UNICORNS IN THE GARDEN OF GOOD AND EVIL:

Part 2 Coal
| By E. R. (Ross) Crain, P.Eng.

Unicorns are beautiful, mythical beasts, much

sought after by us mere mortals. The same is
true for petrophysical models for unconventional
reservoirs. This is the second in a series of review
articles outlining the simple beauty of some
practical methods for log analysis of the unusual.
COAL BASICS
Coal is a term used to describe a wide range
of organic compounds. Bituminous coal is
an organic sedimentary rock formed by
diagenetic and submetamorphic compression
of peat bog material. It has been compressed
and heated so that its primary constituents
are macerals (Figure 1, Table 1).
The carbon content of bituminous coal is
around 60 to 80%; the rest is composed
of water, air, hydrogen, and sulfur, which
have not been driven off from the macerals.
Bituminous coal or black coal is relatively
soft, containing a tarlike substance called
bitumen. It is of higher quality than
lignite coal but of poorer quality than
anthracite coal.
Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is
a soft, brown variety with characteristics
that put it somewhere between coal and
peat. It is considered the lowest rank of
coal, used almost exclusively as a fuel for
steam-electric power generation. Lignite has
a carbon content of around 25 to 35%, a
high inherent moisture content sometimes
as high as 66% and an ash content ranging
from 6% to 19% compared with 6% to 12%
for bituminous coal.

MaCeral

KerOgen
type

Alginite

Fresh-water algae

Exinite

II

Pollen, spores

Cutinite

II

Land-plant cuticle

Resinite

II

Land-plant resins

Liptinite

II

All land-plant lipids; marine algae

Vitrinite

III

Woody and cellulosic material from land plants

Inertinite

IV

Charcoal; highly oxidized or reworked

material of any origin

Original OrganiC Matter

Table 1. Correlation between kerogen type, its source, and its maceral name. Macerals are organic matter names,
somewhat akin to mineral names in the non-organic world.

Figure 1. Coal rank depends on thermal maturity (Courtesy Kansas Geological Survey).

1. moisture,
2. volatile matter, consisting of gases and
vapors driven off during pyrolysis,
3. fixed carbon, the nonvolatile fraction of
coal, and
4. ash, the inorganic residue remaining
after combustion.

Anthracite is a hard, compact variety of mineral

coal that has a high luster. It has the highest
carbon content, between 92% and 98%, and
contains the fewest impurities of all coals,
despite its lower calorific content. Anthracite
is the most metamorphosed type of coal.
The term is applied to coals that do not give
off tarry or other hydrocarbon vapors when
heated below their point of ignition.

Fixed carbon is also called carbon, dry coal,

pure coal, or dry ash-free coal. The latter
term is the most descriptive. Dry ash-free
coal is often abbreviated as daf or DAF.

PROXIMATE ANALySIS
Proximate analysis of coal is a simple
laboratory method for determining the
components of coal, obtained when the coal
sample is heated (pyrolysis) under specified
conditions. The coal sample is extracted
from a core and placed quickly in a canister
to preserve as much gas as possible. As
defined by ASTM D 121, proximate analysis
separates the coal into four groups (e.g.,
Figure 2 [page 23], Table 2 [page 22], Table
3 [page 23]):

Moisture is an important property of coal,

as all coals are mined wet. Groundwater
and other extraneous moisture is known
as adventitious moisture and is readily
evaporated. Moisture held within the coal
itself is known as inherent moisture and
is analyzed quantitatively. Adventitious
moisture is removed in the lab by evaporation
in air. Moisture may occur in four possible
forms within coal:
1. surface moisture: water held on the
surface of coal particles or macerals,

2. hydroscopic moisture: water

held by capillary action within the
microfractures of the coal,
3. decomposition moisture: water held
within the coals decomposed organic
compounds,
4. mineral moisture: water that comprises
part of the crystal structure of hydrous
silicates such as clays.
Total moisture is analyzed by loss of mass
between an air-dried sample and the sample
after driving off the inherent moisture with
heat. This is achieved by any of the following
methods:
1. heating the coal with toluene,
2. drying in a minimum free-space oven
at 150C (302F) within a nitrogen
atmosphere,
3. drying in air at 100 to 105C (212 to
221F).
Methods 1 and 2 are suitable with low-rank
coals but method 3 is only suitable for high(Continued on page 22...)
RESERVOIR ISSUE 11 DECEMBER 2010

21

dePth (m)

Proximate anaLysis

seam

canister
#

toP

Bottom

ash

moisture

VoLatiLe
matter

Fixed
carBon

ash (dry
Wt%)

390

948.20

949.00

15.86

3.22

33.17

47.75

16.37

392

962.20

963.40

21.85

4.46

30.19

43.50

22.82

samPLe
tyPe
Coarse and
Fine Cuttings
Coarse and
Fine Cuttings

FLoat %

samPLe
density

43.52

1.82

44.86

1.69

395

964.20

965.00

14.21

3.62

34.59

47.58

14.72

Fine Cuttings

57.26

1.62

4U

399

980.71

981.01

39.85

10.72

19.71

29.72

44.12

Core

N/A

1.60

4U

GG

981.01

981.09

32.83

9.40

22.85

34.92

35.92

Core

N/A

1.93

4U

410

981.14

981.44

77.24

6.93

8.42

7.41

82.59

Core

N/A

2.24

4U

HH

981.65

981.71

35.67

8.02

19.92

36.38

38.53

Core

N/A

1.82

4L

442

982.01

982.31

3.20

16.60

29.26

50.94

3.73

Core

N/A

1.26

4L

443

982.31

982.61

1.72

22.32

29.06

46.90

2.10

Core

N/A

1.22

4L

445

982.61

982.91

8.20

14.30

28.08

49.42

9.37

Core

N/A

1.30

4L

446

982.91

983.21

7.07

9.79

30.32

52.82

7.76

Core

N/A

1.28

4L

447

983.21

983.51

22.39

7.86

37.55

32.20

24.15

Core

N/A

1.52

4L

449

983.51

983.81

4.65

10.28

28.55

56.52

5.13

Core

N/A

1.29

4L

458

984.01

984.31

2.90

11.40

33.04

52.66

3.23

Core

N/A

1.26

4L

482

984.31

984.61

1.57

12.92

31.82

53.69

1.77

Core

N/A

1.26

4L

483

984.61

984.91

1.86

13.42

31.12

53.60

2.11

Core

N/A

1.25

4L

484

984.91

985.21

2.10

14.05

33.11

50.74

2.40

Core

N/A

1.22

4L

501

985.21

985.51

15.61

10.71

31.05

42.63

17.28

Core

N/A

1.37

T4

987.49

988.01

6.11

9.36

30.92

53.60

6.68

Core

N/A

1.28

506

988.01

988.31

14.36

9.64

29.21

46.79

15.74

Core

N/A

1.34

510/76

988.31

988.61

4.23

8.19

33.11

54.47

4.58

Core

N/A

1.26

518

988.61

988.91

2.91

11.64

28.67

56.78

3.25

Core

N/A

1.28

49.94

1.61

521

996.00

997.00

17.26

5.95

30.28

46.51

18.29

Coarse
Cuttings

523

996.00

997.00

10.34

6.15

32.91

50.60

10.98

Fine Cuttings

70.76

1.55

22.23

Coarse
Cuttings

34.04

1.87

531

997.00

997.50

21.37

4.04

29.81

44.78

Table 2. Example of Proximate Analysis of several coal seams - data is in Weight % .

(...Continued from page 21)

rank coals as free air drying low-rank coals

may promote oxidation.
Volatile matter in coal refers to the
components of coal, except for moisture,
which are liberated at high temperature in
the absence of air. This is usually a mixture
of short- and long-chain hydrocarbons,
aromatic hydrocarbons, and some sulfur.
In Australian and British laboratories, this
involves heating the coal sample to 900
5C (1,650 10F) for seven minutes in a
cylindrical silica crucible in a muffle furnace.
American procedures involve heating to 950
25C (1,740 45F) in a vertical platinum
crucible. These two methods give different
results and thus the method used must be
stated.
Fixed carbon content of the coal is the
carbon left after volatile materials are driven
off. This differs from the ultimate carbon
22

RESERVOIR ISSUE 11 DECEMBER 2010

content of the coal because some carbon

is lost in hydrocarbons with the volatiles.
Fixed carbon is used as an estimate of the
coke yield from a sample of coal. Fixed
carbon is determined by subtracting the
mass of volatiles, determined above, from
the original mass of the coal sample.
Ash content of coal is the non-combustible
residue left after coal is burnt. It represents
the bulk mineral matter after carbon, oxygen,
sulfur, and water (including from clays)
have been driven off during combustion.
Analysis is fairly straightforward, with the
coal thoroughly burnt and the ash material
expressed as a percentage of the original
weight.
Float-Sink Analysis is used to separate noncoal cavings from cuttings samples. The
crushed material is placed in a liquid with
a density of 1.75 g/cc. The coal fraction is
floated off and the non-coal sinks and is

removed. Some mineral (ash) in the coal may

sink, reducing the apparent ash content. By
comparing the ash analysis to the float-sink
analysis with that from core analysis, the gas
contents can be normalized to reflect true
ash contents of the coal cuttings.
Vitrinite is the most common component
of coal. It is also abundant in kerogen,
derived from the same biogenic precursors
as coals, namely land plants and humic
peats. Vitrinite forms diagenetically by the
thermal alteration of lignin and cellulose in
plant cell walls. It is therefore common in
sedimentary rocks that are rich in organic
matter, such as shales and marls with a
terrigenous origin. Conversely, carbonates,
evaporites, and well-sorted sandstones have
very low vitrinite content. Vitrinite is absent
in pre-Silurian rocks because land plants had
not yet evolved.
Vitrinite reflectance was first studied by

With this breakdown, the coal matrix

density can be determined, and the other
parameters follow from this value:
1: DENSMA coal = Vlignite * 1.19 + Vbituminous *
1.34 + Vanthracite * 1.47
An alternative method is a 3-mineral model
using ash, fixed carbon, and moisture (Table
5, page 24). The GR is used to obtain Vclay,
making a 4-mineral model relatively easy.
Both models can be solved by crossplots.
Examples are shown in Figure 4.
The mineral end points are not firm, so some
experimentation and sample descriptions
are needed. If a 3-mineral model is not
possible, the analyst must decide on the
correct coal type.
A dry-clay model can also be used, but the
water term will include the clay-bound water,
not just the free water. It can be removed by
subtracting clay-bound water from the total
to get the free-water answer.
The ash data points may vary with clay type
and other noncombustible mineral content,
so crossplots of lab ash content (by volume)
versus log readings can help pin down these
values.
Figure 2. Example of well log showing location of coal layers analyzed by proximate analysis. Log curves are GR,
CAL, PE, neutron, density, and density correction.

coal geologists attempting to determine

the thermal maturity, or rank, of coal
beds. More recently, it is used to study
sedimentary organic matter from kerogen.
It is sensitive to temperature ranges that
correspond to hydrocarbon generation (60
to 120C). This means that, with a suitable
calibration, vitrinite reflectance can be used
as an indicator of maturity in hydrocarbon
source rocks. Generally, the onset of oil
generation is correlated with a reflectance
of 0.5 to 0.6% and the termination of oil
generation with reflectance of 0.85 to 1.1%
VISUAL ANALySIS OF COAL LOGS
Finding coal on logs is pretty easy. High
values of neutron porosity, density porosity
(low density), high sonic travel time (low
velocity), and high resistivity are the clues
(Figure 3). Gamma ray measurements are
low in good quality coal and increase with
clay (ash content).
COAL ANALySIS MODELS
The use of well logs for analyzing coal
deposits dates back many years. Most
methods are based on a multi-mineral
model which solves for moisture, volatile
components, fixed carbon, and ash. These
are the same components determined from
coal cores or sample chips by proximate
analysis.

One log-analysis model calculates a

3-mineral model from PE, density, neutron,
sonic crossplot methods (Table 4, page
24) and solves for the fraction of lignite,
bituminous coal, and anthracite (or peat).

CALCULATING COAL PROPERTIES

The following equations are found in the coal
assay literature and are based on correlations
between core analysis values and log data.
Parameters can be tuned by making your own
(Continued on page 25...)

depth (M)
tOp
BOttOM

nOn-COal
FraCtiOn

MOistUre

56.58

0.77

963.40

56.16

0.88

965.00

45.10

1.05

997.00

51.27

1.01

996.00

997.00

32.22

1.24

997.00

997.50

65.29

1.09

seaM

Canister #

390

392

962.20

395

964.20

521

996.00

523

531

948.20

949.00

Table 3. Summary table of Proximate Analysis for the example shown in Table 2 and Figure 2.

Figure 3. Visual analysis of logs for coal is relatively unambiguous. High neutron porosity, high density porosity
(low density), high sonic, high resistivity, and clean gamma ray mean coal. Thresholds on each curve are used to
trigger a coal flag. Three or more flags is a pretty good indication of the presence of coal. Some coals are very
dirty (shaly) so the gamma ray and resistivity may not trigger.
RESERVOIR ISSUE 11 DECEMBER 2010

23

densma

Phin

dtc

dtcma

Pe

g/cc

frac

s/ft

s/m

s/ft

s/m

Anthracite

1.47

0.41

105

345

48

157

0.16

Bituminous

1.24

0.60+

120

394

44

144

0.17

Lignite

1.19

0.54

160

525

50

164

Peat

1.14

0.26

0.20
0.25

Table 4. Matrix parameters for 3-mineral model coal type.

densma

Phin

dtcma

Pe

g/cc

frac

s/ft

s/m

cu

Ash
(Quartz)

2.65

0.00

55

182

1.8

Could vary if other

minerals (e.g., calcite)
are also present

Ash
(Clay)

2.18-2.35

0.25

80

250

3.5

Includes clay-bound water,

varies with clay mineral

Carbon

1.19-1.47

0.60

120

394

0.2

Varies with coal type

(dry, ash-free value)

Water

1.00

1.00

200

656

0.1

Free water or moisture,

excludes clay-bound water

Table 5. Matrix parameters for 3-mineral model coal composition.

Figure 4. Density-neutron crossplot for coal analysis
(bottom), density-sonic crossplot (top). End points
are Ash, Fixed Carbon, and Water. Data points show
the ash in this coal is mostly clay (log data falls to
the right of the Ash point). DENSma Uma and
Mlith Nlith crossplot models can also be used.
(Illustration from Coal Evaluation Using Geophysical
Well Logs, Walter H. Fertl and Marvin R. DeVries,
CWLS Symposium, 1977).

Figure 5. Equations specific to a project area can be

obtained by cross-plotting ash content vs. density log
readings. This plot generated Equation 2a.

Figure 6. Example of coal log analysis results using a 3-mineral model for coal type (lignite, bituminous,
anthracite) in right-hand track. Zones outside the coal are analyzed with conventional oil and gas models.

24

RESERVOIR ISSUE 11 DECEMBER 2010

crossplots. Standard 3- and 4-mineral models

using simultaneous equations, DENSma-Uma
crossplots, or Mlith-Nlith crossplots (or
equivalent math) are probably more practical
when the core data correlations are not
available.
Initial results are in volume fractions and are
converted to weight fractions by using the
density of each component.
Ash Content:
2: Vash = (DENS - DENSMA coal ) / (2.5 DENSMA coal )
or 2a: Vash = 0.65 * (DENS - 1.00)
(see Figure 5)
Fixed Carbon (dry coal):
3: Vfcarb = 0.512 * (1.0 - Vash)
Moisture (free water):
4: Vwtr = 0.461 - Vash
Volatile Matter:
5: Vvolatile = 1.0 - Vash - Vfcarb - Vwtr
Numerical Example:
Given: DENSMAcoal = 1.24 DENS = 1.36 g/cc
Vash
Vfcarb
Vwtr
Vvolatile

Figure 7. Example of a log analysis of an Alberta Foothills coal using a model for coal composition (fixed carbon,
volatiles, moisture, and ash (2nd track from the right). These results can be calibrated to the proximate analysis
from lab measurements.

0.10
0.36
0.47
0.07

0.23
0.39
0.23
0.15

All proximate analysis results are reported

in weight fraction or percent. To convert
log analysis volume fractions to weight
fractions, use the following:
6: WTash = Vash * DENS ash
7: WTfcarb = Vfcarb * DENSfcarb
8: WTwtr = Vwtr * DENSwtr
9: WTvolatile = Vvolatile * DENSvolatile
10: WTcoal = WTash + WTfcarb + WTwtr +
WTvolatile

(Continued on page 26...)

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RESERVOIR ISSUE 11 DECEMBER 2010

25

(...Continued from page 25)

Mass fractions are as follows (multiply by

100 to get weight percent):
11: Wash = WTash / WTcoal
12: Wfcarb = WTfcarb / WTcoal
13: Wwtr = WTwtr / WTcoal
14: Wvolatile = WTvolatile / WTcoal
Weight percent is often used in reports:
15: WT% ash = 100 * Wash
16: WT% fcarb = 100 * WTfcarb
17: WT% wtr = 100 * WTwtr
18: WT% volatile = 100 * WTvolatile

Where:
DENS = density log reading in a coal (g/cc)
DENSMAcoal = matrix density of a coal (g/cc)
DENSxxx = density of a component (g/cc)
Vxxx = volume fraction of a component
(fractional)
WTxxx = weight of a component (grams)
Wxxx = mass fraction of a component
(fractional)
WT% xxx = weight percent of a component
(percent)
Numerical Example:
Given: DENSMA coal = 1.24 DENS = 1.36 g/cc
Mass
Volume Density Weight Fraction

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RESERVOIR ISSUE 11 DECEMBER 2010

Ash

0.10

2.65

0.25

0.21

Fcarb

0.36

1.24

0.57

0.48

Wtr

0.47

1.00

0.37

0.31

Volatile

0.07

0.00

0.00

0.00

Coal

1.00

1.19

log examples: Figure 6 (page 24) is an

example of log analysis using a 3-mineral
model for coal type. Figure 7 (page 25) is an
example of log analysis using a model for coal
composition.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
E. R. (Ross) Crain, P.Eng. is a Consulting
Petrophysicist and a Professional Engineer
with over 45 years of experience in reservoir
description, petrophysical analysis, and
management. He has been a specialist in the
integration of well log analysis and petrophysics
with geophysical, geological, engineering, and
simulation phases of oil and gas exploration
and exploitation, with widespread Canadian and
Overseas experience.
His textbook, Crains Petrophysical Handbook
on CD-ROM is widely used as a reference to
practical log analysis. Mr. Crain is an Honourary
Member and Past President of the Canadian
Well Logging Society (CWLS), a Member of
Society of Petrophysicists and Well Log Analysts
(SPWLA), and a Registered Professional Engineer
with Alberta Professional Engineers, Geologists
and Geophysicists (APEGGA).