Certificate Physical and Human Geography (indian Edition) GOH CHENG LEONG B. A. (Hons,), Lond., F.A.G.S. NEW EDITION - OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESSContents Metric Conversion Table v PARTI PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1, The Earth and the Universe - , 1 Exploring the Universe, 1; The Solar System, 1; The shape of the Earth, 2, Evidence of the Earth's Sphericity, 2; The Earth’s Movements, 4; Day and Night, 4; The Earth’s Revolution, 5; Dawn and Twilight, 6; Mathematical Location of Places on the Globe, 7; Latitude, 7; Longitude, 8; Longitude and Time, 8; Standard Time and Time Zones, 9; The International Date Line, 10; Questions and Exercises, 10; Selected Cambridge Questions, 11. 2. The Earth’s Crust 12 The Structure of the Earth, 12; The Classification of Rocks, 12; Igneous Rocks, 12 Sedimentary Rocks, 13 Metamorphic Rocks, 13; The Influence of Rock Types on Landscape, 14; Earth Move~ ments and the Major Landforms, 14; Types of Mountains, 14; Types of Plateaux,, 175 $ Types of Plains, 18. - 3. Vulcanism and Earthquakes . 20 Landforms Associated with Vulcanic Activities, 20; Landforms of Igneous Intrusions, 20; The Ori- gin of Volcances, 21; Types of Volcanoes, 22; Extrusive Landforms, 22; Some Volcanic Emup- tions, 23; The Distribution of Volcanoes in the World, 24, Geysers and Hot Springs, 25; Ear- thquakes, 26; Some Major Earthquakes, 26; The Distribution of Earthquakes, 26; Questions and Exercises, 26. 4, Weathering, Mass: Movement and Groundwater 28 Weathering, 28; Mass Movement, 31; Groundwa- ter, 33; Fhe Water-Table, 34; Springs and Wells, 35; Questions and Exercises, 37. §. Landforms made by Running Water 38 The Development of a River System; 38; The Mechanisin of Humid Erosion, 38; The Processes of River Action, 39; River Erosion and Transpor- tation, 39; The Course of a River 40, River Rejuvenation, 44; The Human Aspects of Rivers, 45; Questions ‘and Exercises, 45. 6. Landforms of Glaciation 47 The Ice Age and Types of Ice Masses, 47; Land- forms of Highland Glaciation, 48; Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands; 51; Human Aspects of Glaciated Landforms, 53, Questions and Exer- cises, 54, 7 Aride or r Desert Landforms ~ Types of Deserts, 55; The Mechanism of And Ero sion, 56 Landforms of Wind Erosion in Desert: 57; Landforms of Wind Deposition in Deserts, 59; Landforms due to Water Action in Deserts, 60; Questions and Exercises, 61. 8. Limestone and Chalk Landforms 62 Limestone and Chalk, 62; Characteristic Features of a Karst Region, 62; The Major Limestone Reg- ions of the World, 64; Human Activities in Karst Regions, 64; Question and Exercises, 65. 9. Lakes 66 “General, 66; The Formation and Ongin of Lakes, 66; Lakes and Man, 69; Questions and Exercises, Wy, 10. Coastal Landforms 72 The Action of Waves, Tides and Currents, 72; The Mechanism of Marine Erosion, 72; Coastal Fea- tures of Erosion, 73; Coastal Features of Deposi- tion, 75; Types of Coasts, 76; Coastlines of * Emergence., 77; Questions and Exercises, 78. , 11. Istands and Coral Reefs 79 General, 79; Coral Reefs, 80, Types of Coral Reefs, 81; The Probable Origin of Coral Reefs, 82; Questions and Exercises 83. 12, The Oceans 84 Exploring the Oceans, 84, The Relief of the Ocean, 85; The Deposits of the Ocean Floor, 86; Salinity of the Ocean, 86; The Temperature of Ocean Water, 86; The Movements of Ocean Cur- rents, 87; The Circulation of the Atlantic Ocean, 88; The Circulation of the Pacific Ocean, 89; The Indian Ocean Circulation, 90; Questions and Exercises, 90; Selected Cambridge Questions, 91. PART2 WEATHER, CLIMATE AND VEGETATION. 13. Weather 93 The Difference between Climate and Weather, 93; The Elements of Weather and Chmate, 94; Rain- fall, 94; Pressure, 95; Temperature, 96; Humidity, 98; Winds, 98; Sunshine, 99; Clouds, 100, Other Elements Pertaining to Visibility, 104; Questions and Exercises, 104. 14, Climate 105 ‘The Atmosphere, 105; insolation, 105; Elements of Climate and Factors Affecting Them, 106; Temperature, 106; Factors Influencing Tempera- ug Zfre INE Tenant 441, Cyclonic Activity, 112; Climatic Types and Natural Vegetation, 113; World Climatic Types, 114; Questions and Exercises, 115; Selected Cam- bridge Questions, 115, 1S. The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate 116 Distributian, 116; Climate, 116; Vegetation, neg, Factors Affecting the Development of Equatorial Regions, 119; Questions and Exercises, 120, 16. The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates 122 Distribution, 122; Seasons of the Tropical Mon- soon Climate, 123; The Retreating Monsoon, 124; Tropical Marine Climate, 124; Tropicat Monsoon Forests, 124; Agricultural Development in Mon- soon Lands, 125; Question and Exercises, 127. 17. The Savanna or Sudan Climate 129 Distribution, 128; Climate of the Sudan Type, 128; Natural Vegetation, 129; Animal Life of the Savanna, 130; Human Life in the Savanna, 131; Problems, Prospects and Development of the Savanna, 132; Question and Exercises, 133. 18. The Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude Desert Cii- mates 134 Distribution, 134; Climate, 134; Climatic Condi- tions in the Mid-Latitude Deserts, 136; Desert Vegetation, 136; Life in the Desert, 137: Ques- tions and Exercises, 140, 19. The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate 141 Distribution, 141; Climate, 141; Natural Vegeta- tion, 144; Economic Development of the Mediter- ranean Regions, 145; Questions and Exercises, 147, 20. The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate Distribution, 148; Climate, 148; Natural Vegeta- tion, 150; Economic Development, 151; Questions and Exercises, 153, 21, The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (com Type) Climate . ° Distribution, 155; Climate, 155; Natural vege tion, 158; Economic Development, 158; Qu and Exercises, 161. i" 22. The Cool Temperate Western Margin ors Type) Climate " Distibution, 163; Climate, 163; Natur Ee tion, 165; Economic Development, 165; and Exercises, 169. 23, The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberia) Climate . Distribution, 170; Climate, 170; Natural in tion, 172) Economic Development, 173: tions and Exercises, 175, rem 24. The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Laut 116 tan) Climate | . mic Distribution, 176; Climate, 166; Boonen Development, 178; Fishing, 179; Ques Exercises, 181, 183 25, The Arctic or Polar Climate a Distribution, 183; Climate, 183; Tund veee tion, 184; The Importance and Recent tions and ment of the Arctic Region, 1, ue estions, Exercises, 186; Selected Cambridge 186.SUC 28 IgIOL V4 G27 = U0} Buoy 1 M0) 298 ZZ060 421 0007 = 003 voy 4 $00) CuO! ZrB6 0 = ua Hous EZOL = BY 0001 = uay apo 1 ‘Somn2e4 BOS6EGZ ~ wy De QOGG To FANG OF9 = snus bs | « FURY LeOKO = e084 opus be 108E 0 = S008 voorzyz m= SNED0N OOF ung bay IONE = we204 | “WH EBOSL = our, WEPOED = oop) INU HIZO = “uy, Mer goaTE = WE MH CESEO = way SIO}BY UOISIaAUO JONI “wu! 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A ray of Ight from the sun takes about eight minutes to reach the earth. Light takes only a second to reach us from the moon. The Solar System The solar system comprises the Sun and_its nine developed from the condensation of gases and other lesser bodies. All the plancts revolve round the Sun an eliipiical orbits, Like the eatth, they shine only by the reflected light of the sun The Sun has a surface temperature of 6,000°C. (10,800°F.) and increases to 20 million°C. (36 million°F.) in the interior, All over its surface are fiery gases that 92.000 000 cme me oootmiet rece ig EARTH seh Fig 1 The Universe leap up in whirls of glowing flames [tke a volcano in eruption. In size, the Sun is almost unumaginable. Ttis about 300,000 times as big as the earth! Amongst the nine planets, Mercury is the smallest and closest to the sun, only 36 million miles away. It thus completes its orbit in a much shorter space of time than does Earth. A year in Mercury 1s only 88 days. Venus, twice the distance away from the sun, is the next closest planet. It is often con- sidered as ‘Earth's’ twin’ because of their close proximity in size, mass (weight) and density. But no other planet is in any way comparable to Earth which has life and all the living things we see around us. Like many other planets, the Earth has a natural satelhte, the Moon, 238,900 miles away, that revolves eastward around the Earth once in every 27 days The fourth planet from the sun is Mars which has dark patches on its surface and is believed by most professional astronomers to be the next planet after Earth to have the possibility of some plant life. Much attention has been focused on Mars to explore the possibilities of extending man’s influence to it. Next comes Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar syste. Its surface is made up of many gases like hydrogen, helium, and methane. It is dis- tinguished from other planets by its circular light and dark bands, and the twelve satellites that circle round it, As it is more than 485 million miles from the Sun, its surface 1s very cold, probably about -200°F. (-130°C,). AUPITER URANUS NEPTUNE gry Solar System—the Sun and the nine PlanetsAnother unique planet is Saturn which has three rings and nine satellites around it. In size, it is the second largest after Jupiter. It is so far from the Sun that it takes 294 years to complete its orbit. The seventh planet, Uranus, was not known to astronomers until the late eighteenth century when it was first seen as a faint bluish-green disc through avery powerful telescope. It is another giant planet, 50 times larger than Earth and 15 times as heavy. Unlike other planets, Uranus orbits around the sun m_a clockwise direction from east to west with five satellites revolving round it, The two outermost planets in the solar system, Neptune and Pluto are just visible with telescopes. Their discoveries were the result of mathematical calculations on their irregular gravitational effects on neighbouring planetary bodies. Neptune closely resembles Uranus, except that it has only two known satellites and is probably much colder. Pluto is smaller than Earth. As the orbits of the planets are not circular but elliptical, the distance of Pluto from the Sun during pershelion (i.e. when it is closest to the Sun) is 2,766 million miles, and at aphefion (ve. when it 1s farthest from the Sun) 1s 4,566 million miles, A year m Plutots no less than 247 years on earth! Due to their very recent discovery and their extreme remoteness from the earth, very little 1s so far known about these last two planets. The Shape of the Earth In the olden days, sailors feared to venture far into the distant ocean because they thought the earth was as flat as a table. They thought that when they reached the edge of the earth, they would slip down and perish in the bottomless ocean, This is, of course, not true. From years of accumulated know- ledge, experience and observations in different parts of the world, we know that the earth is round, Its spherical shape is an established fact, proved, and accepted by all. There has been so much research done on carth science that its various dimensions have been accurately found. It has an equatorial circumference of 24,897 miles and its polar cir- cumference is less by 83 miles. Its equatorial diameter is 7,926 miles and its polar diameter is shorter by 26 miles. This simply shows that the earth is not a perfect sphere. It 1s a little flattened at bot ds like an orange. It can, m fact, be calleg Cearth-shaped"). The spherical shape oft also masked by the intervening high- ae ns on its surface. Evidence of the Earth’s Sphericity Ihere are many ways to prove that the earth is spherical. The following are some of them. 1, Circum-navigation of the earth. The first voyage around the world by Ferdinand Magellan and his crew, from 1519 to 1522 proved beyond doubt that the earth is spherical. No traveller going round the world by land or sea has ever encountered an abrupt edge, over which he would fall. Modern air routes and ocean navigation are based on the assumption that the earth is round (Fig. 2). Acunveoeanri 15 «. Fig. 2 (a) Circumnavigation of the earth a4 +-—-----——- 44 2 ns {b) Abrupt drop at the edge of a tablelike earth 2. The circular horizon, The viewed from the deck of a ship at sean is always and everywhere + Chis crear horizon widens with increasing alt and could only be seen on a sphericat body: ig. 3. distant horiznt or from tape in shape. iat ude is illustrated in . . 3. Ship's visibility. When 2 ship appea) distant horizon, the top of the mast is seen i the hull In the same way, when it leaves. is equal its disappearance over the curved surface fs 4 rs over the first befor arbour slyFig. 3 (a) Increasing altitude widens the circular horl- zon, Viewed from Y the horizon would be AB but from a higher viewpoint (X) a wider horizon {C, D) would be seen (b) Visibte horizon remains the same regardless of altitude. If the earth were flat the horizon seen from either Y or X would be the same gradual, If the earth were flat, the entire ship would be seen or obscured all at once. This is apparent from Fig. 4. A CURVED EARTH Fig 4 (a) The mast of a ship 1s seen before the hulf on curved honzon kine of sight nee LAT EARTH Fig, 4 (b) A flat earth, the entire ship is seen at once ona flat surface 4, Sunrise and sunset. The sun mses and sets at different times in different places. As the earth rotates from west to east, places in the east see the sun earlier than those in the west. If the earth were flat, the whole world would have sunrise and sunset at the same time. But we know this is not so Fig. 5 illustrates this. \ { Y Fig. 5 (a) Sun rises and sun sets at different times for different places ArusTeanTa (b) The whole world will have sun rise or sun set at the same time5. The lunar eclipse. The shadow cast by the earth on the moon during the lunar eclipse is always circular. It takes the outline of an are of a circle. Only a sphere can-cast such a circular shadow. 6. Planetary bodies are spherical. All observations from telescopes reveal that the planctary bodies, the Sun, Moon, satellites and stars have circular outlines from whichever angle you see them. They are strictly spheres. Earth, by analogy, cannot be the only exception. ‘* 7. Driving poles on level grouud on a curved carth. Engineers whea driving poles of equal length at regular intervals on the ground have found that they do not give a perfect horizontal level. The centre pole normally proyects slightly above the poles at either end because of the curvature of the earth, as illustrated in Fig. 6. Surveyors and field engineers therefore have to make certain corrections for this inevitable curvature, i.e. 8 inches to the mile. rv po pressor thes Fiy. 6 (a) The centre pole projects well above the poles at either end on 5 curved surface I ne The Earth’s Movement rement Man is always conscious of the ‘apparent mo! whic of the sun’ and little realizes that the earth othe sun he stands is constantly in motion Whee ‘when it disappears, he says that the sun sets an Mot the emerges, he says that the sun rises, He 1s or set least aware that the sun, in fact, does not ne moves it is ‘we who tise and we who set’! The eart ts own in space in two distinct ways: it rofateson al crusts {b) All the three poles have identical heights axis from west to east once in every 24 ee som in an on a fist surface day and night; it also revolves round d he seasons orbit once in every 3654 days. causing the 8. Aerial photugraphs. Pictures taken from high and the year. | altitudes" "and satellites show clearly the . | curved 'y ee carth. This is perhaps the most Day and Night . is, only ont conviny * Most up-to-date proof of the © When the carth rotates on its own axis rays O 4 portion of the earth's surface comes into 4HH The earth viewed from the moon. The picture was taken on the Apollo 8 mission of 1968 which prepared the way for the moon landing Camera Press the sun and experiences daylight. The other portion which is away from the sun’s rays will be in darkness, As the earth rotates from west to east, every part of the earth’s surtace wil be brought under the sun at some time or other. A part of the earth’s surface that emerges from darkness into the sun’s rays experiences sunrise. Later, when it is gradually obscured from the sun's beams it experiences sunset, The sun is, in fact, stationary and it is the earth which Totates, The illusion is exactly the same as when we travel in a fast-moving train. The trees and houses around us appear to move and we feel that the train is stationary, Fig. 7 explains the carth’s rotation and the causes of day and night. The Earth’s Revolution When the earth revolves round the sun, it spins on _ an elliptical orbit at a speed of 18.5 miles per second wean =(FECLEUD= — a Fig, 7 (8) Kuala Lumpur emerges from darkness into daylight at sun rise when the earth fotates Into the sun's rays (b) The sun is directly overhead at Kuala Lumpur or midday {c) Kuala Lumpur passes from daylight into darkness at sunset when the earth rotates away from the sun (d) Kuala Lumpur is directly away from the sun at mid-night or 66,600 m.p.h. One complete revolution takes 365} days or a year. As it is not possible to show @ quarter of a day in the calendar, a normal year is taken to be 345 days, and an extra day is added every tour years as a Leap Year. 1. Varying Lengths of Day and Night The axis of the earth is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane in which the earth orbits round the sun) at an angle of 663°, giving rise to different seasons and varying lengths of day and night (Fig. 8). If the axis were perpendicular to this plane, al! parts of the globe would have equal days and mghts at all times of the year, but we know this is not so. In the northern hemisphere in winter (December) as we go northwards, the hours of darkness steadily increase. At the Arctic Circle (663°N.), the sun never ‘rises’ and there is darkness for the whole day in_mid-winter on 22 December. Beyond the Arctic Circle the num ys With complete darkness increases, until we reach the North Pole (90°N.) when half the year will have darkness, In the summer Qune) conditions are exactly reversed. Daylight increases 25 we go polewards, At the Aretic Circle, the gun we an ae ne et ne OF forme and there is, vere . daylight: te Cucle is: , + “ night Suit. ‘ole, there wil SIX months of Continuous daylight, Fig. 8a) illustrates the revolution of the earth and its melination to the plane of the ecliptic which cause the variation in the length of day and night at different times of the year. 5coven gev Ames = ancrecreue earkienn aoranerccmneu ‘omnes Fig. 8 (a) The revolution of the earth and its effects on seasons and the variations of lengths of day and night ‘Summer Sotrhce (Wuea 21 Teonie of Cancer Senna Eauleos, ‘heen Ze Winter Sirvee (Dae 22nd) {b) A simplified diagram showing the annua! Movement of the sun and the causes of the seasons ~In_the »__southern_hemisphere, the-same—pracess— takes place, except _that the conditions are.reversed. “Wien fs summer in the northern hemisphere, the squthern continents will experience winter. Mid- summer at the North Pole will be mid-winter at the South Pole. 2. The Altitude of the Midday Sun In the course of a year, the earth’s revolution round the sun with its axis inclined at 664° to the plane of . the ecliptic changes the apparent altitude of the midday s The sun is vertically overhead at the equato days each year. These are usually 21M September though the date changes beca 8 Not exactly 365 days. These iwo 6 days are termed equinoxes meaning ‘equal nights’ because on these two days all parts of the world have equal days and nights. After the March equinox the sun appears to move north and is yer- tically overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (23}°N,) on about 21 June. This is known as the June or summer solstice, when the northern hemisphere will have its Jongest day and shortest night. By about 22 December, the sun will be overhead at the Tropie of Capricorn (234°S,). This is the winter solstice when the southem hemisphere will have its longest day and shortest night. The Tropics thus mark the limits of the overhead sun, for beyond these, the sun is never overhead at any time of the year, Su wegions are marked _by distinct seasonal changes— ‘ing, summer, autumn and winter. Beyond the Arctic Circle (66)°N:) ane fe Antarctic Circle (66}°S.) where darkness lasts for 6 months and daylight is continuous for the remaining hall of the year, it is always cold; for even during the short summer the sun is never high in the sky. Within the tropics, as the midday sun varies very little from its vertical position at noon daily, the four seasons a almost indistinguishable. Days and nights are most equal all the year round Fig. 8(b). . 3. Seasonal Changes and their Effects on Tempera Summer is usually associated with much heat an brightness and winter with cold and darkness. va should this be so? In summer, the sun is er 4 the skythan in winter. When the sun 5s oven on its rays fall almost vertically on the earth, tute centrating its heat on a small area; tempcral therefore rises and summers are always ash In winter the oblique raysof the sun, come ne the atmosphere less directly and have much oft et heat absorbed by atmospheric impurities and wa i et vapour, The sun's rays fall faintlyand spread tom @ great area. There is thus little heat, an' peratures remain low. sin summet In addition, days are longer than nigh! and more heat ie received over the fonger daylalt duration, Nights are shorter and less heat Stent There is a net gainin total heat received a ‘omer perature rises in summer. Shorter days an ‘ nights in winter account for the reverse effects. Dawn and Twilight The brief period between sut 4 is called dawn and that between sunse! he darkness is termed twilight. This is caused Po ht fact that during the periods of dawn an wi from the earth receives diffused or refracted lig! ‘ full daylight nrise and completethe sun whilst it is still below the horizon. Since the sun fises and sets in # vertical path at the equator the period during which refracted light is received is short. But in temperate latitudes, the sun rises and sets in an oblique path and the period of refracted light is longer. It is much longer still at the poles, so that the winter darkness is really only twilight most of the time, (Fig. 9). ud) 2 retracted night Fig 9 Dawn and Twilight (a) at the equator {b) in temperate latitude At the equator the sun rises and sets almost vertically $0 the time it takes to pass through the ‘twilight zane’ (A. B) will be shorter than for temperate fatitudes where the sun rises and sets obliquely. Here the time taken to pass through the twilight zone (C, D) is longer Mathematical Location of Places on the Globe . The’ earth's surface is so vast that unless a mathe- matical method can be used, it is impossible to locate any place on it. For this reason, imaginary lines have been drawn on the globe. One set r- east and west, parallel to the equator, are called “ of latitude. The other set runs north and . passing through the potes and are called tines ot longitude (Fig. 10). The intersection of latitude ne rs} we ey se ‘SP Fig 10 (a) Parallels of lantude (b) Mendians of tongrtude and longitude pin-points any place on the earth's surface, (Fig. 11¢.}. For example Dethi is 28°37" N. and 77°10’ E.; London is 51°30’ N, and O°S'W, and Sydney is 33°55S, and 151-12 E, We shall examine more closely how latitude and longitude are determined and the rote they play in mathematical geography. Latitude Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth's surface, measured in degrees from the centre of the earth as shown in Fig. 10(a). It is parallel to a line, the equator, which lies midway between the poles, These lines are therefore called parallels of latitude, and on a globe are actually circles, becoming smaller potewards. The equator represents 0° and the North and South Poles are 90°N. and 90°S. Between these points lines of Jatitude are drawn at intervals of 1°, For precise location on 2 map, each degree is sub-divided into 60 minutes and cach minute into 60 seconds. The most iniportant lines of latitude are the equator, the Tropic of Cancer (234°N.), the Tropic of Capricorn (23}°S.), the Arctic Circle (66}°N.) and the Antarctic Circle (66}°S.). As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is a little longer than that,at the equator. For example at the equator (0°) it is 68.704 miles, at 45° it is 69,054 miles and at the poles it is 69.407 miles. The average is taken as 69 miles. This is a useful figure and can be used for calculating distances to any place, Bombay is 18-55" N; it is therefore 18°55 x 69 of 1280 miles from the equator. With the aid of your atlas find the approximate distance of the follow- 1ing places from the equator: Singapore, Calcutta, Paris, New York, Buenos Aires, and Auckland. - Fig. 11 (2) The tantuda of 38°N. is tho ongutat distance of a point on the earth's surface north of the centte of the eanh © 3 (bY The longitude of 135°. is the angular distance west of the Prime Meridian we (c) The precise location of place X is latitude 52"N and longitude 27°W, where cry they intersect Longtitude - Longitude is an angular distance, measured in degrees along the equator east or west of the Prime (or First) Aferidian, as indicated in Fig. 1). On the lobe longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles that mun from pole to Pole passing through the equator. Such lines are also catied meridians, Un- like the equator which jis centrally placed between the pol ny meridian could have been taken to begin ing of longitude. It was finally deci 4, by international agreement, to cho. ro meridian the one which passes 8 through the Royal Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near London. ‘Thisis the Prime Meridian (0°) from which all other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to 180°, Since the carth is spherical and has a citcumference calculated at 25,000 miles, in linear distance cach of the 360 degrees of longitude is 25,000:360 or 69-1 miles. As the paraltels of latitude become shorter polewards, so the meridians of longitude, which converge at the poles, enclose a Natrower space. The degree of longitude therefore decreases in tength. I is longest at the equator where it measures 69.172 miles. At 28° it is 62.73 miles, at 45° it is 49 mites, at 75° 18 miles and at the poles 0 mile. There is so much difference in the length of degrees of fongitude outside the tropics, that they are not used for calculating distances as in the case of latitude, But they have one very important function, they determine local Hime in relation to G.M.T. or Greenwich Mean Tone, which is sometimes referred 10 as World Time. Longitude and Time Local Time. Since the earth makes one complete tevolution of 360° in one day or 24 hours, 1t ie through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes. 1 earth rotates from west fo east, so every 15° we £0 eastwards, local time is advanced by | hour. Con- versely, if we no westwards, local time is reta i by L hour. We may thus conclude that places es of Greenwich see the sun carker and gait fate whereas places west of Greenwich see the ae and lose time. If we know G.M.T,, to find oe time, we merely have to add or subtract the site . in the number of hours from the given longi th as illustrated below. A simple memory aid for se Will be East—Gain-Add (E.G.A.) and West ta is Subiract (W.L.S.), Youcould coin your ownt are for the abbreviations. Hence when it is noon London (Longitude 0°5W.), the local einen ¢ Madras (80°E.) will be 5 hours 20 minut 1 time of London or 5.20 p.m. But the [ocd nutes for New York (74°W.) will be 4 hours 56 mi ie behind London or 7,04a.m. Wecan putitin anol way, when Londoners are having lunch, India fist have dinner and New Yoskers will have bears (Fig. 12). This is difficult to believe, but i shal The rotation of the earth round the sum mea) * nce at any point in time different places will expe! different time of day. . and ° There are many ways of determining the lore . of a place. The simplest way is to com vedio focal time with G.M.T. by listening to BBC.{ wes p MEST Lose suaTnAcT NOW YORK T ane seems, BREAKFAST For example: the captain of a ship in the midst of the ocean wants to find out in which longitude his ship lies. If G.M.T. is 8.00 a.m. and it is noon in the local region, it means that he is four hours ahead of Greenwich, and must be east of Greenwich. His longitude is 4 * 15° or 60°E. Standard Time and Time Zones Heach town were to keep the time of its own meridian, there would be much difference in local time between one town and the other, 10 a.m. in Georgetown, Penang would be 10.10in Kota Bharu (a difference of 23° in Iongitude), In larger countries such as Canadu, U.S.A,, China, India and U.S.S.R. the confusion arising from the differences alone would drive the people mad. Travellers going from one end of the country to the other would have to keep changing their watches if they wanted to keep their appoint- ments This is impracticable and very inconvenient. To avoid all these difficulties, a system of standard time is observed by all countries. Most countries adept their standard time from the central meridian of their countries, The Indian Government has accep- ted the meridian of 82:5° east for the standard time whichis Shrs.30mins. ahead of Greenwich Mean Time, The whole world has im fact been divided into 24 Standard Time Zones, each of which differs from the next by 15° in longitude or one hour in time. Most countrits"adhere to This division but due to the peculiar shapes and locations of some countries, reasonable deviations from the Standard Time Zones cannot be avoided (Fig. 13). Larger countries like U.S.A., “Canada and EGA ! (EAST GAINADD) | i= Thre 20 rns. i DINNER Fig. 12 Longitude and time — when it is noon tn London, it is 5,20 pm. in Madras (80° E,) and 7.04 a.m, in New ! ! ! i York (74° W.). U,S.S.R. which have a great east-west stretch have -to adopt several time zones for practical purposes. U.S S.R. the largest country, which extends through almost 165° of longitude is divided into eleven time zones. When it 1s 10.00 pm. on a Monday night in Leningrad, it will be almost 7 00 a.m. the following Tuesday morning in Viadivostock. Travellers along the Trans-Siberian Railway have to adjust their watches almost a dozen times before they reach their destination. Both Canada and U.S.A. have five time zones—the Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacrfic Time Zones, The difference between the local time of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts is nearly five hours (Fig. 13). Fig, 13 The five time zones of North AmericaThe International Date Line A traveller going eastwards gains time from Green- wich until he reaches the meridian 180°E. when he will be 12 hours ahead of G.M.T Similarly in going westwards, he loses 12 hours when he reaches 180°W. There is thus a total difference of 24 hours or a whole day between the two sides of the 180° meridian. This is the international Date Line where the date changes by exactly one day when it 1s crossed. A traveller crossing the date line from east to west loses a day (because of the loss in time he has made); and while crossing the dateline from west to cast he gains a day (because of the gain in time he encoun- tered), Thus when it 1s midnight, Friday on the Asiatic side, by crossing the line eastwards, he gains a day; it will be midnight Thursday on the American side, i.e, he experiences the same calendar date twice! When Magellan’s ship eventually arrived home in Spain in 1522 after circumnavigating the world from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and westwards across the International Date Line, the crew knew nothing about adding a day for the one cB wap migue Fig. 14 The International Date Line they had missed. They thought they had arrived on the Sth of September. They were shocked to be told that the date was 6th September. A modern aircraft leaving Wellington at 5.00 p-m. on Friday reaches Hawaii 4,100 miles away at 2.00 pm. the same Friday, ‘The same aircraft on its return jour- ney from Hawaii leaves at 6.00 pm. on Friday but re you neon at 11.00 a.m. on Sunday. Can c / . onal Date Line in the mid-Pacific y. * Normal 180” meridian at the Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga and other islands to prevent confusion of day and date in some of the island groups that are cut through by the meridian. Some of them keep Asiatic or New Zealand standard time, others ‘follow the American date and time. The International Date Line is shown in Fig. 14. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1. With the aid of annotated diagrams, attempt to prove that the earth is spherical. Give as many reasons as you can. 2. Explain with the aid of fairly accurate dia- grams, how the tilt of the earth’s axis on its orbital plane around the sun causes: ‘a) the seasons ® the variations in the length of day and night ©) the altitude of the midday sun to change at different times of the year. 3. Explain the differences between any three of the following: 4 aphet (a) perihelion and aphelion (b) parallels of fatitude and meridians of longitude tome (c) the earth's rotation and the earth’s fe volution | (a) solstice and equinox | (©) Standard Time and Greenwich Mean Time 4, Explain any three of the following ae connected with the earth and its plo relations: i. galaxy Pime Meridian iti. elliptical orbit | iv. International Date Line e 5. Buber: Gxve an explanatory account Of th following. in @ Daylight increases as we £0 polewatds! summer in the northern hemisP! is (b) The period of twilight in Brita’ longer than in Malaysia. te @A ship crossing the Internationa! Dat . Line at midnight on Wednes oy con wards finds that it is midnight, Tu ‘on the American side.Chapter 2 The Earth’s Crust The Structure of the Earth In order to understand the geography of the external landforms of the earth, it is essential that we have some idea of what lies within the earth's crust. It is not possible to know exactly how the earth was formed about 4,500 million years ago, but from the evidence of volcanic eruptions, earthquake waves, deep-mine operations and crustal borings the follow- ing facts are quite clear. <—— atmosphere garth’s crust {lithosphere} N, Fig 15 A section showing the structure and composition of the earth ‘The earth is made up of several concentric layers (Fig. 15). The outer layer is the earth's crust—the lithosphere—which comprises two distinct parts. The upper part consists of granitic rocks and forms the continents. Its main mineral constituents are silica and afumina so it is collectively referred to as the sial. It has an average density of 2.7. The lower part is a continuous zone of denser basaltic rocks forming the ocean floors, comprismg mainly silica, fron and magnesium. It 1s therefore called sima and has an average density of 3.0. The sial and the sima together form the earth's crust which varies in thickness from only 3~4 miles beneath the oceans to as much as 30 miles under some parts of the con- tinents, Since the sial is lighter than the sima, the continents can be said to be ‘floating’ on a sea of denser Sima This is illustrated in Fig 16. Immediately beneath the crust or Kthosphere is the mantle (or mesosphere) about 1,800 miles thick, compo mainly of very dense rocks rich in olivine. The layer is the core, (or Barysphere) 2,160 mt ,ynd is made up mainly of iron (Fe) . ef and is called nife. The temperature . - + Oceans {hydrosphere) Fig. 16 A section showing how the contment (SIAL) floats on the denser SIMA here is estimated to be as high as 3,500°F., and the core is subject to extremely high pressure. Under such conditions, the core could be expected to bein liquid state. But recent studies through cath waves have suggested that the innermost part of the core is probably a crystalline or solid mass. Parts of the carth’s crust are immersed by oceans and seas. These form the hydrosphere. Extending skywards for over fifteen miles, the earth is envelope’ : by a mass of gases which make up the atmosp: The Classification of Rocks The earth's crust 1s made up of various differing from one another in texture, ee colour, permeability, mode of occurrence an + ee . of resistance to denudation. A knowedee a ss, Tocks is of paramount importance | who study the composition and physical Inston o the earth, but the geographer, too, needs ‘ hei knowledge of the most common rocks aD c relationship with landforms. Rocks also the Fe basis for soil, and determine to some extent ure he of natural vegetation and land use, so We pie a fair acquaintance with the rocks around aS if a Generally speaking, all rocks may be o yo into three major groups—igneous, sediment oF metamorphic, according to their origin pearance. types of rocks, Igneous Rocks 4 by the coo Igneous rocks are formed by feation of molten rock (magma) from beneath o earth's crust. They are normally coe ay? structure. They do not occur in strata may nor do they contain fossils. Igneous foc’ Ss ne? sub-divided on the basis of mineral corre thet When they contain a high proportion of sil Jing and solidare said to be acid. Acid igneous rocks, such as granite, are less dense and are tighter in colour than basic rocks. These contain a greater proportion of basic oxides, e.g. of iron, aluminium or magnesium, and are thus denser and darker in cotour. In terms of origin there are nvo main classes of igneous rocks. 1. Plutonte rocks. These are igneous rocks, formed atsome depth in the earth's crust. They have cooled and solidified slowly so that far farge_easily=revogn Riized crystals have able to-form. These intrusive rocks, such as granite, diorite and gabbro, are exposed at the sufface by the processes of denudation and erosion. 2. Volcanic rocks. These are molien rocks poured out of volcanoes as lasas. They solidifi ranidiy on the earth's surface and thecryatah are small. tis A common volcanic or extrusive rock and forms lava flows, lava sheets and lava plates lava sheets and lava pliteiux, e.g. thos of Antrim in Northern ireland, the Deccan Plateau in India and the.Columbia-Snake Plateau in U.S.A. Some kinds of basalt solidify in a very peculiar manner to form long polyponal cohunns. A well-known example is the columnar basalt of the Giant's Causeway in Antrim. Some of the molten lava may push its way to the surface through clefts and passages, solidifying as yertical dykes or hori- zontal sills Their origin and occurrence will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 3. Most igneous rocks are extremely hard and resistant, For this reason, they are quarried for road-making and polished as monuments and grave- stones, Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediment_ac- cumulated aver tong periods, usually under water. They are distinguished from the other rock types in their characteristic laycr formation and are termed stratified rocks. “The strata may vary in thickness froma Tew inches to many feet. ‘The rocks may be coarse or fine-grained, soft or hard, The materials that form sedimentary rocks may be brought by streams, glaciers, winds or even animals. ‘They are nop-crystaliine often contain fossils Gf animals, plants and other misacorgatoms= Set mentaty-rocks—are~thus the most varied tn their formation of all rocks. Sedimentary rocks are classified according to their age and different kinds of rocks formed during the same period are grouped together. Itismoreuseful to know the characteristics of the various kinds of rocks. Sedimentary rocks may be classified under three major categories in accordance with their origin and composition, 1, Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks. These rocks have been formed from the accunyplation of materials derived from other rocks which have been cemented together. Sandstones are probably the most familiar sedimeflary rocks. They are made from sand grains, often quartz fragments derived from granites. Their texture, composition and colour vary tremendously. Many types of sandstones have been quarried for building purposes or for making grindstones. A coarser type of sand- stone is known as grit, When larger pebbles are firmly cemented to form a rock it is called conglome- rautc when the pebbles are rounded, or breccia whet the fragments are angular, The finer sedimentary materials form clay, widely used for brick-making, shale or madstone Sand and gravel may occur in uncemented form. 2. Organically formed sedimentary rocks, These rocks are formed from the remains of hving organisms such as corals or shellfish, whose fleshy parts have been decomposed, leaving behind the hard shells. The most common rocks formed in this way are of the calcarcaus type, They include hmestones and chalk, “The carbonaceous rocks are also organically formed Wut from vegetative matter—swamps and forests, The pressure of overlying sediments has compressed the plant remains into compact masses of carbon which eventually become pet. igiite or coal, all of which bear great economic value. 3. Chemically formed sedimentary rocks. Such rocks are precipitated chemically from solutions of one kind or another. Rock salts are derived from strata which once formed the beds of seas or lakes. Gypsum or calcium sulphate is obtained from the SrepORTION OT Salt~lakes, “such as the Dead Sea, which have a very high salinity. In similar ways, potash and nitrates may be formed Metamorphic Rocks All_rocks whether igneous or sedimentary may become metamorphic or changed rocks under great heat and pressure, Their original character and appearance may be greatly altered by such forces, particularly during intense earth movements In this manner, clay may be metamorphosed into_state, limestone into marble, sandstone into _guartante,. Branite into gnesss,shale into schist and coal into “graphitethis hilt with the limestone features shown in Chapter 7 vabatan Penerangan The Influence of Rock Types on Landscape ‘The appearance and characteristic features of land- forms are greatly influenced by the underlying rock type Softer rocks like clay and shale are worn down much faster than harder rocks like granite. Within West Malaysia the resistant granites form the high ground of the Main Range and the Eastern Range, where several peaks rise to over 2,000 feet. The landscape is one of smooth slopes and rounded hilltops. The highest peak in West Malaysia, Gunong Tahan (7,186 feet) is composed of even more Tesistant quartzite. Shales, schists and sandstones, being less resistant, form the much lower, rounded hills. Recent river sediments form flat plains. The Jimestones, resistant because of their permeability, form prominent steep-sided hills such as those near Ipoh and in Perlis. Earth Movements an ave Landforms me fr carth is constantly being reshaped of denudation —tunning water, rain, frost, sun, wind, glaciers and waves, so that our present landforms are very varied and diverse, But these agents only modify the pattern of mountains, plateaux and plains which have been modelled by movements of the earth’s crust. Since the dawn of geological time, no less than nine orogenic or mountain building movements have taken place, folding and fracturing the earth's crust. Some of them occurred in_Pre-Cambrian times between 600~3,500 million years ago. The three more recent orogenics ar the Catedonisn Hercynianand Alpine. The Caledonian about 32 million years agé raised the mountains of Scandinavis and Scotland, and is represented in North Aner These ancient mountains have been wom down an no longer exhibit the striking forms that they must once have had. In a later period, during the Her- cynian earth movements about 240 million years 280, “were formed such ranges as the Ural Mowe the Pennines and Welsh Highlands in Britain, the Harz Mountains in Germany, the Appalachians America as well as the high plateaux of Sib China. These mountains have also been redu size by the various sculpturing forces. We are now fiving in an era very close of the major orogenic movements of jee Told the Alpine, about 30 million years ago. i on mountain ranges were buckled up and over Torn gigantic scale. Being the most recently andes these ranges, such as the Alps, Himalayas, and and Rockies (shown in Fig. 17} are the vehi the most imposing. Their peaks ate som whet several miles high. But the time will come | these lofty ranges will be lowered like aoe ils existed before them, From the eroded on form new rocks wilt be formed, later to be uplifted to the next generation of mountains to the last Types of Mountains : 0 Mountains make up a large " earth’s surface. Based on their mode ot forest four main types of mountains can be dis forthe 1. Fold mountains. These mountains are ror most widespread and also the most vennert They are caused by large-scale art tue when stresses are set up in the earth's ca of tte stresses may be due to the increased ie mart overlying rocks, flow movements 10 pit magmatic intrusions into the crust, oF the or contraction of some part of the earl jects? such stresses are mutiated, the rocks are el to compressive forces that produce wrm! portion of theA | Young Alpine Folds Caldonisn Folds |. |Precombrian Ancient Shietts Fig 17 Structural divisions of the earth folding along the lines of weakness. As illustrated in Fig. 18(a) and (b) folding effectively shortens the earth’s crust, creating from the original level surface a Seftes of ‘waves’. The upfolded waves are calied anticlines and the troughs or downfolds are synclines, The formation of up- and downfolds closely resembles, that of the wrinkles of a table-cloth when it is pushed from either one or both sides of the table. In the great fold mountains of the world such as setting | emer | ee fig. 18 (a) The horizontal streta of the earth’s crust before folding (b) Compression shortens the crust forming fold mountains the Himalayas, Rockies, Andes and Alps, due ' to the complexity of the compressional forces, the | folds developed much more complicated forms. 1 When the crest of a fold is pushed too far. anaverfala is oe is formed (Fig. 19). If it 1s pushed still further, it becomes a recumbent fold (Fig. 19). In extreme cases, fractures may occur in the crust, so‘ that the upper part of the recumbent fold shdes forward over the lower part along a thrust plane, forming an overthrust fold. The over-riding postion of the thrust fold 1s termed a nappe (Fig. 19). Since the rock strata have been elevated to great heights, sometimes measurable in miles, fold mountains may anticline tecumbent fold simple fold synehne asymmetne fold thrustplane awit bred Fig. 19 Types of folding be called mountains of elevation. The fold moun- tains are also closely associated with volcanic activity. They contain many active volcanoes, especially in the Circum-Pacific fold mountain system. They also contain nich mineral resources such as tin. copper. eald and netralenenFig. 20 Normal, reverse and transcurrent faults 2. Block mountains, When the earth’s crust bends folding occurs, but when it cracks, faulting takes place (Fig 20). Faulting may be caused by tension or compression, forces which lengthen or shorten the earth’s crust, causing a section of it to subside or to rise above the surrounding level. Figs. 21(a) and (b) explain how faulting causes horsts or block mountams and their counterparts graben or rift valleys FEIT if ” 7 SALE ar a Minor in sedimentary rocks of the Kenny Hill Seri MW fautts have distorted the strata G. In Fig, 21(a) earth movements generate tensional forces that tend to pull the crust apart, and faults are developed. If the block enclosed by the faults remains as it is or rises, and the land on cither side subsides, the upstanding block becomes the horst or block mountain, The faulted edges are very steep, with scarp slopes and the summit is almost level, e.g. the Hunsruck Mountains, the Vosges and Black Forest of the Rhineland. Tension may also 4 7 Fig 21 (a) Block mountain (horst) formed by tension when faults develop 4 i i hen (b) Rift valley formed by compression faults develop : i ae (c) Later stage when overhanging sides worn backcause the central portion to be let down between two adjacent fault blocks forming a graben or rift valley, which will have steep walls. The East African Rift Valley system is 3,000 miles tong, stretching from East Africa through the Red Sea to Syria. Compressional forces set up by earth movements may produce a thrust or reverse fault and shorten the crust. A block may be raised or lowered in relation to surrounding areas. Fig. 21(b) illustrates a rift valley formed in this way. In general large- scale block mountains and rift valleys are due to tension rather than compression. The faults may occur in series and be further compliched by tilting and other irregularities. Denudation through the ages modifies faulted landforms. 3. Volcanic mountains. Theseare, infact, volcanoes which are built up from material ejected from fissures in the earth's crust. The materials include molten lava, volcanic bombs, cinders, ashes, dust and liquid mud. They fall around the sent in suc- cessive layers, building up a characteristic volcanic cone (Fig. 22). Volcanic mountains are often called mountains of accumulation. They are common in the Circum-Pacific belt and include such volcanic peaks as Mt. Fuji (Japan) Mt. Mayon (Phili pines), Mt. Merapi (Sumatra), Mt. Agung (Bali) and Mt. Catopaxi (Ecuador). Further details are given in Chapter 3, Fig 22 A volcane or ‘mountain of secumulation’ with successive layers of lava 4. Residual movntains. These are mountains evolv- ed by denudation. Where the general level of the land has been lowered by the agents of denudation some very resistant areas may remain and these form residual mountains, ¢.g. Mt. Manodnock in U.S.A. Residual mountains may also evolve from plateaux which have been dissected by rivers into hills and valleys like the ones illustrated in Fig. 23. Here the ridges and peaks are all very similar in height. Examples of dissected plateaux, where the wen em ee eee we nee wal montane oh Berson Fig 23 Residual mountains or mountains of denudation. down-cutting streams have eroded the uplands into mountains of denudation, are the Highlands of Scotland, Scandinavia and the Deccan Plateau. Types of Plateaux Plateaux are elevated uplands with extensive level surfaces, and usually descend steeply to the surround- ing lowland. They are sometimes referred to as tablelands. Like all highlands, plateaux are subjected to erosional processes. As a result, their original characteristics may be greatly altered. According to their mode of formation and their physical appear- ance, plateaux may be grouped into the following types 1. Tectonic plateaux. These are formed by earth movements which cause uplift, and are normally of a considerable size, and fairly uniform altitude. They include continental blocks like the Deccan Plateau in India. Some of the tectonic plateaux may be silted like the Meseta of central Iberia, or faulted like the Harz of Germany. When plateaux are enclosed by fold mountains, they are known as intermont plateaux. Examples are the Tibetan Plateau between the Himalayas and the Kunlun, and the Bolivian Plateau between two ranges of the Andes. Interment plateaux are some of the highest and the most extensive plateaux in the world. 2. Volcanic plateaux, Molten lava may issue from the earth’s crust and spread over its surface to form successive sheets of basaltic lava, These soldify to form a tava plateau. Some of the better known volcanic plateaux are the Antrim Plateau of Northern Ireland and the north-western part of the Deccan Plateau, The most remarkable plateau built by lava is the Columbia-Snake Plateau which covers an area almost twice as big as Malaysia. Each layer of the lava flow is over 100 feet thick and the entire depth of successive lava layers is estimated to be almost amile, : 17Chapter 3 Vulcanism and Earthquakes Landforms Associated with Vulcanic Activities Vulcanic activities have a profound influence on the earth’s landforms. Solid, liquid or gaseous materials may find their way to the surface from some deep- seated reservoir beneath. Molten magmais mobile tock that forces its way into the planes of weakness of the crust to escape quietly or explosively to the surface. The resultant landforms depend on the strength and fluidity of the magma, the types of cracks, faults and joints that it penetrates, and the manner in which it escapes to the surface. Magma while thrusting its way up to the surface may cool and solidify within the crust as plutonic rocks resulting in intrusive landforms. Magmas that reach the sur- face and solidify, form extrusive landforms. Rocks formed by either plutonic or volcanic activity are called igneous rocks Landforms of Igneous Intrusions Perhaps the commonest intrusive landforms are sills and dykes. When an intrusion of molten magma is made horizontally along the bedding planes of sedimentary rocks, the resultant intrusion is called a sill, Denudation of the overlying sedimentary strata will expose the intrusion which will resemble a lava flow, or form a bold escarpment like the Great Whin Sill of N.E, England. Similar intrusions when in- jected vertically as narrow walls of igneous rocks within the sedimentary layers are termed as dykes silt forening 2 Botd escarpment dyke more resistant ‘than surrounding rocks Oyke lest resistant votcana Because of their narrowness, dykes seldom dominate the landscape. When exposed to denudation they may appear as upstanding walls or shallow trenches, depending on whether they are more or less resistant than the rocks in which they are emplaced. Examples of dykes are the Cleveland Dyke of Yorkshire, England and hundreds of others in the Isles of Mall and Arran in Scotland. A large, very resistant dyke of quartzite forms a long ridge to the north of Kuala Lumpur, . Teneous intrusions on a larger scale are the various types of “liths’: Jaccoliths, lopoliths, phacoliths and batholiths (Fig. 26). The names may sound difficult; they are, in fact, all variations of igneous ine placed differently in the earth’s crust, and soldifying within the upper layers of the crust. A laccolithis ‘ large blister or igneous mound with a dome shape upper surface and a level base fed by @ Pe conduit from below. It arches up the over! We strata of sedimentary rocks, “ee ihe laccoliths of Henry Mountains, in Utah U.S.A. . . ‘A topolith is another variety of igneous intrus with a saucer shape. A shallow basin 1s forme in the midst of the country. rocks. ‘The Bushvel lopoliths of Transvaal, South Africa are £0 examples. - . "A. phacolith is a lens-shaped mass of ign rocks occupying the crest of an anticline of overtylng rocks arched up by leccolith *9 26 Intrusive landforms of igneous intrusions in volcanic regions (showing all, dyke, laccolth, fopolith phacolith and. batholith)bottom of a syzcline and being fed by.a conduit from beneath. An example of a phacolith is Corndon Hill in Shropshire, England. A batholith is a huge mass of igneous rocks, usually granite, which after removal of the overlying rocks forms a massive and resistant upland region such as the Wicklow Mountains of Ireland, the uplands of Britanny, France and the Main Rangeof West Malaysia. Their precise mode of origin is still a matter of controversy. It is generally believed that large masses of magma rising upwards metamor- Phosed the country rocks with which they came into contact. These metamorphosed rocks together with the solidified magma give rise to extensive batholiths, sometimes hundreds of miles in extent. They are the most spectacular of the intrusive landforms, The Origin of Volcanoes The ancient Grecks believed that voleanic eruptions Mt. Mayon, Philippines, in eruption occurred when Vulcan, the God of the Underworld, stoked his subterranean furnace beneath Vulcano, a sma}! volcanic island off Sicily, from which the present word volcano is derived. Of course, we no longer believe this is true. Geologists and vulcanologists have ascertained that volcanic activity is closely connected with -crustal disturbances, particularly where there are zones of weakness due to deep fault- ing or mountain folding As temperature mcreases with increasing depth below the earth’s crust, at an average rate of about 1°F. for every 65 feet of descent, the interior of the earth can be expected to be in a semi-molten state, comprising solid, ligud and gaseous materials, collectively termed magma. The magma is heavily charged wath gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphurated hydrogen, and small proportions of nitrogen, chlorine and other volatile substances. The gases and vapour increase the mobility and explosiveness of the Javas which are emitted through the orifice or vent of a volcano during a volcanic eruption. There are two main types of /avas. 1, Basic lavas. These are the hottest lavas, about 1,000°C. (1,830°F.) and are highly flaid They are dark coloured like basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica. As they are poured out of the volcano, they flow quietly and are not very explosive. Due to their high fluidity, they fow readily with a speed of 10 to 30 miles per hour, They affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great distances before they solidify, The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a wide diameter and forms a flattened sheild or dome (Fig, 27). extensive lava sheets Fig, 27 Lava dome or shield volcano crater steeply sloping sides sticky viscous lava Ke Ro ge Fig 28 Acid lava cone2. Acid lavas, These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point They are light-coloured, of low density, and have a high Percentage of silica. They flow sfowly and seldom travel far before sohdifying. The resultant cane is therefore steep- sided. The rapid congeating of tava in the vent obstructs the flow of the oul-pouting lava, resulting in loud explosions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroctasts (Fig. 28) Sometimes the lavas are so viscous that they form a spine or plug at the crater like that of Mt. Pelee in Martinique (Fig. 29). Some spines are very resistant and while most ofthe matenal of very ald volcanoes is removed by crasion the spine may remain, e.g. Pay de Dome, France. Matera! cemoved by trounn Fig 29 A volcanic Plug or spine after protonged exposure to efosion. The plug is moro resistant and remains after most of the volcanic materials have been worn away, Types of Volcanoes There are three types of volcanoes: active, dormant and extinct. Volcanoes are said to be active when they frequently erupt or at least when they have erupted within recent time. Those that have been Known to erupt and show signs of possible eruption m the future are described as dormant. Volcanoes that have not erupted at all in historic tmes but retain the features of volcanoes are termed extinct. All volcanoes pass through active, dormant and extinet stages but we can never be thoroughly sure when they are extinct, Mt. Vesuvius and Mt. Krakatau were once thought by people to be extinct and yet both erupted most violently. Extrusive Landforms Extrusive ofms are determined by thenature and compos ¢ lava and other sjected matenals that r face of the earth, ‘The fluid basic 22 fava, flowing for long distances produces extensive Tua nd basalt plateaux such as the great Lava plinsef the Snake Basin, USA. The basal plateaus are found in many continents, ¢ g. the north- westem part of the Deccan Plateau and in Iceland. Valcanic cones are most typical of the extrusise features. The highty fluid tavas build up lava domes or shield solcanoss with gently rising slopes anid broad, Mattened tops The volcanoes of Hawaii have the best developed Lisa domes. ‘The spectacular Mauna Loa and Kilauea are so accessible that they have been closely studied. Kilauea has rat Steep-walled caldera into which the active vent ted Trot lniTarming the Ana-pit of Halemaumsu. Thousands of tava fountains rise and fall in the dazzling pit. | The less Quid lavas that explode more violently form gshand cinder cones with large central craters andstcepslapes, They are typical of small volcanoes, occurring in groups and seldom exceeding 1, ‘ fect in height, such as Mt. Nuovo, near Naples an MU Paricutin in Mexico. The lava flows are so viscous that they solidify after a short distance When they are confined in valleys, they form tongues and Java-dammed fakes when they dam a river valley. Other minor features that may associated with java obstructions include iva bridg and lava tunnels, . . A voleame region may be strewn with sali materials that were hurled from the vent rans volcano. The very fine particles are the Moat "t dust which may be shot so high into the sky # it travels round the world several times belo eventually comes to rest. The dust or ash fa The ‘black snow’ and can bury houses and people. led coarser fragmental rocks are collectively «ia pyroclasts and include cinders or (opill, 5 pumice and volcanic bombs. have The highest and most common voleanaes Oe camposite cones_ They are often called ferup- volcanoes. The cones are built up by see from tions of lava, ashes and other volcanic materials et the main conduit Which leads down a reservon 5 magma. Each new eruption adds new layer hi ashes or lava to the sides of the volcano, duit grows steadily in height. From the main erace 08 subsidiary dykes or pipes may reach the sur ar feeders to parasitic cones. Lava escapes i Le them to the sides of the main cones (Fig. 3 » ones Etna in Sicily has hundreds of such Paras eon" Another interesting composite volcano is Mt. aa boli whose frequetit craptions That mvake the suri eeFig. 30 A composite cone glow have cared for it the name ‘Lighthouse of the Afediterranepn’. Other well known comiposite vol- canoes include Mt. Vesavius; Mt: Fajr, Mt. Popacata- petl and Mi Chitosan During an eruption material from the top of the cone is blown off or collapses into the vent widening the orifice into a large crater. Some volcanoes may have greatly enlarged depressions called calderas, which may be several miles across. These are the result of violent eruptions accompanied by the subsidence of much of the volcano into the magma beneath (Fig. 31). Water may collect in the crater or the caldera forming crater ot caldera lakes, e.g. Lake Toba in Sumatra — Eee outhne of, aciginal crater former volcano SS . re Fig 31 Accaldera A violent eruption weakens the structure of the volcano and after erupticn has ceased much of the voleano subsides into the magma reservoirbeneath. Thedepression may later be filled with water to form a lake. Some Volcanic Eruptions In the history of mankind perhaps the most disastrous eruptions Were those of Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Krakatau and Mt. Pelee. Mt. Vesuvius Mt. Vesuvius, standing 4,000 feet above the Bay of Naples, erupted violently on 24 August a.p, 79 taking the people who lived around it by complete surprise. Whute-hot lava flowed from parasitic cones. In the midst of a thundering explosion, the highly gaseous magma escaped as gigantic Iummous clouds in cauliflower form and shot up to great heights before it fell to earth as pyroclasts and ashes. The city of Pompeii, jocated to the south-west, was buried beneath twenty feet of volcanic ashes which were later cemented by the torrential downpours of heavy rain that accompanted the violent eruption. In a similar way, the city of Herculaneum on the west was completely overwhelmed by a mudflow of ashes and cinders almost 50 feet thick, washed down by torrential rain from the slopes of Vesuvius. Almost the entire population of the two cities was buried alive. After this, minor eruptions occurred from time to time but the fertility of the sdlidified Volcanic ashes tempted many farmers to begin anew on the slopes of Vesuvius hen came the catastrophic eruption of December 1631 when an avalanche comprising red hot volcamec debris, pasty lava and highly energized gases ruined fifteen towns and killed 4,000 inhabitants. The ashes that descended on Naples were estimated to be a foot thick. Mt. Krakatau The greatest volcanic explosion known to men is perhaps that of Mt. Krakataw in August 1883. Krakatau is a smatt volcanic island in the Sunda Straits, midway between Java and Sumatra. Dense black clouds of ashes shot 20 to 50 miles high, and were brought dawn as mud by the torrential rain which fell over the adjacent islands. So much magma was ejected from the underlying reservoir that two- thirds of the island collapsed and disappeared forming a huge submarine caldera. The explosion could be heard in Australia, almost 3,000 miles away, The fine dust that was thrown into the upper part of the atmosphere travelled several times around the world, causing brilliant sunsets and glowing sky in many parts of the globe. Though Krakatau itself was not inhabited and nobody was killed by the lava flows, the vibration set up enormous waves over 100 feet 23high which drowned 36,000 people in the coastal distnets of Indonesia. After remaining dormant for almost half a century, an cruption in 1927 pushed up a cinder cone from the submarine floor, culminating in a summit of 220 feet above sea level by 1952. This new volcanic island was named Anak Krakatau, meaning ‘the child of Mt. Krakatau’, Mt. Pelee The eruption of Mt. Pelee of the West Indies in May 1902 was the most catastrophic of modern times. The volcano erupted white-hot lava and super-heated steam which swept down the slope at an amazing speed as a nuce ardente (glowing avalanche). St. Pierre, the capital of Martinique, lying on the path of the lava, was completely destroyed within minutes. Its entire population of 30,000, except two of them, was killed almost instantly. Even the sea was boiling and all the ships in the harbour were wrecked. The ejection of volcanic materials continued for several months until a vertical spine rose from the crater, almost a thousand feet high by the middle of 1903, The spine was formed by the pasty lava, partially solidified in the neck of the volcano. Part of the spine, however, crumbled under continual weathering as well as internal forces. The Distribution of Volcanoes in the World Volcanoes are located in a fairly clearly-define pattern around the world, closely related to region that have becn intensely folded or faulted. Ther are well over 500 active volcanoes and thousands ¢ dormant and extinct ones. They occur along coastz mountain ranges, as off-shore islands and in th midst of oceans, but there are few in the interiors © continents. The greatest concentration is probabl: that in the Circum-Pacific region, popularly terme the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, which has been estimatec to_ incl; two-thi ¢_world’s volcano (Fig. 32). The chain of volcanoes extends for almos 2,000 miles from the Aleutian Islands into Kam chatka, Japan, the Philippines, and Indonesia (Javt and Sumatra in particular), southwards into the Pacific islands of Solomon, New Hebrides, Tong? and North Island, New Zealand. On the other side of the Pacific, the chain continues from the Andes to Central America (particularly Guatemala, Costa Rica and Nicaragua), Mexico and right up to Alaska. It is said that there are almost 100 active volcanoes in the Philippines, 40 in the Andes, 35 in Japan. ant more than 70 in Indonesia. . In contrast, the Atlantic coasts have comparatively few active volcanoes but many dormant oF extinc! volcanoes, ¢.g. Madeira, Ascension, St. Helena, Cape Mt. Mayon seen from the town of Legaspi, southern Luzon. Philippine Tourist end Travel Association croc Tee tt ‘SIRERLAN a,” MONGOLIAN PL, -OFAKENSBERG PLATEAU volcanogs (both activa and extinct) e se ooma tet planes a = mo OERS ys | a corn) o BELT (Pay ‘ aU we : ne eatucs bee ee % % Fig. 32 World distribution of volcanoes, fava plateaux and earthquakes Verde Islands and Canary Islands, but those of Iceland and the Azores are active. Volcanoes of theMediter- ranean region are mainly associated with the Alpine folds, e.g. Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli, Vulcano and those of the Aegean islands. A few continue into Asia Minor (Mt. Ararat, Mt. Elbruz). The Hima- layas have, surprisingly, no active volcano at all. In Africa some volcanoes are found along the East African Rift Valley, e.g. Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya, both probably extinct, The_only active voleane of West Africa is Mt. Cameroon, There areSome volcanic cones in Madagascar, but active eruption has not been known so far. The West Indian islands have experienced some violent ex- plosions in recent times, e.g. Mt. Pelee in Martinique, and in St. Vincent further south. The Lesser Antilles ase made up mainly of volcanic islands and some of them still bear signs of volcanic liveliness. Elsewhere in the interiors of continents—Asia, North America, Europe and Australia, active volcanoes are rare. Geysers and Hot Springs Geysers are fountains of hot water and superheated steam that may spout up to a height of 150 feet from the earth beneath, The phenomena are asso- ciated with a thermal or volcanic region in which the water below is being heated beyond boiling-point (100°C. or 212°F.). The jet of water is usually emitted with an explosion, and is often triggered off by gases seeping out of the heated rocks: (Fig. 33). Almost all the world’s geysers are confined to three major areas: Iceland, the Rotorua district of North Island, New Zealand and Yellowstone Park of Fig. 33 Mot springs and geysersU.S.A. The world’s best known geyser is perhaps ‘Old Faithful’ in Yellowstone National Park, Wyo- ming which erupts at regular intervals—every 63 minutes on the average. Hot springs or thermal springs are more common, and may be found in any part of the earth where water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be heated by the interior forces. The water rises to the surface without any explosion. Such springs contain dissolved minerals which may be of some medical value, Iceland has thousands of hot springs. Some of them have been hamessed to heat houses, swimming pools and for other domestic purposes. Hot springs and geysers have become tourist attractions e.g. in Japan and Hawaii. Earthquakes The earth is never free from earthquakes for long and more than 50,000 of them are recorded annually. Minor earth tremors caused by gentle waves of vibration within the earth's crust occur every few minutes Major earthquakes, usually caused by movement along faults, can be very disastrous particularly in densely populated areas Earthquakes themselves may cause only restricted damage in the regions of occurrence, but their after-effects can be very catastrophic. They produce gigantic tidal waves, called tsunamis by the Japanese, which flood towns and drown thousands of people. Fires break out beyond control as gas mains are shattered and buildings collapse. In severe earthquakes, fissures gape open, and the ground writhes and undulates in the passage of the ‘surface waves’, A wave height of a quarter of an inch in the upheaval is sufficient to bring down most ordinary buildings. Roads, rail- ways and bridges are buckled and twisted; tele- communications are cut when the cables are snapped. Hills are so shaken that landslides are widespread. As the vibration thins out at the edges, like the series of waves set up by a stone thrown into the water, damage is greatly reduced. Only the highly sensitive seismograph can record the movements of earth- Quake waves, Some Major Earthquakes One of the greatest earthquakes ever known was the Great Lisbon Earthquake on 1 November 1755, It Originated in an abrupt subsidence of the ocean floor in the Atlanuc west of Lisbon. Tidal waves as high as 35 Te set up which swept across the coastal és bon, drowning thousands. Most ofthe ‘psed completely and it was estimated that 60,000 inhabitants died. The effects of the earthquake were felt within a 400 miles radius of Lisbon, in North Africa and Europe. The earthquake on I September 1923 that shook Tokyo and Yokohama was equally shocking. A fracture that occurred in the earth's crust off the coast of Japan caused the earthquake. The fragile buildings of the densely populated twin cities were mostly ruined; more than half a milion houses collapsed. Widespread fires from factories, gas mains, oil installations and kitchens killed a quarter of a million people and many more were injured. Other disastrous earthquakes include that of San Francisco in 1906 which ruined the greater part of the heart of San Francisco. In the loess region of Kansu im China, the 1920 earthquake claimed 200,000 lives, and again in 1927 when 100,000 cave- dwellers were buried alive. In 1960, the earthquake at Agadir, Morocco sealed the fate of 10,000 ia- habitants, besides causing untold damage, and in 1968 there was a disastrous earthquake in eastern Iran, with its epicentre at Kakh. The Distribution of Earthquakes The world’s distribution of earthquakes coincides very closely with that of volcanocs. Regions greatest seismicity are Circum-Pacific are aces the gpicentres and the most frequent oot along the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’. It is sal n many as 70 per cent of ea! ike ir Cireum-Pacific belt. ‘Another 20-per-cen i “Tee ate = a the Mediterranean-Homal i befi including Asia Minor, the Himalayas 29! rust of north 2 ere, the earths sakes, i relatively stable and is less prone to eartl ea though nowhere can be said to be immune tremors. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1, With the aid of annotated diagrams, wing a comparative account of Jandforms res! ties from intrusive and extrusive igneous activilie>- 2. Distinguish the difference in appearance and origin of any three of the following pau terms associated with vulcanicily. {a) sills and dykes (b) cinder cones and lava domes (©) geysers and hot springs (@) crater and caldera (©) taccolith and lopolithNae 3. Describe, with appropriate sketches, the major types of landforms originating from acid and basic lavas. 4, On a map of the world, locate the chief volcanic and earthquake areas. Write a des- criptive account of any one major volcanic eruption er earthquake that has occurred in historical times. You should include the causes, effects and consequences of such a named — occurrence, 5. The following terms are m one way or another connected with volcanoes and carth- quakes, Choose one term from each of the sections A, B and C and write what you know about them: Section A SectionB Section C magma basalt plateau Vulcano Java Java plain Tsunami pyrociasts parasitic cones ‘Old Faithful" 27Chapter 4 Weathering, Mass Movement and Groundwater The earth's crust is constantly undergoing geological _ layers of exposed rocks, Such reactions may weaken changes caused by internal forces, which create new _or entirely dissolve certain constituents of the rock, relief features. Orogenesis build new mountain thus loosening the other crystals and weakening the ranges, uplift or depression of particular areas is whole surface. For example, in Malaysia, the surface caused by folding or faulting, and voleanic distur- of granite which has been exposed to the weather is bances also modify the landscape. Meanwhile exter- found to be pitted and rough, This is because the gra- nal forces are working vigorously to wear away the nite is made of three main minerals: quartz, felspar surface, and the interaction of these constructive and and mica. The felspar is more quickly weathered than destructive forces gives rise to the great diversity of the quartz and thus the felspar crystals are worn present-day landforms. The process of wearing away away. The quartz crystals are eventually loosened in the earth causes a general lowering and levelling out —_ this way and form a coarse sandy residue. of the surface. It is known as denudation and is car- ‘When the surface of a rock is weathered some of tied out in four phases, a the material which is loosened is removed by erosive i, Weathering. the gradual disintegration of agents such as wind or running water thus exposing 2 rocks by atmospheric or weather forces; fresh surface to weathering, but much of the weath- ii. Erosion: the active wearing away of theearth’s ered material or regolith (remains of the rock) may surface by moving agents like running water, __ stay in position forming the basis of soil. Regolith is wind, ice and waves; simply the mineral remains of decomposed rocks, bu iti, Transportation: the removal of the eroded soil contains organic materials, such as the roots © debris to new positions; plants, fallen leaves, small animals such as worms, iv. Deposition: the dumping of the debris in bacteria and so on. It is the organic content of soil certain parts of the earth, where it may which makesit fertile and allows crops to be grown accumulate to form new rocks. When a soil cover exists, chemical weather ‘A All four phases of the denudation process are tak- } the underlying rocks does not cease; ont a ing place simult: in dif i ts Is because the so. ig pl imultaneously in different parts of the | is usually enhanced Th rocks in contact world at different rates, much depending on the + rain-watef and keeps the underlying nature of the relief, the structure of the rocks, the | with this moisture. The rain-water absorbs sa local climate and interference byman acids from the soil and thus becomes @ eri ‘This chapter describes the work of weathering and | weathering agent than pure rain-water acting 0” the features it produces, while Chapters 5 to 10 deal_ | rock. - ao proces: with erosion, transportation and deposition by water, ‘There are three major chemical weathering P wind, ice and waves. ses. issolved by (a) Solution, Many minerals are disso! vata Weathering water, especially when, as with rain-water,it ver a . enough carbon dioxide to make it & weak act "ites The work of weathering in breaking up the rocks is of tion is the most potent weathering process in ot ie two kinds, namely chemical, and physical or mecha- tone regions because the rain-water attacks and dis nical weathering, but the processes involved in each solves the calcium carbonate of which the i are closely interrelated, chiefly formed. The dissolved calcium carbons carried away by the water, joints an ote rock are quickly widened and whole s} smes 1, Chemical weathering and passages are worn out (see Chapter 8). rin tone, however, is by no means the only roel 210 ‘i ion. All rocks are subject Chemicat weathering is the basic process by which from ae og the pracess is much slower thal organi¢ a 4, la se ation Proceeds. It is the extremely slaw and with limestone. ‘The rate at which solution takes? sry composition ofrocks due toexposuretoair is affected not only by the mineral composition whi rand water contain chemical elements, rock but also by its structure, Sedimentary nih dthey may be in smail quantities, are suf. he grains ic + - often have pore-spaces between the gral f 4p chemical reactions in the surface air and waterean Todge and thus attack the rock-Rock easily . Rock still ‘weathered unweathered where joints are where joints closely spaced ‘ are far apart (et Teoh eo We a Possible oriqutal AAA solid corestone embedded in weathered materia! which fas been exposed in @ road cutting near Tampin, Negri Sembi- pattern of joints ‘ Fig. 4.1 Grfferentlal weathering in a rock such as granfte where unevenly spaced joints may give rise to corestanes and certain blocks remain unweathered. In jointed racks, temperature change cracks up rectangular blocks, , density of joints or cracks in the rock is also crucial to the speed of weathering. This factor is very clearly seen in Malaysia in the weathering of granite. In trop- ical countries. where the heavy rainfall and warm cli- mate both promote rapid chemical reactions, weath- ¢ring Often proceeds very rapidly. This produces the very deep regoliths or soils overlying the solid rocks, Often these regoliths contain core-stones. These are pieces of solid rock which have resisted weathering while all the surrounding rock has been weathered, They are more resistant because they have fewer joints or cracks to harbour moisture and are thus more slowly weathered by solution processes (Fig. 4.land Plate 4.A), Rneae af syanete ns Lats Dryclimates, however, provide good conditions for ph il or mechanical weather (6) Oxidation. Oxidation is the reaction of oxygen in a or water with minerals in the rock. Forexample, most rocks contain a certain amount of iron, which when it comes in contact with air is changed to iron oxide, familiar brownish crust or rust. Iron oxide crumbles easily and is fat more easily croded than the original iron, itis thus removed, loosening the overat) structure of the rocks and weakening them. Jan G.G Morgen (c) Decomposition by organic acids. Within the soil which covers most rocks are bacteria whch thrive on decaying plant or animal material. These bactena produce acids which, when dissolved in water, help to speed up the weathering of the underlying rocks. In some cases micro-organisms and plants like mosses or hchens can live on bare rock, so fong as the surface is damp. These absorb chemical elements from the rocks as food and also produce organic acids They are thus agents of both chemical and mechanical weathering. 2, Physical or Mechanical weathering Mechanical weathering is the physical disintegration of a rock by the actual prising apart of separate parti- cles. This can happen even with completely fresh rock but the processes of physical weathering are able to work much more easily when the surface of the rock has already been weakened by the action of chemical weathering Mechantcal weathering takes place in several ways. (a} Repeated temperature changes. In deserts, tocks are expased to the blazing sun during the day and are intensely heated. The outer layers expand mutch faster than the cooler interior of the rocks and tend to pull away from the rest. At nightfall the temp- erature drops rapidly and the outer layers contract more rapidly than the interior. setting up internal Stresses. Such stresses. repeated every day for months 294.8 When corestones are exposed to -tropical weather condi- tions they ore subject to repeated wetting and drying which ‘cause the Outer layers to peel off. This tandstone boulder shows several layers have split off in some areas, G.C. Morgan and years, cause the rocks to crack and split. Well- bedded and jointed rocks tend to split along the joints or cracks, breaking up into rectangular blocks. Shales and slates may split up into platy fragments because of their platy structure. In crystalline rocks such as granite the crystals of the various minerals (quartz, mica, felspar) will expand and contract at different Tates, enhancing the stresses and accelerating the dis- integration of the rocks. Fragments broken from large rock outcrops fall by gravity to the foot of the slope. They may form screes or may form a litter of angular chips and small boulders on the flatter ground. Stresses and pressures will naturally be greatest Fig. 4.2 Frost action es en egent of mechanical weathering Water collects in rock crevices near the surface and where there are sharp angles in the rocks. Rectangular blocks are thus gradually rounded by the splitting away of sharp comers. When the surface layers of rounded boulders gradually split off the process is called onion peeling, because the varinus layers look like the layers of an onion, peeled off one after another. The technical term for this pro- cess is exfoliation (Plate 4.B). (b) Repeated wetting and drying. Exfoliation isnot confined to desert areas. Similar stresses may be set up in rocks by repeated wetting and drying of the sur- face layers, This takes place especially in tropical reg- ions, like Malaysia, where short downpours saturate the rocks and then the hot sun quickly dries them again, Repeated wetting and drying also oocursat the coast, where rocks may be rapidly dried by sun ant wind between tides. When rocks are wetted the out layers absorb a certain amount of moisture expand. When they dry this moisture evaporates an they quickly shrink. When this happens repea ed the outer layers split off. It should also be neal that the wetting and drying of the rocks in ces ve probably just as important as temperature cha ms ay mechanical weathering. The rocks dry very 4! as indeed after being wetted by brief desert rains i‘ rq (c) Frost action, In temperate latitudes is oo potent rock breaker. All rocks contain orvater ot joints, or pore spaces, and after a shower ture snow collects in such places. When the teres. drops at night or during the winter, this vale vite vol When water freezes it expands by one-ten tao ke ume and exerts a bursting pressure of almos inch per square cm (2,000 Ib. to the saa a Repeated freezing of this kind will deepen . the 100k the original cracks and crevices and breal vainpeas into angular fragments (Fig. 4.2). On moun ular ou this process creates sharp pinnacles and a re attr lines. Such peaks are described as fros Water freezes and expands in volume prising rocks apartRoots penetrate Joints and force rocks apart peaks. Angular fragments of rock are prised from mountain-sides or cliff faces and fall to the foot of the slope where they accumulate to form screes (a) Biotic factors. Small fragments of rock loosened by either chemical or mechanical weather- ing lodge in cracks and crevices in the rock and plants may sprout in such crevices. As they grow their roots penetrate the rocks below, usually along joints and other lines of weakness, prising them apart. You have often come across latge trees growing near roads or the courtyards of houses that finally prise open the conereté or paving stones above their roots. The pro- cess is just the same ona smallerscale in a natural set- ting (Fig. 4.3). Men, in the course of mining, read constructiin and farming, also contribute to mechanical weather- ing by excavating the rocks and rendering them more vulnerable to the agents of denudation. ! : Mass Movement | Mass moventent is the movement of weathered mate- tials down a slope due to gravitational forces. The movement may be gradual or sudden, depending on the gradient of the slope, the weight of the weathered debris and whether there is any lubricating moisture supplied by rain-water. Several kinds of mass move- } mentare distinguished. Roots force their way Into Joints and bedding planes Fig, 4.3 Plant roots as agents of mechanicat weathering 1. Solf Creep ‘This is a slow, gradual but more or tess continuous movement of soil down hilislopes. The movement is not very noticeable, especially when the slope is fairly gentle or, when the soil is well-covered with grass of other vegetation. Soil creep is most common in damp Fig. 4.4 Evidences of soll ereep walls bulge or break4.C A landslide after flood has damaged the road Jeboter Penersngsn Malaysia soils where the water acts as a lubricant so thatindi- vidual soil particles move over each other and over the underlying rock Itisafso found where continuous trampling by animals grazing on the slopes sets up vibrations which loosen the soil and cause it to mave, Though the movement is slow and cannot readily be seen in action, the. gradual movement tilts trees, fences, posts and so on which are rooted in the soil. The soil is also seen to accumulate at the foot of slope or behind obstacles such as walls, which may eventu- ally be burst by the weight of soil above (Fig. 4.4). 2. Soil Flow (Solifluction) When the soil is completely saturated with water the individual partictes are almost suspended in the water and move easily over one another and over the under- lying rock. The soil acts ike aliquid anda soul-flow or mud-flow occurs. In arid regions a mantle of weath cred debris may become saturated with rain-wate after a storm and flow downslope as a semi-liquis mass. In temperate and tundra regions soil flow occur when the surface layers of frozen ground thay in spring. Soil and rock debris, lubricated by the melt water, flow easily over the underlying frozen subsoil In areas of peat soils, the peat absorbs much mois ture. However if saturation pointis reached the peaty soil may flow downslope. In Ireland such flows are known as ‘bog-bursts’. 3. Landslides (Slumping or Sliding) ‘These are very rapid kinds of movement and ocett when a large mass of soil or rock falls suddenly. an slides usually occur onsteep slopes such asin ‘fealy tainous areas, on cliffs or where man has art Ia , steepened slopes, for example, in road or rail cul a (Plate 4.C). Landslides may be caused bec steep slope isundercut by a river or the sea nets falls by gravity. Earthquakes or volcanic distur! on may loosen rocks and start off a landslide. wan ie steepening both undercuts the slope and set se ted rations which may loosen rocks or soil. But sai landslides are caused by thelubricating action ©: aes water. Water may collect in joints or bedding nage in rocks so that one layer slides over anol neatly cially in areas of tilted strata. Slumping is pi i ayes common where permeable debris or water sak overlie impermeable strata such as clay ed ty the ing through the permeable material is areoery ful clay, The damp clay provides a smooth sl ee (Fg face over which the upper layers easily sli 45). th Water may collect at the base of the we because it sinks readily into the weathere Fig.4.5 Landslide4.D_ An effective way of preventing landslide by building # cun- exete wallTaiwan Goh Cheng Leong but more slowly into the solid rock beneath. The water may allow the regolith to slide away from the undeslying rock. Man often enhances the possibility of landslides by clearing natural vegetation for agriculture or housing Removal of the plant cover allows more water to penttrate the soil and rocks. In areas such as the Cameron Highlands, where steep slopes have been cleared, there is much evidence of minor slumps and slides, the old scars showing up clearly in the tea gar- , dens, Extensive landslides, whether natural or man- induced, can have disastrous consequences, burying villages, railway lines or people. Spectacular land- slides have taken place in many parts of the world, including * South Wales, British Columbia, Hong Kong and the Cameron Highlands where the village of Ringlet was partially buried in 1961 and several houses were ruined. Groundwater ale ‘The whole process of the circulation of water between the land, sea and atmosphere is known as the hyd- rological cycle. The movement of the water in the atmosphere and its effect on climate are dealt with in Chapters 13 and 14, The seas and oceans are discus- sed in Chapter 12, The effect of water on the land as an agent of weathering, erosion, transport and depos- ition is dealt with in this and the following chapters, especially Chapter 5, ‘When rain falls on the earth it is distributed in vari- ous ways. Some is immediately evaporated and thus returns to the atmosphere as water vapour. Some is absorbed by plants and only gradually returned to the atmosphere by transpiration from the leaves of plants. Much of it flows directly off slopes to join streams and rivers, eventually reaching the seas and occeans. This is known as run-off A considerable proportion of the water received from rain or snow, however, percolates downwards into the soil and rocks, filling up joints and pore-spaces and forming what is known as goundwater Groundwater plays an important part in weathering and mass moyement ‘and is also important as a means of natural water stor- age. It re-enters the hydrological cycle by way of springs. The amount of water available to form groundwa- terdepends tosome extenton climate In dry climates much precipitation may be quickly evaporated into the dry atmosphere and little moisture may percolate into the ground. In very humid conditions, where the surface of the ground may already be moist, much water may be moved as run-off. In moderately humid’ areas water both runs off and sinks into the ground. ‘The proportion of the rainfall absorbed as groundwa- ter may depend on the season of the year. More important, however, is the nature of the 4.6 A severe flood in Kuala Kangsar (Malaysia) in 1967—the main street of the town was under 4-6 m (15-20 feet} of water vabatan Penerangan MataysiaJoints and faults Rainwater Rein water Pore spaces 4 oS 2 O% eee eOS GOSSs so & 228 SS we COHO OV SSKEDSEG x Sores Mi. 9969669000 Porous rock, WH FERVIOUS ROCK (e.g. granite} Fig. 4.6 Porosity and permeability of rocks rocks and how easily they absorb and retain water. Various rocks and soils differ greatly in their porosity and permeability; the amount of groundwater pre- sent and the depth at which it lies are governed by these characteristics. Porous rocks are those, like sandstone, which have many pore-spaces between the grains. Water is easily absorbed by such rocks and may be stored in the pore-spaces, Permeable or pervi- ous rocks are those which allow water to pass through them easily (Fig. 4.6), Thus most porous rocks are. om ke ™ bet Tea rormeshic rock, which is thus impermeable. On the other hand, _ granite whi d-consequently -porous is often pervious. Its individual crystals absorb little or no water but the rock may have Fig, 4.7 Groundwater table and its relationship to the curvature of the land Zone of saturation (permeable rocks) numerous joints or cracks through which the water can pass, rendering it pervious or permeable. Some granites are, however, far more pervious than others. The Water-Table Water which seeps through the ground moves down- ward under the force of gravity until it reaches an impermeable layer of rock through which it cannot pass. Ifthere is no ready outlet for the groundwater in the form of e spring, the water accumulates above the impermeable layer and saturates the rock. The permeable rock in which the water is stored is knows as the aquifer (Fig. 4.7). The surface of the saturate atca is called the water-table, The depth of the water- table varies greatly according toreltef and to the type of rocks. The water-table is far below the surdace of hill-tops but is close to the surface in valleys and fla low-lying areas where it may cause wwaterlogerns st "0 swampy conditions. The depth of the water-tab le ns varies greatly with the seasons. When plenty en available to augment groundwater supplies the a we table may rise, but in dry periods, no new suppl! ad available, and the water-table is lowered as an } water is lost through seepages and springs (Fig. 4-7). Fig, 4.88) Sprig seeps from edge of pervious rock iyi #bo an inclined Impervious strata Rainwater Hill-top~water-table lies ferther beneath| Rainwater Fig. 4.8(d} Scarp-foot spring and dip-stope spring Springs and Wells 1. Springs The groundwater stored in the rock is released onto the surface at points where the water-table reaches the surface. A spring is simply an outlet for such water. The water may seep gradually out of the rock or may gush out as a fountain. Springs are of several Kinds due to the nature of the rocks and the position of the water-table. The main types are described below. {a} In areas of silted strata, where permeable and impermeable rocks alternate, water emerges at the base of the permeable layers (Fig.4,8a).- (b) In well-jointed rocks water may percolate | downwards until it reaches a joint which emerges at the surface. The water may come to the surface Permeable & saturated rocks Fig, 4.8(c) A dyke spring Impervious rock (ieee Fig, 4.8(e) Vauclusien Spring in karst regions through the joint (Fig. 4.86). , (c) Where a dyke or sill of impermeable rock is intruded through permeable rocks, it causes the water-table to reach the surface and the water issues as a spring (Fig. 4.8c). (d) In timestone or chalk escarpments, where the permeable rock lies between impermeable strata, water issues at the foot of the scarp as a Scarp-foot ‘spring, or near the foot of the dip-slope asa dip-slope Spring, as illustrated in Fig. 4.8. . {e) In karst regions rivers often disappear under- ground, They then flow through passages wom in the rock by solution, and may re-emerge when limesto} gives place to sorte impermeable rock. This kind of > spring is sometimes called a vauclusian spring but is better referred to as a resurgence (Fig. 4.8¢; see also Chapter 8). hotaprings, min Some other types of springs, ¢.g- ho! min eral springs and geysers are described in Chapter. meWell water available during wet season Water-table Well water available afl the time| x Permanent water-table ~ ene Saturated rocks Fig. 4.9 Depth of wells and waterstable mark 2, Wells Springs are the natural emergence points of ground water, but Man can make use of stored water below ground by sinking wells. A hole is bored through the earth until the water-table is reached. The well must be sunk to the depth of the permanent water-table (Fig. 4.9) if a constant supply of water is to be obtained. If the well is only sunk to the wet-season depth of the water-table, water will be unobtainable when the level drops in the dry season. When a well is bored, the water usually has to be raised by hand or by mechanical pumping. Wells are particularly important in arid areas where there is little surface water but where the underlying rocks contain ground- water, iy ily Rbintatlfroaks inhge 1 +4 q Pervious rocks (Aquifer) A particularly important type of wellis the artesian _ Artesian wells Fig. 4.11 The distribution of artesian besins In Australis well, which owing to the nature of its forma quite distinctive. Where rock layers have been . “ folded into a basin shape, permeable strata suc . chalk or limestone may be sandwiched bene? impermeable layers, such as clay. The Pomme rocks may only come to the surface at the dato nee basin, but water falling on them will gradual the downwards by the force of gravity until it reach le lowest part of the basin (Fig. 4.10). The impe en jayer below prevents the water from passing vents wards while the impermeable layer on top ae : any possibility of the water escaping tein, aquifer is thus saturated to the brim of the ‘ I reat ‘The water is thus trapped in the aquifer un ie ot pressure and when a well is bored, the press soit water downwards from all around the-basin sl hat cient to force the water up the bore-hole 5° atime gushes onto the surface like a fountain. After I Ralntelstlaks in pere { 6 ee . of rocks Formation of an artesian basin where 8 pervious layer laquifer) is betwen two Impervious stratethe pressure decreases and it is necessary to pump up the water. . The depth of artesian wells varies from place to place, from a few feet to thousands of feet. The water may be used to supply the needs of an entire village as in the Great Plains of U.S.A. or for sheep farming as in Queensland and other parts of Australia. Fig. 4.11 shows the distribution of artesian wells in Australia. But the water is sometimes unsuitable for agricultural or irrigation purposes as it may be hot or contain an excessive amount of mineral salts, QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1. (a) What do you understand by the term ‘weather- ing’? (b) Name 4 natural forces that play a role in weath- ering. (c) Differentiate mechanical weathering from chemical weathering and give examples of each, 2, (a) Describe how gravitational forces and rain- water assist in the mass movement of weathe- red materials on hill slopes. (b) Distinguish soit creep from landslides, and locate places where such occurrences have taken place. 3. (a) Whatis meant by the following: i, hydrological cycle ii, water-table iii. acquifer, (bv) For any two of the above, discuss their relation- ship with groundwater. 4. ‘While the earth’s crust is undergoing constructive changes to create new relief, external forces of nature are working vigorously to level this down.” Discuss. 5. Elaborate on any three of the following: {a) Exfoliation is the result of temperature changes in deserts. (b) Screes accumulate at the foot of steep moun- tainsin temperate lands. {c) There are many ways in which springs can be formed. (a) Artesian wells have a distinct formation, 6. (a) In what ways are chemical weathering diffe- Artesian wells are most valuable to Man when they can be used in desert areas, e.g, in parts of the Sahara and in Australia. The aquifers receive water in areas of higher rainfall, but the water accumulates in basins underlying arid regions. All wells bored by Man tend to deplete groundwa- ter resources because the water is extracted faster than under natural conditions and also much faster than it can be replenished by rainfall. In many areas groundwater supplies have been greatly reduced or even exhausted by Man as afesult of carelessness and overexploitation. rent from mechanical weathering? (b) Describe any three major processes of chemical weathering. (6) In what type of physical landform is chemical . weathering by solution most dominant? (d) Name a few well-known physical features caused by solution in chemical weathering. 7. (a) Why is mechanical weathering also known as physical weathering? (b) State four ways by which mechanical weather- ing takes place. (¢) In what climatic regions is mechanical weather ing by frost action most potent? 8. With reference to examples, carefully distinguish betweeen: (a) ‘weather’ and ‘erosion’ (b) ‘porous rocks’ and ‘pervious rocks* (c) ‘aspring’ and ‘a well” (a) ‘screes’ and ‘pebbles’. 9. Describe and explain the manner in which a land ” surface may be changed by i. rain; ii, Frost; iii, wind Wustrate your answer with annotated diagrams and specific examples. _ 10. (a) Explain what happens to precipitation when it falls on the land surface. (b) What factors determine the amount of water entering the ground in a particular place? (c) Why is the “underground scertery” better deve)- open in karst regions? 37Chapter 5 Landforms Made by Running Water The Development of a River System When rain falls, part of it sinks into the ground, some is evaporated back into the atmosphere and the rest runs off as rivulets, brooks, streams and tributaries of rivers that flow down to the sea. This running water forms a potent agent for denuding the earth’s surface, Denudation is the general lowering of the earth’s surface. This takes place because such agents of erosion as rivers, ice, wind and waves wear away the rocks and transport the eroded debris to lower land or right down to the sea. But erosion cannot take place unless the rocks are first weakened or shattered by exposure to the elements. Rain, frost and wind weather the rocks so that they can be eroded more easily. Unlike glaciers and snow, which are confined to the cold and temperate latitudes; waves which act only on coastlines; winds, which are only ‘efficient’ in deserts; the effect of running water is felt ait over the globe wherever water is present. Running water is thus the most important single agent of denudation. The source of a river may be a spring, a lake or a marsh, but it is generally in an upland region, where precipitation is heaviest and where there is a slope down which the run-off can flow. The up- lands therefore form the catchment areas of rivers. The crest of the mountains is the divide or watershed from which streams flow down the slopes on both sides to begin their journey to the oceans. The initial stream that exists as a consequence of the slope is called the consequent stream. As the con- sequent stream wears down the surface by deepening its channel downwards, it is joined by several tri- butaries either obliquely or at right angles depending on the alignment and the degree of resistance of the tocks. If the rocks are composed of homogeneous beds of uniform resistance to erosion, the tributaries will join the main valley obliquely as insequent streams. The drainage pattern so evolved will be tree-like in appear and is therefore described as dendritic rainspe, after a Greek word dendron meaning “tree” (Fig. 34). On the other hand, if the rocks are made up of alternate layers of hard and soft rocks, 1 tributaries tend to follow the pattern of the ture, If the outcrops of the rocks . ngles to the main valley, the tributaries wt Fight angles as cubsequent streams. or tree-hke drainage pate develaped an homogeneous rock of bes equal resistance Fig. 34 Dendritic drainage pattern Fig. 35 Trolused or rectangular 1 nardet develaped on altemating outcrops of and softer rocks i tangulot The drainage pattern so developed will oe ” 35). in shape and is called trellised drainage The Mechanism of Humid Erosion Humid erosion covers the entire scope of. * effects of running water from the action o earth a 4 to that of the rivers. Mass movements ol weathered materials on hill-slopes down are mainly due to the lubricating action which allows a mass of materials Os mote slopes gravity. This is Particularly acute wh eet are steep. The slow movement of so over slope is call sosl-creep A more wey ast due to the lubricating effect or ro?"widespread landslides. In mountainous districts where the roads and railway tracks are cut through steep-sided valleys landslides may obstruct railway lines, cut off road communications and even bury villages and people. The Processes of River Action When a river flows it carries with it eroded materials, These comprise the river'sload, and may be divided into three distinct types. 1, Materials in solution. These are minerals which are dissolved in the water. 2. Materials in suspension. Sand, silt and mud are carried along suspended in the water as the stream flows. 3. Thetractiontoad. This includes coarser materials such as pebbles, stones, rocks and boulders, which are rolled along the river bed. It has been estimated that for every square mile of the earth’s surface, more, than 200 tons of solid materials in suspension -and more than 50 tons of materials in solution are being carried off by running water every year. The Mississippi River which drains an area almost half the size of the United States itself, removes more than two million tons of eroded material into the Gulf of Mexico daily. Consequent- Jy the river basins are being lowered, and in the case of swift-flowing rivers like the Irrawaddy, its drainage basin is being lowered by about a foot in every 400 years! During floods the amount of rock debris swept off by rivers is very much greater. We can see this from the mud that colours the river-water 1, Upper course 2. Middle course gorge interlocking spurs rapids and waterfalls meanders river cliffs, river capture fewer i 1 i i i 1 1 1 | t (Some deposition} oo zverieat corrasion I —_eee , during 2 heavy rain. The ability of a river to move the various grades of materials depends greatly upon thevolume of the water, thevelocity of the flow and lastly the size, shape and weight of the load It is said that by doubling the velocity of a river, its transporting power is increased by more than 10 times! It is therefore not surprising to find huge boulders that are ‘stranded’ in normal times, but may be moved during seasonal floods. The move- sment of rivers is thus intermittent, acting vigorously in certain parts of the year and remaining iess active at other times. River Erosion and Transportation In rivers, erosion and transportation go on sumul- taneously, comprising the following inter-acting Processes. . 1. Corrasion of abrasion. This is the mechanical grinding of the river's traction Joad against the banks and bed of the river. The rock fragments are hurled against the sides of the river and also roll along the bottom ofthe river. Corrasion takes place, in two distinct ways. (a) Lateral corrasion, This is the sideways exbsion which widens the V-shaped valley. (b) Vertical corrasion. This is the downward action which deepens the river channel. 2. Corrosion or solution. This is the chemical or solvent action of water on soluble or partly-soluble rocks with which the river comes into contact. For example calcium carbonate in limestones is easily dissolved and removed in solution. 3, Lower course flood plains ox bow lakes deltas alluvium: depostuon Fig.36 The graded long profile and typica! cross section of s river from source to mouth 39ing and sweeping away of materials by the river water itself. Some of the water splashes against the river banks and surges into cracks and crevices. This helps to disintegrate the rocks, The water also undermines the softer rocks with which it comes into contact. It picks up the loose fragments from its banks and bed and transports them away. 4, Attrition, This is the wear and tear of the transported materials themselves when they roll and collide into one another, The coarser boulders are broken down into smaller stones; the angular edges are smoothed and rounded to form pebbles. The finer materials are carried further down-stream to be deposited. The Course of a River The course ofa river may be divided into three distinct parts (Fig. 36). 1. The upper or mountain course (in the stage of youth), 2. The middle or valley course (in the stage of maturity), 3. The lower or plain course (in the stage of old age). 1, The Upper or Mountain Course This begins at the source of the river near the water- shed, which is probably the crest of a mountain range. The river is very swift as it descends the steep slopes, and the predominant action of the river is vertical corrasion The valley developed is thus deep, narrow and distinctively V-shaped. Down- cutting takes place so rapidly that dateral corrasion cannot keep pace. In some cases where the rocks are very resistant, the valley is so narrow and the sides are so steep that gorges are formed e.g. the Indus Gorge in Kashmir. In arid regions, where there is little rainfall to widen the valley sides, and the river cuts deep into the valley-floor, precipitous valleys called canyons are formed, e.g. the Bryce Canyon, Utah, U.S.A. Some of the more outstanding features that are otten best developed in the upper course of a river include the following. (a) River capture. This is also known as river Piracy or river beheading. Its development is depen- dant on the different rate of back-cutting (headward erosion) into a divide. For instance, if one side of the divide is of greater gradient or receives more Precipitation than the other, stream A in Fig. 37 will cut back more rapidly than stream B. Its greater erosive power will succeed in enlarging its basin at the expense of the weaker stream. Stream A may J break through the divide and ary stream B. The bend at which a0 A deep gorge in the Cuzco Department of Peru Paul Pop, the piracy occured is termed as the elbow of capture i ie The beheaded stream (Z) is calcd the ad my valley below the elbow is the wind g2P, tes of be valuable as a road and rai route. ExamP river capture abound. In Burma, the Upper Suttang has been captured by the Irrawaddy; England, the Blyth and the Wansbeck are by the North Tyne. Yowind 932 8 ry Zobeheaded Seam or matt ya” a) Fig. 37 River capture ture (a) before capture (b) after cap(b) Rapids, cataracts and waterfalls. These are liable to occur at any part of the river course, but they are most numerous in the mountain course where changes of gradient are more abrupt and also more frequent. Duc to the unequal resistance of hard and soft rocks traversed by a river, the outcrop of a band ofhard rock may cause a river to ‘jump’ or ‘fall’ down- stream. Rapidsare formed (Fig. 38). Similar falls of bands of hard rocks Fig. 38 Repids, cataracts greater dimensions are also referred to as cataracts, of which there are five along the Nile that interrupt smooth navigation. When rivers plunge down in a sudden fall of some height, they are called waterfalls (Fig. 39). Their great force usually wears out a Plunge-pool beneath. Waterfalls are formed in Several ways. Fig 39 A waterfall with plunge pool i, When a bar of resistant rock lies transversely across a river valley, e.g. the Niagara Falls, U.S.A., which is 167 feet high and the Kaieteur Falls in Guyana, 825 feet high. “it, When a fault-line scarp caused by faulting Jies across river, e.g. Victoria Falls on the River Zam- ‘bezi, plunging 360 feet, ai, When water plunges down the edge of a plateat: like the River Congo which leaps for 900 feet through a series of more than 30 rapids as Livingstone Falls. iv. Glaciation produces hanging valleys where tributary streams reach the main U-shaped valley below as waterfalls, eg. the Yosemite Falls of California with a total descent of 2,560 feet. 2. The Middle or Valley Course In the middle course, lateral corraston tends to replace vertical corrasion. Active erosion of the banks widens the V-shaped valley, The volume of swater increases with the confluence of many tributaries Fig. 40 Interlocking spurs and this increases the river’s load, The work of the river is predominantly transportation with some deposition. Downstream, the interlocking spurs (Fig. 40) that project from both sides of the valley are cut back into a line of bluffs, Rain-wash, soi! creep, landslides and gullying gradually widen the valley, cutting back the sides, The river's treble task of valley-cutting, bed-smoothing and debris-removal are being carried out in a more tranquil manner than in the mountain course though the velocity does not decrease. Some of the toad is dropped or deposited. Again this depends on the volwne of flow, for in the event of flood, the river’s erosive power and its capability for load-carrying is greatly increased. The more outstanding features associated with the valley course are these. | (a) Meanders. As water flowing under gravity seldom flows straight for any long distance, a winding course soon develops. The irregularities of the ground force the river to swing in loops, forming meanders, a term derived from the winding River 41Meanderez in Asta Minor. The mechanism of meander formation is illustrated in Fig. 41. (b) River cliffs and slip-off slopes. When the flow of water PQ (in Fig. 41) enters the bend of the Tiver, it dashes straight into Q, eroding the outer bank into a steep river-cliff at Q. The'water piles up on the outside of the bend because of the centri- fugal force, A bottom current RS is set up in a cork- screw motion and is hurled back into mid-stream and the inner bank. Shingle is thus deposited here {a) The development of meanders oe ‘ > o> —> —— PQ=ilow of water RS=bortom current {b) Cross-section of a meander Fig 41 Meanders (a) The development of meanders (b) Cross-section of a meander %, + at S. where the slip-off slope is very gentle. The outer bank is therefore the bank of continuous erosion and the inner bank is the bank of continual deposition. {c) Interlocking spars. As the stream flows on, the meanders migrate progressively outwards with the interlocking spurs alternating with the undercut slopes as shown in Fig. 40. It must be pointed out at this stage that meanders in the middle course arc only the beginning of the downstream swing, for bends are restricted by the interlocking spurs. In the lower course, the loops are enlarged across the level plain and meanders are fully developed. 3. The Lower or Plain Course The river moving downstream across a broad, level plain is heavy with debris brought down from the upper course. Vertical corrasion has almost ceased though lateral corrasion still goes on to erode its banks further. The work of the river is mainly deposition, building up its bed and forming extensive (flood plains. The volume of water is greatly swelled by the additional tributaries that, join the main stream. Coarse materials are dropped and the ‘finer silt is carried down towards the mouth of the river. Large sheets of materials are deposited on the level pla and may split the river into several complica channels, so that it can be described as a brait i“ stream. Some of the major plain course features the following. The Sg. Muera in Negrl Semplter- “The river swings from side tof in tight meanders. Note cepasited on the slip-off slope G.C. Morgan(a) Flood plain. Rivers in their lower course carry large quantities of sediments. During annuat or sporadic floods, these materials are spread over the low-lying adjacent areas, A layer of sediment is thus deposited during each flood, gradually building up a fertile flood plain (Fig. 42). When thé river flows normally its bed is raised through the accumu- lation of deposits and material is also dropped on the sides forming raised banks called levees It will not be long before the water level flows dangerously close to the top of the levees. In an attempt to Fig. 42 Section of a flood plain (with levee and artificial embankment) minimise the risk of floads, artificial embankments | are erected on the natural levees, but this allows the | fiver to rise further. When they can no longer wich- {| stand the pressure of the flood water, the banks : burst, damaging property and drowning thousands, , Disastrous foods of this nature frequently occur in the Yang-tze Kiang, Mississippi, Po and Ganges plains. But the best known river for floods is the Hwang-Ho, ‘*China’s Sorrow’, where millions have perished. For example, in 1852 the Hwang-Ho breached its bank, killing a million people and did untold damage to farms and properties. The river’s course was diverted over 300 miles away, draining into the Gulf of Pohai instead of the Yellow Sea, ‘Nowadays, huge dredgers help to deepen the channels to avoid excessive sedimentation. (b) Ox-bow Jakes. These are also known as cut-offs or bayous in the Mississippi basin. In the lower course of a river, a meander becomes very much more pronounced. The outside bend or concave bank is so rapidly eroded that the river becomes almost a complete circle. There will come a time when the river cuts through the narrow neck of the loop, abandoning an ox-bow lake or ‘ntortlake (meaning dead Jake). The river then flows straight. The ox-bow lake will later degenerate into a swamp through subsequent floods that may silt up the take. It becomes marshy, and eventually dries up (Fig. 43). (c} Delta. When a river reaches the sea, the fine materials it has not yet dropped are deposited at its mouth, forming a fan-shaped alluvial area called a ee a’ Fig. 43 The formation of an ox-bow lake delta, a word which originated from the Greek letter AS which closely resembled the triangular delta of the Nile (Fig, 44). This alluvial tract is, in fact, a seaward extension of the flood-plain. Due to the obstruction caused by the deposited alluvium, the mver may discharge its water through several channels called distnbutarics Some deltas areextremely large. For instance, the Ganges delta is almost as bigas the whole of West Malaysia. Deltas extend sideways and sea- wards at amamazing rate, The River Po extends its delta by over forty feet a year. The town of Adria, located nearly fifteen miles inland was a seaport in the time of Christ! Deltas differ much in their size, shape, growth and importance. A number of factors such as the rate of sedimentation, the depth of the river and the sea-bed, and the character of the tides, currents and waves greatly influence the eventual formation of L.tee egaghan coast and su shvrtepoutrcted by sade by deta tak @ cbarectonatic fan depot scenes . tent and batches wie a ahapuontencieg BCemeys od Pues Basenarpemors sexe. [Secrets renin Bows od town tang toner eave: ‘ete, Fig. 44 The-formation of deltas (a) Stages in the formation of a delta ee, (b) Section through the lower course of a nver, showing flood plain ae delta 43deltas For this reason, several types of delta are recognisible. The Mississippi has a bird’s-foot delta, with several main branches like the foot of a bird extending into the Gulf of Mexico. The Nile, Ganges and Mekong have the fan-shaped arcuate deltas with numerous distributaries. Some other rivers such as the Amazon, Ob and Vistula have their deltas partly submerged in coastal waters to form estuarine deltas. A few nwvers liks the Ebro of Spain have tooth-fike projections at their mouths, These are known as cuspate deltas The following summarises the conditions favour- able for the formation of deltas. i, Active vertical and lateral erosion in the upper course of the river to provide extensive sediments to be eventually deposited as deltas, The coast should be sheltered preferably tideless, ili. The sea adjoining the delta should be shallow or else the Joad will disappear in the deep waters. iv. There should be no large lakes in the river course to ‘filter off? the sediments. vy. There should be no strong current running at right angles to the river mouth, washing away the sediments. River Rejuvenation The earth’s crust is far from stable and it is not surprising that, in the course of a river’s development, parts may be uplifted or depressed, giving rise to certain characteristic features associated with re- juvenation, i.e. being young again. A negative movement occurs when there ig an uplift of land or a fall in sea level. This will steepen the slope so that active down-cutting is renewed. A fall in sea level leaves the flood-plain at an increased altitude above the sea level. The tiver with its re- newed vigour cuts into the former flood-plain, leaving behind tertaces on both sides of the river. There is also a break in the graded profile of the river, often marked by 2 series of rapids. This point where the old and rejuvenated profile mect is called the Knick point or rejuvenated head (Fig. 45). If rejuvenation occurs in the upper-course, the river vaileys are deepened and steep-sided gorges are formed. In the middie and lower course vertical corrasion replaces lateral corrasion and the existing meanders are vertically eroded by the rejuvenated stream, A distinct new inner trench is cut in the 014 valley, and the river develops a deep valley with v1)" dor incised meanders. The best developed ince 2 are thase of the River Colorado, Us the uplift of 7,000 feet in the Tertiary sea fevel former sea level old flood plain kmekpoint i to Fig 45 River terraces. and knickpownt due rejuvenation . 10 The rejuvenated river cuts down Ow previausly deposited sediments 10 forme ‘he valley leaving terraces at either 5! ie ite new head of rejuvenation the river falls to! valley at a knickpoint fantastic deptb- period renewed down-cutting to a is In some parts of the Grand Canyon, the death almost a mile. It is 10 miles wide at the rosell 300 milestong. Other examples are the Riel i in Germany, the River Wear at Durham, and the Wye Valley, Monmouthshire ere 18 4 A positive movement occurs when h ‘ew depression of land or a rise in sea bevel ont the submerge the lands along the coast, orahe vt valleys and weaken the erosive power sed met ‘The flow is checked and large guantitie’ | Ql iver 137 will be dropped. The lower course of hE Ee be partly in the sea and features of depo!iifted upwards to the middle course. The upper ourse is little affected when there isa rise in sea level. 1 many areas where the sea has risen this was robably caused by the release of water locked up 1 the ice masses during the Quaternary Ice Ages. "he Human Aspects of Rivers © nh many countries, rivers form the chief highway of ommerce and transport. The Yang-tze Kiang is ravigable up to a thousand miles from its mouth, The Amazon, the world’s greatest river is navigable 300 miles up-stream to the foat of the Andes, hough it is Jess extensively used. Even 'the Nile vith its cataracts is navigable for its first 960 miles yp to the First Cataract at Aswan. Other major ivers such as the Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Rhine, Danube, Congo, Murray, Darling, Mekong and Irra- yaddy all serve as important waterways for their espective countries. Some of them are useful for ransporting logs to the saw mills, others are used to sxport bulky goods and import foodstuffs and raw materials, But all rivers undertake three closely interrelated activities erosion, rransportation and deposition, Their work has therefore both advantages and disadvant- ages from a human point of view. Rapids and water- falls, interrupt the navigability ofa river. By deposit- ing large quantities of sediments in the lower course, the river silts up ports preventing large steamers from anchoring close to the shores. Deltas are thus less satisfactory sites than estuaries for the siting of large ports. Though this can be overcome by the construction of artificial harbours or by dredging this is expensive and, in some instances, impracti- cable, Some rivers change their courses from time to time, others are made difficult for navigation by their seasonal variations in the amount of water discharged, and others may suffer from ill-drained marshes and stagnant waters, leading to ill health and water-borne disease, Many rivers flocd, bursting levees and causing untold damage to crops. The floods may add a layer of fertile silt to the flood plain, but excessive flooding as in the Orinoco may dis- courage People from cultivating crops at all. | On the other hand, the advantages of rivers often outweigh the destruction that they cause. jin the upper course, rivers with steep gorges and iwaterfalls, provide naturat sites for the generation lof hydro-electric power, leading to the establishment # of metallurgical industries, engineering and aluminum Jsmeiting, which can be profitably run on cheap, jabundant power. Dams constructed across rivers ihota back floodwater which if allowed to flow : downstream unchecked may cause widespread dis- astrous floods in the lower course, ¢.g. in the Indus and Ganges plains. In regions of insufficient rainfall such as Egypt and the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand ircigation canalsfed by the main stream enable many crops to be successfully cultivated. The upper streams develop river captures and the resultant wind gaps may facilitate construction of upland roads and railways. The river valleys provide @ convenient means of land communtcation. The flood plains of large rivers with their thick mantles of fine silt are some of the richest agricultural areas of the world. They may support very dense populations and 2 chain of Jarge cities may be strung along their banks. Many deltas are equally fertile, eg. the Ganges delta accounts for almost all the jute grown for world consumption, the Mile delta produces superior quality cotton and several crops of tice a year. The productive hinterlands are able to support ports such as New Orleans for the Missis- sippi basin, Rotterdam for the Rhineland and Calcutta for the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Fresh-water fishingis important along many rivers and lakes. The organic matter brought down by the river waters provides valuable food for fish and for spawning purposes. Rivers supply water for domestic consumption, sewerage and other industrial purposes, In Lancashire, the soft-water from the Millstone Grit is used for washing, dyeing and bleaching textiles. Rivers form the pohtical boun- dartes between many countries. The Mekong se- parates Laos from Thailand; and the Yalu forms a well defined border between North Korea and the eastern U.S.S.R. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1. What are the characteristic features you would expect to find in a river valley at the stage of youth, maturity and old age? Illustrate some of the more outstanding Features with diagrams and examples. 2. By reference to specific examples, describe the major constructive and destructive pro- cesses at work along the course of a river from its source to its mouth. 3, With the aid of annotated diagrams, explain the constrasting features of any three of "es ayeTT 7 re following pairs of features of a river: (a) dendritic and treltised drainage pattern (b) rapids and waterfalls (ce) estuary and delta (d) tributaries and distributaries (©) river capture and river cliff 4. Explain any three of the following statements briefly: (@) Mass movement of earth is mainly due to the lubricating action of rain-water and gravitional forces. (b) Vertical corrasion is dominant in the upper course of a river. (©) The work of the river in the lower course ts mainly depositional. (d) Ports are better sited on estuaries than on deltas. (c) Incised meanders are features of river rejuvenation,, 5. Either; Describe and explain with relevant sketches the various types of river deltas Or: Explain the ways in which river erosion occurs,Chapter 6 Landforms of glaciation The Ice Age and Types of Ice Masses During the Pleistocene period or the Ice Ages, about 30,000 years ago, great continental ice sheets covered much of the temperate Jatitudes. I¢ is estimated that more than 12 million square miles of the northern hemisphere were buried by ice, half of which was in North America and the rest in Europe, Greenland and the high mountains of Eurasia (Fig. 46). The warmer climate that followed caused the ice sheets to retreat. Today only two major ice caps are still present, in Greenland and Antarctica, The former covers an area of 720,000 square miles while the latter is'more than 5 million square miles. They are made up of compact sheets of ice, hardened and crystallised to a depth of over a mile. In Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica, the ice cap was measured and found to be more than 14,000 feet thick! Under such a collosal weight, the land sinks gradually. From the central dome of the ice cap the ice creeps out in all directions to escape as glaciers The peaks of the loftier mountains project above the surface as nunataks, When the ice sheets reach right down to the sea they often extend outwards into the polar waters and float as ice shelves. They terminate in precipitous cliffs. When they break into individual blocks, these are called icebergs. While afloat in the sea, icebergs assume a tabular or irregular shape and only one-ninth of the mass is visible above the Fig. 46 The extent of continentat feo shests in the Ice Ages Pe Maximum extent of the ice sheets surface. They diminish in size when approaching warmer waters and are eventually melted, dropping the rock debris that was frozen inside them on the sea bed, Apart from Greenland and Antarctica, glaciation is still evident on the highlands of many parts of the world, which lie above the snowline,, This varies from sea level in the polar regions to 9,000 fect in the Alps and 17,000 feet at the equator, as on Mt. Kilimanjaro, Permanent snowfields are sustained by heavy winter snowfall and ineffective summer melting and evapora- tion. Where the slopes are gentle and the hollows are sheltered from both direct sunlight and strong winds, any snow that falls is rapidly accumulated. Part of the surface snow may melt during the day, but by nightfall it is refrozen. This process is repeated until it forms a hard, granular substance known as névé (in French) or firn (in German). Owing to gravitational forces, the neve of the upland snowfield is drawn towards the valley below. This is the be- ginning of the flow of the glacicr—~‘river of ice’. It normally assumes a tongue-shape, broadest at the source but becoming narrower downhill. Though the glacier is not a liquid, under the continual pressure from the accumulated snow above, it moves. The rate of movement is greatest in the middle where there is little obstruction. The sides and the bottom are 47Fig 47 The different rate of glacial movement. A glacier moves faster in the centre than the sides held back by fnction with the valley side spurs and the valley floor. If a row of stakes is planted across a glacier in a straight line, they will eventually take a curved shape down the valley, showing that the glacier Moves faster at the centre than the sides (Fig. 47). In the Alps the average rate of flow is about three feet a day; in Greenland it may be more than fifty feet, but in Antarctica, where there is little heat to melt the ice, glaciers move only a few inches aday! The Aletsch Glacier in the Bernese Oberland of Switzerland is 10 miles long, affording some specta- cular sights to Alpine tourists. Though it is the longest glacier in Europe, it is short compared with those of Alaska and the Himalayas which measure more than five times that length! At the foot of mountain ranges, several glaciers may converge to form an extensive ice-mass called a piedmont glacier The best known piedmont glacier is the Malaspina Glacier of Alaska which is 65 miles long and 25 miles wide, covering an area of more than 1,600 square miles, Combined glaciers of such dimensions are now rare and in most continents only valley or Alpine glaciers are seen. Landforms of Highland Glaciation Glaciation generally gives rise to erosional features , « in the highlands and depositional features on the lowlands, though these processes are not mutually ” exclusive because a glacier plays a combined role of erosion, transportation and deposition throughout its course. A placier erodes its valley by two processes plucking and abrasion. By plucking the glacier te joints and beds of the underlying rocks, tea idual blocks and drags them away. By the glacier scratches, scrapes, polishes and scours the valley floor with the debris frozen into it, These fragments are powerful ‘tools’ of denudation. Large angular fragments cut deep into the underlying rocks so all glaciated floors bear evidence of,triation orscratching. The finer materials smooth and polish the rock surfaces and produce finely ground rock flour. The rate of erosion is determined by several factors such as the velocity of flow, gradient of the slope, the weight of the glacier, the temperature of the ice and the geological structure of the valley. ‘The characteristic features of a glaciated highland are as follows. - thedownst overeat 1. Corrie, cirque orcwm. Thedownslopem ofa glacier fe rom its snow-covered valley-head, and the intensive shattering of the upland slopes, tend f0 produce a depression where the firm or névé accuntv- lates. The process of plucking operates on in back-wall,steepening it and the movement of thei : abrades the floor, deepening the depression int a steep, horse-shoe-shaped basin called a cirgu {in French), It is also known asa corri¢ in ae and acwm in Wales (Fig. 48). There isa rocky: iT at the exit of the corrie and, when the ice eventual t melts, water collects behind this barrier, to form corrie fake or tam rugged mountain wall bergschrund Fig. 48 Development of a corrie 2. Arétes and pyramidal peaks. When He cut back on opposite sides of 2 mountain mn ridges are formed called arctes (@ aes Me exit well known British example of an arete } v of Edge on Helvellyn in Westmorland. more cirques cut back together, a , rn or parm recession will form an angular horn Oo} Py two cortiahi ees ea wn ve ne the a, Ee A glacial tandscape In Switzer! peak. The Matterhorn of Switzerland is a classic example (Fig. 49). 3. Bergschrund, At the head of a glacier, where it begins to leave the snowfield of'a corrie, a deep vertical ,erack opens up called a bergschrund{in German) or rimaye (in French). This happens in summer when, although the ice continues to move out of the corrie, there is no new snow to replace it, In some cases not one but several such cracks occur. The bergschrund. presents a major obstacle to climbers. Furtherdown where the glacier negotiates a bend or a precipitous slope, mare crevasses or cracks are formed (Fig. 48).4. U-shaped glacial trough. The glacier on tts downward journey, fed by ice from several corries like tributaries that join a river, begins to wear away the sides and floor of the valley down which it moves. It scratches and grinds the bedrock, removing any rock debnis and surface soil. It tends to straighten any protruding spurs on its course. ‘The interlocking Spurs are thus blunted to form truncated spurs and the floor of the valley is deepened. Fig. 50). A valley which has been glaciated takes A su - wuini¢ U-shape, with a wide, flat floor at _ 2 Sides. After the disappearance of the icy ,+ Sections of these long, narrow sto May be filled with water forming »- such as Loch Ness and Lake Uliswater A Usshaped valley in Switzerland The valley sides are steep but Ne floor is flat. There is @ ribbon inthe valley bottom Swiss National Tourist office * someti to m Britain. They are sometimes referred trough lakes or finger lakes. al 5. Hanging valleys. The main valley is eroded an u more rapidly than the tnbutary valleys i vetted 8 a much larger glacier. After the ice m5 pe al? tributary valley therefore ‘hangs’ abov a watertal valley so that its stream plunges down 38 an of * (Fig 50) Such tributary valleys are i ae atet valleys and may form a natural hea generating hydro-electric power. A 6. Rock basins and rock steps. A: : excavates the bed rock mm an irregale rok The unequal excavation gives an basins later filled by lakes in @Fig. 50 A glaciated upland Where a tributary valley joins a main valley, the additional weight of ice in the main valley cuts deeper into the valley floor at the point of convergence forming a rock step. A series of such rock steps may also be formed due to different degrees of resistance to glacial erosion of the bedrocks. 7. Moraines. Moraines are made up of the pieces OR (OF FAA thay ace atenetwend be Bae Toadded- a . Tote WE “1 serene, : form lateral moraines. When two glaciers converge, their inside lateral moraines unite to fom medist . Mnoraine, ¢ fock fragments which are dragged along Beneath the frozen ice are dropped when the } glacier melts and spread across the floor of the valley . 51 The glacial moraines as ground moraine. The glacier eventually melts on reaching the foot of the valley, and the pile of trans- ported materials left behind at the snout is the terminal moraine or end moraine (Fig. 51). The deposition of the end moraines may be in several succeeding waves, as the ice may melt back by stages so that a series of recessional moraines are formed. Tf the glacier flows right down to the sea it drops its load of moraine in the sea. If sections break off as icebergs, morainic material will only be dropped when they melt (Fig. 52). Where the lower end of the trough is drowned by the sea it forms a deep, steep- sided inlet called a fiord. typical of the Norwegian and south Chilean coasts. Fig. 52 A glacier ending at the sea Landforms of Glaciated Lowlands Landforms of glaciated lowlands are mainly depositional in nature, brought about by both ralley glaciers and continental ice sheets. The former leaves behind thé eroded materials in only restricted areas. The imprint of ice sheets on the Jandseape is far more widespread because they advanced through large areas during the Ice Ages, scouring and removing any surface soil and rock debris on their way. As 2 result, it has been estimated that almost a third of the total land surface of Europe and North America is littered with glacial and fluvic-glacial materials of all descriptions—moraines, boulder clay, tills, drifts, rock-flour, gravels and sands. Many of them are being re-eroded, resorted and redeposited else- where by present-day rivers. ten Most of the glaciated lowlands have depositional features, but where rock masses project above the level surface, they result in striking features of erosion, such as the roche moutonnee and crag and tail: 1. Roche Moutonnee. This is a resistant residual sock hummock. The surface is striated by ice movement. Its upstream side is smoothed byabrasion and its downstream side is roughened by plucking,Fig. 53 Roche moutonnee and is much steeper. The term roche moutonnee is used to desctibe such a feature because it resembles a sheepskin-wig once wom in France (Fig. 53). Roches moutonnees are found in both highland and lowland glaciated regions. 2, Crag and Tail. The crag is a mass of hard rock with a precipitous slope on the upstream side, which protects the softer leeward slope from being completely wom down by the on-coming ice. It therefore has a gentle tail, strewn with the eroded rock debris. The classic example is the Castle Rock of Edinburgh, Scotland. Edinburgh Castle is located on the crag and the High Street on the tail, (Fig. 54). The remaining glaciated lowland features are of a depositional nature (Fig. 55). The following are the typical ones, 3. Boulder clay or glacial till. This is an unsorted glacial deposit comprising a range of eroded materials —boulders, angular stones, sticky clay and fine rock flour. It is spread out in sheets, not mounds, and forms gently undulating till or drift plains. The landform is rather monotonous and featureless, The degree of fertility of such glacial plains depends very much on the composition of the depositional ma- terials. Some of the boulder clay plains such as East Anglia and the northern Mid-West of U.S.A. form rich arable lands. 4. Erraties. These are boulders of varying sizes that were transported by ice. They came with the advancing glaciers or ice sheets but when the ice melted, they were left ‘stranded’ in the regions of deposition. They are called erratics because they are composed of materials entirely different from those of the tecinn in whint ewe - . aed owe sound perched in precarious Positions just as the icc dropped them and they are then termed perched blocks, Examples of such blocks are commonly encountered in both lowland and highland areas in a Silurian grits are found perched on the ; > Limestone of the Pennines. Their of ~ numbers is a hindrance to farming. Fig. 54 Crag and tail 5. Drumlins. These are swarms of oval, elongat ‘whale-back’ hummocks composed wholly of tould clay, with their elongation in the direction of t ice flow, that is on the downstream side. They low hills varying from a few yards to 400 fee height and may bea mile or two long. They oe a little steeper at the onset side and taper ooh the leeward end. They are arranged oO and so are commonly described as pa 1 a s’ topography, Large num ee County Down in Northern Ireland and glaciated plain around the Great Lakes 2 America. inuous ridges 6, kers. These are long, narrow, sin compel of sand and gravel which mark the fo sites of sub-glacial melt-water streams. They seal from a few feet to 200 feet in height and may ee ‘te miles long. In some parts of Maine, ust outstanding eskers form a continuous ne a 100 miles! They are very numerous in Sean ae e.g. the Punkaharju Esker’ of Finland. As “et are made up of highly porous sand and grav 4 is tapidly drained off from their crests d may not support many trees, though in they often form tree-covered ridges betwee! of tt 7 Terminal moraines. These are made uP A drumtin field in northern England J.K, St. Josee?coarse debric deposited al the qdre of the sce-thoct, fo form hummocky and hilly country such ae the Baltic Heights of the Nerth European Plain (Pig. $3). 8. Outwach plains These are made up of fluvio- flscia! depouts washed out from the terminal moraines by the sireams and channels of the stagnant jee mass, The melewalers sort and restepeat the material in a variety of forms from the Jow hilly heathlands, such as the Luncburg Heath of the North European Plain, to undulaunp plains, where terraces, alluvial fans and deltaic deposits of the meft-water steams make up the Iandeape, Kame, small rounded billocks of sand and gravel may cover part of the plain, Where the deposition takes the form of alternating tidpes and depressions, the latter may contain kettle lakes and give rice to charscteriaic ‘Arodand Lettle topography. The Human Aspects of Glaciated Landforms Though the Ice Apes were at their height over 10,000 years apo, the effects of glaciation on both andfonms and human activities have profound influence in many parts of the world today. Their most striking impact is felt in the temperate regions of Europe and North America which were once under continental ice sheets. Further south and on the high mountains all over the world, slow-moving glaciers are still shaping the landscape in the Alps. Andes, Rockies and Himalayat. Glacial influences on Man's economic activities are both favourable and unfavourable, depending on the intensity of glaciation, the relief of the region and whether the effects are of an erosional or depositional nature. In hilly region: such as the mountain slopes of Scandinavia, ice sheets and glaciers have removed most of the top soil, Itaving them quite bare of vegetation. Soils that do exist are so thin that theyare incapable of supporting effective agriculture. Glacial drifts in the valleys and benches or alps which were not affected by glaciers have good pastures during summer. Cattle are driven up to graze on the grass. and return to the valley bottom in winter. This form of arimal-migration type of farming is called transhumsnce Extensive boulder clay plains such as those of East Anglia and the Mid-West of U.S.A. are some of the most fertile agricultural plains known, ‘The tocss plains of Europe and centrat U.S.A., with a high proportion of humus are good farming land too. On the other hand, the sandy or gravelly outwash plains e.g. the heath-covered gcest of northern Ger- many, the marshy boulder clay deposits of central Ireland, the barren icc-scoured surfices of the Canadian and Baltic Shields are infertile. The Fig 85 Glacial depositional features in the outwash elsin presence of numerous erratics and perched blocks m. parts of Dritain and in Alberta, Canada, many of them of gigantic size obstruct farming and the use of machines. Morsinie deposits may dam, or glaciers may hollow out, Fikes which greatly inconvenience large scale farming or land development. But when the lakes are eliminated, the old glacial lake beds with their rich alluvium support heavy cropping. Large lakes formed by former glaciation, c.g. the Great Lakes of North Amenca, make excellent waterways, They may also cut deep overflow chan- nels while draining off, making natural routeways across a mountainous terrain ¢.g. the Hudson- Mohawk Gap that inks the mterior with the Atlantic seaboard of U.S.A. On the other hand in regions where drumlins ate dominant, the drainage is either peor or much confused. Terminal and recesstanal moraines comprise coarse materials of little use to man but fluvio-glacial deposits are nat without their economic significance. In the outwash plains, eskers and kames have been excavated 16 provide sands and gravels for highway and building constructian, The purest sands are extracted ta make moulds for metal castings. The lake basins of glaciated mountains provide natural reservoirs, In countries like Scandinavia, Switzer land and Canada where there is litle available coal, streams and waterfalls that plunge down from hanging valleys or other glaciated uplands are being harnessed to provide hydro-electric power. This has helped to develop many of the chemical and metallurgical industries. With the magnificent scenery provided by the glaciated mountains e.g. the French, Italian and Swiss Alps, largenumbers of tourists areattracted to them annually. Skiing, mountain climbing and sight-seeing are all popular with Alpine tourists. 53QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1. Choose any three of the following glacial features: corri¢, arete, erratic, hanging valley, kettle Jake, nunatak. For each of them: {a) Describe its physical appearance. (b) Account for its mode of formation. (c} Locate and name an area where an example could be seen. 2. {a} Distinguish between valley glaciers and continental ice sheets, {b) Explain why glaciation in the uplands produced erosional features while that of the fowlands produced mainly depositional features. 3. The following lowland glacial features are all, in fact, small ridges, but are quite different in their process of formation: (a)_ State which of them are of erasional or depositional nature {b) Pick out their distinctive differences in both appearance and formation, foche moutonnee, drumfin, esker, crag and tail, kames. 4. Briefly explain any three of the following (a) Glaciated valle; sassumea characteristic U-shaped. . (b) The middle of a glacier moves faster than the sides. (c) Inglaciated lowlands, eskers, kames and other morainic deposits are extensively quarried. (a) Glacial soils vary greatly in their fertility. {e) Erratics and perched blocks are the best indicators of the source and direction of ice movement. 5, With the aid of diagrams, attempt to explain the difference between any three of the following, pairs of terms connected with glaciation. (a) Valley glacier and piedmont glacier (b) Bergschrund and crevasses (c) Corrie fake and ribbon lake (d) Interlocking spurs and truncated spurs (©) Terminal moraine and recessional mo- raine.Chapter 7 Arid or Desert Landforms Types of Deserts About a fifth of the world’s land is made up of deserts, some rocky, others stony and the rest sandy. Deserts that are absolutely barren and where nothing grows at all are rare and they are better known as ‘true deserts’, If you look at the world map carefully, you will find that there is a certain definite pattern to the foca- tion of the world’s deserts. You will realise that almost all the deserts are confined within the 15? to 30° parallels of latitude north and south of the equator. They lic in the trade wind belt on the westem parts of thecontinents where Trade Winds are off-shore. They are bathed by cold currents which produce a ‘desic- cating effect’ so that moisture is not easily condensed A sandy desert area (erg) In Death Valley, Callfornia U.S. information Service into precipitation. Dryness or aridity is the key note, Such deserts are tropical hot deserts or ‘Trade Wind deserts’. They include the great Sahara Desert; Arabian, Iranian and Thar Deserts; Kalahari, Namib, and Atacama Deserts; the Great Australian Desert and the deserts of south-west U.S.A, and northern Mexico. In the continental interiors of the mid- latitudes, the deserts such as the Gobj and Turkestan are characterised by extremes of temperatures. * The work of winds and water in eroding elevated uplands, transporting the worn-off materials and depositing them elsewhere, has given rise to five distinct kinds of desert landscape. 1, Hamada or rocky desert. This consists of largestretches of bare rocks, swept clear of sand and dust by the wind. The exposed rocks are thoroughly smoothed and polished. The region is bare and sterile. The best known rocky deserts are those of the Sahara Desert e.g. the Hamada el Homra, in Libya, which covers an area of almost 20,000 square miles. 2. Reg or stony desert. This is composed of ex- tensive sheets of angular pebbles and gravels which the winds are not able to blow off. Such stony deserts are much more accessible than the sandy deserts, and large herds of camels are kept there. In Libya and Egypt the term serir is used; elsewhere in Africa, stony deserts are called reg 3. Erg or sandy desert. This is a sea of sand which typifies the popular idea of desert scenery. Winds deposit vast stretches of undulating sand-dunesin the heart of the deserts. The intricate patterns of ripples onthe dune surfaces indicate the direction of the winds. The Calanscio Sand Sea in Libya is characteristic of a sandy desert. In Turkestan, sandy deserts are also known as koum. 4. Badlands. The term ‘badlands’ was first given to an arid area in South Dakota, U.S.A., where the hills were badly eroded by occasional rain-storms into gullies and ravines. The extent of water action on hill slopes and rock surfaces was so great that the entire region was abandoned by the inhabitants. Deserts with similar features are now referred to as badlands, e g. the Painted Desert of Arizona, which lies south-east of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. 5. Mountain deserts. Some deserts are found on highlands such as plateaux and mountain ranges. Erosion has dissected the desert highlands into harsh, serrated outlines of chaotic peaks and craggy ranges. Their steep slopes are cut by wadis (steep-sided, often dry, valleys) and the action of frost has carved out sharp, irregular edges. In the Sahara Desert, the Ahaggar Mountains and the Tibesti Mountains are good examples of desert mountains. The Mechanism of Arid Erosion Arid landforms are the results of many combined. factors, one reacting upon the other. Jnsufficient rainfall (often Jess than 5 inches) coming at most irregular periods, coupled with very high temperatures (87°F, is the average) and a rapid rate of evaporation, are the chief causes oF aridity, Sub-aerial denudation une the processes of weathering (mechanical and © nf nd action and the work of water have > desert landscape that is varied Tinconsolidated sands and pebbles m: Weathering. This is the most potent factor in reducing rocks to sand in arid regions. Even though the amount of rain that falls in the desert is small, some manage to penctrate into the rocks and set: upchemical reactions in the various minerals. Intense heating during the day and rapid cooling at night by radiation, set up stresses in the already weakened rocks so that they eventually crack, As heat pen trates rocks slowly when the outer surface of rocks is being heated by the hot sun, the inner rocks remaia quite cool. The heating of the rocks causes the outer surface to expand and so prise itself off from the interior rocks, so that it peels off in successive very thin layers. Such an onion-peelmg process mechanical weathering is called exfohation. Angular rock debris is found in abundance as screes at the foot of upstanding rocks. Similarly, when ve gets into the cracks and joints of rocks and tte ; perature at night suddenly drops to below ee point, the water freezes and therefore expan 2 10 per cent of its volume. Successive Freezing wil p . off fragments of rock which accumulate 2 These rock fragments become the ‘teeth’ or f waetion of minds in deserts.The wind though not the most effective agent of erosion, transportation ant deposition, is more efficient in arid than in etre regions. Since there is little vegetation or as of to bind the loose surface materials, the wind erosion are almost unrestrained. i i following way ied out in the fol So Wind erosion 1s Deflation. h tals from ‘the ground ‘Suc materials pe cat a the air or rolled along the ground depending Y grainsize, ‘The finer dust and sands may pe mated miles away from their place of origin, and " result even outside the desert margins. Det in the Jowerig of the land surface tars depressions called deflation hollows The one Depression of the Sahara Desert hes almos below sea level. . 1 surfs’ skbrasion. The sand-blasting of rock ‘O yy ea they Rbrl sand particles ae ae is called abrasion. The impact of ee oped ond results in rock surfaces being scratched, Les near tht wom away, Abrasion 1s most effective 3! tar the wi base of rocks, where the amount of mac why tele is able to carry is greatest. This exp coven graph poles in the deserts are protects YN ert of metal for a foot or two above the ay * prasiot- variety of desert features are produCLIFF BENCH CANYON BUTTE Fig. 59 Mesa and butte S. Inselberg. This is a German word meaning ‘isladd-mountain’. They are isolated residual’ hills rising abruptly from the level ground. They are characterised by their very steep slopes and rather rounded tops. They are often composed of granite or gneiss, and are probably the relics of an original plateau which has been almost entirely eroded away. Anselbergs are typical of many desert and semi-arid landscapes in old age e.g. those of northern Nigeria, Western Australia and the Kalahari Desert (Fig. 60). 6. Ventifacts or dreikanter. These are pebbles faceted by sand-blasting. They are shaped and Fig 60 Round-topped, steep-sided inselbergs thoroughly polished by wind abrasion to er resembling Brazil nuts. Rock fragments, mechani ne weathered from mountains and upstanding to are moved by wind and smoothed on the windw j side. If wind direction changes another face developed. Such rocks have characteristic fat ja with sharp edges. Amongst the ventifacts those ct three wind-faceted surfaces are called dreikas! d These wind-faceted pebbles form the desert pavenit a smooth, mosaic-lke region, closely covered by numerous rock fragments and pebbles, ay 7. Deflation hollows, Winds lower the grou Ayers Rock, an inselberg in the Australian Desert Australian Tourist Commissionblowing away the unconsolidated materials, and small depressions may form. ‘Similarly, minor fault ing can ulso initiate depressions'and the eddying action of on-coming winds will wear off the weaker rocks until the Water table is reached, Water then’ seeps out forming oases or'swamps, in thé deflation hollows or depressions. The Faiyum Depression i in Egypt Ties 130 feet below the sea level. -Large areas in the westem U.S.A, stripped ‘of their natural vegetation ‘for farming, were completely deflated when strong winds, moved materials as dust-: -storms, laying waste crops and creating what is now known as the Great Dust Bowl In a dust-storm, winds may lift dust hundreds of feet high and. carry it thousands of miles away. . aoe Landforms of Wind Deposition in Deserts . Materials eroded and transported by winds must come'to rest somewhere. The finest dust trayels enormous distances in the air, and may be moved completely out of the desert. It has been estimated that-some ‘dust grains travel as fat as 2,300 miles before they are finally deposited on land or sea.“ The dust from*the Sahara Desert, is sometimes blown across the Mediterranean to fall as ‘blood rains’ in italy‘or on’ the glaciers of Switzerland. ‘Dust that settles in the Hwang-Ho basin from the Gobi Desert | has-accumulated over past centuries to a’ depth of several hundred feet!"'As wind-bome materials are’ i sifted according to'their coarseness, it can beexpected { that the coatser sands will be too heavy to be blown* } out ‘of the'desert limits. They ‘remain’ as dunes or: : other ‘depositional - landforms ' within the deserts + themselves.’ Since they are’ rerely static, their mig- i ration pattern ‘depends on a number “of factors! the” t size’ of the: particles they ‘carry; the direction and’ . velocity of the'winds, the location and nature of the! ! surfices ovet which the particles'are transported and’ ithe presence’or absénce of water’and natural vege: { tation. vet. +The following’ ard ‘ ‘some ‘of the major features of ‘wind deposition, "> * fees ae 1. : Danes. Dunes are, in fact! hills of. ‘sand formed- by, the becumulation of sand and ‘shaped’ ‘by, t movement ‘of winds.: ‘They may be active’or ti “ures, constantly on thé move, or inactive fixed dunes? réoted with vegetation. Dunes’ ‘are most well Tepre-* 4 sented in’ the erg desert where a'seq of sand is being: 3 Alecntinuousty moved, reshaped and rédepositéd into’a ariety of features Because of their great contrast in shape, size and alignment, ‘they have been Biven a { tong list of fanciful names, such as attached ‘dune‘or ee ame head dune, tai] dunce, advanced dune, lateral dune. wake dune, star dune, pyrartidal dune, sword dune, parabolic blow-out dune, hairpin dune, smoking dune and transverse dune. However, the following two types of common’ dunes, barchans and seifs, will be described in more detail. (a) Barchan. These" are’ crescentic or . moan shaped dunes which occur itidividually or in groups. They are live dunes which advance steadily Before windsthatcomefroma particular prevailing direction. They are Most prevalent in the deserts of Turkestan and in the Sahara, “Barchans ate initiated probably by a chiiit@accumulation of Sand at an obstacle, such as a patchof grass or a heap of rocks, They occitr transversely to the wind, so that their homs thin out or me Tower in the direction of the wind duc to the reduced frictiona) retardation’ of the: winds around the edges. The windward side is convex and gently-sloping while the /eward side, being sheltered, is concavé and steep (the Slip-face) (Fig. 61).° The crest'6f the sand dune moves forward as more sand is ~Gtcumulated by thé prevailing wind. The ‘sind is driven up the windward side and, on reaching the crest, slips down the leeward side so that the dune advances. The rate of advancement varies from 25 feet a year for the high dunes measuring wp to 00 feet ‘idly, & wo 50 feet a year, fot the Tower dunes which’ ‘may be only 4 dozen feet high? etites af dha harchane mav be a threat to! " winds, ‘barchans' také, a ‘chaotic’ changing pattern” Several barchans) ‘may ¢ Eoalesee intd line of ieregulat,ridges, ever-changing with the direction of the winds. Ergs or sandy deserts are thus most difficult to cross. (b) Selfs or longitudinal dunes. Seif is an Arabic word meaning ‘sword’. ‘They are long, narrow ridges of sand, often over a hundred miles long lying arallel to the direction of the prevailing winds, Tee Tigh. serrated ridges may attain a height of over 200 feet. ‘The crestline of the seif rises and falls in alternate peaks and saddles in regular successions like the teeth of'a monstrous saw. The dominant winds blow straight along the corridor between the lines of dunes so that they are swept clear of sand and remain smooth, The eddies that are set UP blow towards the sides of the corridor, and, having less power, drop the sand to form the dunes. In this manner, the prevailing winds increase the length of the dunes into tapering linear ridges while the occasional cross winds tend to increase their height and width. Extensive seif dunes are found in the Sahara Desert. south of the Qattara Depression; the Thar Desertand the West Australian Desert (Fig. 62). Fig. 62 Longitudinal dunes—selfs 2. Loess. The fine dust blown beyond. the desert limits is deposited on neighbouring tands as loess. It is a yellow, friable material and is usvally very fertile. Loess is in fact, fine loam, rich in lime, very coherent and extremely porous. Water sinks in readily so that the surface is always dry. Streams have cut deep valleys through the thick mantle of soft loess and badland topography may develop. Ttis so soft that roads constructed through a loess region | soon sink and their wails rise steeply. ‘The most extensive deposit of loess is found in H China in the loess plateau of the Hwang- + is estimated to cover an area of 250,000 rT -,and the deposits have accumulated to a 2 to $00 feet! In China, such yellowish wind-borne dust from the Gobi Desert is called "Hwangtu’ = the yellow eartht But the original tem loess actually comes froma village in Alsace, France, bearing that name, where such deposits Similar deposits also occur in some parts of Germasy, France and Belgium, and arc locally called Simen They are also wind-borne but were blown from material deposited at the edge of ice-sheets: during the Ice Ages. In partsof| the Mid-West, U.S.A. loess ws derived from the ice sheets which covered northert North America and is termed adobe. Landforms due to Water Action in Desert Few deserts in the world are entirely without rain water. The annual precipitation may be small, to 10 inches, and comes in i she i thunderstorms do occur and the rain falls ia to: ae downpours, pr rainstorm may bring seve! r r few hours, drowning people who camp in ary streams and flooding mud-baked houses 1" the: As deserts have little vegetation to proves the soil, large quantities of rock wastes in the eden raging torrents, OF flash-floods eae gravels, sand and fine dust are swept down: a sides. They, cut deep gullies and ravines form” badland topography. ‘Subsequent downpours an and deepen the ies when they wash down ae soft rocks from the surface. There |S 50 Ot material in the flash floods that the flow liquid mud. ‘When the masses of debi at the foot of the hill or the mouth © red, alluvial cone or fan oF ‘dry delta’ 1S ee ‘prot! several channels, depositing more pasty alluvial deposits are subj tion by the hot sun and downwé! mu water into the porous ground, and soon mounds of debris. ad Apart from gullies there are roan ow i channels or valleys. These are deepen By sil corrasion by raging torrents during sey for® cloudbursts. These are the wadisand a fea by of the time. Some desert str ins melting snow of the distant mountal rhe v2 deserts and rivers flow aS "teu carves out steep walls, which rise al a stream bed. In Algeria such gorges hebka. ac ait! . ‘ id and semi-arid areas the outflowing ‘ o from the upland regions are a t ons 30 mittent. They drain into thelower depress!‘ig. 63 Intermont desert basin Irainage is almost entirely internal. Sometimes water collected in a depression or 3 desert basin does sot completely disappear by evaporation or seepage, india temporary fake is formed, Such lakes contain a high percentage of salts, because of high evapora- ‘ion, and are glistening white when they dry up. The lakes and the alluvial plains formed by them are salled playas, salinas or salars in the United States and Mexico, andshotts in northern Africa (Fig. 63). The floor of the depression is made up of two features, the bajada and the pediment, The dajada is a de- Positional feature made up of alluvial material laid down by the intermittent streams. The pediment is an erosional plain formed at the base of the surround- ing Mountain scarps. ote QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1. Draw annotated diagrams and explain very briefly any three of the following desert features. (a) yardangs (b) barchans (Cc) pediments (4) inselbergs {ce} wadis 2, Attempt a simple classification of deserts. Justify your basis of classification by bringing out their distinct differences in appearance, formation and outstanding features, 3, With the aid of diagrams, expiain the major differences between any three of the following pairs of desert landforms. (a) zeugen and yardangs (b) mesas and inselbergs (c) crescentic barchans and longitudinal seifs (d)_ bajadas and pediments (©) ventifacts and dreikanter 4. Explain concisely the processes of deflation, abrasion and deposition by winds. With the aid of diagrams explain nv topographical features formed by any two of the above pro- cesses, ‘ 5. The following terms are closely refated to desert landforms. For any four of them, define with reference to examples what the terms mean. (a) erg landscape (b) loess deposits (c) badland topography (d) rock pedestals (c) Great Dust Bowl (2) flash foods onChapter 8 Limestone and Chalk Landform Limestone and Chalk Limestone and chalk are sedimentary rocks of organic origin derived from the accumulation of corals and shells in the sea. In its pure state, limestone is made up of calcite or calcium carbonate, but where magne- sium is afso present it is termed dolomite. Chalk 1s a very pure form of limestone, white, and rather soft. Limestone is soluble jn rain-water, which, with carbon dioxide from the air, forms a weak acid. A region with a large stretch of hmestone therefore possesses a very distinct type of topography. It is then termed a karst region, a name derived from the Karst district of Yugoslavia where such topo- graphy is particularly well developed. Characteristic Features of a Karst Region Generally speaking, karst regions have a bleak landscape, occasionally broken by precipitous slopes. There isa generaj absence of surface drainage as most of the surface water has gone underground. Streams rising on other rocks only flow over limestone for a short distance and then disappear underground. For the greater part of their course, they cut their way along the joints and fissures of the rock wearing out a system of underground channels. The surface valleys are therefore dry. When the water penetrates to the base of the limestone and meets non-porous rocks it re-emerges Onto the surface as a spring or resurgence. Limestones are well jointed and it 1s through these joints and cracks that rain-water finds its way into the underlying rock. Progressive widening by 1 pared with earbon dori rainwater chorea dito acid | t mikes (joints widened DY themicat ‘weathering and erosion) Fig. 64 Limestone pavement 1 i ess. A limestone escarpment. Notice that the valley is cultivatea but the limestone is bleak and tree! tastitute of Geological Sc onsolution enlarges these cracks into trenches and a most intriguing feature called limestone pavement is developed. The enlatged joints are called grikes and the isolated, rectangular blocks are termed clints, The limestone pavements may have been formed ‘beneath the soil and are now exposed by the removal of the soil cover (Fig. 64). On the surface of the limestone are numerous swallow holes, which ate smal! depressions carved out by solution where rain-water sinks into the limestone ata point of weakness. They are also known as sink hofes. Gaping Ghyll in Yorkshire is a fine example. These holes grow in size through continuous solvent action. , ~ Once water has sunk into the limestone it etches out caverns and passages along joints or bedding planes. When the roof of an underground tunnel collapses, a precipitous Jimestone gorge such as the Cheddar Gorge is formed. Where a number of swallow holes coalesce a larger hollow is formed and is called a doline (Fig. 65). Several dolina may merge as a result of subsidence to form a larger depression called anuvala, Some of them area mile across, containing Touch clayey soil from the limestones, weathered after their subsidence. In Yugoslavia, some very large'depressions called Fig. 65 Limestone scenery cave collapsed forming 3 gorge ory valley ‘Swallaw holes or sink holes where stream goes underground polje may be as large as a hundred square miles but these are partly due to faulting During the rainy season, parts of the floor which areat or near the water table _may became temporary lakes, but the drier areas are fertile and may support large villages Where subterrancan streams descend through swallow holes to underground passages, the region may be honeycombed with caves and caverns, some containing ponds and lakes. The most spectacular underground features that adorn the limestone caves are stalactites, stalagmites and pillars. Statactites scree sear; alternating « sear and scree, slopes developed on bands of different resistance anke frmestone pavement vie wtee = =u8enare the sharp, slender, downward-growing pinnacles that hang from the cave-roofs. The water carries calcium in solution and when this lime-charged water evaporates, it leaves behind ‘the solidified crystalline calcium carbonate. As moisture drips from the roof it trickles down the stalactite and drops to the floor where calcium is deposited to Yorm stalagmites. ‘They are shorter, fatter and more rounded. Over a long period, the stalactite hanging fromthe roof is eventually joined to the stalagmite growing from the floor to form a pillar (Fig, 66). Such features are commonty seen in any well-developed limestone caves ¢.g. Batu Caves, Kuala Lumpur; Mammoth Caves, Kentucky and Carlsbad Cave, New Mexico, in U.S.A and Postojna Caves, Yugoslavia. The Major Limestone Regions of the World The most characteristic stretch of limestone occurs in north-west Yugoslavia. Other regions include: the Causses district of southern France, the Pennines of Britain, Yorkshire and Derbyshire in particular, the Kentucky region of the United States, the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, the Cockpit Country of Jamacia, and the limestone hills of Perlis. Human Activities of Karst Regions Karst regions are often barren and at best carry athin layer of soil. The porosity of the rocks and the absence of surface drainage make vegetative growth Fig. 66 Limstone cave stalactites difficult, so that limestone can usually support oaly poor grass and short turf; some sheep grazing se ble. Limestone vegetation in tropical TeEiOn te ever, is luxuriant because of the heavy rainfall year round. Settlements ate scattered and population is often sparse. The only minerd | importance is lead which occurs in veins nee with limestone. Besides this, good ge 4 are often used as building materials \ for the cement industry. In West Malays, its limestone outcrops of the Kledang Range ans Main Range are quarried for the Pan-Malaysian #1 Cement Works. stalagmites: underpround cavern formed by solution wna 70"Chalk The landforms of chalk are rather different from those of other limestones. Thereis little or no surface drainage and valleys which once contained rivers are now dry, Thes¢ are often called coombes, The chalk forms low rounded hills in southern and south- eastern England, where they are called downs and in northern France. The chalk is covered with short turf, and in places with woodland, and is used for pasture and sometimes for arable farming. * Because of the friable nature of the rock, swallow-holes and underground cave networks do not generally develop. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1. Choose three outstanding features of a karst region. With the aid of diagrams describe their appearance and explain how they have been. formed. . 2. Thé following features are associated with karst topography. (a)~Clints and grikes (b) Dofines and uvalas (c) Stalactites and stalagmites For any two of them, with the aid of annotated diagrams, explain their origin and - locate an actual example of each. 3, Explain why: (a) Karst regions have very little surface drainage. (b) Subterranean streams produce a magni- ficent underground scenery. (c) Limestone areas have little agriculture and are sparsely peopled. - 4, With the aid of labelled diaprams, describe and account for the development of physical features which result from the action of water in: (a) limestone regions (b) arid deserts (c) granite uplands 5. Draw a large diagram of a karst region and indicate the following: swallow holes, limestone gorge, dry valleys, limestone pavement with clints and grikes. Describe briefly how any two of them have been formed.Chapter 9 Lakes Generat roe Lakes are amongst the most varied features of the earth’s surface. They occupy the hollows of the land surface in which water accumulates. They vary tremendously in size, shape, depth and mode of formation. The tiny ones are no bigger than ponds or pools, but the large ones are so extensive that they merit the name of seas, e.g. the Caspian Sea which is 760 miles long, as much as 3,215 feet deep, with a total area of 143,550 square miles, and is bigger than the whole of Malaysia! Lakes may exist femporarily filling up the small depressions of undulating ground after a heavy shower. But those which are deep and carry more water than could ever be evaporated remain per- manent, Most of the lakes in the world are’ fresh- water lakes fed by rivers and with out-fiowing streams e.g. Lake Geneva, Lake Poyang and the Great Lakes of North America. In regions of low precipitation and intense evaporation where there are few rivers strong enough to reach the sea, streams drain into a lake forming a basin of inland drainage. Because of the intense evaporation these lakes are saline. For example the Dead Sea has a salinity (salt content) of 250 parts per thousand, and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, U.S.A. has a salinity of 220 parts per thousand. But, the Black Sea, into which drain many large tivers, has a salinity of less than 17 parts per thou- sand! Playas or salt lakes, are a common feature of deserts. It must be pointed out that lakes are only temporary features of the earth’s crust; they will eventually be eliminated by the double process of draining and silting up. In regions of unreliable rainfall, lakes dry up completely during the dry season. In the hot deserts Jakes disappear altogether by the combined Processes of evaporation, percolation and outflow. Though the process of lake elimination may not be completed within our span of life, it takes place Telatively quickly in terms of geological time. The Formation and Origin of Lakes ‘The following are the various ways in which takes can be formed. Each of thém is placed in a specific category, though ina few cases the lakes could have on formed by more than one single factor. 1 ormed by Earth Morement 1 onic lakes, Due to the warping, sagging, u fracturing of the earth’s crust, tectonic ' . at ins ete oo depressions occur.’ Such’ depréssions give tise to lakes of immense sizes and depths. They include ‘Lake! Titicacal occupying a huge depression’ in the ‘ Tatenmont plateau of the Andes, 12,500 feet abow sea level the highest lake in, the world; and the CAspiallSea, 143,550 square miles, the largest lake -“gimost 5 times larger than its nearest Fal, Tale “’Superior, " . _ a (by Rift valley Takes. Due to faulting. ae valley is formed by the sinking of land between parallel faults, deep, narrow and elongated in charst ter. Water collééis in'thése troughs and their floor are often below sea level. ‘The best known exampk the East African ‘Rift Valley’ which rins throug Zambia! Malawi; Tanzania; ‘Kenya ‘and Eons and extends along’ the Red Sea to Isrel 2 a over a total distance of 3,000 miles. such. lakes as Lakes Ta ka (4,700 feet dese the world’s deepest lake), Malawi, Rudolf. Hise Albert, as Well as the Dead Sea 1,286 fost be mean sea_level, the world’s: lowest Take ig ———e ft_valley lakes water collects wv trough Fig. 67 Eanh movement . Lakes Formed by Glaciation ats vo! 2. (a) Cirque lakes or tams. A ssc stows a down the valley leaves behind circular eS od heads of the valleys up in the moun! vente hollows are the arm-chair-shaped cirques oh est Their over-deepencd floors may be file ine ie to become cirque lakes ¢.g- Red Tam ee iy a Lake District (Fig. 68). Those that im troughs are longand deep and are termodri - liswater. cons if * ey ete fakes. These are depression bor LA fr& Blea Fig. 68 Glaciation ie be Water in Westmorland, Engla i De wt noon Eng ind, ‘a typical cirque fakes or tas * outwash plain left by the melting of masses of stagnant ice. They are irregular’ because of the uneven mosainic surface and are never of any great size Or depth e.g. the meres of Shropshire in England, and ‘the kettle-lakes of Orkney in Scotland. (©) Rock-hollow takes. These are formed by ice-scouring when valley glaciers or ice sheets scoop out hollows on the surface, Such lakes of glacial origin are abundant in Finland, indeed the Finns call their country Suomi — the Land of Lakes. It js said that there are over 35,000 glacial Jakes in Finland! . (@) Lakes due to morainic damming of valleys. Valley glaciers often deposit morainic debris across a valley so that lakes are formed when water acum: lates behind the barrier, "Both lateral and terminal moraines are capable of damming valleys ¢g. Lake Windermere of the Lake District, England. 67(e) Lakes due to the deposition of glacial drifts. In glaciated lowlands with a predominant drumlin landscape, where drainage is poor, there are inter- vening depressions. These depressions are often water-logged, forming small lakes like those of County Down in Northem Ireland. 3. Lakes Formed by Volcanic Activity (a) Crater and caldera lakes. During a volcanic explosion the top of the cone may be bfown off leaving behind a natural hollow called a crater. This may be enlarged by subsidence into a caldera. These depressions are normally dry, bounded by steep cliffs and roughly circular in shape. In dormant or extinct volcanoes, tain falls straight into the crater or caldera which has no superficial outlet and forms a crater or caldera lake. The outstanding ones are the Crater Lake in Oregon, U.S.A. which in fact occupies a caldera; Lake Toba in northern Sumatra and Lake Avermus near Naples (Fig. 69). Fig. 68 Volcanic activity (b) Lava-blocked fakes. In volcanic regions a stream of lava may Now across a valley, become solidi- fied and thus dam the river forming a lake, e.g. alava flow blocks the Jordan valley forming the Sea of Gahice which is an inland lake, rather elongated in shape. {c) Lakes due to subsidence of # volcanic land sorface. The crust of a hallow lava flow may collapse The subsidence feaves behind a wide and shailow depression in which @ lake may form, e.g. Myvatn of Iceland. 4. Lakes Formed by Erosion (2) Karstlakes. Thesolsent actian of rain-water on limestone carves cut solution hollows. When there become clogged with debris lakes may form in them. ‘The collapse of fimestone foofs of under= vers may result in the exposure of Jong, ts that were once underground e.g. the aillexon in the Jura Mountains, etdepressions ested polio. which normally Fig. 70 A karst lake formed above the ground watt table in a limestone region, do not have surface outlets, may contain Oe During wet periods these may cover most often i floor but they shrink during dry perio’s ate seepage (Fig. 70). An example is Lake Scul Yugoslavia. 4 Solution is important in other rocks a ‘ eee salt. Local subsidence may occur when ved lying beds of rock-salt are gradually re “ solution. Many of the meres of Cheshire, there were probably caused by this, and are also f salt-mining operations. . onl ° © Wind-defated Jakes. The deflating action winds in deserts creates hollows. These ie ground water which seeps out forming me lakes. Excessive evaporation causes ese gall 2 salt fakes and playas. These are found ith Pus Depression in Egypt, and the Great Basi 5 dkes Formed by Deposition ee 5. Lakes Formed by . (a) Lakes due to river deposits. Aes 2 shorten its course during & flood by cul tne oss meandering loops, leaving behind a horse cect channel as an ox-bow lake, €.8- those | USA. o the flood-plains of Lower Mississ1pp'- ’ i de, Mexico. tio Rie Lakes due to Marine deposits. The ee oe winds and waves may isolate laroons lone 3 building spits or bars. As these Isgoo pt of water are enclosed only by 8 narror ei af comprising mud, sand and shinee ye away at low tide. They are com ry athe out deltas of large rivers such as the Nile oa at In East Germany and Poland, Iss me of eet haffs. Strong on-shore winds are cars:‘coastal sand dunes tandwards, and these may enclose aarshy lagoons. This type of lagoon is well deve- oped in the Landes of south-west France. {ec} Lakes due to landslides, screes and avalanches. akes formed by these processes are also known as barrier lakes. Landslides or screes may block valleys o that rivers are dammed. Such lakes are short- hved, because the loose fragments that pile across he valleys will soon give way under the pressure of vater. When they suddenly give way, the dammed: water rushes down, causing floods, Examples of akes of this type are, Lake Gormire in Yorkshire, docked by landslides; Ffynnon Frech on Snowdon dlocked by screes (Fig. 71). hill slopa stream obstactes—seree, landslide Fig. 71 Deposition (a barrier take formed depasition ‘of en obstacle) ~ dy the Fig. 72 Human activities [a lake made by constructing 3 Concrete dam across a fiver valley) 6. Lakes Formed by Human and Biological Activitles (a) Man-made lakes. Besides the natural lakes, man has now created artificial fakes by erecting a concrete dam across a river valley so that the river water can be kept back to form reservoirs (Fig. 72). Amongst such man-made lakes, the most imposing is Lake Mead above the Hoover Dam on the Colorado River, U.S.A. {b) Lakes made by animals. Animals like beavers. are particularly interesting. They live in communities and construct dams across the rivers with timber. Such beaver damsare quite permanent and are found in North America, e.g. Beaver Lake in Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A. “ (c) Other types of lakes. These inclide ornamen- tal lakes,especially made to attract tourists, e.g. Lake Gardens, Kuala Lumpur, Taiping Lakes. Man’s mining activities, e.g. tin mining in West Malaysia, have created numerous lakes. Infand fish culture has necessitated the creation of many fishing-lakes. Lakes and Man A careful examination of the lakes of the world will reveal their immense human significance. In countries where they are found in abundance, such as Finland, Canada, U.S.A., Sweden and the East African states, lakes, together with other inland waterways, have played a dominant role in the human, economic, social and cultural life of the people. The pattern of settlement, commerce and communication is very closely related to the distribution of the water features. ‘The following are the major uses of lakes and their associated human activities. 1. Means of communication, Large lakes like the Great Lakes of North America provide a cheap and convenient form of transport for heavy and bulky goods such as coal, iron, machinery, grains and timber. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways penetrate more than 1,700 miles into the interior. They are thus used as the chief arteries of commerce. It is estimated that the annual tonnage passing through the Sault-Ste. Marie Canal, or the Soo Canal, between Lake Huron and Lake Superior is greater than the combined annual tonnage of the Suez and Panama Canals. 2. Economic and industrial development. Early settle: ments and town sites were very much influenced by the presence of lakes. Lakes are an even more decisive factor when they are drained by large rivers with outlets to the sea. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways were responsible for the develop- ment of the interior wheat farms and lakeside industries. Raw materials, minerals and fuels were economically handled and assembled in the ‘HOMES’ district (Lakes Huron, Ontario, Afichigan, Erie and Superior), which has since become one of the greatest industrial districts of the world. Similarly, Lakes Poyang, Tung Ting and other lakes of the central 69Some of the lakes of Finland scoured out by ice action Camera Press . . ‘Yang-tze basin have greatly assisted in the commercial and industrial development of Wuhan Hanyang and Hankow). 3. Water storage. Lakes of either natural or ar- tificial origin are vital sources of domestic water supply to surrounding towns and industrial cities. For example in Britain Lake Thirlmere supplies water to Manchester, Loch Katrine to Glasgow, Lake Vyrnwy (in Wales) to Liverpool, The Okhla Reservoir supplies Delhi and the Vetarna, Vihar and Tulsi fakes supply Bombay, ‘ 4. Hydro-electric power generation, In mountainous districts, lakes or man-made reservoirs are used to furnish a good head of water to generate hydro- electric power. Natural fakes are preferred to arti- ficial reservoirs because the volume of water that flows from them varies very little throughout the year. For instance, the Niagara River flowing from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario has a very regular supply of water for its power Stations, whereas the Catawba River in the Carolinas which does not flow from a lake, has very little water during the dry season. Catton mills have been forced to close down during the period of drought due to insufficient power suppli¢s to mun the mills, The Aswan Dam on the aie 9 Egypt and the Lioyd Barrage on the Indus at (Wuchang, = fer from simitar defects. The Abu Bakar Me cron Righfands supplies much hydro- a ‘central West Malaysia. . 'porposes. Asmentioned earlier most lakes will eventually be eliminated, and when they dry up, their former beds are covered with thick layers of fertile alluvium, They make excellent agricultural land like the fertile Vale of Pickering in Yorkshire, or the rich Red River Valley of Canada which was in fact the former site of Lake Agassiz Modern multi-purpose dams, besides generating hydro-electric power also supply water for irrigation e.g. the Sennar Dam on the Blue Nife in Sudan, the Burrinjuck Dam on the Murrumbidgee in Australis, and the Hirakud Dam (Madhya Pradesh) on the Mahanadi in India, ; 6. Regulating river flows. A river with large lakes in its basin seldom experiences serious floods or lack of water. By absorbing the excess water duting heavy rain, a lake reduces the effects of seriou flooding downstream. In the dry season, it releasts its waterso that asteady flow ofthe riverismaintain ‘ Because lakes retain part of the sediment toot , rivers leaving Jakes have clearer water. Lakes th have such functionsinclude the Poyangand Tung Ting on the Yang-tze Kiang, Tonle Sap on a tributary the Mekong, and Lake Constance on the upper a ‘Where such lakes are not available, and Bodine is setious problem, artificial reservoirs aft e.g. the Hoover Dam on the River Colorado ani .Bhakra and Nangal Dams on the Sutlej in ke "7. Moderation of climate. Large and deep ‘ty ‘which are heated more slowly than the land Oe and cooled more slowly than the land by nil exercise an appreciable effect in moderating fet climate of a region in the same way as oe adjoining land masses. Water in the lakes ws air in summer by absorbing part of the heat an it in winter by releasing the heat. Fo : eastern shores of Lakes Erie, Ontario “have a much milder winter thar those o the on-coming breezes are wi ‘colt ee minimised. sthispart of the Lake Pence is therefore important for grapes and fit ian Large lakes like Lake Michigan and the ies also exert a slight influence on the cio red precipitation of the region. Their farge a helps? water acts almost like part of ‘the ocean, ain. precipitate atmospheric moisture into qe sot leeward side of Lake Michigan records ‘ rough Precipitation than the windward side, ne actual amount is often not easily notice ‘on eit lakes have practically no effect at al ot temperature or rainfall. 7 st 8. ‘Source offood. Many large lakes have ie supplies of protein food in the form + example BF and Huro? f the west 1fish, Sturgeon is commercially caught in the Caspian Sea, salmon and sea trout in the Great Lakes, and in Tonle Sap in Cambodia, fishing’ is a teading occupation. Amateur fishermen have found fishing © in lakes and rivers a most rewarding pastime. In. many countries, artificial lakes have been created for inland fish breeding. This is particularly important - in China and Japan. 9, Source of minerals. “Salt lakes provide valuable tock salts. ‘In the Dead Sea, the highly saline water is being evaporated and produces common salt, almost indispensable for human well-being. Borax is mined in the salt lakes of the Mojave Desert. Gypsum is mined in Cheshire, and Stassfurt, a smafl distance from Berlin, is so rich in potash and ‘other chemical’ deposits, that they have given rise to a wide range of chemical industires. In both these areas the salts are obtained from deposits formed in a earlier geological period. * 10, Tourist attraction and health resorts. Some of the world’s best frequented holiday and health _ fesorts ate located on lakesides for example, Lake Geneva, Lake Lucerne, Lake Lugano, Lake Como, Lake Placid (New York), Lake Vaner and Lake Vatter, (Sweden), the English Lake District and Taiping Lakes. The glacier-formed lakes of the “Alps have made the tourist industry a national occupation of the Swiss, ~ QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 1, Locate any 'three of the following lakes. Lake Tanganyika, Great Salt Lake, Lake Toba Lake Como, Lake Victoria, Lake Scutari, fe Meat fa) With the aid of sketch maps, explain their mode of formation (b) State their specific valué to the countries they serve ue - () Name another lake outside that country which has fairly similar origins each, - 2. Explain how cach of the follownig types’of. o lakes are formed. Quote an example of each ‘and locate them in clear sketch maps ’ (a) ox-bow lake (b) kettle lake ' (c) crater lake ot (da) karst lake " With the help of large, labelled dia- grams, explain how lakes may be formed by any three of the following. i. glaciation «© ii, earth movement * i. volcanic activity *- erosion - deposition ' Quote three actual examples of each State three uses of man-made lakes 4. Rivers may be dammed for @) ‘® (©) generating hydro-electricity controlling Hoods irrigating crops' (d) supplying drinking water (ce) _ assisting inland water transport For any four of them,‘Iocate a dam and a° tiver in which the damming has taken place. , Explain briefly how each of | the above Purposes has beén‘suécessfully achieved. ¢ 5. Each of the following terms are in one way or another connected with lake formation and uses. For any five of them give a concise explanation of their implications and give a good example of {a) basin of inland drainage (b) tectonic lakes. ~" (©) haffs (@) beaver dams - * “(@® playas (f} barrier lakes (g) tarnsChapter tV UOdstdl Ldnarorms The Action of Waves, Tides and Currents The coastline, under the constant action of the waves, tides and currents, is undergoing changes from day to day. On calm days, when winds are slight, waves do httle damage to the shoreline and may in- stead help to build up beaches and other depositional features. It isin storms that the ravages of the waves reach their greatest magnitude. Theaverage pressure of Atlantic waves on adjacent coasts is about 600 Ib, per square foot in the summer and treble that in winter. During storms, the pressure exerted is more than 6,000 Ib. or 3 tons per square foot! Movements of such intensity will wear down not only the cliffs but also sea walls and buildings. Tides and currents, on contact with the shores, make very little direct attack on the coastline. Tides affect marine erosion mainly by extending a /ine of erosion into a zone of erosion. This zone corresponds to the area between the low water level and the high water level. Curtents help to move eroded debris and deposit it as silt, sand and gravel along the coasts. wind turbulences -—~ ema ee, ge wey aN, ez S Wind direction ——e COPA ee X= Fnevon atthe " ¥ age ae OF INE woe ‘tweash———> backwash ————~ rf mechanism of wave motion The Mechanism of Marine Erosion The most powerful agents of marine erosion ar waves, Their origin is due to the sweeping of winds over the water surface, which setsa series of undulating swells surging forward, These become higher and swifter, A normal wave in an open ocean may measure 20 fect high (the vertical height between the crest and the trough) and 400 feet long (the ware- length or the horizontal distance between one crtst andanother). During storms thisis greatly: increased, depending on the speed and duration of the winds On approaching shallow water near the shores, their speed is reduced and the waves are curved of refracted against the alignment of the coast. Shallow water, when it is less than the height of the waves, checks their forward movement, the crests cutl ov and break into the shores in a mass of foam 2 breakers The water that finally rushes UP the beach and hurls rock debris against the landis te swash. The water is sucked back and retreats a tin offshore drift is G& backwash. Another element i) CU etrway root? t Marine agents of erosion oper in the fouow4s ways to transform the coastal landscape. ay 1. Corrasion, Waves armed with rock et on sizes and shapes charge against the base bY) veonith and wear them back by corrasion On-com ft currents and tides complete the work by sweep the eroded material into the sea. wat 2. Attrition, The constantly moving wave et transport beach materials such as boulders, Pe! fragmen! shingle snd fine sand albo hur! these oot against one another, until they are broker attrition into very small pieces. The srindig a: _ polishing of such fragmental materials 70 vate faces and against each other ts largely ‘hat are for the fine sand which forms the beaches typical of the seaside resorts. wat 2 Hydraulic action. In their forward seats af splashing against the coast may enter a jnside crevices in the rocks, The air impr ooe re immediately compressed. When the wie oles the compressed air expands with explo watssee Such action repeated again and again 5 oe pat the cracks and rock fragments are pris sol veo! 4. Solvent action. On limestone coasts, te sets action of sea water on calcium carbons! on ak chemical changes in the rocks anid disintegT™!