WHEN MATERIALS

ARE GETTING
TIRED
Sub-topics

Cyclic stresses
Fatigue
Crack propagation
Resistance to fatigue

FATIGUE: FACTS

Fatigue is important as it is the largest cause of

failure in metals, estimated to comprise
approximately 90% of all metallic failures;
polymers and ceramics are also susceptible to
this type of failure.

index.html

FATIGUE FAILURE

Fatigue failures occur due

to cyclic loading at
stresses below a materials
yield strength

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGQ
fUWvP0II

SCHEMATIC OF THE STRESS

CYCLING ON THE UNDERSIDE OF A
WING
Loading cycles can be
in the millions for an
aircraft;
fatigue testing must
employ millions of
fatigue cycles
to provide meaningful
design data.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ywDsB3umK2Y

FATIGUE
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures
subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses
Under these circumstances it is possible for failure to occur
at a stress level considerably lower than the tensile or
yield strength for a static load.
It is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly
and without warning.
Primary design criterion in rotating parts.
Fatigue as a name for the phenomenon based on the notion
of a material becoming tired, i.e. failing at less than its
nominal strength.
Cyclic strain (stress) leads to fatigue failure.
Occurs in metals and polymers but rarely in ceramics.
Also an issue for static parts, e.g. bridges.

FATIGUE: GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS

Most applications of structural

materials involve cyclic
loadinge.
Fatigue failure surfaces
have three characteristic
features:

(near-)surface defect as the origin of the crack

Striations corresponding to slow, intermittent crack
growth
Dull, fibrous brittle fracture surface (rapid growth).

Life of structural components generally limited

by cyclic loading, not static strength.
Most environmental factors shorten life.

the crack
length
exceeds a
critical
value at the
applied
stress.

THREE STAGES OF FATIGUE

First, a tiny crack initiates or nucleates often at a time well
after loading begins. Normally, nucleation sites are located at
or near the surface, where the stress is at a maximum, and
include surface defects such as scratches or pits, sharp corners
due to poor design or manufacture, inclusions, grain
boundaries, or dislocation concentrations.
Next, the crack gradually propagates as the load continues to
cycle.
Finally, a sudden fracture of the material occurs when the
remaining cross-section of the material is too small to support
the applied load. Thus, components fail by fatigue because even
though the overall applied stress may remain below the yield
stress, at a local length scale, the stress intensity exceeds the
tensile strength.
For fatigue to occur, at least part of the stress in the material
has to be tensile.

FACTORS CAUSING FATIGUE FAILURE

1) A maximum tensile stress of

sufficiently high value.
2) A large amount of variation or
fluctuation in the applied stress.
3) A sufficiently large number of
cycles of the applied stress.
Stress concentration
Corrosion
Temperature
Overload
Metallurgical structure
Residual stress
Combined stress

Random
stress cycle.

CYCLIC STRESSES
Reversed stress cycle,
in which the
stress alternates from a
maximum tensile stress
to a maximum
compressive stress of
equal magnitude
Repeated stress cycle,
in which maximum and
minimum stresses are
asymmetrical relative to
the zero stress level;
mean stress m, range of
9
stress r , and stress
amplitude a are indicated.

PARAMETERS
mean stress

range of stress

stress amplitude

stress ratio R

10

S-N CURVES

S-N [stress-number of cycles to failure] curve defines

number of cycles-to-failure for given cyclic stress.
Rotating-beam fatigue test is standard; also alternating
tension-compression.
Plot stress versus the log(number of cycles to failure),
log(Nf).

For frequencies < 200Hz, metals are insensitive to

frequency; fatigue life in polymers is frequency
dependent.

11

rotating-bending tests

SN BEHAVIOR
Stress amplitude (S)
versus logarithm of the
number of cycles to
fatigue failure (N) for a
material that displays a
fatigue limit

The higher the magnitude of the stress, the smaller the number of
cycles the material is capable to sustain before failure
There is a limiting stress level, called the fatigue limit (also
sometimes the endurance limit), below which fatigue failure will
not occur.

12

ENDURANCE LIMITS
Some

materials exhibit endurance limits, i.e.

a stress below which the life is infinite:
Steels

typically show an endurance limit of about

40% - 60% of yield strength; this is typically
associated with the presence of a solutes (carbon,
nitrogen) that pines dislocations and prevents
dislocation motion at small displacements or
strains.
Aluminum alloys do not show endurance limits;
this is related to the absence of dislocationpinning solutes.
At large Nf, the lifetime is dominated by nucleation.
Therefore

strengthening the surface (shot penning) is

beneficial to delay crack nucleation and extend life.

13

SN BEHAVIOR

Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm

of the number of cycles to
fatigue failure (N) for a material that
does not display a fatigue limit.
Fatigue will ultimately occur
regardless of the magnitude of the
stress. For these materials, the
fatigue response is specified as
fatigue strength, which is
defined as the stress level at
which failure will occur for some
specified number of cycles (e.g.,
107 cycles).

Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum, copper, magnesium) do not

have a fatigue limit, in that the SN curve continues its downward
trend at increasingly greater N values

14

FATIGUE LIFE

fatigue life Nf
characterizes a materials
fatigue behavior
It is the number of cycles to
cause failure at a specified
stress level, as taken from
the SN plot

There always exists considerable scatter in fatigue data, that is, a

variation in the measured N value for a number of specimens tested at the
same stress level. This may lead to significant design uncertainties when
fatigue life and/or fatigue limit (or strength) are being considered.
The scatter in results is a consequence of the fatigue sensitivity to a
number of test and material parameters that are impossible to control
precisely. These parameters include specimen fabrication and surface 15
preparation, metallurgical variables, specimen alignment in the
apparatus, mean stress, and test frequency.

STATISTICAL NATURE OF FATIGUE

Because the S-N fatigue data is normally scattered, it
should be therefore represented on a probability basis.
Considerable number of specimens is used to obtain
statistical parameters.
At 1, 1% of specimens would be expected to fail at N1
cycles.
50% of specimens would be expected to fail at N2
cycles.
For engineering purposes, it is sufficiently accurate to
assume a logarithmic normal distribution of fatigue life
in the region of the probability of failure of P = 0.10 to
P = 0.90.

16

FATIGUE SN PROBABILITY OF FAILURE

CURVES FOR A 7075-T6 ALUMINUM ALLOY
The data obtained is normally scattered at the same stress level by using
several specimens.
This requires statistic approach to define the fatigue limit.
The probability
of failure

Constant
probability
curves
17

HIGH- CYCLIC FATIGUE

For low stress levels wherein deformations are
totally elastic, longer lives result. This is called
high-cycle fatigue inasmuch as relatively large
numbers of cycles are required to produce fatigue
failure.
High-cycle fatigue is associated with fatigue lives
greater than about 104 to 107 cycles.

The S-N curve in the high-cycle region is

sometimes described by the Basquin
equation

p and C are empirical constants

18

LOW- CYCLE FATIGUE

is associated with relatively high loads that
produce not only elastic strain but also some
plastic strain during each cycle.
Consequently, fatigue lives are relatively short
occurs at less than about 104 to 105 cycles

19

DESIGN OF A ROTATING SHAFT

A solid shaft for a cement oven produced from tool
steel must be 240 cm long and must survive
continuous operation for one year with an applied load
of 55,600 N.
The shaft makes one revolution per minute during
operation.
Design a shaft that will satisfy these requirements.

The
maximum
stress acting
on this type
of specimen

20

PROCESS OF FATIGUE FAILURE

Characterized by three distinct steps:
(1) crack initiation, wherein a small crack
forms at some point of high stress concentration;
(2) crack propagation, during which this crack
advances incrementally with each stress cycle;
(3) final failure, which occurs very rapidly once
the advancing crack has reached a critical size.
The fatigue life Nf , the total number of cycles to failure, therefore
can be taken as the sum of the number of cycles for crack initiation
Ni and crack propagation Np
The contribution of the final failure step to the total fatigue life is
insignificant since it occurs so rapidly

21

CRACK INITIATION
Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost
always initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a
component at some point of stress concentration.
Crack nucleation sites include surface scratches,
sharp fillets, keyways, threads, dents, and the
like.
In addition, cyclic loading can produce
microscopic surface discontinuities resulting
from dislocation slip steps which may also act as
stress raisers, and therefore as crack initiation
sites.

22

INITIATION OF FATIGUE CRACK

AND SLIP
BAND CRACK GROWTH (STAGE I)
Fatigue cracks are normally initiated at a free surface.
Slip lines are formed during the first few thousand cycles
of stress.
Back and forth fine slip movements of
fatigue could build up notches or ridges
at the surface => act as stress raiser =>
initiate crack
In stage I, the fatigue crack tends to propagate initially
along slip planes (extrusion and intrusion of persistent
slip bands) and later take the direction normal to the
maximum tensile stress (stage II).
The crack propagation rate in stage I is generally very
low on the order of nm/cycles giving featureless surface.

23

CRACK
PROPAGATION
Once a stable crack has nucleated, it
then initially propagates very slowly
and, in polycrystalline metals, along
crystallographic planes of high shear
stress; this is stage I propagation
This stage may constitute a large or
small fraction of the total fatigue life
depending on stress level and the
nature of the test specimen; high stresses
and the presence of notches favor a short
lived stage I.
In polycrystalline metals, cracks normally extend
through only several grains during this propagation
stage.
The fatigue surface that is formed during stage I
propagation has a flat and featureless appearance

24

FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION

MECHANISM
repetitive crack tip plastic blunting and sharpening

zero or maximum
compressive load
small tensile
load

maximum
tensile load

small
compressive load

zero or maximum
compressive load

small tensile load

25

FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION

26

FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATIION

For design against

fatigue failure,
fracture mechanics is
utilised to monitor the
fatigue crack
growth rate in the
stage II
The fatigue crack growth
rate da/dN varies with
stress intensity factor range
K, which is a function of
stress range and crack
length a.

27

STAGE II

K is the stress intensity

factor range at the crack tip

Schematic
representation of logarithm
fatigue crack propagation rate
da/dN versus logarithm stress
intensity factor range K.

28

CRACK PROPAGATION RATE

Life of a structural component may be related to the
rate of crack growth.
During stage II propagation, cracks may grow from a
barely perceivable size to some critical length.

Crack length versus the

number of cycles at stress
levels 1 and 2.
Crack growth rate da/dN is
indicated at crack length a1 for
both stress levels.

29

The parameters A and m are constants

for the particular material

CRACK GROWTH RATE AND

NUMBER OF CYCLES

Knowledge of crack growth rate is of assistance in

designing components and in nondestructive evaluation
to determine if a crack poses imminent danger to the
structure.

ai is the initial flaw size and ac is the

flaw size required for fracture.

Integration between
the initial size of a
crack and the crack
size required
for fracture to occur

30

DESIGN OF A FATIGUE RESISTANT

PLATE
A high-strength steel plate, which has a plane strain
fracture toughness of 80 Mpa m1/2 is alternately loaded
in tension to 500 MPa and
in compression to 60 MPa.
The plate is to survive for 10 years with the stress
being applied at a frequency of once every 5 minutes.
Design a manufacturing and testing procedure that
ensures that the component will serve as intended.
Assume a geometry factor Y = 1.0.

31

FORENSIC FRACTURE CASE

K1c of the tank material
measured to be 45 MPam
10 mm crack found in
longitudinal weld
Stress based on
maximum design
pressure
Stress at which a plate with the given
K1c will fail with a 10 mm crack

32

HOW LONG IS A LIFE?

How long would it have lasted before
fatigue grew the crack to an unstable size?

Residual life = 7 x 106 cycles

DESIGN FOR FATIGUE

100 resolutions
per second
High-cycle fatigue
3 x 106 cycles

At least 300
resolutions per
second

34

Selection chart for

con-rod based on
material index

Further selection
criteria includes the
use of S-N curves
For a design life of 2.5 x 106 cycles, a stress of
620 MPa can be safely applied

FEATURES OF FATIGUE FAILURE

two types of markings termed beachmarks and
striations
indicate the position of the crack tip at some point
in time and appear as concentric ridges that
expand away from the crack initiation site(s),
frequently in a circular or semicircular pattern.

Fracture surface of a rotating

steel shaft that experienced
fatigue failure.
Beachmark ridges are
visible in the photograph
36

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FATIGUE

LIFE
Stress concentration
Size effect
Surface effects
Combined stresses
Cumulative fatigue
damage and sequence
effects
Metallurgical variables
Corrosion
Temperature

Demonstration of influence
of mean stress m on SN fatigue
behavior

37

EFFECT OF MEAN STRESS, STRESS RANGE AND

STRESS INTENSITY (NOTCH) ON S-N FATIGUE
CURVE

38

EFFECT OF STRESS
CONCENTRATION ON FATIGUE

Kt is theoretical stressconcentration
factor, depending on
elasticity of crack tip
Kf is fatigue notch factor,
ratio of fatigue strength of
notched and unnotched
specimens

39

PROBLEM

What design is better?

Demonstration of how design can reduce stress mplification.

(a) Poor design: sharp corner.
(b) Good design: fatigue lifetime improved by incorporating
rounded fillet into a rotating shaft at the point where
there is a change in diameter.

40

SURFACE EFFECTS ON FATIIGUE

Fatigue properties are very sensitive to surface
conditions,
Fatigue initiation normally starts at the surface
since the maximum stress is at the surface.
The factors which affect the surface of a fatigue
specimen can be roughly divided into three
categories

41

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Different surface finishes produced
by different machining processes can
appreciably affect fatigue performance.

Polished surface (very fine scratches), normally

known as par bar which is used in laboratory,
gives the best fatigue strength

42

SURFACE RESIDUAL
STRESS
Superposition of
applied and
residual stresses

Compressive forces on (a) Shows the elastic stress distribution in a beam

with no residual stress.
the surface resist
(b) Typical residual stress distribution produced by
crack growth
shot peening where the high compressive stress
method of producing
is balanced by the tensile stress underneath.
(c) The stress distribution due to the algebraic
43
these stresses is
summation of the external bending stress and
Shot penning
the residual stress

INTRODUCING
FAVOURABLE COMPRESSIVE
STRESS
Surface rolling - Compressive stress is introduced
in between the rollers during sheet rolling
Shot peening - Projecting fine steel or cast-iron shot
against the surface at high velocity
Polishing - Reducing surface scratches
Thermal stress - Quenching or surface treatments
introduce volume change giving compressive stress.

44

CUMULATIVE FATIIGUE DAMAGE

AND
SEQUENCE EFFECTS ON FATIIGUE
Practically, levels of stress are not held
constant as in S-N tests, but can vary
below or above the designed stress level
Overstressing : The initial applied stress
level is higher than the fatigue limit for a
short period of time beyond failure, then
cyclic stressing below the fatigue limit.
This overstressing reduces the fatigue
limit.
Understressing : The initial applied
stress level is lower than the fatigue limit
for a period of time, then cyclic stressing
above the fatigue limit. This understressing
increases the fatigue limit (might be due to
strain hardening on the surface.

45

EFFECTS OF METALLURGICAL
VARIABLLES
ON FATIGUE
Fatigue property is normally greatly improved
by changing the designs or, reducing stress
concentration, introducing compressive stress on
the surface.
Few attempts have paid on improving
metallurgical structure to improve fatigue
properties but it is still important.
Fatigue property is frequently correlated with
tensile properties.

46

BY
CONTROLLING METALLURGICAL
VARIABLES

Grain size has its greatest

effect on fatigue life in the
low-stress, high cycle regime

47

BY
CONTROLLING METALLURGICAL
VARIABLES
Promote homogeneous slip /plastic deformation
through thermo-mechanical processing =>
reduces residual stress/ stress concentration.
Heat treatments to give hardened surface but
should avoid stress concentration.
Avoid inclusions = >stress concentration =>
fatigue strength
Interstitial atoms increase yield strength , if
plus strain aging => fatigue strength

48

EFFECT OF CORROSION ON
FATIGUE
Fatigue corrosion occurs when material is
subjected to cyclic stress in a corrosive condition.
Corrosive attack produces pitting on metal
surface. Pits act as notches => fatigue strength
Chemical attack greatly accelerates the rate of
fatigue crack propagation

Corrosion fatigue of brass

Role of a
corrosive
environment on
fatigue
crack
propagation 49

THERMAL EFFECT
induced at elevated temperatures by fluctuating
thermal stresses;
mechanical stresses from an external source need not
be present
The origin of these thermal stresses is the restraint to
the dimensional expansion and/or contraction that
would normally occur in a structural member with
variations in temperature

50

THERMAL FATIGUE
Thermal fatigue occurs when metal is
subjected to high and low temperature, producing
fluctuating cyclic thermal stress

The thermal stress developed by a

temperature change T is

Normally occurs in high

temperature equipment.
Low thermal
conductivity and high
thermal expansion
properties are
critical.

is linear thermal coefficient of expansion

E is elastic modulus
If failure occurs by one application of thermal
stress, the condition is called thermal shock.

51

DESIGN FOR FATIGUE

There are several distinct approaches concerning for
design for fatigue
1) Infinite-life design: Keeping the stress at some
fraction of the fatigue limit of the material.
2) Safe-life design: Based on the assumption that
the material has flaws and has finite life. Safety factor
is used to compensate for environmental effects,
varieties in material production/ manufacturing.
3) Fail-safe design: The fatigue cracks will be
detected and repaired before it actually causes failure.
For aircraft industry.
4) Damage tolerant design: Use fracture mechanics
to determine whether the existing crack will grow
large enough to cause failure.

52

DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
A relatively large sheet of steel is to be exposed to
cyclic tensile and compressive stresses of
magnitudes 100 MPa and 50 MPa, respectively.
Prior to testing, it has been determined that the
length of the largest surface crack is 2.0 mm.
Estimate the fatigue life of this sheet if its plane
strain fracture toughness is 25 Mpa m1/2 and the
values of m and A are 3.0 and 1.0 x 10-12,
respectively, for in MPa and a in m.
Assume that the parameter Y is independent of
crack length and has a value of 1.0.

53

54