TENTH EDITION

Leon G* Schiffman
J. Donald Kennedy Chair in E-Commerce
Peter J. Tobin College of Business
St. John's University, New York City

Leslie Lazar Kanuk

Emeritus Professor of Marketing
Graduate School and University Center
City University of New York

in collaboration with

Joseph Wisenblit
Department of Marketing
Stillman School of Business
Seton Hall University

Prentice Hall
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo

Preface 15

The Plan of This Book 37

SUMMARY 38
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 38
EXERCISES 38

PART ONE I INTRODUCTION 20

Chapter 1 introduces the reader to consumer behavior, its development, interdisciplinary nature, and the impact of information technology on consumption patterns. It concludes with the introduction of a
model of consumer decision making. Chapter 2 describes the steps
and techniques of consumer behavior research, including a discussion
of qualitative and quantitative marketing research models. Chapter 3
examines market segmentation, targeting, and positioning and
demonstrates how consumer behavior variables provide the framework for strategically segmenting and targeting selected markets.

Consumer Behavior: Meeting

Changes and Challenges 20

KEY TERMS 38

Case One: The Pope, Jordan, and Religious Tourism 39

B Case Two: Let's Buy Ways to Make Holes 39

The Consumer Research Process 40

Imperative to Conduct Consumer Research 42

An Overview of the Consumer Research Process 42
Developing Research Objectives 43
Collecting Secondary Data 44
Internal Secondary Data 44

What Is Consumer Behavior? 23

Consumer Behavior and the Marketing Concept 26

External Secondary Data 44

Designing Primary Research 46

Designing and Conducting Qualitative Research 46

What Is the Marketing Concept? 26

Embracing the Marketing Concept 27

Designing and Conducting Quantitative Research 54

Quantitative Research Data Collection Instruments 58

Segmentation, Targeting, and Positioning 27

Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research Findings 64

The Marketing Mix 28

Customer Value, Satisfaction, Trust, and Retention 28

Providing Customers with Value 29
Ensuring Customer Satisfaction 29
Building Customer Trust 30

Data Analysis and Reporting Research Findings 65

Conducting a Research Study 66
SUMMARY 66
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 67
EXERCISES 67
KEY TERMS 67

Securing Customer Retention 30

The Impact of New Technologies on Marketing

Strategies 32
Consumers Have More Power Than Ever Before 33
Consumers Have More Access to Information Than Ever
Before 33
Marketers Can and Must Offer More Services and Products Than
Ever Before 33
Increasing Instantaneous Exchanges Between Marketers and
Customers 33
Marketers Can Gather More Information About Consumers More
Quickly and Easily 34
Impact Reaches Beyond the PC-Based Connection of the Web 34

The Mobile Consumer 34

Consumer Behavior in a World of Economic
Instability 35
Consumer Behavior and Decision Making Are
Interdisciplinary 36
A Model of Consumer Decision Making 36

Case One: Using Secondary Data

in Targeting Consumers 68
Case Two: Please Talk to Me 69

Market Segmentation and Strategic

Targeting 70

Why Is Market Segmentation Necessary? 72

Criteria for Effective Targeting 73
Identifiable 73
Sizeable 73
Stable 73
Accessible 73
Congruent with the Company's Objectives and Resources 74

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CONTENTS

Bases for Segmentation 75

Consumer-Rooted Segmentation Bases 76
Consumption-Specific Segmentation Bases 88

Personality and Consumer

Behavior 134

Implementing Segmentation Strategies 94

Behavioral Targeting 97
Microtargeting 97
Concentrated Versus Differentiated Marketing 100
Countersegmentation 100
SUMMARY 100
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 101
EXERCISES 101
KEY TERMS 102

n Case One: Matching Geodemographic Segments

and Magazines' Audiences ,102
a Case Two: Benefit Segmentation
in the Oral Care Market 103

What Is Personality? 136

The Nature of Personality 136

Theories of Personality 137

Freudian Theory 137
Neo-Freudian Personality Theory 139
Trait Theory 140

Personality and Understanding Consumer

Behavior 141
Consumer Innovativeness and Related Personality Traits 141
Cognitive Personality Factors 147
From Consumer Materialism to Compulsive Consumption 148
Consumer Ethnocentrism: Responses to Foreign-Made
Products 153
Cosmopolitanism 155

PART TWO I THE CONSUMER

AS AN INDIVIDUAL 104
Chapters 4 through 8 provide the reader with a comprehensive picture of consumer psychology. They describe the psychological concepts that account for individual behavior and demonstrate how
these dimensions influence the individual's consumption-related behavior. Chapter 9 shows how communication links consumers as individuals to the world and people around them.

Consumer Motivation 104

Motivation as a Psychological Force 106

Needs 106
Goals 107
Rational Versus Emotional Motives 110

The Dynamics of Motivation 111

Brand Personality 156

Product Anthropomorphism 157
Brand Personification 158
Product Personality and Gender 159
Product Personality and Geography 161
Personality and Color 161

Self and Self-Image 163

One or Multiple Selves 163
The Extended Self 166
Altering the Self 167

Virtual Personality or Self 168

SUMMARY 169
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 169
EXERCISES 169
KEY TERMS 170

Case One: Hello Hong Kong Starbucks! 170

H Case Two: Where Was Your Food Grown? 170

Needs Are Never Fully Satisfied 111

New Needs Emerge as Old Needs Are Satisfied 111
Success and Failure Influence Goals 111
Multiplicity of Needs and Variation of Goals 113

Arousal of Motives 114

Sensory Dynamics of Perception 175

Types and Systems of Needs 116

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 116
An Evaluation of the Need Hierarchy and Its Marketing
Applications 120
A Trio of Needs 121

The Measurement of Motives 124

Motivational Research 125
Evaluation of Motivational Research 129
SUMMARY 130
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 131
EXERCISES 131
KEY TERMS 131

n Case One: Nintendo Wii's Success 132

n Case Two: Need-Focused Definition
of Business 133

Consumer Perception 172

Sensation 175
The Absolute Threshold 175
The Differential Threshold 176
Subliminal Perception 178

Elements of Perception 179

Perceptual Selection 179
Perceptual Organization 182
Perceptual Interpretation 183

Consumer Imagery 186

Product Positioning 186
Packaging as a Positioning Element 187
Product Repositioning 188
Perceptual Mapping 190
Positioning of Services 192
Perceived Price 193

CONTENTS
Perceived Quality 195
Price/Quality Relationship 198
Retail Store Image 199
Manufacturers' Image 201
Perceived Risk 201
SUMMARY 203
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 204
EXERCISES 205

Theory of Trying-to-Consume Model 255

Attitude-Toward-the-Ad Models 255

Attitude Formation 256

How Attitudes Are Learned 256
Sources of Influence on Attitude Formation 258
Personality Factors 259

Strategies of Attitude Change 260

Changing the Basic Motivational Function 260
Associating the Product with a Special Group, Event,
or Cause 262
Resolving Two Conflicting Attitudes 264
Altering Components of the Multiattribute Model 265
Changing Beliefs About Competitors' Brands 267
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) 268

KEY TERMS 205

n Case One: Packaging and the J.N.D. 206

B Case Two: Perception and Product Placements 207

Consumer Learning 208

The Elements of Consumer Learning 210

Behavior Can Precede or Follow Attitude

Formation 270
Cognitive Dissonance Theory 270

Motivation 211
Cues 211

Attribution Theory 272

SUMMARY 275
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 275
EXERCISES 276
KEY TERMS 276

Response 211
Reinforcement 211

Behavioral Learning 212

Classical Conditioning 212
Instrumental Conditioning 219

Case One: Skin Care Products for Men 276

Case Two: The Redesign of McDonald's 277

Modeling or Observational Learning 224

Information Processing and Cognitive Learning 225

Information Processing 225
Theoretical Models of Cognitive Learning 228

Consumer Involvement and Passive Learning 229

Definitions and Measures of Involvement 229
Marketing Applications of Involvement 230 Central and Peripheral Routes to Persuasion 231
Hemispheric Lateralization and Passive Learning 231

Outcomes and Measures of Consumer Learning 234

Recognition and Recall Measures 234
Brand Loyalty 234
SUMMARY 240
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 240
EXERCISES 241
KEY TERMS 241

n Case One: The Dental Care Aisle of Confusion 242

D Case Two: HSBC's "Different Values" Campaign 243

Communication and Consumer

Behavior 278

The Source as the Message Initiator 281

Impersonal and Interpersonal Communications 281
The Credibility and Dynamics of Informal Sources and
Word-of-Mouth 282
The Word-of-Mouth Environment and e-WOM 283
Strategic Marketing Applications of Word-of-Mouth 285
The Credibility of Formal Sources, Spokespersons, and
Endorsers 287

The Receivers as the Target Audience 290

Personal Characteristics and Motives 291
Involvement and Congruency 292
Mood 293
Barriers to Communication 293

The Media as the Channels for Transmitting

Messages 294

Consumer Attitude Formation

and Change 244

What Are Attitudes? 246

The Attitude "Object" 246
Attitudes Are a Learned Predisposition 246
Attitudes Have Consistency 247
Attitudes Occur Within a Situation 247

Structural Models of Attitudes 249

Tricomponent Attitude Model 249
Multiattribute Attitude Models 251

Targeting Consumers Through Mass Media 294

Targeting Consumers Through New (Nontraditional) Media 295
Media and Message Congruence 298

Designing Persuasive Messages 299

Message Structure and Presentation 300
Advertising Appeals 302

Feedback Determines the Message's

Effectiveness 309
Media and Message Exposure Measures 310
Message Attention, Interpretation, and Recall Measures 311
Measures of the Impact of Addressable Advertisements 311
SUMMARY 314

11

12

CONTENTS

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 315

EXERCISES 315
KEY TERMS 315

H Case Oner The Viewer's Voice Influences TV

Programming 316
o Case Two: Advertising Appeals 317

PART THREE I CONSUMERS IN THEIR SOCIAL

AND CULTURAL SETTINGS 318
Chapters 10 to 13 provide the reader with a detailed picture of the
social and cultural dimensions of consumer behavior. They explain
how these factors affect the attitudes and behavior of individuals in
the United States and the world beyond, and demonstrate how an
in-depth knowledge of social and behavioral concepts enable marketers to achieve their marketing objectives.

1 0 The Family and Its Social Class

Standing 318
The Changing U.S. Family 320
Ever-Changing Household Spending Patterns 322

Socialization and Related Roles of Family

Members 323
Consumer Socialization of Children 323
Adult Consumer Socialization 326
Intergenerational Socialization 326
Other Functions of the Family 327

Family Decision Making and Consumption-Related

Roles 329
Dynamics of Husband-Wife Decision Making 329
The Expanding Role of Children in Family Decision Making 329

The Family Life Cycle 332

Traditional Family Life Cycle 332
Modificationsthe Nontraditional FLC 334

What Is Social Class? 338

Social Class and Social Status 338
Social Class Is Hierarchical and a Form of Segmentation 339
Social-Class Categories 339

The Measurement of Social Class 340

Subjective Measures 340
Objective Measures 340

Lifestyle Profiles of the Social Classes 344

Social-Class Mobility 346
Some Signs of Downward Mobility 346
Is Horatio Alger Dead? 346

Geodemographic Clustering 347

The Affluent Consumer 347
The Media Exposure of the Affluent Consumer 350
Segmenting the Affluent Market 353

Middle-Class Consumers 355

The Emerging Chinese Middle Class 355
Moving Up to More "Near" Luxuries 355

The Working Class and Other Nonaffluent

Consumers 356

Recognizing the "Techno-Class" 356

The Geek Gets Status 357

Selected Consumer Behavior Applications of Social

Class 358
Clothing, Fashion, and Shopping 358
The Pursuit of Leisure 358
Saving, Spending, and Credit 358
Social Class and Communication 359
SUMMARY 360
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 361
EXERCISES 361
KEY TERMS 361

a Case One: Keeping Up with the Joneses 362

H Case Two: Social Class in China 363

Influence of Culture on Consumer

Behavior 364
What Is Culture? 366
The Invisible Hand of Culture 367
Culture Satisfies Needs 368
Culture Is Learned 370
How Culture Is Learned 370
Marketing Influences Cultural Learning 371
Enculturation and Acculturation 371
Language and Symbols 372
Rituals 373
Cultural Customs and Beliefs Are Shared 374

Culture Is Dynamic 375

The Measurement of Culture 376
Content Analysis 376
Consumer Fieldwork 377
Value Measurement Survey Instruments 378

American Core Values 378

Achievement and Success 379
Activity 379
Efficiency and Practicality 380
Progress 380
Material Comfort 381
Individualism 382
Freedom 382
External Conformity 383
Humanitarianism 383
Youthfulness 384
Fitness and Health 385
Core Values Are Not Only an American Phenomenon 385

Toward a Shopping Culture 386

SUMMARY 387
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 388
EXERCISES 388
KEY TERMS 388

n Case One: Tweeting and Facebooking in the United

Arab Emirates 389
B Case Two: Privacy: A New Facet of American
Culture? 389

CONTENTS

Subcultures and Consumer

Behavior 390
What Is Subculture? 392

13

EXERCISES 4 4 6
KEY TERMS 4 4 6
D Case One: Japan to Apple's iPhone: " N o Thanks!" 447
a Case Two: Would Mickey Mouse Eat Shark's Fin
Soup? 447

Nationality Subcultures 393

The Hispanic Subculture 394 "
Religious Subcultures 400
Geographic and Regional Subcultures 400
Racial Subcultures 402
The African American Consumer 402
Asian American Consumers 406
Age Subcultures 410
The Generation Y Market 410
The Generation X Market 411
The Baby Boomer Market 412
Older Consumers 414

PART FOUR I THE CONSUMER'S

DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
AND ETHICAL DIMENSIONS 448
Chapter 14 describes the diffusion of innovations. Chapter 15 examines the model of consumer-decision making, which ties together
the psychological, social, and cultural concepts examined throughout the book. It also examines various related aspects of consumption behavior (such as gift giving) and explores the outcomes of
relationship marketing from the consumer's perspective. The book
concludes with Chapter 16, which explores marketing ethics and social responsibility in the context of consumer behavior.

Gender as a Subculture 417

Sex Roles and Consumer Behavior 417
Consumer Products and Sex Roles 417
Women as Depicted in Media and Advertising 418
Working Women 418

1 4 Consumers and the Diffusion

of Innovations 448

Subcultural Interaction 420

Diffusion and Adoption of Innovations 450

SUMMARY 4 2 0
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 4 2 0
EXERCISES 421
KEY TERMS 421
a Case One: Religious Subculture: The Growth

The Diffusion Process 450

The Innovation 450
The Channels of Communication 455
The Social System 456

of the Hala! Industry 422

n Case Two: Kraft Woos Asian Americans 423

1 3 Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior:

An International Perspective 424
Developing Multinational Marketing Strategies
Is Imperative 426
Winning Emerging Markets 427 '
Acquiring Exposure to Other Cultures 427
Country-of-Origin Effects 428
Animosity and Country of Manufacturer 429
Cross-Cultural Consumer Analysis 430
Similarities and Differences Among People 430
The Growing Global Middle Class 432
Acculturation Is a Needed Marketing Viewpoint 436
Applying Research Techniques 437
Alternative Multinational Strategies:
Global Versus Local 438
Favoring a World Brand 438
Are Global Brands Different? 440 .
Multinational Reactions to Brand Extensions 441
Adaptive Global Marketing 441
Frameworks for Assessing Multinational Strategies 442
Cross-Cultural PsychographicSegmentation 445
SUMMARY 445 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 446

Time 457
The Adoption Process 463
Stages in the Adoption Process 463
The Adoption Process and Information Sources 464
A Profile of the Consumer Innovator 465
Defining the Consumer Innovator 465
Interest in the Product Category 467
The Innovator Is an Opinion Leader 467
Personality Traits 467
Social Characteristics 470
Demographic Characteristics 470
Are There Generalized Consumer Innovators? 470
SUMMARY 4 7 2
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 473
EXERCISES 4 7 3
KEY TERMS 4 7 4
B Case One: Now Talk is Even Cheaper 474
Case Two: We Have a RelationshipWe Blog! 475

1 5 Consumer Decision Making

and Beyond 476
What Is a Consumer Decision? 478
Levels of Consumer Decision Making 478
Extensive Problem Solving 479
Limited Problem Solving 479
Routinized Response Behavior 479

14

CONTENTS

Models of Consumers: Four Views of Consumer

Decision Making 480
An Economic View 480
A Passive View 480
A Cognitive View 481
An Emotional View 481

A Model of Consumer Decision Making 482

Input 483

Selling Pharmaceuticals Directly to Consumers 519

The Perils of Precision Targeting 519

Manipulating Consumers 522

Forced Exposure to Advertising 522
Tinkering with Consumers' Perceptions 522
Covert Marketing 523
Socially Undesirable Representations 524
False or Misleading Advertising 525

Process 484

Social Responsibility 526

Output 497

.. Advocating Socially Beneficial Causes 526

Consumer Gifting Behavior 500

Beyond the Decision: Consuming and Possessing 505
Products Have Special Meanings and Memories 505

Relationship Marketing 506

SUMMARY 510
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 510
EXERCISES 511
KEY TERMS 511

a Case One: You Will Never Travel Alone 512

n Case Two: Chelsea Tractors 513

1 0 Marketing Ethics
and Social Responsibility 514
Exploitive Targeting 516
Marketing to Children 516
Overaggressive Promotion 517

Cause-Related Marketing 529

Green Marketing 529
Consumer Ethics 530
SUMMARY 534
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 534
EXERCISES 534
KEY TERMS 535

a Case One: Does Food Marketing to Children Cause

Obesity? 535
Case Two: Should TV Advertisements for Personal
Loans Be Banned? 536

Notes 537
Glossary 563
Index 575