore, the equivalent would be bonds issued by
statutory boards.
Corporate bonds: these bonds carry higher interest rates than government bonds because of their
higher perceived risks. There are credit rating agencies that grade corporate bonds according to
their credit-worthiness.

DEFAULT RISK
Since a bond is no more than an IOU there is a risk that the issuer may default at some point before
maturity. A default occurs when the bond issuer fails to pay interest on a due date or fails to pay
bondholders the face value on maturity.
A bond issue with little or no default risk will trade at relatively low yields whereas one with higher
default risk has to offer a higher yield to compensate investors for the risk. This is consistent with the
risk-return relationship we explained earlier.

EXAMPLE
F&N Treasury issued a 5-year bond in 2008 and the bonds are currently priced at 101.5 for a yield to maturity
of 4.132%. This yield is 3.04% above the Singapore Government Bond yield curve and represents the default
risk premium of F&N Treasury relative to the Singapore Government.

Source: Bloomberg

It should be noted, however, that bond defaults are rare occurrences in Singapore with the vast
majority of bonds having been repaid on maturity.
In the large capital markets like the US and Europe most bonds are rated by credit rating agencies
such as Standard & Poors and Moodys after detailed analyses and assessment of their default risks.
Investment grade bonds are those rated from BBB to AAA, which is the highest rating. Bonds
with rating of BB and below are regarded as non-investment grade (sometimes referred to as junk
bonds).
Not surprisingly the highly rated bonds offer relatively low yields to maturity whereas low rated bonds
need to offer higher yields to compensate investors for the higher risk of default.
20

INTEREST RATE RISK

Apart from default risk, the other main risk faced by bond holders is interest rate risk. To understand
interest rate risk, you must realise that bond prices move in opposite direction to interest rates. This
means that as interest rates rise, bond prices decline; as interest rates fall, bond prices increase. To
understand why this is, consider the following example:

EXAMPLE
You have a 10 -year government bond with a coupon of 5%. Suppose that interest rates fall and a new 10
-year government bond now offers a coupon of 4%. Investors buying $1000 face value of this newly issued
bond will get annual interest of $40. They will be willing to pay more for your bond as it pays annual interest
of $50. In this case the price of your bond will rise to about $1,070. This is the price which will bring the yield
on your bond to about 4%. Conversely, if interest rates increase, the price of the bond will decrease.

The longer the life of the bond the more sensitive will its price be to changes in interest rates.
If you hold a bond till it matures, you may not be so concerned about fluctuations in its price
expecting that at maturity, you will be repaid your principal. If its price has risen in the meantime,
you can sell it at a profit. On the other hand, the price may drop due to a sharp rise in interest rates.
The interest rate effect means that bonds do not do well in inflationary periods. This is because
higher inflation leads to rising interest rates. Generally, bonds often do well in recessions or slow
growth environments when interest rates are falling or remain fairly stable.

WHY INVEST IN BONDS?

Investing in bonds can meet a number of investment objectives. First, you can invest your long-term
savings in bonds to earn higher yields than are available on cash equivalents. Second, bonds are
suitable for people, like retirees, who want a regular stream of income. Remember, however, that if
you want higher yields you will have to invest in bonds with higher risk. Third, bonds can sometimes
hedge against deflation and periods of sluggish economic activity. They may help your portfolio
weather times when stocks are not doing well.

HOW TO INVEST IN BONDS

Unfortunately, individual investors usually find it difficult to buy bonds directly. This is because most
bonds require a minimum investment of $100,000. There have been some bonds issued by statutory
boards allowing minimum investments of $1,000. You would also have been able to apply for them
through ATMs and retail bank branches. However, the amount of such bonds available to the public
is small. For most investors, the only practical way to invest in local and international bonds is
through bond unit trusts.
21

CONCLUSION
You should not neglect investing in bonds. They offer higher yields than cash equivalents, and
provide a regular stream of income. Bonds are also generally less risky than shares. However, if bond
yields are low you need to consider the risk of bond prices falling should interest rates turn upwards.

22

Part 7

SHARES

This chapter explains why shares (also commonly referred to as

stocks and equities) offer higher potential returns than cash and
bonds, why they are considered risky and how they can help you
meet your investment objectives.

WHAT ARE SHARES?

There are two types of shares - common shares and preferred shares. Of the two, common shares
are what investors primarily invest in. Unless otherwise stated, the term shares in this chapter will
refer to common shares.
Shares are securities issued by companies to raise capital from investors. In turn, the investors get a
share, or equity stake, in the business. When you buy shares, you become a partial owner of the
company. Your stake in the company depends on the number of shares you own as a percentage
of the total shares issued by the company.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SHARES
As a shareholder, you can attend the companys annual general meetings and vote on matters
like election of the directors of the corporation. The number of shares you own will determine how
many votes you have.
Shareholders, as owners, bear more risk than bondholders and other creditors if the company fails.
They will only be entitled to income and assets remaining after payments to creditors, including
bondholders. However, shareholders have limited liability in that they cannot lose more than their
investment in the company. Creditors can only lay claim on assets of the company and not of
shareholders.
In return for accepting higher risks, shareholders are able to share in the companys growth and
profits. Thus, unlike bonds, shares offer greater upside potential.
Shareholders derive returns from the growth of the company in two ways. First, they may receive
dividends. Dividends are paid out of the annual and retained profits of the company. The company
usually does not distribute all its profits as dividends but will retain a percentage to be reinvested in
23

the business. The reinvestment of earnings can foster growth of the company, benefiting shareholders
through a rise in the share price as discussed below.
Second, shareholders have the opportunity to benefit from capital appreciation of the shares. This
occurs when the company grows and its earnings increase. The company becomes more attractive
to other investors, which causes its share price to rise.
As you are probably aware, however, share prices do not just move up but can also fall. Indeed,
shareholders must be prepared for share prices to be volatile.
There are numerous factors that can affect a share price. To reiterate what we have said in an
earlier chapter, systematic risk factors are those that affect the market and include things like
general economic conditions, changes in interest rates or a sudden adverse change in market
sentiment. Non-systematic risk factors are however specific to the investment. Unlike systematic risk,
non-systematic risk can be reduced by spreading your investments over a number of different
shares.
Share prices react quickly to changes in any of these factors. They also move in expectation of how
developments will unfold. These expectations contribute to the volatility of shares.
Compared to bonds, shares show a wider range of returns. Of course, a lot depends on whether you
have selected the right shares to invest in. You will need to invest time and energy to do your
research before selecting which shares to buy. When you invest in shares you must be prepared to
withstand the emotional and financial stress during periods when your shares are performing poorly.

WHY INVEST IN SHARES?

Historically, shares have been among the best hedges against inflation, protecting and enhancing
the real value of savings.

EXAMPLE
US financial markets have been among the most intensively analysed. The following shows the average
annual geometric returns from different investments and inflation in the US between 1986 and July 2009.
Cash Equivalents1

5.35%

Government Bonds2

7.38%

Commodities3

7.11%

Shares4

9.31%

Inflation

2.90%

Source: Datastream, 28 September 2009.

1
2
3
4
24

JPMorgan US Cash 3M ($) Total Return Index

Barclays US Aggregate Government Total Return MTD
S&P GSCI Commodity Total Return
MSCI USA U$ - Total Return Index

Shares can also help you achieve a variety of investment objectives. Shares that pay high
dividends can be a source of income. If you wish steady long-term capital appreciation, you can
invest in large well-established companies that have good potential for earnings growth. Young
companies or those in emerging economies may offer higher potential for price appreciation but
may also be riskier in terms of their earnings volatility and corporate failures.

COMMON WAYS OF VALUING SHARES

Professional investors use a variety of ways to judge the value of a share. We will briefly explain 3
commonly accepted methods that you might consider.
Price-earnings Ratio (P/E Ratio)
A companys earnings per share (EPS) can be easily determined by dividing its net profits by the
number of common shares outstanding.
By simply dividing the share price by the EPS, we have computed its price-earnings ratio. For example,
Singapore Airlines reported basic earnings per share of $0.896 for the financial year 2008-09 and its
share price was $13.44 on 25 September 2009. The P/E ratio is therefore 15.0x. All other things being
equal, investors prefer buying lower P/E ratio shares than high P/E ratio shares. A shares P/E ratio is
influenced by many factors. Of these, probably the most important is investors perception of earnings
growth potential. High growth shares tend to trade at higher multiples. Conversely, shares in mature
low growth industries tend to trade at low multiples.
P/E ratios would also be influenced by the general level of interest rates in the country. When rates
are high, P/E ratios tend to be low. Conversely when interest rates are low, the ratios tend to be
higher. The riskiness of a companys earnings would also influence its P/E ratio. Obviously, the higher
the perceived risks, the lower the P/E ratio and vice versa. In using P/E ratio, investors should be
careful to rely on normal earnings or earnings which are largely recurrent and not boosted (or
deflated) by some unusual occurrences. For example, Keppel Corporations shares jumped up as
much as 10 percent on the next business day following news on 24 May 2009 that PetroChina will
pay S$1.47 billion for Keppel Corporations stake in Singapore Petroleum Company (SPC) and plans
to make a general offer to buy the rest of the firm. The deal valued SPC at S$3.2 billion, or about
S$6.25 per share, well above Fridays closing price of S$5.04. (Source: 25 May 2009, Reuters) This
move was expected to give Keppel Corporations earnings a large one-off gain.

25

Price To Book (P/B)

Book refers to the companys book value or its net asset value per share. A companys net asset
value is the value of all assets minus all liabilities on its books. As at 31 March 2009, Singapore Press
Holdings had a net asset value (NAV) on its book at $1.889bn. The number of shares is 1.602bn as of
31 August 2008. Therefore, the book NAV per share is estimated at $1.179. Hence at a price of $3.74
on 25 September 2009, the P/B ratio is estimated at 3.17.The average P/B ratio for the Straits Times
Index component stocks (as at 24 September 2009) was about 1.64. High growth companies and
highly profitable companies tend to trade at higher P/B ratios.
Dividend Yield
A shares dividend yield is simply its yearly dividend per share expressed as a percentage of its
current share price. An example of a high dividend yield share is SMRT Corporation. As of 25
September 2009, the 12-month dividend yield was 4.64% and the 5-year dividend growth was
11.49%. However, dividend yield by itself is not a sufficient indicator of a stocks attractiveness. Many
high growth companies in fact do not pay dividends, preferring to reinvest their earnings in the
business. A good example is the US software giant, Microsoft which only started paying dividends in
February 2003. Slower growth companies have less use for their earnings and distribute more of their
earnings to shareholders.
When buying shares on the basis of dividends, it is important to assess the ability of the company to
continue paying dividends in future. This would depend on the future profitability of the company
as well as the dividend cover i.e. the ratio of the earnings to dividends per share.
Summary Of Share Valuation Methods
While these are commonly used methods to evaluate the attractiveness of a share it is important to
look at all aspects and not rely on any one single measure of value. Besides looking at such basic
valuation measures one also needs to assess various other factors such as the quality of management,
its competitive strengths and weaknesses and the financial health of the company.
Many investors are attracted to shares because of the high potential returns available. Such returns
can be achieved in a number of ways - dividend yield, earnings growth and P/E ratio expansion. As
share prices are volatile and dividends generally more stable, dividend yields can over time contribute
a significant portion of the total return from share investing. The risk for share investors is that earnings
growth may fall short of expectations, P/E ratios can also contract and dividends cut.
To reduce risks, investors can choose to invest in a diversified portfolio of shares in different industries
and spread their investments over time to avoid buying at extreme highs.

26

HOW TO INVEST IN SHARES

You can invest in shares yourself through an account with a brokerage firm. Nowadays, you can also
trade shares on-line. In Singapore, share investors must have an account with the Central Depository.
It acts as a registrar and custodian of your shares.
If you choose to do it yourself it is advisable that you do some basic research based on information
available such as the company annual reports, broker research and publications. The other way to
invest in shares is through unit trusts. The next chapter will discuss unit trust investing.

CONCLUSION
Investing in shares allows you to participate in the growth of companies. If the company does well,
its shareholders enjoy dividends and capital appreciation of the stock. Share prices, however, are
volatile because they are influenced by numerous factors. But, over the long term a carefully
selected portfolio of shares can help you achieve significantly higher rates of return than bank
deposits or bonds.

27

Part 8

UNIT TRUSTS

You may have already invested in unit trusts with your CPF or cash savings.
For the average Singaporean, unit trusts are a practical alternative form
of investment. You should therefore know what unit trusts are, what benefits
they provide and how you can invest in them.

WHAT ARE UNIT TRUSTS?

A unit trust pools money from many investors, which is then invested in a variety of assets in order to
meet specified investment objectives. The pool is managed by a team of full time professionals and
a trustee is appointed to protect the interests of unit holders.
You invest in a unit trust by buying units in the trust. The price of each unit is determined in relation to
the trusts net asset value (NAV). This is the market value of the trusts net assets (investments, cash
and other assets minus expenses, payables and other liabilities), divided by the number of units
outstanding. The NAV is usually computed daily to reflect changes in the prices of the investments
held by the fund.

TYPES OF UNIT TRUSTS

Unit trusts can be divided into several categories depending on their investment objectives and
focus. In general, they are divided into three main categories: shares, bonds, and balanced funds
that combine shares and bonds. Some funds are invested in a single country, some in specific
regions (e.g. Asia, Europe) and some, globally. There are funds that focus on specific sectors or
industries such as technology and healthcare. In recent years, capital guaranteed or capital
protected funds have become very popular. It is also possible nowadays to invest in funds that are
passive. Such funds invest in the component stocks of a market index and thus require much less
judgments on stock selection. Given the large number of possible choices, it is important that you
select those that meet your investment objectives and risk tolerance.
If you invest in unit trusts, you have to pay various fees. There are fees that are one-off and mainly
paid to the distributors of the fund. These are paid when units are purchased (front-end fees) and,
sometimes, when units are sold (redemption fees). These fees are also called loads and can be as
high as 5% of your initial investment in a unit trust. A 5% load means that for every $10,000 you invest
in a unit trust, $500 will be deducted as fees. Only the remaining $9,500 or 95% of your investment is
invested in the fund.
28

In addition there are those fees that are recurrent in nature. The biggest of these would be the
management fee paid to the investment manager for managing the fund. This is usually around 1%
of NAV. Other fees include the trustee fee, registry fees, valuation fees and audit fees. Together
these fees make up what is called the total expense ratio (TER).
The TER is usually between 1.0% to 2.5% of NAV. For your unit trust to grow in value it must first generate
sufficient income or capital growth to cover the TER. Investors should find out a funds TER before
deciding to invest in it.

EVALUATING UNIT TRUSTS PERFORMANCE

There are three main ways of evaluating the performance of your unit trust. One is by looking at
absolute returns, taking into account both the income received and price change. You can obtain
information

on

total

returns

from

the

manager

of

the

fund

or

from

the

IMAS/LIAs

FundSingapore.com website. Normally, these returns are annualised so that you can examine
performance over a number of years and also to enable you to compare performance of one fund
relative to another. However, absolute return is not a sufficient measure of a funds performance.
The second way is to judge a unit trusts relative performance by comparing it against its benchmark
index. The difference, called excess return, is calculated by subtracting the benchmark return from
the unit trust return. Most unit trusts have a stated benchmark against which its performance is
measured. For example, the typical benchmark for unit trusts investing in Singapore stocks is the
Straits Times Index. If the excess return is positive, the unit trust is said to have outperformed its
benchmark. If it is negative, the unit trust has underperformed.
The benchmark index represents how the entire market performed on average. Comparing a unit
trusts performance against its benchmark is a more useful measure of the skill of the fund manager.
Other than passive or index funds which replicate the entire benchmark index, a fund should be
expected, over a reasonable time horizon, to outperform its benchmark.
Two unit trusts can have the same excess return over the same time horizon, yet performance may
not be equal, as risk has not been taken into account. The third method therefore is to measure the
performance of the unit trust relative to the risk taken. One widely used statistic is the information
ratio which measures the excess return per unit of risk taken, with the latter measured by the volatility
of the excess returns. If the information ratio is positive, it indicates the presence of some skill in the
fund manager. A negative information ratio indicates that the fund manager has underperformed
the benchmark return.

29

WHY INVEST IN UNIT TRUSTS?

Unit trusts offer several advantages. First, you can select a fund or a combination of funds to cater
to your specific investment goals and tolerance for risk. If, for example, you are nearing retirement
and have low tolerance for risk, you can invest in unit trusts like bond funds or balanced funds. On
the other hand, there are unit trusts that are suitable for investors looking for higher potential return
and are willing to accept higher risks.
Second, unit trusts allow you to invest in a diversified portfolio with a minimum investment of as a little
as $1,000. For example, a unit trust with $50 million in assets can hold a large number of different shares.
In addition, you can make periodic investments via the regular savings plan schemes that most unit
trusts offer. Unit trusts can also negotiate lower transactions costs such as brokerage charges.
Third, through unit trusts you can invest in securities that you may be unable to access as an
individual investor. These securities include bonds that usually require a minimum investment of
$100,000. It may also be difficult for you to invest directly in overseas stocks whereas you can
conveniently invest in a unit trust investing in international stock markets.
Fourth, funds invested in unit trusts are managed by professional fund managers and analysts. You
can therefore benefit from their expertise and full time attention to investing the funds.
Fifth, buying and redeeming unit trusts is simple and convenient. You can invest via the Supplementary
Retirement Scheme (SRS) or via the Central Providend Fund Investment Scheme (CPFIS) for those
CPFIS- included funds. You can get updated values of the price of your unit trust from the daily
newspapers and the FundSingapore.com website. Most unit trusts in Singapore allow daily buying
and selling of units.

AREAS OF CONSIDERATION IN INVESTING IN UNIT TRUSTS

Unit trusts offer significant benefits, but you should also be aware of the following points.
The variety of unit trusts available can be overwhelming. If you invest indiscriminately, you could
end up with an assortment of unit trusts that do not match your needs. You must be clear about your
investment objectives and then decide on the suitable unit trusts.
The fees you pay for investing in unit trusts can eat significantly into your returns. These fees may also
include high transactions costs so investors should avoid trading frequently. You should inquire
about the type and amount of fees applicable to a particular unit trust. If you do not need the
services of a financial adviser, it is now possible to invest in a number of unit trusts online and pay
lower front-end fees.
30

The selection of the manager is another important consideration. You will need to assess whether
the fund manager has the resources, experience and skills to do a good job of managing the fund.
Once the investment is made you still need to monitor the performance to see if it is meeting your
expectations.
Good recent performance of a unit trust may attract you to invest in it. This may not be advisable,
however, since it is difficult to judge consistency over a short period. Consistent good performance
over a longer period is a better guide to the quality of the fund manager, but even then it must be
noted that past performance is not necessarily a good indicator of future performance.

CONCLUSION
There are strong reasons why you should consider investing in unit trusts. Unit trusts provide
diversification, enlarge your investment opportunities and allow you to tap the skills of professional
fund managers. But, as with all investments, you should also make sure you are comfortable with all
aspects of the product.

31

CONCLUSIONS:
TEN IMPORTANT
POINTS TO REMEMBER

1.
2.

Investing is important to all of us who have to plan for the future, have financial
goals and desire financial security. You, therefore, have to give it the time and
attention needed. It is your personal responsibility.
When you invest, you expect a particular level of return. The actual return from
the investment, however, may be more or it may be less than your expected
return - this is the risk inherent in investing. You should also distinguish between
gross returns and net returns after transactions costs and fees. Transactions costs
eat into your returns, so avoid frequent trading.

3.

When considering an investment opportunity, balance the expected return with

the risk you have to assume. There is no free lunch in investing. Investments
offering higher potential return also entail higher risk. Likewise, a capital guaranteed
fund is unlikely to also provide high returns. Therefore, do not be attracted to an
investment just because it promises a particular level of return. Can you also bear
the risk accompanying that investment?

4.

Diversification is an important investment strategy you can use to manage risk in

investing. You can diversify by investing in different assets and in different securities.
You should also consider investing in international, as well as local markets in
order to take advantage of the broader set of investment opportunities available.

5.

Start investing early to meet your financial goals. The longer the time you have,
the more you can use the power of compounded returns to grow your savings. It
also allows you to invest in assets like shares, which are riskier in the short term but
could give higher returns over time.

6.

Cash investments are liquid and offer safety of principal. They are useful as
emergency funds. They also help insulate your portfolio in times of market
uncertainty. However, cash gives only modest real returns. Leaving too much of
your funds in cash will inhibit the real growth of your savings.

32

7.
8.

Do not overlook bonds as an investment option. Bonds can provide a regular

stream of income. Bonds, however, can be a poor hedge against inflation.
Historically, shares have provided among the best real returns of all investments
but are also among the most volatile in the short term. When you invest in shares
you must have a long enough time horizon and the risk tolerance to withstand
the periodic fluctuations in the stock markets. The evidence, though, is that over
time, investors holding shares are rewarded through capital growth. However,
you do need to invest time and effort in doing thorough research in selecting
and monitoring the shares to invest in.

9.

Unit trusts can offer many benefits to investors. The most important one is that you
gain access to professional management. With as little as $1,000, investors can
invest in a diversified portfolio of local or international securities managed by full
time professionals enabling you to invest in securities that you may not otherwise
have access to as an individual investor. However, you have to pay various fees
to invest in unit trusts. You need to do some basic research in order to select the
right unit trusts as well as the right fund manager.

10.

Deciding on asset allocation is more important than deciding what shares or

bonds to buy. Asset allocation stresses diversification through investing in various
asset classes. To decide on the asset allocation suitable for you, you need to
consider your investment goals, your time horizon, your risk tolerance and the
expected returns and risks of different assets. If necessary, seek professional
advice to decide on an appropriate asset allocation.

33

The Investment Management Association of Singapore

The Investment Management Association of Singapore (IMAS) was established on 22nd September
1997. IMAS currently has over 100 members. Its membership roll includes the major investment
management firms in Singapore.
IMASs objective is to contribute towards the development and growth of the investment management
industry in Singapore. It aims to do this by fostering high standards of professionalism and promoting
exemplary practice among its members, providing a forum for its members to discuss industry
related issues, serving as a collective voice where representation is needed on behalf of the industry,
facilitating training for its members, and contributing towards investor education.
For more information about IMAS, please visit our website at http://www.imas.org.sg

The information in this Handbook is general in nature and is not in any way intended to constitute any recommendation or advice on personal investing or be relied on by the reader as investment advice. It is not designed as a substitute
for professional advice. The general information contained in this Handbook does not take into account any
investment objective, financial situation, characteristic or particular need of the reader, any specific person or any
group or persons. Any reference in this Handbook to any specific company or asset class in whatever way is used for
illustrative purposes only and does not constitute a recommendation on the company or asset class. Accordingly, no
warranty whatsoever is given and no liability whatsoever is accepted for any loss arising whether directly or indirectly
in connection with or as a result of the reader, any specific person or any group of persons acting on any information,
opinion or statement expressed in this Handbook.

For more information about the Investment Management Association of Singapore, please visit our website at
http://www.imas.org.sg