Casting, Forming & Welding

(ME31007)

Jinu Paul
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

CFW- Welding marks distribution

CFW Total Marks = 100
Casting =33, Forming = 33, Welding =33
End semester exam
50 %
30 %
Mid semester exam
Class test 1 (Before midsem) 7 %
Class test 2 (After midsem) 7 %
Attendance + Assignments - 6 %
2

Course details: Welding

Topic

Hours

1.

Introduction to welding science & technology

2
3

Welding Processes
Welding Energy sources & characteristics

4
5
6

Welding fluxes and coatings

Physics of Welding Arc
Heat flow in welding

1
1
2

Design of weld joints

Defects, Testing and inspection of weld joints

Metallurgical characteristics of welded joints,

Weldability, Brazing, soldering, adhesive joining

2-3
4
1-2

Total

19
3

References
Principles of Welding, Robert W Messler
Metallurgy of Welding, J.F. Lancaster
Welding Science and Technology, Md.
Ibrahim Khan
Welding Technology-O.P. Khanna
Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology, S. Kalpakjian
4

Lecture 1
22 July 2014, Tuesday, 11.30 am -12.30 pm

Introduction to welding

Overview of Joining processes

Joining
processes

Welding

Brazing
Soldering
Adhesive bonding

Mechanical
Assembly
(e.g., Threaded
fastners, rivets)

Joining processes-overview

Riveted Joint
Threaded fastner

Welded Joint
Brazed Joint

What are the joints that

were used in the Eiffel Tower?

Some application areas of welding

Aircraft industry

Automotive industry

Ship building

Welding: Application areas

Applications in Air, Underwater & Space
Automobile industry, aircraft industry,
ships and submarines
Buildings, bridges, pressure vessels,
girders, pipelines, machine tools, offshore
structures, nuclear power plants, etc.
House hold products, farm, mining, oil
industry, jigs & fixtures, boilers, furnaces,
railways etc.
10

Welding process-Features
Permanent joining of two materials through
localized coalescence resulting from a
suitable combination of Temperature &
Pressure
Formation of Common metallic crystals at
the joints/interface
With or Without filler material

11

Welding process-Features
Continuity: absence of any physical
disruption on an atomic scale
Not necessarily homogeneous but same in
atomic structure, thereby allowing the
formation of chemical bonds
Material
Metals
(similar/dissimilar)
Type of bond

Ceramic

Polymer

Metallic Ionic/coval Hydrogen, van der

ent
Waals, or other
dipolar bonds
12

Welding Process: Advantages

Exceptional structural integrity, continuity,
fluid tightness, portable equipments
Strength of joints can approach or exceed
the strength of the base material(s)
Wide range of processes & approaches
Can be performed manually, semi
automatically or completely automatically
Can be performed remotely in hazardous
environments (e.g., underwater, areas of
radiation, outer space) using robots
13

Welding Process: Disadvantages

Precludes disassembly
Requirement for heat in producing many
welds can disrupt the base material
microstructure and degrade properties;
may induce residual stresses
Requires considerable operator skill
Capital equipment can be expensive (e.g.,
laser beam, vacuum chambers etc.)
14

Types of joints in welding

Butt joint

Lap joint

Corner joint

Tee joint

Edge joint

15

Types of welds
1) Fillet weld

Fillet weld on corner joint

Fillet weld
on lap joint

Fillet weld
on T-joint

16

Types of welds
2) Groove weld
(a) square groove weld,

(d) single
U-groove weld

(b) single bevel

groove weld

(e) single
J-groove weld

(c) single
V-groove weld

(f) Double V- groove

weld for thicker
sections
17

Types of welds
3) Plug & slot weld

Drill hole/slot on the top plate only

Hole/slot is filled with filler metal
18

Types of welds
4) Spot weld

5) Seam weld

Fused section between the surfaces of two sheets

Mostly associated with resistance welding
19

Types of welds
6) Flange weld & Surfacing weld

Surfacing weld is not for joining parts

The purpose is to increase the thickness of the plate or
to provide a protective coating on the surface.
20

Weld symbols
Fillet weld

Flush/Flat contour
Convex contour

Square Butt
Concave contour
Single V Butt

Grinding Finish

Machining Finish

Chipping Finish

Double V Butt
Single U
Single Bevel Butt

21

Weld Specification-Example

G
1/4

1/4

22

Weld Specification

23

Lecture 2
05 Aug 2014, Tuesday, 11.30 am -12.30 pm

Elements of welding set up,

power density & heat transfer

24

Course details: Welding

Topic

Hours

1.

Introduction to welding science & technology

2
3

Welding Processes
Welding Energy sources & characteristics

4
5
6

Welding fluxes and coatings

Physics of Welding Arc
Heat flow in welding

1
1
2

Design of weld joints

Defects, Testing and inspection of weld joints

Metallurgical characteristics of welded joints,

Weldability, Brazing, soldering, adhesive joining

2-3
4
1-2

Total

19
25

Basic elements of a welding setup

1. Energy source to create union by
pressure/heat
2. Method to remove surface contaminants
3. Protect metal from atmospheric
contamination
4. Control of weld metallurgy

26

1. Energy source
Classification of Fusion welding based on energy source
Energy
source

Types of welding

Chemical

Oxy fuel gas welding, Exothermic welding/ Thermite

welding, Reaction brazing/Liquid phase bonding

Radiant
energy

Laser beam welding, Electron beam, Infrared welding/

brazing, Imaging arc welding, Microwave welding,

Electric-Perm. Gas tungsten arc welding, plasma arc welding, Carbon

electrode arc arc welding, atomic hydrogen welding, Stud arc welding
ElectricConsumable
electrode

Gas metal arc welding, Shielded metal arc welding,

Submerged arc welding, Electrogas welding, Electroslag
welding, Flux cored arc welding

ElectricResistance

Resistance spot, resistance seam, projection welding,

flash/ upset welding, Percussion, Induction welding
27

1. Energy source
Classification of solid state welding based on energy source
Energy
source

Types of welding

Cold welding, Hot pressure welding, Forge welding, Roll

welding, Friction welding, Ultrasonic welding, Friction stir
Mechanical
welding, Explosion welding, Deformation diffusion welding,
Creep isostatic pressure welding, Super plastic forming
Chemical + Pressure gas welding, Exothermic pressure welding,
Mechanical Pressure thermit forge welding
Stud arc welding, Magnetically impelled arc butt welding,
Electrical + resistance spot welding, resistance seam welding,
Mechanical projection welding, flash welding, upset welding,
percussion welding, resistance diffusion welding
28

2. Removal of Surface
contaminants
Surface contaminants may be organic films,
absorbed gases or chemical compounds of the
base metals (usually oxides)
Heat when used as source of energy removes
organic films and absorbed gases
Fluxes are used to clean oxide films and other
contaminants to form slag
Slag floats and solidifies above weld bead
protecting the weld from further oxidation
29

3. Protection from atmospheric

contamination
Shielding gases are used to protect molten
weld pool from atmospheric contaminants
like O2 & N2 present in air
Shielding gases could be Ar, He,CO2
Alternatively, welding could be carried out in
an inert atmosphere.

30

4. Control of weld metallurgy

Microstructures formed in the weld and
HAZ determines the properties of the weld
Depends on heating, cooling rates (power,
weld travel speed)
Can be controlled by preheating/ post heat
treatment
De-oxidants, alloying elements etc. added
to control weld metal properties
31

Power density
Defined as the power transferred to work per
unit surface area (W/mm2)
Time to melt the metal is inversely proportional
to power density
Welding Process

Approx. Power density

(W/mm2)

Oxy-fuel welding
Arc welding
Resistance welding
Laser beam welding
Electron beam welding

10
50
1000
9000
10,000
32

Heat transfer mechanisms in

Fusion Welding

Heat transf. factor f1= Heat transf. to work / Heat gen. by source
Melting Factor f2 = Heat used for melting / Heat tranf. to work
Useful heat or energy = f1.f2
33

Example No: 1
The power source in a particular welding setup generates
3500 W that can be transferred to the work surface with
a heat transfer factor f1 = 0.70. The metal to be welded is
low carbon steel, whose melting temperature is 1760K.
The melting factor in the operation is 0.50. A continuous
fillet weld is to be made with a cross-sectional area of 20
mm2. Determine the travel speed at which the welding
operation can be accomplished?
Heat capacity of low carbon steel (Cp)=480 J/Kg.K
Latent heat of melting Lm =247 kJ/Kg
Density = 7860 kg/m3
Initial sample temperature T0 = 300 K
34

Example 1-Solution
Rate of heat input to the weld bead = 3500 f1 f2
= 3500 0.7 0.5 = 1225 J/s
Heat input = Energy used for heating to Tm + Energy used
for melting
1225 = [Cp(Tm-T0) + Lm ] A v
1225 = [480(1760-300) + 247 103] 7860 20 10-6 v
Travel speed v = 0.0082 m/s = 8.2 mm/s
35

Some material science basics

Atoms

Lattice

Grains

Grain size, Grain boundaries,

Recrystalization ~0.4-0.6 Tm Atoms remain in lattice,
but new grains will be formed
Melting Atoms displaced from lattice, free to move
36

Some material science basics

Metals are crystalline in nature and
consists of irregularly shaped grains of
various sizes
Each grain is made up of an orderly
arrangement of atoms known as lattice
The orientation of atoms in a grain is
uniform but differ in adjacent grains

37

Basic Classification of welding

(a) Fusion welding (b) solid-state welding
a) Fusion Welding
Uses heat to melt the base metals
A filler metal is mostly added to the molten
pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk
and strength to the welded joint.
e.g., Arc welding, resistance welding, Gas
welding, Laser beam welding, Electron beam
welding
38

Basic Classification of welding

b) Solid state Welding
Coalescence results from application of
pressure alone or a combination of heat and
pressure
If heat is used, the temperature in the process
is below the melting point of the metals being
welded
No filler metal is used
e.g., Diffusion welding, friction welding,
ultrasonic welding
39

Micro-structural zones in Fusion

welding

1) Fusion zone 2) Weld interface/partially melted zone

3) Heat affected zone 4) Unaffected base metal
40

Grain growth in Fusion welding

Fusion Zone Directional solidification Epitaxial grain

growth Columnar grains
HAZ Possible recrystallization/ grain refinement or
phase change
Slow cooling Coarse grains; Fast cooling Fine grains
Shrinkage of fusion zone Residual stress on the base
metal surrounding HAZ
41

Micro-structural zones in Solid

state welding

No Fusion zone
Little or no HAZ
Mechanically upset region (Flash)
Plastic deformation at the interface
42

Role of Temperature in Fusion/

solid state welding
Drives off volatile adsorbed layers of gases,
moisture, or organic contaminants
Breaks down the brittle oxide through differential
thermal expansion
Lowers yield/flow strength of base materials
helps plastic deformation
Promotes dynamic recrystallization during plastic
deformation (if T > Tr)
Accelerates the rates of diffusion of atoms
Melts the substrate materials, so that atoms can
43
rearrange by fluid flow (if T > Tm)

Role of Pressure in solid state

welding
Disrupts the adsorbed layers of gases/organic
compound or moisture by macro- or
microscopic deformation
Fractures brittle oxide or tarnish layers to
expose clean base material atoms
Plastically deform asperities (lattice) to increase
the number of atoms that come into intimate
contact (at equilibrium spacing)
44

Lecture 3
11 Aug 2014, Tuesday, 11.30 am-12.30 pm

45

Mechanisms for obtaining

material continuity
(1) Solid-phase plastic deformation,
without or with recrystallization
Solid state welding
(2) Diffusion, Brazing, Soldering
(3) Melting and solidification
Fusion Welding

46

Obtaining continuity
1a) Solid-phase plastic deformation (with no heat)
Atoms are brought together by
plastic deformation
Sufficiently close to ensure that
bonds are established at their
equilibrium spacing
Significant lattice deformation
Lattices are left in the strained
state (distorted) in cold
deformation

(1a) Cold deformation

and lattice strain

Prevailing mechanism in solid state welding

with out heat

47

Obtaining continuity
1b) Solid-phase plastic deformation (with heat)
In hot state (0.4-0.5 Tm), the
strained lattice recover from the
distorted state
Atomic rearrangement &
Recrystallization
Grain growth across original
interface
Eliminates the original physical
interface

(1b) hot deformation and

dynamic recrystallization

Prevailing mechanism in solid state welding

with heat

48

Obtaining continuity
2) Diffusion
Transport of mass through atom
movement
Can occur entirely in solid
phase or with liquid phase
For dissimilar materials thin
layer of alloy at the interface
Rate of diffusion Difference in
composition (Ficks law),
Temperature

Solid-phase diffusion across

the original interface (dotted
line)

Prevailing mechanism in brazing/soldering

49

Obtaining continuity
3) Melting and solidification

Liquid provided by melting

the parent materials without
or with additional filler

Establishing a bond upon

epitaxial solidification of
this liquid

Solidifying crystals take up the grain structure &

orientation of substrate/unmelted grains
Prevailing mechanism in most fusion welding process
50

Summary: Lectures 1-3

Overview of welding, applications,
advantages, Welded Joint types
Weld specifications, Symbols
Fusion & Solid state welding
Elements of weld setup, Heat Balance,
Power density
N.B: Characteristics, micro-structural
zones and concept of lattice continuity in
fusion & solid state welding
51

Course details: Welding

Topic
1.
2

Hours

Introduction to welding science &

technology

2-3
4

Welding Processes
Welding Energy sources & characteristics

1-2

5
4
5

Welding fluxes and coatings

Physics of Welding Arc
Heat flow in welding

1
1
1-2

Design of weld joints

7.

Testing and inspection of weld joints

Metallurgical characteristics of welded
joints, Weldability and welding of various
metals and alloys

Total

2-3
2
19

Status

Welding Processes
1) Oxy-Fuel gas welding

53

Welding Processes1) Oxy-Fuel gas welding

Uses oxygen as oxidizer
Acetylene, H2 or Natural gas, methane,
propane, butane or any hydrocarbon as
fuel
Fuel + Oxidizer Energy
Acetylene is preferred (high flame
temperature-3500 C)
54

Gases used in Oxy-gas welding

Fuel

Acetylene

Peak
reaction
Temp (C)
3500

Heat of
combustion
(MJ/m3)
54.8

Methylacetylenepropadiene (C3H4)
Hydrogen

2927

91.7

2660

12.1

Propylene

2900

12.1

Propane

2526

93.1

Natural gas

2538

37.3
55

Oxy-acetylene welding (OAW)

operation

56

Reactions in Oxy-acetylene welding

Flame in OAW is produced by the chemical
reaction of C2H2 and O2 in two stages

Stage 1

C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + Heat (1)

Stage 2

2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + Heat (2)

Heat (1) > Heat (2)

57

Flames in OAW

58

Flames in OAW

Neutral flame is used for most applications

59

Flames in OAW- Reducing flame

Reducing flame for removing oxides
from metals, such as aluminium or
magnesium
Preventing oxidation reactions during
welding
To prevent decarburization (i.e., C to
CO,) in steels.
Low carbon, alloy steels, monel metal
(Ni+Cu+), hard surfacing
60

Flames in OAW-Oxy. flame

The oxidizing flame causes the metal
being welded to form an oxide.
Useful for preventing the loss of high
vapor-pressure components, such as
zinc out of brass, through the formation
of an impermeable oxide skin (here,
copper oxide)
Brass (Cu + Zn)
Bronze, Cu, Zn & Sn alloys
61

OAW set up
Pressurized cylinders of
O2 and C2H2
Gas regulators for
controlling pressure and
flow rate
A torch for mixing the
gases
Hoses for delivering the
gases from the cylinders to
the torch
62

OAW Torch

63

Example 1 - OAW
An oxyacetylene torch supplies 0.3 m3 of acetylene per
hour and an equal volume rate of oxygen for an OAW
operation on 4.5-mm-thick steel.
Heat generated by combustion is transferred to the work
surface with a heat transfer factor f1 = 0.20. If 75% of
the heat from the flame is concentrated in a circular
area on the work surface that is 9.0 mm in diameter,
find
(a) rate of heat liberated during combustion,
(b) rate of heat transferred to the work surface, and
(c) average power density in the circular area.
(Heat of combustion of Acetylene in O2 = 55106 J/m3)
64

Example 1 - OAW
(a) The rate of heat generated by the torch is the product
of the volume rate of acetylene times the heat of
combustion: RH = (0.3 m3/hr) (55106) J/m3 = 16.5106
J/hr or 4583 J/s
(b) With a heat transfer factor f1 = 0.20, the rate of heat
received at the work surface is
f1 RH = 0.204583 = 917 J/s
(c) The area of the circle in which 75% of the heat of the
flame is concentrated is A = Pi. (9)2/4 = 63.6 mm2
The power density in the circle is found by dividing the
available heat by the area of the circle:
Power density = 0.75 917/63.6 = 10.8 W/mm2

65

OAW-Advantages
The OAW process is simple and highly
portable
Inexpensive equipment
Control over temperature
Can be used for Pre-heating, cutting &
welding

66

OAW-Disadvantages

Limited energy welding is slow

Low protective shielding welding of reactive
metals (e.g., titanium) is generally impossible
Low power density, Energy wastage, total heat
input per linear length of weld is high
Unpleasant welding environment
Weld lines are much rougher in appearance
than other kinds of welds Require more
finishing
Large heat affected zones
67

OAW-Applications
Preheating/post heat treatment
Can be used for cutting, grooving, or piercing
(producing holes), as well as for welding
Oxyfuel gas processes can also be used for
flame straightening or shaping
Oxidizing flame for welding Brass, bronze, CuZn and Tin alloys
Reducing flame for low carbon & alloy steels

68

Pressure Gas welding

(Special case of OAW)

Oxyfuel gas used for preheating the weld

interface

69

Welding Processes2) Arc welding

70

Arc welding (AW)- Basic

configuration

Arc welding Types

Consumable electrode SMAW, GMAW (MIG), Submerged arc welding
Non consumable
Electrode

GTAW(TIG)
71

Arc Shielding in AW process

Accomplished by covering
the electrode tip,
arc, and
molten weld pool with a blanket of gas or flux,

Common shielding gases argon and helium,

In the welding of ferrous metals with certain AW
processes, oxygen and carbon dioxide are
used, usually in combination with Ar and/or He,
to produce an oxidizing atmosphere or to
control weld shape
72

Flux in AW process
Flux is usually formulated to serve several
functions:
(1) To remove/prevent oxide
(2) provide a protective atmosphere
(3) stabilize the arc, and
(4) reduce spattering

Flux delivery techniques include

(1) pouring granular flux onto the weld
(2) using a stick electrode coated with flux material
in which the coating melts during welding
(3) using tubular electrodes in which flux is
contained in the core and released as the electrode
is consumed
73

Arc Welding- Consumable

Electrodes
Consumable electrodes Rods
or wire.
Welding rods 225 to 450 mm
long, < 10 mm dia.
Welding rods to be changed
periodically reducing arc time
of welder
Consumable weld wire
continuously fed into the weld
pool from spools avoiding the
frequent interruptions

74

Arc Welding- Non-consumable

Electrodes
Made of tungsten (or carbon, rarely),
which resists melting by the arc
Slow depletion Analogous to wearing
of a cutting tool in machining
Filler metal must be supplied by means
of a separate wire that is fed into the
weld pool

75

AW-Type 1: Shielded metal arc

welding (SMAW)

Shielding gas
from
electrode
coating

76

Shielded metal arc welding

(SMAW)
Consumable electrode consisting of a filler
metal rod coated with chemicals that provide
flux and shielding
Currents typically used in SMAW range
between 30 and 300 A at voltages from 15 to
45 V.
Usually performed manually
Most common welding, 50 % of industrial
welding uses SMAW
77

SMAW: Electrode-coating
functions

Produces gases to shield weld from air

Adds alloying elements
De-oxidation
Produces slag to protect & support weld
Controls cooling rates
Stabilizes arc

78

Electrode coating in SMAWconstituents (optional)

Shielding gas is generated by either the
decomposition or dissociation of the coating,
Cellulosic generates H2, CO, H2O and CO2
Limestone (CaCO3) generates CO2 and CaO slag
Rutile (TiO2) up to 40% easy to ignite, gives slag
detachability, fine bead appearance, generates O2 &
H2 by hydrolysis
Slag formers (flux): SiO, MnO2, FeO.Al2O3
Arc stabilizers: Na2O, CaO, MgO, TiO2
Deoxidizer: Graphite, Al, Wood flour
Binder: sodium silicate, K silicate
Alloying elements: V, Co, Mo, Zr, Ni, Mn, W etc. 79

SMAW-Adv & Applications

It is preferred over oxyfuel welding for
thicker sectionsabove 5 mm because
of its higher power density.
The equipment is portable and low cost,
making SMAW highly versatile and most
widely used AW processes.
Base metals include steels, stainless
steels, cast irons, and certain nonferrous
alloys
80

SMAW-Disadvantages
Electrode length varies during the
operation
Length affects the resistance heating of
the electrode,
Current levels To be maintained within
a safe range or the coating will overheat
and melt prematurely when starting a new
welding stick

81

SMAW-Disadvantages
Use of the consumable electrode
must periodically be changed reduces
the arc time
Offers limited shielding protection
compared to inert gas shielded
processes
Some of the other AW processes
overcome the limitations of welding stick
length in SMAW by using a continuously
fed wire electrode
82

AW-Type 2: Gas metal arc

welding (GMAW) -MIG

83

Gas metal arc welding-Features

Consumable wire electrode is fed
continuously and automatically from a spool
through the welding gun
Inert shielding gas : protects the arc and the
molten or hot, cooling weld metal from air.
Also, provides desired arc characteristics
through its effect on ionization
No electrode coating
No flux or additional filler
DCRP used (electrode +ve, work ve)
84

AW-Type 3: Flux-Cored Arc

Welding (FCAW)
Flux core

Flux cored electrode

Consumable wire electrode
With/ Without shielding gas
Core contents-

Consumable
electrode

alloying elements,
shielding gas generators
flux, etc.
85

AW-Type 4 Submerged Arc

welding (SAW)

The blanket of granular flux submerges the welding

operation, prevents sparks, spatter, and radiation
86

Submerged Arc welding

Continuous, consumable bare wire electrode
Arc shielding provided by a cover of granular flux
Granular flux is introduced into the joint slightly
ahead of the weld arc by gravity from a hopper
Unfused flux remaining after welding can be
recovered and reused
efficiency of Energy transfer from the electrode to
workpiece is very high- Low losses
Welding is restricted to flat and horizontal positions
87

AW-Type 5: Gas Tungsten Arc

Welding (GTAW or TIG)

88

GTAW- Features

Non-consumable tungsten electrode

Inert gas for arc shielding
With or without filler rod
Aluminium and stainless steel
high-quality welds, no weld spatter
because no filler metal
Little or no post weld cleaning because no
flux is used
89

Arc welding Types-Summary

Name

Electrode
type

Electro
de
coating

Filler
rod

Shielding
gas

Flux

Remarks

Shielded metal
arc welding
(SMAW)

Consumable
rod

YES

NIL

Provided by
electrode
coating

Provided by
electrode
coating

Manual
welding

Gas metal arc

welding
(GMAW)-MIG

Consumable
wire

NIL

NIL

YES

NIL

Automate
d welding

Flux-Cored Arc
Welding
(FCAW)

Consumable
wire
electrode

NIL

NIL

With/without

Provided by
electrode core

Manual/au
tomated

Submerged
Arc welding
(SAW)

Consumable
wire
electrode

NIL

NIL

NIL

Granular flux

Manual/au
tomated

Gas Tungsten
Arc Welding
(GTAW-TIG)

Non
consumable

NIL

With/
without

YES

NIL

Automate
d welding
90