CASTING

Process, Terminology & Steps

Mechanical Engineering Department
Mirpur University of Science & Technology
Instructor: Engr. Haroon Mushtaq

Casting Terms
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by
various names such as drag lower molding flask, cope upper molding flask, cheek
intermediate molding flask used in three piece molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the
help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the
mold.
4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases.
It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface
of the mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to
create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten
metal is poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the
mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the
gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its
own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as feed head.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

Fig 1: Sand Casting

Steps in Making Sand Castings

There are six basic steps in making sand castings:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Patternmaking
Core making
Molding
Melting and pouring
Cleaning

Pattern making
The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold. The mold is made by
packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as molding sand, around the pattern.
When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled
with metal to become the casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as in the case of pipe fittings,
additional patterns, referred to as cores, are used to form these cavities.
Core making
Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to form the interior
surfaces of castings. Thus the void space between the core and mold-cavity surface is what
eventually becomes the casting.
Molding
Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten metal.
Molding usually involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held with a supporting
frame, withdrawing the pattern to leave the mold cavity, setting the cores in the mold cavity and
finishing and closing the mold.
Melting and Pouring
The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting. Melting is usually
done in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is transferred to the
pouring area where the molds are filled.
Cleaning
Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from
the casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improved the surface appearance of the
casting. Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed.
Inspection of the casting for defects and general quality is performed.

Pattern
The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to be
made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the addition
of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be hollow, additional
patterns called cores are used to create these cavities in the finished product. The quality of the
casting produced depends upon the material of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs
of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the casting. The use of an
expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of castings required is substantial.
Functions of the Pattern
1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core and
need to be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may form a
part of the pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.
Pattern Material
Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has its own advantages,
limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for making patterns are: wood, metals
and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use,
the pattern material should be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Easily worked, shaped and joined

Light in weight
Strong, hard and durable
Resistant to wear and abrasion
Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most commonly used pattern
material is wood, since it is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and
is relatively cheap. The main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of moisture, which can
cause distortion and dimensional changes. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is
almost a pre-requisite for large-scale use of wood as a pattern material.

Figure 2: A typical pattern attached with gating and riser system

Fig 2: Sand Casting

Pattern Allowances
Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting.
Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified in
the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be made.
The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid rejections.
The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Shrinkage or contraction allowance

Draft or taper allowance
Machining or finish allowance
Distortion or camber allowance
Rapping allowance

Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance

All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of
two types:
i.

ii.

Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from
liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser,
which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.
Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the
patterns.

The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel
contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage, a shrink
rule must be used in laying out the measurements for the pattern. A shrink rule for cast iron is 1/8
inch longer per foot than a standard rule. If a gear blank of 4 inch in diameter was planned to
produce out of cast iron, the shrink rule in measuring it 4 inch would actually measure 4 -1/24
inch, thus compensating for the shrinkage. The various rate of contraction of various materials
are given in Table 1.
Table 1 : Rate of Contraction of Various Metals
Material

Dimension

Shrinkage allowance (inch/ft)

Grey Cast Iron

Up to 2 feet
2 feet to 4 feet
over 4 feet

0.125
0.105
0.083

Cast Steel

Up to 2 feet
2 feet to 6 feet
over 6 feet

0.251
0.191
0.155

Aluminum

Up to 4 feet

0.155

Magnesium

4 feet to 6 feet
over 6 feet

0.143
0.125

Up to 4 feet
Over 4 feet

0.173
0.155

Exercise 1
The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only shrinkage
allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches

Solution 1
The shrinkage allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is o.125 inch per feet (as per Table 1)
For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 18 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.1875 inch 0.2 inch
For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 14 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.146 inch 0.15 inch
For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 8 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0833 inch 0. 09 inch
For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 6 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0625 inch 0. 07 inch
The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown below:

Draft or Taper Allowance

By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so
that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without
excessive rapping by the molder. Figure 3 (a) shows a pattern having no draft allowance being
removed from the pattern. In this case, till the pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will
remain in contact with the walls of the mold, thus tending to break it. Figure 3 (b) is an
illustration of a pattern having proper draft allowance. Here, the moment the pattern lifting
commences, all of its surfaces are well away from the sand surface. Thus the pattern can be
removed without damaging the mold cavity.

Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in general inner details of the
pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces. The amount of draft depends upon the length of
the vertical side of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the method of
molding; and pattern material. Table 2 provides a general guide lines for the draft allowance.
Table 2 : Draft Allowances of Various Metals
Pattern material

Wood

Draft angle

Draft angle

(External surface)

(Internal surface)

Height of the given

surface (inch)
1

3.00

3.00

1 to 2

1.50

2.50

2 to 4

1.00

1.50

4 to 8

0.75

1.00

8 to 32

0.50

1.00

Metal and plastic

1.50

3.00

1 to 2

1.00

2.00

2 to 4

0.75

1.00

4 to 8

0.50

1.00

8 to 32

0.50

0.75

Machining or Finish Allowance

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when the
casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is
generally achieved by subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore
added in the pattern dimension. The amount of machining allowance to be provided for is
affected by the method of molding and casting used viz. hand molding or machine molding, sand
casting or metal mold casting. The amount of machining allowance is also affected by the size
and shape of the casting; the casting orientation; the metal; and the degree of accuracy and finish
required. The machining allowances recommended for different metal is given in Table 3.
Table 3 : Machining Allowances of Various Metals
Metal

Cast iron

Cast steel

Non ferrous

Dimension (inch)

Allowance (inch)

Up to 12

0.12

12 to 20

0.20

20 to 40

0.25

Up to 6

0.12

6 to 20

0.25

20 to 40

0.30

Up to 8

0.09

8 to 12

0.12

12 to 40

0.16

Exercise 2
The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only machining
allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern. All Dimensions are in Inches

Solution 2
The machining allowance for cast iron for size, up to 12 inch is o.12 inch and from 12 inch to 20
inch is 0.20 inch ( (Table 3)
For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch
For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 0.20 inch
For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch
For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 0.12 inch
The pattern drawing with required dimension is shown in Figure below

Distortion or Camber Allowance

Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape. For example, if
the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at the closed end
causing the vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented by making the legs of
the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting after distortion
will have its sides vertical ( (Figure 4).

The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are caused on
account of unequal cooling of different section of the casting and hindered contraction. Measure
taken to prevent the distortion in casting include:
i.
ii.
iii.

Modification of casting design

Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect
Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion allowance
(inverse reflection)

Figure 4: Distortions in Casting

Rapping Allowance
Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to
enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting
made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to account for this
increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly dependent on the
foundry personnel practice involved. It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those
dimensions that are parallel to the parting plane.

Core and Core Prints

Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes. These
impressions can be obtained by using cores. So where coring is required, provision should be
made to support the core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The
core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the mold on which the sand
core rests during pouring of the mold. The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that
it can support the weight of the core during the casting operation. Depending upon the
requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the mold cavity. A
typical job, its pattern and the mold cavity with core and core print is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: A Typical Job, its Pattern and the Mold Cavity