Powder Metallurgy → the name given to the process by which fine powdered materials are

blended, pressed into a desired shape (compacted), and then heated (sintered) in
a controlled atmosphere to bond the contacting surfaces of the particles and
establish the desired properties.
→ it is commonly designated as P/M
→ it readily lends itself to the mass production of small, intricate parts of high
precision, often eliminating the need for additional machining or finishing.
→ has a little material waste; unusual materials or mixtures can be utilized; and
controlled degrees of porosity or permeability can be produce.

♥ Major areas of application tend to be those for which the P/M process has strong economical
advantage or where the desired properties and characteristics would be difficult to obtain by
any other method.

Background/history :
• Early 3000 B.C. – a crude form of powder metallurgy appears to have existed
in Egypt
• Mid- or Late 19th Century – the mass production of P/M products begin
• Early 20th Century – powder metallurgy was used to produce copper coins and
medallions, platinum ingots, and tungsten wires, the primary material for light
bulb filaments
• 1920s – tungsten carbide cutting-tool tips and nonferrous bushings were
produced. Other early products were self-lubricating bearings and metallic
filters
• After World War II – a period of rapid technological development occurred
which are based primarily on automotive applications, and iron and steel
replaced copper as the dominant P/M material.
– aerospace and nuclear developments created accelerated demand for
refractory and reactive materials, where P/M processing is quite attractive.
• 1960s – full-density products emerged.
 • 1970s – high-performance superalloy components, such as aircraft turbine
engine parts
• 1980s – the commercialization of rapidly–solidified and amorphous powders
and the development of P/M injection molding technology

Recent years have been ones rapid development and growth for the P/M industry :
From 1960-1980 – the consumption of iron powder increased tenfold
From 1980-1990 – the similar increase as the past years occurred and this exponential growth
continues

♥ P/M has become a proven method of parts production and is now considered as an
alternative in the manufacture of many components.
♥ The automotive applications account for nearly 75% of the powder metallurgy market.

Other Areas where Powder Metallurgy Products are used extensively:

• Household appliances
• Recreational equipment
• Hand tools
• Hardware items
• Business machines
• Industrial motors
• Hydraulics

Areas of Rapid Growth :

• Aerospace applications
• Advanced composites
• Electronic components
• Magnetic materials
• Metalworking tools
• A variety of biomedical and dental applications
High-volume Materials :
• Stainless steel
• High-strength and high-alloy steels
• Aluminum
• Aluminum alloys
• Iron
• Copper

4 Basic Steps of Powder Metallurgy :

1. Powder Manufacture
2. Mixing or Blending
3. Compacting
4. Sintering
♥ Optional Secondary processing often follows to obtain special properties or enhanced
precision.
Flowchart of the Powder Metallurgy Process :

Elemental or alloy Additives

metal powders (lubricants or binders)

Blending

Die Compacting

Sintering

Optional Secondary Optional Secondary

Manufacturing Finishing

Finished P/M product

Important Properties and Characteristics of the metal or material powders that are used:
• Chemistry
• Purity
• Particle size
• Size distribution
• Particle shape
• Surface texture of the particles

2 Methods for Producing Metal Powders :

1. Melt Atomization → produced 80% of all the commercial powder
→ it is a process where a liquid is fragmented into molten droplets
which then solidify into particles, and various forms of energy
are used to form the droplets
→ a molten metal is atomized by a stream of impinging gas or liquid
as it emerges from an orifice
→ an extremely useful means of producing pre-alloyed powders
2. Atomization from a Rotating Consumable Electrode → an electric arc impinges on a
rapidly rotating electrode (all contained within a chamber purged with inert gas), with
centrifugal force causing the molten droplets to fly from the surface of the electrode

Figure 2-1: Water Atomization Process: Source "Powder Metallurgy Science" Second Edition, R.M. German,
MPIF.
 Figure 2-2: Vertical Gas Atomizer: Source "Powder Metallurgy Science" Second Edition, R.M. German,
MPIF.

Figure 2-3: Centrifugal Atomization by the Rotating Electrode Process: Source "Powder Metallurgy
Science" Second Edition, R.M. German, MPIF.

Commercial Powder that are produced :

• Aluminum alloys
• Copper alloys
• Stainless steel
• Nickel-based alloys (such as Monel)
• Titanium alloys
• Cobalt-based alloys
• Other low-alloy steels
 Figure 5: Representative Metal Powders: (a) Chemical; Sponge Iron-Reduced Ore; (b) Electolytic: Copper;
(c) Mechanical: Milled Aluminum Powder Containing Disperoids (17); (d) Water Atomization : Iron; (e) Gas
Atomization: Nickel-Base Hardfacing Alloy.: Source "Atomization - The Production Of Metal Powders" A.
Lawley, MPIF.

Process features of the powder particles that size and shape can varied and depend on :
• Velocity and media of the atomizing jets or the speed of electrode rotation
• Starting temperature of the liquid (which affects the time that surface tension
can act on the individual droplets prior to solidification)
• Environmental provided for cooling
♥ When cooling is slow (such as in gas atomization) and surface tension is high, spherical
shapes can form before solidification.
♥ Irregular shapes are produced due to more rapid cooling, such as water atomization.

Other methods of Powder Manufacture :

• Chemical reduction of particulate compounds (generally crushed oxides or ores)
• Electrolytic deposition from solutions of fused salts
• Pulverization or grinding of brittle materials (comminution)
• Thermal decomposition of hydrides or carbonyls
 • Precipitation from solution
• Condensation of metal vapors

♥ Almost any metal, metal alloy, or nonmetal like ceramic, polymer or wax or graphite
lubricant can be converted into powder form by any of the methods.
♥ Some methods can produce only elemental powder, often of high purity. While others can
produce pre-alloyed particles.
♥ Operations such as drying or heat treatment may be required prior to further processing.

Rapidly solidified power (microcrystalline and amorphous)

Increasing the cooling rate of liquid material can result in the formation of an ultrafine
or microcrystalline grain size. In these materials, a large percentage of the atoms are located in
grain boundary regions, giving unusual properties, expanded alloy possibilities, and good
formability. If the cooling rater approaches or exceeds 106 °C/sec, metals can solidify without
becoming crystalline.
Production of amorphous material, however, requires immensely high cooling rates.
Atomization with rapid cooling and the “splat quenching” of a metal stream onto a cool surface
to produce a continuous ribbon are two prominent methods. Since much of the ribbon material
is further fragmented into powder, powder metallurgy thus becomes the primary means of
fabricating useful products.

Powder testing and evaluation

Flow rate is a measure of the ease by which powder can be fed and distributed into a
die. Poor flow characteristics can result in nonuniform die filling and in nonuniform density
and properties in a product.
Associated with the flow characteristics is the apparent density, a measure of the
powder’s ability to fill available space without the application of external pressure.
Compressibility tests evaluate the effectiveness of applied pressure in raising the density of the
powder, and green strength is used to describe the strength and fracture of resistance.

Powder mixing and blending

It is rare that a single powder will possess all of the characteristics desired in a given
process and product. Most likely, a starting material will be a mixture of various grades or
sizes of powder, or powders of different compositions, with additions of lubricants or binders.
Some powders, such as graphite, can even play a dual role, serving as lubricant steel.
Lubricants improve the flow characteristics and compressibility at the expense of reduced
green strength.
Blending or mixing operations can be done either dry or wet, where water or other
solvent is used to improve mixing, reduce dusting, and lessen explosion hazards.

Compacting – one of the most critical steps in the P/M process.

Green compact – loose powder is compressed and densified into shape, usually at room
 temperature.

.
* Most compacting is done with mechanical presses and rigid tools, but hydraulic and hybrid
presses can also be used.
* Compacting pressures generally range between 3 and 120 tons/in2(40 to 1650 MPa)
depending on material and application with 10 to 30 tons/in2(140 to 415 MPa) being the most
common.
* Most P/M presses have total capacities of less than 100 tons (9 x 105N)
* Increasing numbers are being purchased with high capacity; as a result, powder metallurgy
products are often limited to cross sections of less than 3 in2 (2000mm2).
* With increased press capacity, sections up to 10 in2 (6500mm2) have become more common.
* Metal-forming processes, such as rolling, forging, extrusion, and swagging, have also been
adapted to compact powders.

Typical Compaction Sequence for a Mechanical Press:

With the feed bottom punch in its fully raised position, a feed shoe moves up into
position over the die. The feed shoe is an inverted container filled with powder, connected to
the powder supply by a flexible tube. With the feed shoe in position, the bottom punch
descends to a preset fill depth, and the shoe retracts, leveling the powder. The upper punch
retracts and the bottom punch rises to eject the green compact. As the die shoe advances for the
next cycle, its forward edge clears the compact from the press, and the cycle repeats.

During compacting, the powder particles move primarily in the direction of the applied
force.
The opposing force is probably a combination of:
1. Resistance by the bottom punch
2. Friction between the particles and the die surfaces

Compaction with a Single Punch:

* When pressure is applied at one punch, maximum density occurs below the punch and
decreases as one moves down the column.

Double-action Press:

-more uniform density can be obtained and thicker products can be compacted.

*Since sidewall friction is a key factor in compaction, the resulting density is strong function
of both the thickness and width of the part being compressed. For good, uniform compaction,
the ratio of thickness/width should be kept below 2.0 whenever possible.

Effect of Compacting Pressure on Green Density:

*The average density of the compact depends on the amount of the pressure that is applied.
Two-thickness Part with only One Punch:
 • shows that a single displacement will produce different degrees compaction in different
thickness of powder.
• therefore, it is impossible for a single punch to produce uniform density in multi-
thickness part.

Two Methods of Compacting Two Thickness Parts to Near Uniform Density:

• by providing different amounts of motion to the various punches and synchronizing

these movements to provide simultaneous compaction, a uniformly compacted product
can be produced.

*Isostatic Compaction – when extremely complex shapes are desired, the powder is generally
encapsulated in a flexible mold and immersed in a pressurized gas or
liquid.
- production rates in this process are extremely low, but parts up to
several hundred pounds can be compacted effectively.

Compaction Tooling (Punches and Dies)

-compaction tools are usually made off harden tool steel.
-die surfaces should be highly polished and the dies should be heavy enough to withstand the
high pressing pressures.
-lubricants are also used to reduce die wear.

P/M Injection Molding

-small, complex-shaped components have been fabricated from plastic for many years by
means of injection molding.
-recently developed alternative to conventional powder metallurgy compaction.
-while the powdered material does not flow like a fluid: complex shapes can be produced by
mixing ultrafine (usually less than 10 um) metal, ceramic, or carbide powder with a
thermoplastic/wax material (up to 50% by volume).
*A water-soluble methylcellulose binder is one attractive alternative to the thermoplastics.

Sintering

The word sinter comes from the Middle High German Sinter, a cognate of English
cinder. In the sintering operation, the pressed- powder compacts are heated in a controlled –
atmosphere environment to a temperature below the melting point but high enough to permit
the solid-state diffusion and held for sufficient time to permit bonding of the particles. Most
sintering operations involve three stage and many sintering furnaces employ three
corresponding zones. The first operation, the burn-off or purge, is designed to combust any air,
volatize and remove lubricants or binders that would interfere with good bonding and slowly
raise the temperature of the compacts in a controlled manner. The second or the high-
temperature stage is where the desired solid – state diffusion and bonding between the powder
particles take place. Finally, a cooling period is required to lower the temperature of the
products while maintaining them in a controlled atmosphere. These three stages must be
conducted in a protective atmosphere. This is critical since the compacted shapes have residual
porosity and internal voids that are connected to exposed surfaces. Reducing atmospheres,
commonly based on hydrogen, dissociated ammonia, or cracked hydrocarbons, are preferred
since they can reduce any oxide already present on the particle surfaces and combust harmful
gases that are liberated during sintering. During the sintering operation, a number of changes
occur in compact. Metallurgical bonds form between the powder particles as a result of solid-
state diffusion and strength, ductility, toughness, and electrical and thermal conductivity all
increase. Diffusion may also promote when different chemistry were blended.

Hot isostatic pressing

Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is a manufacturing process used to reduce the porosity of
metals and influence the density of many ceramic materials. This improves the mechanical
properties, workability and ceramic density. This combines powder compaction and sintering
into a single operation. Here the powder is sealed in a flexible, air tight, evacuated container
and then subjected to a high- temperature, high pressing environment. Since the powder is
totally isolated and compaction and sintering occurs simultaneously, the process is attractive
for reactive and brittle materials. Several aspects of HIP process make it expensive and
unattractive for high volume production. The first is the high cost of “canning” the powder in a
flexible isolating medium that can resist the subsequent temperature and pressure, and then
later removing the product or the decanning. The second problems involve s the relatively long
time for Hip cycle. The sinter- HIP process and pressure assisted sintering techniques that can
produce full-density products without the expense of canning and decanning. Sinter-HIP - With
sintered metals a relative density of about 92% is sufficient to ensure that open porosity - i.e. surface-
connected porosity has been eliminated and if vacuum sintering has been used so that there is no gas
in the pores, such parts may be HIPed to full density without canning.

Other techniques to produce high density P/M products

High – density P/M parts can also be produced by using high temperature forming process.
Sheets of sintered powder educed in thickness and further densified by rolling. The Ceracon
process is another method of raising conventional pressed –and- sintered P/M products to full
density without the need for encapsulation or canning. Another means of producing a high
density shape from fine particles is in-situ compaction or spray forming.

Secondary operations
 P/M parts are ready to use after they have emerged from the sintering furnace byt many
products utilize one or more secondary operations to provide enhanced precision,
improved properties, or special characteristics.
⇒ Secondary operations are be performed to improve:
1. Density
2. Strength
3. Shape
4. Corrosion Resistance
5. Tolerances
  Any powder metallurgy process creates some porosity. MIM minimizes total porosity
and typically limits interconnected porosity (that porosity connected to a free surface) to
less than 0.2%, regardless of the product's percent of full density. This means standard
coloring and plating techniques can be used without resin impregnation. Oil
impregnation and copper infiltration are not used with MIM. When heat treated, parts can
be case hardened to closely control case depths equivalent to wrought material. Other
metalworking techniques such as drilling, tapping, turning, grinding, and broaching work
well with MIM. All parts are barrel finished unless otherwise specified. These guidelines
are not absolute, and are influenced by a number of factors related to part design.
 A wide range of additional operations or treatments can be carried out on the parts after
they have been sintered.
1. Heat Treatment:-Sintered parts may be heat treated to increase strength and also
hardness for improved wear resistance.
2. Oil Impregnation:-The controlled porosity of P/M parts permits their
impregnation with oil and resin. This operation is used to give the part self
lubricating properties.
3. Resin Impregnation :-Used to improve machinability, seal parts gas or liquid
tight, or prepare the surface for plating.
4. Machining :-All normal machining operations can be carried out on sintered
components.
5. Drilling:-Usually used for holes not in the direction of the pressing.
6. Burr Removal:-Barrelling is used to remove burrs and sharp corners.
7. Corrosion Resistance:-Various types of surface treatment are available to
increase corrosion resistance to withstand the most demanding of environments.
8. Finishing:-Includes, deburring, burnishing, coating oil dip, plating, welding, and
mechanical surface treatments.

Properties of P/M Products

 Mechanical properties show a strong dependence on product density, with the
fracture-limited properties of toughness, ductility and fatigue life being more
sensitive than strength and hardness.
 The voids in the P/M part act as stress concentrators and assist in starting and
propagating fractures.
 The yield strength of P/M products made from weaker metals is often
equivalent to the same material in wrought form.
 If higher strength materials are used or the fracture-related tensile strength is
specified, the P/M properties tend to fall below those of wrought equivalents by
varying but usually substantial amounts.
 When larger presses or processes such as P/M forging or HIP are employed to
produce higher density, the strength of the P/M products approaches that of the
wrought material. With full density and fine grain size.
 With full density and fine grain size. P/M parts often have properties that
exceed their wrought or cast equivalents.
 Since mechanical properties of powder metallurgy products are so dependent
upon density, it is important that P/M products be designed and materials
 selected so that the final properties will be achieved with the anticipated amount
of final porosity.
 Physical Properties can also be affected by porosity
 Corrosion resistance tends to be reduced due to the presence of entrapment
pockets and fissures.
 Electrical, thermal, and magnetic properties all vary with density.

o Porosity actually promotes good sound and vibration damping, and many P/M parts are
designed to take advantage of this feature.

Design of Powder Metallurgy Parts

o P/M is a special manufacturing process and provision should be made for a number of
unique factors. Products that are converted from other manufacturing processes without
modification in design rarely perform as well as parts designed specifically for
manufacture by power metallurgy.
 Basic rules for the design of P/M parts:
1. The shape of the part must permit ejection from the die. Perpendicular
sidewalls are preferred, and holes or recesses should be uniform in size
and parallel to the axis of punch travel.
2. The Shape of the part should be such that powder is not required to flow
into small cavities such as thin walls, narrow splines, or sharp corners.
3. The shape of the part should permit the construction of strong tooling.
4. the shape of the part should be within the thickness range for which P/M
parts can be adequately compacted
5. Parts can be design with as few changes in section thickness as possible.
6. Parts can be designed to take advantage of the fact that certain forms and
properties can be produced by P/M which are impossible, impractical, or
uneconomical to obtain by any other method.
7. If necessary, the design should be consistent with available equipment.
Pressing areas should match press capability, and the number of
thicknesses should be consistent with the number of available press
actions.
8. Consideration should also be made for product tolerances. Higher
precision and repeatability is observed for dimensions in the radial
direction (set by the die) than for those in the axial or pressing direction
(set by punch movement)
9. Finally, design should consider and compensate for the dimensional
changes that will occur after pressing, such as the shrinkage that occurs
during sintering.

 The ideal metallurgy part has a uniform cross section and a single thickness that
is small compared to the cross-sectional width or diameter.
 Complex shapes are possible but it should be remember that uniform strength
and properties require uniform density.
  Designs can easily accommodate holes that are parallel to the direction of
pressing.
 Holes at angles to this direction must be made by secondary processing.
 Abrupt changes in section, narrow deep flutes, and internal angles without
generous fillets should be avoided.
 Punches should be designed to eliminate sharp points or thin sections that could
easily wear a fracture.

Powder Metallurgy Products

Products that are commonly produced by powder metallurgy can generally be classified
into five groups.
1. Porous or permeable products
• Oil-impregnated bearings made from either iron or copper
alloys, constitute a large volume of Powder Metallurgy
products. They are widely used in home appliance, and
automotive applications since they require no lubrication or
maintenance during their service life. unlike many alternative
filters, they can withstand conditions of elevated temperature,
high applied stress, and corrosive environments.
2. Products of complex shapes that would require considerable
machining when made by other processes
• Because of the accuracy and fine finish characteristic of the
Powder Metallurgy process, many parts require no further
processing and others require only a small amount of finish
machining. Large numbers of small gears are made by the
powder metallurgy process. Other complex shapes such as
 pawls, cams, and small activating levers, can be made quite
economically.
3. Products made from materials that are difficult to machine or with
high melting points
• Some of the first modern uses of powder metallurgy were the
production of tungsten lamp filaments and tungsten carbide
cutting tools.
4. Products where the combined properties of two or more metals (or
both metals and nonmetals) are desired.
• The unique capability of the powder metallurgy process is
applied to a number of products. In the electrical industry,
copper and graphite are frequently combined in such
applications as motor or generator brushes, copper providing
the current carrying capacity, with graphite providing
lubrication. Similarly, bearings have been made of graphite
combined with iron or copper or of mixtures of two metals,
such as tin and copper, where the softer metal is placed in a
harder metal matrix. Electrical contacts often combine copper
or silver with tungsten, nickel or molybdenum. The copper or
silver provides high conductivity, while the material with high
melting temperature provides resistance to fusion during the
conditions of arcing and subsequent closure.
5. Products here the powder metallurgy process produces clearly
superior properties
• The development process that produce full density has
resulted in powder metallurgy products that are clearly
superior to those produced by competing techniques. In areas
of critical importance such as aerospace applications, the
additional cost of the processing may be justified by the
enhanced properties of the product. In the production of
powder metallurgy products magnets, a magnetic field can be
used to align the particles prior to sintering, thereby producing
a high flux density in the product.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Powder Metallurgy

Advantages:
1. Elimination or reduction of machining
2. High Production Rates
3. Complex Shapes to be Produced
4. Wide Variations in Compositions are Possible
5. Wide Variation in Properties are Available
6. Scrap is Eliminated or Reduced
Disadvantages:
1. Inferior Strength Properties
2. Relatively High Die Cost
3. High Material Cost
4. Design Limitations
5. Density Variations Produce Property Variations
6. Health and Safety Hazards
POWDER METALLURGY