SOLUTIONS TO END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS

Chapter 18

18-1

Call options market price = $7; Stocks price = $30; Option exercise
price = $25.
a. Exercise value = Current stock price - Exercise price
= $30 - $25
= $5.00.
b. Premium value = Options market price - Exercise value
= $7 - $5
= $2.00.

18-2

a. The value of an option increases as the stock price increases, but by

less than the stock price increase.
b. An increase in the volatility of the stock price increases the value
of an option. The riskier the underlying security, the more valuable
the option.
c. As the risk-free rate increases, the options value increases.
d. The shorter the time to expiration of the option, the lower the value
of the option.
The options value depends on the chances for an
increase in the price of the underlying stock, and the longer the
option has to go, the higher the stock price may climb.
Therefore, conditions a, b, and c will cause an options market value to
increase.

18-3

P = $15; X = $15; t = 0.5; kRF = 0.10; 2 = 0.12; d1 = 0.32660;

d2 = 0.08165; N(d1) = 0.62795; N(d2) = 0.53252; V = ?
Using the Black-Scholes Option Pricing Model, you calculate the options
value as:
V =
=
=
=

P[N(d1)] - Xe-kRF t [N(d2)]

$15(0.62795) - $15e(-0.10)(0.5)(0.53252)
$9.4193 - $15(0.9512)(0.53252)
$1.8211 $1.82.

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Answers and Solutions: 18 - 1

18-4

Options exercise price = $15; Exercise value = $22; Premium value = $5;
V = ? P0 = ?
Premium = Market price - Exercise value
$5 = V - $22
V = $27.
Exercise value = P0 - Exercise price
$22 = P0 - $15
P0 = $37.

18-5

Futures contract settled at 100 16/32 percent of $100,000 contract

value, so PV = 1.005 $1,000 = $1,005 100 bonds = $100,500. Using a
financial calculator, we can solve for kd as follows:
N = 40; PV = -1005; PMT = 40; FV = 1000; solve for I = k d = 3.9748% 2
= 7.9497% 7.95%.
If interest rates increase to 8.95 percent, then we would solve for PV
as follows:
N = 40; I = 8.95/2 = 4.475; PMT = 40; FV = 1000; solve for PV =
$912.2797 100 = $91,227.97. Thus, the contacts value has decreased
from $105,000 to $91,227.97.

18-6

a. In this situation, the firm would be hurt if interest rates were to

rise by June, so it would use a short hedge, or sell futures
contracts. Since futures contracts are for $100,000 in Treasury
bonds, the firm must sell 200 contracts to cover its planned
$20,000,000 June bond issue.
Since futures maturing in June are
selling for 8914/32 of par, the value of Zinns futures is about
$17,887,500. Should interest rates rise by June, Zinn Company will
be able to repurchase the futures contracts at a lower cost, which
will help offset their loss from financing at the higher interest
rate. Thus, the firm has hedged against rising interest rates.
b. The firm would now pay 13 percent on the bonds. With an 11 percent
coupon rate, the bond issue would bring in only $17,796,299, so the
firm would lose $20,000,000 - $17,796,299 = $2,203,701:
N = 20; I = 6.5; PMT = 1100000; FV = 20000000; and solve for PV =
$17,796,299.
However, the
$17,887,500:

value

of

the

short

futures

position

began

at

8914/32 of $20,000,000 = 0.894375($20,000,000) = $17,887,500, or

roughly N = 40; PMT = 600000; FV = 20000000; and PV = -17887500; and
solve for I/2 = 3.4942.

Answers and Solutions: 18 - 2

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I = 3.4942% 2 = 6.9883% 7%.

(Note that the future contracts are on hypothetical 20-year, 6
percent semiannual coupon bonds that are yielding about 7 percent.)
Now, if interest rates increased by 200 basis points, to 9
percent, the value of the futures contract will drop to $14,479,525:
N = 40; I = 9/2 = 4.5; PMT = 600000; FV = 20000000; and solve for PV
= $14,479,525.
Since Zinn Company sold the futures contracts for $17,887,500, and
will, in effect, buy them back at $14,479,525, the firm would make a
$17,887,500 - $14,479,525 = $3,407,975 profit on the transaction
ignoring transaction costs.
Thus, the firm gained $3,407,975 on its futures position, but lost
$2,203,701 on its underlying bond issue.
On net, it gained
$3,407,975 - $2,203,701 = $1,204,274.
c. In a perfect hedge, the gains on futures contracts exactly offset
losses due to rising interest rates. For a perfect hedge to exist,
the underlying asset must be identical to the futures asset. Using
the Zinn Company example, a futures contract must have existed on
Zinns own debt (it existed on Treasury bonds) for the company to
have an opportunity to create a perfect hedge.
In reality, it is
virtually impossible to create a perfect hedge, since in most cases
the underlying asset is not identical to the futures asset.

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Answers and Solutions: 18 - 3

SPREADSHEET PROBLEM

18-7

The detailed solution for the spreadsheet problem is available both on

the instructors resource CD-ROM and on the instructors side of the
Harcourt
College
Publishers
web
site,
http://www.harcourtcollege.com/finance/ brigham.

CYBERPROBLEM

18-8

The detailed solution for the cyberproblem is available on the

instructors side of the Harcourt College Publishers web site
http://www. harcourtcollege.com/finance/brigham.

Computer/Internet Applications: 18 - 4

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INTEGRATED CASE

Tropical Sweets Inc.

Derivatives and Corporate Risk Management
18-9

ASSUME THAT YOU HAVE JUST BEEN HIRED AS A FINANCIAL ANALYST BY

TROPICAL SWEETS INC., A MID-SIZED CALIFORNIA COMPANY THAT SPECIALIZES
IN CREATING EXOTIC CANDIES FROM TROPICAL FRUITS SUCH AS MANGOES,
PAPAYAS, AND DATES.
RETURNED

FROM

AN

THE FIRMS CEO, GEORGE YAMAGUCHI, RECENTLY

INDUSTRY

CORPORATE

EXECUTIVE

CONFERENCE

IN

SAN

FRANCISCO, AND ONE OF THE SESSIONS HE ATTENDED WAS ON THE PRESSING

NEED FOR SMALLER COMPANIES TO INSTITUTE CORPORATE RISK MANAGEMENT
PROGRAMS.

SINCE NO ONE AT TROPICAL SWEETS IS FAMILIAR WITH THE

BASICS OF DERIVATIVES AND CORPORATE RISK MANAGEMENT, YAMAGUCHI HAS

ASKED YOU TO PREPARE A BRIEF REPORT THAT THE FIRMS EXECUTIVES COULD
USE TO GAIN AT LEAST A CURSORY UNDERSTANDING OF THE TOPICS.
TO BEGIN, YOU GATHERED SOME OUTSIDE MATERIALS ON DERIVATIVES AND
CORPORATE RISK MANAGEMENT AND USED THESE MATERIALS TO DRAFT A LIST OF
PERTINENT QUESTIONS THAT NEED TO BE ANSWERED.

IN FACT, ONE POSSIBLE

APPROACH TO THE PAPER IS TO USE A QUESTION-AND-ANSWER FORMAT.

NOW

THAT

THE

THE

QUESTIONS

HAVE

BEEN

DRAFTED,

YOU

HAVE

TO

DEVELOP

ANSWERS.
A.

WHY

MIGHT

STOCKHOLDERS

BE

INDIFFERENT

TO

WHETHER

OR

NOT

FIRM

REDUCES THE VOLATILITY OF ITS CASH FLOWS?

ANSWER:

[SHOW S181 AND S182 HERE.] IF VOLATILITY IN CASH FLOWS IS NOT

CAUSED BY SYSTEMATIC RISK, THEN STOCKHOLDERS CAN ELIMINATE THE RISK
OF VOLATILE CASH FLOWS BY DIVERSIFYING THEIR PORTFOLIOS.

ALSO, IF A

COMPANY DECIDED TO HEDGE AWAY THE RISK ASSOCIATED WITH THE VOLATILITY
OF ITS CASH FLOWS, THE COMPANY WOULD HAVE TO PASS ON THE COSTS OF
HEDGING TO THE INVESTORS. SOPHISTICATED INVESTORS CAN HEDGE RISKS
THEMSELVES AND THUS THEY ARE INDIFFERENT AS TO WHO ACTUALLY DOES THE
HEDGING.

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Integrated Case: 18 - 5

B.

WHAT ARE SEVEN REASONS RISK MANAGEMENT MIGHT INCREASE THE VALUE OF A
CORPORATION?

ANSWER:

[SHOWS183ANDS184HERE.]THERE ARE NO STUDIES PROVING THAT RISK

MANAGEMENT EITHER DOES OR DOES NOT ADD VALUE.

HOWEVER, THERE ARE

SEVEN REASONS WHY RISK MANAGEMENT MIGHT INCREASE THE VALUE OF A FIRM.
RISK MANAGEMENT ALLOWS CORPORATIONS TO (1) INCREASE THEIR USE OF
DEBT; (2) MAINTAIN THEIR OPTIMAL CAPITAL BUDGET OVER TIME; (3) AVOID
COSTS

ASSOCIATED

WITH

FINANCIAL

DISTRESS;

(4)

UTILIZE

THEIR

COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES IN HEDGING RELATIVE TO THE HEDGING ABILITY OF

INDIVIDUAL

INVESTORS;

(5)

REDUCE

BOTH

THE

RISKS

AND

COSTS

OF

BORROWING BY USING SWAPS; (6) REDUCE THE HIGHER TAXES THAT RESULT
FROM FLUCTUATING EARNINGS; AND (7) INITIATE COMPENSATION PROGRAMS TO
REWARD MANAGERS FOR ACHIEVING STABLE EARNINGS.

C.

WHAT IS AN OPTION?

WHAT IS THE SINGLE MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC

OF AN OPTION?
ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-5 AND S18-6 HERE.]

AN OPTION IS A CONTRACT THAT GIVES ITS

HOLDER THE RIGHT TO BUY (OR SELL) AN ASSET AT SOME PREDETERMINED

PRICE WITHIN A SPECIFIED PERIOD OF TIME.

AN OPTIONS MOST IMPORTANT

CHARACTERISTIC IS THAT IT DOES NOT OBLIGATE ITS OWNER TO TAKE ANY

ACTION; IT MERELY GIVES THE OWNER THE RIGHT TO BUY OR SELL AN ASSET.

D.

OPTIONS HAVE A UNIQUE SET OF TERMINOLOGY.

DEFINE THE FOLLOWING

TERMS: CALL OPTION; PUT OPTION; EXERCISE PRICE; STRIKING, OR STRIKE,

PRICE; OPTION PRICE; EXPIRATION DATE; EXERCISE VALUE; COVERED OPTION;
NAKED OPTION; IN-THE-MONEY CALL; OUT-OF-THE-MONEY CALL; AND LEAPS.
ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-7 THROUGH S18-10 HERE.]

A CALL OPTION IS AN OPTION TO BUY A SPECIFIED NUMBER OF SHARES OF A
SECURITY WITHIN SOME FUTURE PERIOD.
A PUT OPTION IS AN OPTION TO SELL A SPECIFIED NUMBER OF SHARES OF A
SECURITY WITHIN SOME FUTURE PERIOD.

Integrated Case: 18 - 6

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EXERCISE PRICE IS ANOTHER NAME FOR STRIKE PRICE, THE PRICE STATED IN
THE OPTION CONTRACT AT WHICH THE SECURITY CAN BE BOUGHT (OR SOLD).
THE STRIKE PRICE IS THE PRICE STATED IN THE OPTION CONTRACT AT WHICH
THE SECURITY CAN BE BOUGHT (OR SOLD).
THE OPTION PRICE IS THE MARKET PRICE OF THE OPTION CONTRACT.
THE EXPIRATION DATE IS THE DATE THE OPTION MATURES.
THE EXERCISE VALUE IS THE VALUE OF A CALL OPTION IF IT WERE EXERCISED
TODAY, AND IT IS EQUAL TO THE CURRENT STOCK PRICE MINUS THE STRIKE
PRICE.
A COVERED OPTION IS A CALL OPTION WRITTEN AGAINST STOCK HELD IN AN
INVESTORS PORTFOLIO.
A NAKED OPTION IS AN OPTION SOLD WITHOUT THE STOCK TO BACK IT UP.
AN IN-THE-MONEY CALL IS A CALL OPTION WHOSE EXERCISE PRICE IS LESS
THAN THE CURRENT PRICE OF THE UNDERLYING STOCK.
AN

OUT-OF-THE-MONEY

CALL

IS

CALL

OPTION

WHOSE

EXERCISE

PRICE

EXCEEDS THE CURRENT STOCK PRICE.

LEAPS STANDS FOR LONG-TERM EQUITY ANTICIPATION SECURITIES.

THEY ARE

SIMILAR TO CONVENTIONAL OPTIONS EXCEPT THEY ARE LONG-TERM OPTIONS

WITH MATURITIES OF UP TO 2 YEARS.

E.

CONSIDER TROPICAL SWEETS CALL OPTION WITH A $25 STRIKE PRICE.

FOLLOWING

TABLE

CONTAINS

HISTORICAL

VALUES

FOR

THIS

OPTION

THE
AT

DIFFERENT STOCK PRICES:

STOCK PRICE
$25
30
35
40
45
50

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CALL OPTION PRICE

$ 3.00
7.50
12.00
16.50
21.00
25.50

Integrated Case: 18 - 7

1. CREATE

TABLE

THAT

SHOWS

(A)

STOCK

PRICE,

(B)

STRIKE

PRICE,

(C) EXERCISE VALUE, (D) OPTION PRICE, AND (E) THE PREMIUM OF OPTION
PRICE OVER EXERCISE VALUE.
ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-11 THROUGH S18-13 HERE.]

PRICE OF
STOCK
(A)
$25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
50.00

E.

STRIKE
PRICE
(B)
$25.00
25.00
25.00
25.00
25.00
25.00

EXERCISE VALUE
OF OPTION
(A)-(B)=(C)
$ 0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00

MARKET PRICE
OF OPTION
(D)
$ 3.00
7.50
12.00
16.50
21.00
25.50

PREMIUM
(D)-(C)=
(E)
$3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50

2. WHAT HAPPENS TO THE PREMIUM OF OPTION PRICE OVER EXERCISE VALUE AS

THE STOCK PRICE RISES?

ANSWER:

WHY?

[SHOW S18-14 AND S18-15 HERE.]

AS THE TABLE SHOWS, THE PREMIUM OF

THE OPTION PRICE OVER THE EXERCISE VALUE DECLINES AS THE STOCK PRICE
INCREASES.

THIS IS DUE TO THE DECLINING DEGREE OF LEVERAGE PROVIDED

BY

AS

OPTIONS

THE

UNDERLYING

STOCK

PRICE

INCREASES,

AND

TO

THE

GREATER LOSS POTENTIAL OF OPTIONS AT HIGHER OPTION PRICES.

F.

IN 1973, FISCHER BLACK AND MYRON SCHOLES DEVELOPED THE BLACK-SCHOLES

OPTION PRICING MODEL (OPM).
1. WHAT ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLIE THE OPM?

ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-16 AND S18-17 HERE.]

THE ASSUMPTIONS THAT UNDERLIE THE OPM

ARE AS FOLLOWS:

THE STOCK UNDERLYING THE CALL OPTION PROVIDES NO DIVIDENDS DURING

THE LIFE OF THE OPTION.

NO TRANSACTIONS COSTS ARE INVOLVED WITH THE SALE OR PURCHASE OF

EITHER THE STOCK OR THE OPTION.

Integrated Case: 18 - 8

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THE SHORT-TERM, RISK-FREE INTEREST RATE IS KNOWN AND IS CONSTANT

DURING THE LIFE OF THE OPTION.
SECURITY BUYERS MAY BORROW ANY FRACTION OF THE PURCHASE PRICE AT
THE SHORT-TERM, RISK-FREE RATE.

SHORT-TERM

SELLING

IS

PERMITTED

WITHOUT

PENALTY,

AND

SELLERS

RECEIVE IMMEDIATELY THE FULL CASH PROCEEDS AT TODAYS PRICE FOR

SECURITIES SOLD SHORT.

THE CALL OPTION CAN BE EXERCISED ONLY ON ITS EXPIRATION DATE.

SECURITY TRADING TAKES PLACE IN CONTINUOUS TIME, AND STOCK PRICES

MOVE RANDOMLY IN CONTINUOUS TIME.

F.

2. WRITE OUT THE THREE EQUATIONS THAT CONSTITUTE THE MODEL.

ANSWER:

[SHOW

S18-18

HERE.]

THE

OPM

CONSISTS

OF

THE

FOLLOWING

THREE

EQUATIONS:
V =

P[N(d1)] Xek RFt[N(d2)].

d1 =

ln(P/X)[kRF (2/2)]t
.
t
d2 = d1 t .

HERE,
V = CURRENT VALUE OF A CALL OPTION WITH TIME t UNTIL EXPIRATION.
P = CURRENT PRICE OF THE UNDERLYING STOCK.
N(di) = PROBABILITY THAT A DEVIATION LESS THAN di WILL OCCUR IN A
STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION.

THUS, N(d1) AND N(d2) REPRESENT

AREAS UNDER A STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION.

X = EXERCISE, OR STRIKE, PRICE OF THE OPTION.
e 2.7183.
kRF = RISK-FREE INTEREST RATE.
t = TIME UNTIL THE OPTION EXPIRES (THE OPTION PERIOD).
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Integrated Case: 18 - 9

ln(P/X) = NATURAL LOGARITHM OF P/X.

2 = VARIANCE OF THE RATE OF RETURN ON THE STOCK.

F.

3. WHAT IS THE VALUE OF THE FOLLOWING CALL OPTION ACCORDING TO THE OPM?
STOCK PRICE = $27.00.
EXERCISE PRICE = $25.00.
TIME TO EXPIRATION = 6 MONTHS.
RISK-FREE RATE = 6.0%.
STOCK RETURN VARIANCE = 0.11.

ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-19 AND S18-20 HERE.]

THE INPUT VARIABLES ARE:

P = $27.00; X = $25.00; kRF = 6.0%; t = 6 months = 0.5 years; and 2 =

0.11.
NOW, WE PROCEED TO USE THE OPM:

V = $27[N(d1)] - $25e-(0.06)(0.5)[N(d2)].

ln($27/$25) [(0.06 0.11/2)](0.5)

(0.3317)(0.7071)
0.0770 0.0575
=
0.5736.
0.2345

d1 =

d2 = d1 - (0.3317)(0.7071) = d1 - 0.2345
= 0.5736 - 0.2345 = 0.3391.
N(d1) = N(0.5736) = 0.5000 + 0.2168 = 0.7168.
N(d2) = N(0.3391) = 0.5000 + 0.1327 = 0.6327.
THEREFORE,
V = $27(0.7168) - $25e-0.03(0.6327) = $19.3536 - $25(0.97045)(0.6327)
= $19.3536 - $15.3500 = $4.0036 $4.00.
THUS, UNDER THE OPM, THE VALUE OF THE CALL OPTION IS ABOUT $4.00.

G.

WHAT EFFECT DOES EACH OF THE FOLLOWING CALL OPTION PARAMETERS HAVE ON
THE VALUE OF A CALL OPTION?
1. CURRENT STOCK PRICE

Integrated Case: 18 - 10

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2. EXERCISE PRICE
3. OPTIONS TERM TO MATURITY
4. RISK-FREE RATE
5. VARIABILITY OF THE STOCK PRICE
ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-21 AND S18-22 HERE.]

1. THE VALUE OF A CALL OPTION INCREASES (DECREASES) AS THE CURRENT
STOCK PRICE INCREASES (DECREASES).
2. AS THE EXERCISE PRICE OF THE OPTION INCREASES (DECREASES), THE
VALUE OF THE OPTION DECREASES (INCREASES).
3. AS THE EXPIRATION DATE OF THE OPTION IS LENGTHENED, THE VALUE OF
THE OPTION INCREASES.

THIS IS BECAUSE THE VALUE OF THE OPTION

DEPENDS ON THE CHANCE OF A STOCK PRICE INCREASE, AND THE LONGER

THE OPTION PERIOD, THE HIGHER THE STOCK PRICE CAN CLIMB.
4. AS THE RISK-FREE RATE INCREASES, THE VALUE OF THE OPTION TENDS TO
INCREASE AS WELL.

SINCE INCREASES IN THE RISK-FREE RATE TEND TO

DECREASE THE PRESENT VALUE OF THE OPTIONS EXERCISE PRICE, THEY

ALSO TEND TO INCREASE THE CURRENT VALUE OF THE OPTION.
5. THE

GREATER

THE

VARIANCE

IN

THE

UNDERLYING

STOCK

PRICE,

THE

GREATER THE POSSIBILITY THAT THE STOCKS PRICE WILL EXCEED THE
EXERCISE PRICE OF THE OPTION; THUS, THE MORE VALUABLE THE OPTION
WILL BE.

H.

WHAT IS CORPORATE RISK MANAGEMENT?

ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-23 AND S18-24 HERE.]

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO ALL FIRMS?

CORPORATE RISK MANAGEMENT RELATES TO

THE MANAGEMENT OF UNPREDICTABLE EVENTS THAT HAVE ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES

FOR THE FIRM.

THIS FUNCTION IS VERY IMPORTANT TO A FIRM SINCE IT

INVOLVES REDUCING THE CONSEQUENCES OF RISK TO THE POINT WHERE THERE

SHOULD BE NO SIGNIFICANT ADVERSE EFFECTS ON THE FIRMS FINANCIAL
POSITION.

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Integrated Case: 18 - 11

I.

RISKS THAT FIRMS FACE CAN BE CATEGORIZED IN MANY WAYS.

DEFINE THE

FOLLOWING TYPES OF RISK: SPECULATIVE RISKS; PURE RISKS; DEMAND RISKS;

INPUT

RISKS;

FINANCIAL

RISKS;

PROPERTY

RISKS;

PERSONNEL

RISKS;

ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS; LIABILITY RISKS; AND INSURABLE RISKS.

Integrated Case: 18 - 12

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ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-25 AND S18-26 HERE.]

SPECULATIVE RISKS ARE THOSE THAT OFFER THE CHANCE OF A GAIN AS WELL
AS A LOSS, SUCH AS BUYING AN OWNERSHIP SHARE IN A COMPANY.
PURE RISKS ARE THOSE THAT ONLY OFFER THE PROSPECT OF LOSSES, SUCH AS
A PRODUCT LIABILITY OR MALPRACTICE LAWSUIT (FROM THE DEFENDANTS
STANDPOINT).
DEMAND

RISKS

ARE

THOSE

ASSOCIATED

WITH

THE

DEMAND

FOR

FIRMS

PRODUCTS OR SERVICES, SUCH AS NEW PRODUCTS DEVELOPED BY COMPETITORS.

INPUT RISKS ARE THOSE ASSOCIATED WITH A FIRMS INPUT COSTS, INCLUDING
MATERIALS AND LABOR.
FINANCIAL RISKS ARE THOSE THAT RESULT FROM FINANCIAL TRANSACTIONS,
SUCH AS INTEREST RATE AND CURRENCY EXCHANGE RATE RISKS.
PROPERTY RISKS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH DESTRUCTION OF A FIRMS PRODUCTIVE
ASSETS, INCLUDING THE THREAT OF FIRE, FLOODS, AND RIOTS.
PERSONNEL RISKS ARE RISKS THAT RESULT FROM HUMAN ACTIONS, SUCH AS
THEFT AND FRAUD.
ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS INCLUDE THOSE RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH POLLUTING THE
ENVIRONMENT.
LIABILITY RISKS ARE CONNECTED WITH PRODUCT, SERVICE, OR EMPLOYEE
LIABILITY, SUCH AS COSTS INCURRED AS A RESULT OF IMPROPER ACTIONS BY
EMPLOYEES OR DAMAGES RESULTING FROM DEFECTIVE PRODUCTS.
INSURABLE RISKS ARE THOSE THAT TYPICALLY CAN BE COVERED BY INSURANCE.

J.

WHAT ARE THE THREE STEPS OF CORPORATE RISK MANAGEMENT?

ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-27 HERE.]

THE THREE STEPS ARE:

IDENTIFY THE RISKS FACED BY THE FIRM;

MEASURE THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF THE RISKS IDENTIFIED; AND
DECIDE HOW EACH RELEVANT RISK SHOULD BE HANDLED.
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Integrated Case: 18 - 13

K.

WHAT ARE SOME ACTIONS THAT COMPANIES CAN TAKE TO MINIMIZE OR REDUCE
RISK EXPOSURE?

ANSWER:

[SHOW

S18-28

AND

S18-29

HERE.]

THERE

ARE

SEVERAL

ACTIONS

THAT

COMPANIES CAN TAKE TO MINIMIZE OR REDUCE THEIR RISK EXPOSURE.

FIRST,

COMPANIES

PAYING

PERIODIC

CAN

TRANSFER

PREMIUMS.

RISK

SECOND,

TO

AN

COMPANIES

INSURANCE
CAN

COMPANY

TRANSFER

BY

FUNCTIONS

THAT

PRODUCE RISK TO THIRD PARTIES, SUCH AS ELIMINATING RISKS ASSOCIATED

WITH TRANSPORTATION BY CONTRACTING WITH A TRUCKING COMPANY.

THIRD,

PURCHASE DERIVATIVES CONTRACTS TO REDUCE INPUT AND FINANCIAL RISK.

FOURTH, COMPANIES CAN TAKE ACTIONS TO REDUCE THE PROBABILITY OF
OCCURRENCE OF AN ADVERSE EVENT, SUCH AS REPLACING OLD WIRING TO
REDUCE THE POSSIBILITY OF FIRE. FIFTH, ACTIONS CAN BE TAKEN TO REDUCE
THE MAGNITUDE OF THE LOSS ASSOCIATED WITH ADVERSE EVENTS, SUCH AS
INSTALLING

AUTOMATIC

SPRINKLER

SYSTEMS.

FINALLY,

COMPANIES

CAN

SIMPLY AVOID THE ACTIVITIES THAT GIVE RISE TO RISK.

L.

WHAT IS FINANCIAL RISK EXPOSURE?

DESCRIBE THE FOLLOWING CONCEPTS AND

TECHNIQUES THAT CAN BE USED TO REDUCE FINANCIAL RISKS:

DERIVATIVES;

FUTURES MARKETS; HEDGING; AND SWAPS.

ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-30 THROUGH S18-33 HERE.]

FINANCIAL RISK EXPOSURE REFERS TO

THE RISK INHERENT IN THE FINANCIAL MARKETS DUE TO PRICE FLUCTUATIONS.

A DERIVATIVE IS A SECURITY WHOSE VALUE STEMS, OR IS DERIVED, FROM THE
VALUES OF OTHER ASSETS.

OPTIONS AND FUTURES CONTRACTS ARE TWO TYPES

OF DERIVATIVES THAT ARE USED TO MANAGE SECURITY PRICE EXPOSURE.

FUTURES MARKETS INVOLVE CONTRACTS THAT CALL FOR THE PURCHASE OR SALE
OF A FINANCIAL (OR REAL) ASSET AT SOME FUTURE DATE, BUT AT A PRICE
WHICH IS FIXED TODAY.

THUS, THESE MARKETS PROVIDE THE OPPORTUNITY TO

REDUCE FINANCIAL RISK EXPOSURE.

HEDGING IS GENERALLY CONDUCTED WHERE A PRICE CHANGE COULD NEGATIVELY
AFFECT A FIRMS PROFITS.

A LONG HEDGE INVOLVES THE PURCHASE OF

FUTURE CONTRACTS IN ANTICIPATION OF, OR TO GUARD AGAINST, PRICE

INCREASES.
Integrated Case: 18 - 14

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2000 by Harcourt, Inc.

A SHORT HEDGE, OR SALE OF FUTURES, IS MADE WHEN THE FIRM IS CONCERNED

ABOUT PRICE DECLINES IN COMMODITIES OR FINANCIAL SECURITIES.
SWAPS

INVOLVE

THE

EXCHANGE

OF

CASH

PAYMENT

OBLIGATIONS

ON

DEBT

BETWEEN TWO PARTIES, USUALLY BECAUSE EACH PARTY PREFERS THE TERMS OF
THE OTHERS DEBT CONTRACT.

SWAPS CAN REDUCE EACH FIRMS FINANCIAL

RISK. FOR EXAMPLE, CURRENCY EXCHANGE RATE RISK CAN BE ELIMINATED IF A

U. S. FIRM WITH A POUND-DENOMINATED DEBT COULD SWAP THEIR DEBT WITH A
BRITISH FIRM THAT HAS AN EQUIVALENT DOLLAR-DENOMINATED DEBT.

M.

DESCRIBE HOW COMMODITY FUTURES MARKETS CAN BE USED TO REDUCE INPUT

PRICE RISK.

ANSWER:

[SHOW S18-34 HERE.]

ESSENTIALLY, PURCHASE OF A COMMODITY FUTURES

CONTRACT WILL ALLOW A FIRM TO MAKE A FUTURE PURCHASE OF THE INPUT

MATERIAL AT TODAYS PRICE, EVEN IF THE MARKET PRICE ON THE GOOD HAS
RISEN SUBSTANTIALLY IN THE INTERIM.

Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright 2000 by Harcourt, Inc.

Integrated Case: 18 - 15