Cell replication . castor Sree OE ery eta Perec ye aS * understand that mitosis and cytokinesis form only part of a complete cell cycle + apply their understanding of cells to familiar ETc occd Tey Tee earn Er eee Bre ee SEC eet as Co eaten ete hod cartes ce eee ee ee ee ee ed ee et ee ee eee eens by which cells carry out this duplication and ere eee eee eee Pa eee ee 2n=22), the chromosomes, stained blue, havealrea Inthis chapter, we ive eng Pear: reen, all surrounded bya keratin significance of the process, Esser‘Spray-on skin’ When Dr Fiona Wood (Ligure 4.2) of the Royal Perth Hospital was made Australian of the Year for 2005, it was in recognition of her work related to the treatment of severely burnt people. For about ten years prior to March 2003, Dr Wood had been devel- oping improved methods for growing replacement skin. When 28 Australians were badly wounded and burnt in an explosion in Bali, Indonesia, it was decided that they should be returned to Australia as soon as possible for treatment. They were sent to Dr Wood and Australians followed their progress through the daily press. ‘Spray-on skin’, known commercially as CellSpray, and Dr Wood became famous. Normal intact skin (figure 4.3) provides a covering for the body. The outermost part of the outer layer, the epidermis, com- prises dead cells. Beneath this dead outer layer is a layer of living epidermal cells that can regenerate and repair when damage Figure 4.2 DrFiona lod was awarded Australian of the Yea for 2005 for her workan developing an improved method of skin-ell fegenertion leading to improved and ving epidermal Inoreapidveatmentfor people with cells capable skin burs, of mitosis and regeneration Dead outer layer of epidermis Connective tissue Figure 4.3 Section showing the outermost layer of skin, Note the different parts of he epidermis. ‘Treatment of an area where skin cells have been severely damaged through burning or some other trauma involves trying to get new skin to grow over the damaged area. The first step isto remove epidermal cells from an uninjured part of the skin of the patient. In older and more traditional methods for replacing burnt skin, these collected cells were grown in plastic dishes until they formed sheets of cells that could then be transplanted over the burnt area, There can be problems with this technique One problem was that it took considerable time — up to 21 days — to grow the sheets of cells that were sufficiently large to cover extensively burnt areas Also, the sheets began to act like skin and the surface cells formed keratin and died so that they were less active growers when the transplant was carried out Scarring tended to be more severe the longer the patient waited to be treated and the longer wait also increased the chance of infection and other complications with the wounds. Ithas been Dr Wood's research has concentrated on finding a way of shortening the estimated that each peson time between the bum and the application of replacement skin and, out ofthat replies a avers aout research, CellSpray has been developed. Hot begat seine Uninjured skin cells from the patient ae the starting point. These skin cells are fiom our scalps represents ust incubated with special nutrients that stimulate the cell cycle and are grown in this faction of the skin cells we Way for about five days. A suspension containing these actively replicating cells must replace. is then sprayed over the burnt areas. The cells continue to replicate and migrate Ls "76 NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1 (aso that they spread and grow over the damaged area. Spraying also means that larger areas can be treated al any one time. Some scarring may occur but it appears to be less than that occurring with traditional methods. ‘The science involved in growing new skin cells is possible because living skin cells are able to regen- erate, We continually shed our old skin cells and so we continually need to replace them. Skin cells are continually being replaced by the cell cycle, a process that results in the production of two new cells, each identical to the parent cell that gave rise to them. Mitosis is an important part of that cycle and involves the replication of the genetic material in the cell. The cytoplasm of a cell is shared between the ‘ovo new cells at cytokinesis In this chapter, we consider in some depth the importance of mitosis and Figure 4.4 'Spray-on skin’ or CeliSpray, developed by Dr Fiona Wood, Stincelisakentrom- patient €Ytokinesis. We also explore where these processes occur in a range of animals are cultured and allowed to replicate. and plants. ‘suspension of these celsis sprayed anto burnt areas where they continue Sqovand mane. Nuclear division leads to reproduction of cells New cells are constantly being produced in multicellular organisms. We have already mentioned cell reproduction playing a role in the regeneration of skin cells. In mammals, red blood cells, skin cells and gut cells are constantly being produced to replace cells that have died. Replacement cells are produced only by reproduction of existing cells. ‘As we have seen in chapter 2, the cells of eukaryotes typically have a nucleus, which contains the genetic material deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is found in thread-like structures called chromosomes and influences the characteristics and controls all the functions that go on within an individual. As cells reproduce, it is critical that the genetic material is also reproduced so that any new cells produced have the same amount and kind of genetic material as the parent cell. ‘The correct distribution is vital because any error may result in serious defects in cell and ultimately in an organism. ‘The process that ensures the same amount and kind of genetic material is transmitted from one generation to the next as cells reproduce is called mitosis Mitosis Mitosis isa process of nuclear division in which the replicated genetic material is separated and two new nuclei are formed (see figure 45, page 78). Repli- cation ofthe whole cell is completed only after the cytosol and organelles inthe cytosol separate around the two new nuclei that are formed during mitosis. The separation of eylosol and the organelles it contains is called cytokinesis (see figure 45 and pages 79-80) Before mitosis begins, chromosomes are too slender to be visible in acell. As replication of the genetic material begins, the chromosomes become shorter and thicker and are more easily seen (se figure 4.5). From that point, their behaviour can be studied using alight microscope. Generally each chromosome is single-stranded and consists of one molecule of DNA. However, at certain times during the reproduction ofa cell, a chromo- some is double-stranded and consists of two molecules of DNA. SS cll jPi/T0 77‘STARTING POINT: One cell containing four single-stranded chromosomes i. Nucleus well defined at late interphase. Coe ‘Animal cells have a pair of centrioles in an aster of microtubules close to nuclear envelope. Chromosomes not visible but their DNA has already duplicated. ‘hromosomes become visible early in ‘mitosis. At first they appear thin and long but sradually become thicker and shorter. Later, the chromosomes can be seen to be double- stranded, held together at the centromere. ‘The replicated centrioles move apart; microtubules of the mitotic spindle continue to extend from the centrioles. ili, Mitotic spindle fully formed between the pairs of centrioles at the two poles of the spindle. The double-stranded chromosomes (each strand is called a chromatid) line up around the equator of the cell. From the side, they form a line across the middle of the cell, How would they appear if viewed from above? ‘Metaphase iv. Each centromere divides, so that the single-stranded copies of each chromosome ‘move to opposite ends of the cell as the tubules shorten. This migration is orderly and results in one copy of each chromosome ‘moving toward each end of the spindle. Anaphase v. The chromosomes become thinner and less obvious. A new nuclear membrane begins to form around each group of chromosomes. ‘This completes the process of mitosis. vi. Division of the cytoplasm by a process called cytokinesis is completed, new membranes form enclosing each of the two new cells (and cell walls in the case of plants) which become interphase cells. Interphase Interphase Eye rranded chromosomes 0 cells each containing four single- Figure 4.5 Summary of mitosis and cytokinesis. The drawings (middle column) show a stylised version in an animal cll containing four chromosomes. Te tight micrographs (third column) show mitosis in the endosperm of the seed of an African blood lily, Scadoxus katherinae Bak (18 chromosomes in each cell. Chromosomes are stained purple and microtubules are stained pink Note the changes in chromosomes and the formation and distribution of microtubules and fibres a the cell moves through the cell cycle. Two daughter cells form from each cell by the completion af the cell cycle. "78 NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1 ee __ea Ifa chromosome fails to attach to spindle fibres, its two chromatids ‘separate to become chromosomes, but move at random in the cell Individual chromosomes first become visible as double, thread-like structures held together in a constricted region. Each of these threads is called a chromatid and the position where they are held together is called a centromere. The fact, that the chromosomes are double-stranded and therefore contain two molecules of DNA indicates that the genetic material in the parent cell has already been replicated (see figure 4.10), ‘The chromosomes continue to shorten and thicken and the nuclear membrane disintegrates. At the same time, the very fine protein fibres or microtubules in the cytosol move towards the nucleus. The function of the fibres is to guide the movement of the chromosomes in the cell. The fibres become arranged in the cell rather like the lines of longitude on a globe to form a structure called a spindle. ‘The chromosomes become attached by their centromeres around the ‘equator’ of the spindle, ‘Two things then happen. The centromeres split so that there are pairs of chro- mosomes, and the spindle fibres contract. The contraction of the spindle fibres is responsible for the movement of the chromosomes towards the poles of the spindle. The movement of the new chromosomes is very ordered. One of the new chromosomes from each pair moves to one end of the spindle: its identical pair moves towards the opposite pole. The end result is a set of chromosomes at each end of the spindle. Because the new chromosomes behave in an orderly way, the set of chromosomes at one end of the spindle is identical with the set of chromo- somes at the other end of the spindle. ‘The chromosomes at each end of the spindle begin to lengthen and become less visible as distinct structures. At the same time, the protein fibres disperse back into the cytosol and a nuclear membrane develops around each group. Gen- erally, the separation of the genetic material is followed by another significant event, cytokinesis. Cytokinesis In January 2005, the journal Trends in Cell Biology (igure AUG >) =) 4.6) announced a series of special articles on research into cytokinesis under the title “Cytokinesis: the great divide’, In ee) ee ee eed Figure 4.6 the front cover of the journal in which research into ‘cytokinesis is discussed the first of these articles, Professor Jeremy Hyams of Massey University wrote: (Cytokinesis brings the curtain down on the cel cycle; iis the final dramatic actin which one cell becomes two. As the two new nuclei form at the end of mitosis, the cytosol and organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, surround each nucleus and cytokinesis occurs. Minor differences occur during cytokinesis in different organisms. Generally in animals, the bridge of cytoplasm between the two new nuclei narrows as the plasma membrane pinches in to separate the nuclei and cytoplasm into two new cells (figure 4.72, page 80). In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two groups of chromo- somes and develops into a new cell wall for each of the newly produced cells (figure 4.7b). Mitosis is essentially the same in plant and animal cells. The small differences that do exist are not related to the genetic material, nor do they impact on the biological significance of the process, The biological significance is that, through mitosis, a cell is able to reproduce and give rise to two new cells identical to each other, and identical to the original cell. The two new cells contain exactly the same number of chromosomes as the original cell and the same kind of genetic material as the original cell. The outcome of mitosis is summarised in figure 4.5 (page 78). SS cl P/N 7°(@) Animal cell Centriole gm replicates) ( Chromosomes Uuncoil and disappear Cleavage —> pul) Contracting rng ferro of microfilaments 7 Nuclear FF membrane reforms Figure 4.7 sinor itferences are visible plantand animal els during mitosis and cytokines (2) An animal cell has pair of centrioles teach poe ofthe spindle anda ring of contacting filaments that separates the cytosol and organelles during cytokines (6) Ina ney ceplicatng plant cll, 2 cellplate forms between the to 2 groupsofchromosomesand givesrise Middle lamella Cell plate New cel walls foanewcellvallforeach new cell of new cell wal forming Organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts also replicate We have seen that mitosis is followed by cytokinesis. This is essential so that the two new nuclei formed can each be combined with cytosol to give two new cells. Obviously the organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts within the cytosol must also be replicated during the cell cycle, otherwise cells would contain an ever decreasing number of these structures, Figure 4.8 (a) Mallomonas splendens, a golden-brown, single-celled alga (b) Chloroplast autofluorescence in two cells (of, splendens taken (witha confocal microscope) at the same magnification as (a) nthe lft, a cella interphase shows the two lobes ofa single chioropast joined by a narrow connection. Onthe righ, a replicating cell inwhich the chioroplasts also replicating Note the connection hasbroken and the two lobes are each now single chloroplasts thatare beginning to constrict. The mitochondria, shown as superimposed red images in (a), would also replicate ‘80 NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1Figure 4.9 the total time taken for ‘one mitotic el cycle can vary greatly from organism to organism. Note the checkpoints at which there appears tobe self-checking to ensue that mistakes have not occured during the synthesis of ONA or replication ofthe cel, Choosing a cell atthe right stage of the cycle may impact on the success or otherwise ofcloning ‘experiments where a nucleus from ‘one cells inserted into another call for development. Just as a nucleus contains DNA that must replicate before two new nuclei are formed, so do mitochondria and chloroplasts. These two organelles contain DNA that must replicate before the organelles divide. The alga Mallomonas splendens (see figure 4.8a) has a single chloroplast composed of two lobes joined by a narrow connection. As a cell of M. splendens replicates, its chloroplast must also replicate. During replication of the chloroplast, the narrow connection breaks and each of the two lobes grows and constricts to give two, two-lobed chloroplasts (see figure 4.86). Organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria can arise only from pre-existing organelles. Cells can arise only from pre-existing cells. Dr Peter Beech, a cell biologist, carries out research on the replication of cells and their organelles. Figure 4.8, page 80, shows some of his results. Read what he has to say about his work in chapter 2, on pages 38-39. How long is a cell cycle? ‘The time taken for a newly formed cell to mature and then give rise to two new cells is called the cell cycle (see figure 4.9). The total time taken for one cycle ‘can vary greatly, from as short as 20 minutes to as long as several weeks, but it usually lasts about 10 to 30 hours in plants and 18 to 24 hours in animals. At what stage of the cell cycle is the genetic material actually replicated? As we have mentioned, it must be before the chromosomes first become visible during mitosis. Figure 4.9 shows the various phases in a complete cell cycle. ‘The phase between successive mitoses is called interphase and it is during a restricted period of interphase, termed the S (lor synthesis) period, that DNA is replicated in preparation for reproduction of the cell synthesis — period when the DNA is replicated and chromosome is duplicated cap 1 — period of cell growth, normal metabolism, duplication of organelles Checkpoint = ‘Checkpoint 2 new cells produced and each can continue cycle ‘The time of replication can be easily identified. Since one of the building blocks found in DNA is thymidine, the time of DNA replication can be identified as ‘corresponding to that time when the cells are actively taking up and incorporating radioactive thymidine into DNA. ‘The S period is flanked by G (or gap) phases during which cell growth takes place. ‘The G phases also seem to be times at which the cell checks its DNA for mistakes (as shown by ‘checkpoints’ in figure 4.9). Gap 1 seems to include an examination for mistakes in DNA that may have arisen during the replication of the cell. In Gap 2, cells check for mistakes that may have occurred during the synthesis of DNA in the S phase. Ifa cell does not receive a go-ahead signal ata checkpoint, i exits the cycle. aDuring the Gl stage of interphase, each chromosome contains a single molecule of DNA. After replication of DNA in the $ phase, the chromo- somes duplicate but the DNA remains in its extended state and so chromosomes are not readily seen. After a cell enters mitosis from the $ phase, the DNA and proteins in the newly formed chromosomes become coiled and condensed so that the chro- ‘mosomes become increasingly visible. Referto figure 4.10. Itisclear that each chromosome has two distinct strands or chromatids that are still connected to each other at the centromere region. ‘This region is indicated by an indent in the chromosome. The centromere isa region of highly condensed DNA and protein, a Figure 4.10 Coloured electron photomicrograph (EN) ofa human chromosome, showing its two chromatids, during mitosis In the past, electron microscope (EM) images often resulted in only two-dimensional pictures. Using equipment in special ways now enables researchers to obtain three-cimensional pictures of very small, highly specialised areas, such as the centromere and kinetochores. Lasers for microsurgery are now used to slice chromosomes in living cells. Using a technique called electron tomography, three-dimensional images of the small pieces obtained are reconstructed from a large number of photographs taken at different angles by the type of electron microscope shown in figure 4.11. This EM is located at the Resource for the Vist- alization of Biological Complexity at the Wadsworth Center (Albany. New York) and is used by Professor Conly Reider and his co-researchers (See also figure 4.1, page 75) Figure 4.11 todern 400k JE0L ‘IEHOOOFX analytical, energy-ftered cxyo-eectron microscope. Three- dimensional pictures ar constructed Using information obtained from many ‘o-dimensional images taken from different angles wth the EM. Tis techrigue is called electron tomography. ‘82. NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1Table 4.1 Asummary ofthe stages of mitosis ea In the echidna (Toctyglossus aculeatus), ‘there are 63 chromosomes in somatic cells of males and 64 in females. Male echidna have three sex chromosomes, denoted X;, Xp and Y; females have an XXX Sex chromasome complement. @ For convenience, mitosis is divided into the arbitrary stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase (see table 4.1). The duration of each stage varies from species to species. Ord Stage of mitosis ao How many chromosomes? Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each of its body cells. Human body cells contain 46 chromosomes (see figure 4.12). In most species of mammal, the males and females have the same number of chromo- somes. The collection of chromosomes includes a pair of sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes in male mammals comprise one X and one Y chromosome, and the sex chromosomes of females comprise two X chromosomes. ‘The remaining 44 chromosomes in human body cells are called autosomes. ‘These comprise 22 pairs of chromosomes and each pair is identified by a number from one to 22. Each pair of autosomes makes up a homologous pair. The pair of X chromosomes in a female are also homologous; that is, they are alike in size and shape and carry genetic material that influences the same characteristics. When the ‘chromosomes ofa cell are paired in this way the cell is said to be diploid. The same term, diploid, is used for the organism from which the cell is taken . Mui nou iy ow OW mo i. . 7 . cy rs a Figure 4.12 (2) The chromosomes from a somatic cell ofa human male, Thsis called the ‘metaphase spread’. (b) Chromosomes from (@) arranged into a karyotype. Nate that the 46 chromosomes are arranged in 23 pairs, When chromasomes can be paired this way, the ‘organisms said tobe diploid and the number of chromosomes is called the diploid number. CELLREPUCATION 83(have a chromosome number of 38.4. ‘There is no relationship between the size of an organism and the chromosome number in its somatic cells. The largest mammal, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), has achromosome number of 44 (see table 4.2). In contrast, small mammals such as the dog (Canis familiaris) and the So whags mouse (Mus musculus) have chromosome numbers of 78 Mine ig 40, 440 respectively. Figure 4.13 The size ofan animalandits chromosome number are not related. Table 4.2 chromosome numbers of somatic cells of some plants and animals rd Boas Loe or ira black-tiled wallaby (Wallabia bicolor) 10 (females): 11 (males) mulga (Acacia aneuran) 26 blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) 44 Banksia spp. 28 brushetailed possum (Trichasurus vulpecula) 20 bread wheat Triticum aestivum) 42 «common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) 4 Eucalyptus spp. 2 echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) 64 (females); 63 (males) Grevllea spp. 2 cat (Felis catus) 38 Hakea spp. 20 Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) 56 Leptospermum sp 2 koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) 16 lettuce (Lactuca sativa) 18 Pacific dolphin (Delphinus bairdi) 44 maize Zea mays) 2 platypus (Omithorhynchus anatinus) 2 pineapple (Ananas comosus) 50 red kangaroo (Macropus rafts) 20 she-oak (Caswarina torulosa) 26 ddog (Canis familiaris) 7B strawberry (Fragaria ananassa) 56 & + Cells reproduce during the cell cycle. + Cells can reproduce only ifthe genetic material i replicated, + The duplication of cells involves mitosis and cytokinesis. + The two newly formed cells each have the same kind and amount of genetic material as the parent cell. + Each species has a characteristic chromosome number. V Wraaaar 1 What is the genetic material of eukaryotes? 2 What are the phases of the cell cycle and what event/s occur at each phase? 3 Atwhat stages of mitosis are the chromosomes double-stranded? 4 What.is the chromosome number of the human species? 5 How many chromosomes are there in one of your bone marrow cells? Each of your skin cells? Each of your white blood cells? ‘84 NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1 IWhere does mitosis occur? We saw at the start of this chapter that skin cells regenerate. In fact, this regen- «erations usually the normal process of replacement that occurs throughout our lives and special techniques are used to enhance that replacement in times of accident. Mitosis occurs in different tissues in different animals and plants. Mitosis in mammals Mammalian embryos arise from a single living cell that has been formed when a sperm fertilises an egg. This single diploid cell divides by mitosis, followed by cytokinesis, time and time again, to give a multicellular structure. Eventually these cells begin to undergo specialisation and different tissues form — heart tissue, brain tissue, bone tissue, cartilage, skin and many other different kinds. Human skin is made of many layers of cells and the outer layers are contin- ually being worn away. Cells in deeper layers under the skin continually divide by mitosis and replace the cells lost from outer layers. Cells in bone marrow continually divide to provide an ongoing supply of red and white blood cells as older ones wear out and are removed from the bloodstream. Most highly specialised cells are unable to divide by mitosis and, if they are ‘damaged, a person may be seriously impaired. For example, nerve cells cannot divide so that an accident involving a head wound in which a significant portion of the central nervous system is damaged can lead to paralysis or other perma- nent damage to some part of the body. One organ that is able to regenerate to some extent isthe liver. Spore formation by fungus ‘The fungus or mould you see on bread or fruit grows by mitosis. A single cell, a fungal spore, lands on food and grows into a mass of thread-like hyphae. Special- ised stalks, each with a spore case at its tip, grow up from the mass of hyphae (see figure 4.14). Mitosis occurs within the spore case and thousands of black spores are formed. On maturing, the spore case splits open and the tiny, light spores are scattered. When conditions are favourable, each spore germinates and grows into anew hyphal mass. Hyphae ofthe — mycelium Figure 4.14 The fungus on a rotting tomato (a) comprises a mass of white threads or hyphae. Asexual reproduction occurs atthe tps of some hyphae and large numbers of black spores ae formed (b), each genetically identical withthe parent. CELLREPUCATION 85New plants from leaves Some plants, for example, Bryophyllum sp., have meristematic-type tissue at notches along the edges of their leaves. This tissue is able to reproduce to give rise to new cells, Rounded structures grow out from the notches (see figure 4.15) and develop into small plants that drop to the soil and take root. What process is, responsible for this growth? Figure 4.15 Bushfires are common in many areas of Australia, Although trees may appear to be burnt to a point that one might think they are dead, a picture such as the one in figure 4.16 (taken Just six weeks after the area was devastated by bushfire) clearly shows this is not the case. It is clear from the photograph that the fire has completely destroyed the undergrowth of grasses, shrubs and herbs. Fire-blackened trees with their scorched dead, canopy of leaves are in the back, while, in the foreground, the burnt trunks of rough-barked eucalypt trees are visible. One tree is already showing signs of regrowth; it is a thick-barked eucalypt whose thick outer layer of protective bark has insu- lated the underlying living tissues from the effects of the fire. ‘The trunk of a eucalypt does not usually show growing shoots. However, if the normal leaf canopy is destroyed, as happened in this fire, buds which are present beneath the bark will grow and reproduce new green leafy shoots, known as epicormic shoots, The growth of epicormic shoots involves the production of new cells. The buds below the bark contain tissue called meristem which is made of cells that are able 1o reproduce to give rise to new cells. These new cells are iden- tical with each other and identical to the parent cell Figure 4.16 RE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1 (aFigure 4.17 & new plant develops {rom each of the small bodes that splash out of the gemma cups ona liverwort plant, The new plants are genetically identical to the parent Plant. Thats one less starfish Go eat our oysters. Figure 4.18 12 starishis cut into ‘wo, each half can regenerateintoa whole Liverworts, class Hepatica, are small plants that have a flat, fleshy, leaflike struc- ture from which rhizoids extend into the soil. The name ‘liverwort’ is derived from the shape of the organism — rather like that of a liver — and the Anglo- Saxon word for herb — wort. As you might predict from the name, it was once thought that this plant might be useful in the treatment of liver diseases. In addition to reproducing sexually, liverworts reproduce asexually by means of fragmentation of parts of the plant. Also, liverworts produce gemmae, small multicellular bodies produced in special cuplike structures called gemma cups (see figure 4.17). When rain falls, the gemmae are splashed out of the cup. Gemmue are produced from cells of the parent plant by mitosis. When they grow into new plants they do so by mitosis. The new liverwort plants produced by growth of the gemmae are genetically identical to the parent plant from which they were derived. Planaria, phylum Platyhelminthes, are flatworms that live in water. They are one of the few animals that can reproduce asexually by regeneration. The parent breaks into ‘wo or more pieces and each piece grows into a new planarian, The new parts are produced by mitosis of cells and each new planarian is an exact copy of the parent. Ifa starfish loses some of its ‘arms’, new ones are regenerated by mitosis (see figure 4.19). Figure 4.19 if starfish loses some ofits‘arms they regrow. Hereyou can see sinew ‘arms’ ona damaged starfish CELLREPLCATION 87Like all animals, a developing insect embryo grows by mitosis within its egg. Once hatched, an insect may go through several forms before it reaches adult- hood. It may go through a number of moults as a caterpillar, during which time the structure discarded during a moult must also be replaced by new cells formed by mitosis, ‘Some caterpillars pupate, during which stage a firm casing is formed around the body. A pupa does not eat and yet the body of the insect goes through a major reorganisation. The cells of the caterpillar break down within the pupal case. ‘This ‘soup’ provides the raw material for embryonic type cells that have been dormant within the caterpillar but now become active within the pupa. These cells undergo mitosis and give rise to the tissues of the adult insect. Hence the caterpillar develops into an adult fy. Other insects may not pupate, but grow through a series of moults and then ‘grow wings from small pads of embryonic cells that carry out mitosis followed by specialisation, Control mechanisms can fail We have examined how mitosis is essential for the production of new cells. For example, skin and blood cells are continually dying and must be replaced. The death of cells isa natural feature of healthy tissue. This ‘programmed’ cell death You will learn more about apoptosis is called apoptosis and in healthy tissues is balanced by the production of new ‘nyour Biology studies next yeor. cells by mitosis. A breakdown in this balance can occur. If too much apoptosis oF too little mitosis occurs, there will be a deficiency of the particular kind of cell and a degenerative disease such as Alzheimer’s disease can develop. If there is ‘an excess of cells a tumour develops. If a tumour continues to grow and invades healthy groups of cells it is said to be malignant. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in Australian females and accounts for about 26 per cent of all cancers in women. Figure 4.20 (page 89) shows hhow cancer spreads in breast tissue (a and b) and demonstrates the spread of cancer cells (c). The usual control mechanisms of cells fail to operate in cancer cells. Currently, not a lot is known about the mechanisms of cancer and current research is concentrating on analysing the cellular and molecular changes, as well as changes in the micro-environment of ces, that occur during the growth of cancer cells (refer to the box on Associate Professor Leigh Ackland, chapter 1, page 13).A better understanding of these aspects and the interaction between the various parts within cancer cells increases the chance that improved treatments and cure rates may be found for those with cancer. J} + Mitosis occurs ina range of different tissues in different plants and animals. + Some eukaryotes reproduce asexually from a single cell. * Uncontrolled cell replication can lead to cancers. ) QUICK-CHECK ‘88 NATURE OF BIOLOGY BOOK 1@ 0 Rib. Secretory cells w Figure 4.20 (a) Longitudinal section ofa breast showing (i) normal tissues and (i details of a secretory lobule and duct (b) Development ofa tumour, then cancer froma single cell. AS a cancer progresses, epithelial cancer cells leave the primary tumour, invade surrounding tissue and enter the blood and lymph vessels which carry the cancer cll tothe other organs (€) Breast cancer cells. When a gap, simulating a duct, is made in vivo ina culture of breast cancer cells (i), the cancer cells (stained green) migrate to fil the space (i) to (iv). This isa model of what happens in vio where cancer cell are motile and produce secondary cancers away from theirntial source, Migrating cancer cells derived from breast epithelium express the protein vimentin which stains green. The function of vimentin is unknown buts not expressed by normal epithelial cells except during development. SS 611 i700 5°7 re 1 Anumber of cells were monitored as. 2 they completed on cl ye. Te average amount of DNA per cel was Amount Ienuredandgraphedorerthetinet oC OMA iukforthecomplionafonecrie. acc Theqephobtindisshownst ight. amis) a Tele ABCOEFin the raph Feresetiffererttinesin coll Oj What ae the tages dated? b Athesametine samplecelenere A cD E r Sind. The cls arined were sine ee: |. one complete cell cycle >| Match these cells 1,2, 3,4 ‘and 5 with the appropriate points, ABCDEF, inthe cell cycle graph. 2 3 ‘Order the following events in anal cell replication. £ Youare examining a cell undergoing mitosis. You ar asked 2 whether the celis roma plant oran animal. 2 Alignment of chromosomes onthe spindle equator {a Whatthree features would you lok forin terms of ther Attachment of microtubules to centromere region presence or absence inorder to determine the answer to Breakdown ofnuclear envelope the question you have been asked? 4 Condensation of chromosomes { b- Bxplain what you would expectin each case, © Decondensation of chromasomes F Duplication of centromere 44 Elongation of he spindle fh Pinching of cell into two : {i Re-formation of nuclear envelope : 4 Separation of centromeres : Separation of sister chromatids ‘90 NATURE OF B1oLOGy BOOK 1 IKey words pm ee cee apoptosis electron prophase autosomes tomography pupa call cycle epicormic regeneration centromere shoots thizoids chromatid homologous sex chromosomes chromosomes interphase spindle cytokinesis meristem telophase deoxyribonucleic acid metaphase (DNA) mitosis CTA 1. Making connections » Use as many as possible of the chapter key ‘construct a concept map. 2 Applying understanding + The image at left (figure 4.21) shows a cell o African blood lily, Scadoxus katherinae Bak (2n = 18), undergoing Describe the appearance of the chromosomes as you would see under a powerful light microscope. What difference, if any, would you see in the chromosomes examined them after the spindle had been formed and its conte commenced? - s © How many chromosomes would you expect to see in a leaf cell? Figure 4.21 cellofan African blood ily d How many chromosomes would you expect to see in a root cell”” undergoing mitosis Applying understanding » A cell containing 24 chromosomes. mitosis. A genetic accident occurred and one of the resulting cells had 23 chromosomes Shoot (from pear tree) a How many chromosomes would you expect in the other cell produ Explain why. b At what stage of cell reproduction do you think the genetic occurred? 4 Interpreting and applying understanding of a new concept » a technique used with some plants. In grafting, two pieces of living tissue are connected in such a way that they will unite and subs behave as one plant. For example, the shoot of one kind of plant Root (of quince tree) grafted onto the root of another kind of plant (see figure 4.22). (called the stock) ‘The shoot of a pear tree, Pyrus communis, was grafted onto the roo Figure 4.22 asitis quince tree, Cydonia oblonga, and then allowed to grow. The mnaiein the bark ofthe number of pear is 68 and the chromosome number of quince is 34. stockand the bud graft a After several years’ growth, how many chromosomes would you ths om sofa in the leaves of the tree? is tipped inside. The gra . ‘shel plaewith ope b How many chromosomes would you expect in cells of a newly g or twine and the wound root? Explain. covered with grease to © You will note that the chromosome number of pear is twice the W\) exclude fungi and reduce some number of quince. Does this mean that a pear cell will contain evaporation. the amount of genetic material as a quince cell? Explain. ee5 Analysing and evaluating information » Do you agree or disagree with each of the following claims about mitosis? 4 The nuclear envelope is visible throughout the process. b Mitosis would occur in the developing limb of a larval frog. ‘© Mitosis in plants is significantly different from mitosis in animals. «d Mitosis is accompanied by replication of cell organelles such as mito- chondria and ribosomes. 6 Analysing and interpreting information + The illustration at left (figure 4.23) shows a series of drawings, all of the same cell at some stage during mitosis. 4 Starting with cell A, place the drawings in the sequence that the stages ‘would occur during mitosis. bb Draw what you would expect to see next in the sequence. 7 Making connections between concepts # The length of the cell cycle can vary greatly from one kind of cell to another. a Suggest how this may relate to the length of life of a cell in a particular site in the body of an organism. b In which part of the human body would you expect to find cells with the shortest life span? 8 Making connections between concepts » During mitosis, chromosomes become attached to microtubules that vary in length during the mitotic process. Explain when microtubules would be at their greatest length and when they would be at their shortest. 9 Applying understanding to new concepts » Some drugs used in the treat- ment of some cancers act on microtubules. They act by interfering with the normal contraction and extension capabilities of microtubules. a Explain the effect you would expect such drugs to have on mitosis and cell replication. b Why would such drugs be useful in cancer treatment? 10 Using the web Go to wwwjaconline.com.au/natureofbiology/natbioll-3e and access the ‘Cells alive’ weblink for this chapter. a Below the heading “Interactive” on the left-hand side, choose ‘Cell Cycle” from the menu. Run the ‘Cell Cycle” under animations and ask for check- points. This model presents three checkpoints, i Where in the cycle are each of the three checkpoints and what is being checked at each of the points? fi. Why is ‘resting’ a misleading word to use with respect to a cell at any phase during the cell cycle? iii Is there any aspect of the animation that you would suggest changing? Explain your answer. 1g the weblink you accessed for part (a), select the option from the left side menu under ‘Interactive’. Study the animated cycle. What is the diploid number of the cell shown’ © Now select “Take a quiz’ and choose the quiz on Cell Biology’. Take the quiz with a partner so that you can discuss your answers to each question, How many questions did you answer correctly? How many times did you take before you gave the correct answer? Visit the site more than once if necessary to check your learning.