Research Report 12/99

Modelling Flexible Bellows by

Standard Beam Finite Elements

by
Gran Broman, Madeleine Hermann,
Anders Jnsson

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Karlskrona/Ronneby
S-371 79 Karlskrona, Sweden

ISSN 1103-1581
ISRN HK/R-RES99/12SE

Modelling Flexible Bellows by Standard Beam Finite Elements

by Gran Broman, Madeleine Hermann, Anders Jnsson
ISSN 1103-1581
ISRN HK/R-RES99/12SE
Copyright 1999 by Gran Broman, Madeleine Hermann, Anders Jnsson
All rights reserved
Printed by Psilander Grafiska, Karlskrona 1999

Modelling Flexible Bellows by Standard

Beam Finite Elements
Gran Broman1
Madeleine Hermann2
Anders Jnsson2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Karlskrona/Ronneby
Karlskrona, Sweden
1999

Abstract
A procedure for modelling flexible metal bellows by the standard beam
finite elements in I-DEAS Master Series 6 is presented. In spite of the
geometry of the bellows being far from a beam, it is shown that the
bellows dynamic behaviour can be modelled by beam elements with the
suggested procedure. The model size is reduced by a factor of 100-1000
compared to a shell elements model. This is especially advantageous
when the bellows is only a part of for example an exhaust system to be
optimised with respect to overall design parameters. In comparison to
existing semi-analytical methods the standard beam finite elements
have the advantages that axial, bending and torsion degrees of freedom
are included simultaneously and that the interaction between the bellows
and the rest of the system, also modelled by beam or shell finite
elements, is easily facilitated. The procedure is verified by experimental
results from other investigators.

Keywords
Flexible Bellows, Beam Finite Elements, Dynamic Behaviour, Axial,
Bending, Torsion, Exhaust Systems, Experimental Verification.
1
2

Assistant professor, Ph.D. Mech. Eng.

Ph.D. Student, M.Sc. Mech. Eng.

Acknowledegements
This work was carried out at the Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Karlskrona/Ronneby, Karlskrona, Sweden, in collaboration
with AP Automotive Systems, Inc, Torss, Sweden.
We wish to thank the research group at the department for valuable
discussion and support. We are also grateful for the support from AP
Automotive Systems, Inc, especially M.Sc. Kristian Althini, Research &
Development Manager, M.Sc. Per Folkesson, Prediction Engineer, and
Anders Svensson, Laboratory Manager.
Financial support from Blekinge Research Foundation is gratefully
acknowledged.

Karlskrona, June 1999

Gran Broman
Madeleine Hermann
Anders Jnsson

Contents
1

Notation

Introduction

Characteristics of Bellows

10

3.1

Geometry

10

3.2

Mass and Rotary Inertia

12

3.3

Axial Vibrations

13

3.4

Bending Vibrations

15

3.5

Torsion Vibrations

17

Beam Finite Element Model of Bellows

20

4.1

Beam Elements

20

4.2

Mass and Rotary Inertia

20

4.3

Axial Vibrations

22

4.4

Bending Vibrations

22

4.5

Torsion Vibrations

23

4.6

Summary of Modelling Procedure

24

4.7

Examples and Verification

4.7.1 Specimen from Jakubauskas and Weaver
4.7.2 Specimen from Ting-Xin et al
4.7.3 Discussion of Results

26
26
31
35

4.8

Modelling of end caps, braid and inner-liner

36

Conclusions

38

References

39

Appendix A

43

EJMA Stiffness Calculations

44

1 Notation
A

Area [m2]

Torsion stiffness [Nm/rad]

Modulus of elasticity [Pa]

Shear modulus of elasticity [Pa]

Convolution height [m]

Area moment of inertia [m4]

Mass moment of inertia per unit length [kgm]

Polar area moment of inertia [m4]

Axial stiffness [N/m]

Length [m]

Mass per unit length [kg/m]

number of convolutions

Pressure [Pa]

Radius [m]

(r, , x)

Cylindrical coordinates

Material thickness [m]

Time [s]

Axial displacement [m]

Velocity [m/s]

Transverse displacement [m]

(x, y, z)

Cartesian coordinates

Shear coefficient

Displacement [m]

Torsion displacement [rad]

Poissons ratio

Mass density [kg/m3]

Indicies
C

Crown

Defined

Fluid

Mean

Pipe (equivalent)

Root

Total

X, y, z,

Coordinate axes

2 Introduction
With the introduction of transverse engines and catalytic converters
flexible metal bellows have become an important component in
automotive exhaust systems. Examples of such bellows are shown in
figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Examples of flexible metal bellows used in

automotive exhaust systems.

A flexible connection between the manifold and the rest of the exhaust
system is necessary to allow for the rolling movements of the engine.
Since for transverse engine orientation the main direction of the exhaust
system downstream the manifold is perpendicular to this rolling,
considerable axial and bending deflections at the connection must be
allowed for. Some torsion also takes place because of the curved path of
the exhaust system. Using a rigid joint would give severe vibration of the

exhaust system, with noise and quick failure due to exceeded material
strength as consequences.
Furthermore, the connection must be gas-tight to assure successful
combustion control, necessary for the catalytic converter to operate at
optimal conditions. Any failure of the exhaust system upstream the
converter affect emissions. Usually the converter is placed as close to the
engine as possible in order to get a quick temperature rise of the catalytic
material after starting the engine. The catalytic effect only takes place
above a specific, so-called, light-off temperature of approximately 300500 oC. Continuously tougher requirements on cutting emissions during
the last decades have also driven up combustion temperatures, implying
increased thermal expansion of the exhaust system components that must
be allowed for to relief otherwise fatal stress.
Metal bellows have proven to fulfil the above combined requirements.
So, although invented about hundred years ago they play today an
important role in modern automotive engineering and emissions control
[1].
Although seemingly simple, proper dimensioning requires deep
understanding of the characteristics of the bellows and their interaction
with the rest of the exhaust system. Off-the-shelf products will seldom fit
a specific application. This was experienced by many car and component
fabricators when bellows were first introduced into exhaust systems.
Failures took place after rather short operation times and substitution into
stronger - and much more expensive - materials did not solve the
problem [2].
With this background a collaboration started between the Department
of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Karlskrona/Ronneby,
Karlskrona, Sweden and AP Automotive Systems, Inc, Torss, Sweden,
fabricating approximately two millions of welded manifolds and
supplying six hundred thousand bellows per year for the automotive
industry. A project was defined with the overall aim of deepened
understanding of the dynamics of the exhaust system as a whole,
including manifold, flexible connection, catalytic converter, pipes,
mufflers, and hangers. It is desired to find a method of modelling and
evaluating customer-proposed exhaust system designs at an early stage of
product development. The models need to be rather simple so that the
effect of design alterations on natural frequencies and other
characteristics can be presented and discussed with the customer
promptly. As a part of the overall project the bellows is studied in this
work. The collaboration has so far also resulted in two masters theses on

bellows [3,4]. Three masters theses are currently in progress including

studies on hangers, first attempts of a complete systems analysis, and
flow calculations (CFD) in a manifold, respectively.
Flexible metal bellows have been used for considerable time in other
applications, such as piping systems of chemical industries, cooling
systems, ships, and power plants. Numerous papers deal with various
aspects of bellows, such as stresses due to internal pressure and axial
deflection, fatigue life estimations, column instability and scrim, etc. A
comprehensive bibliography including ninety titles is given by Snedden
[5]. A good grasp of bellows research can also be gained from the
conference proceedings of the 1989 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping
Conference, including twenty-four titles with many additional references
[6]. The extraordinary work of Andersson [7,8], published in 1964-65,
must be considered as a milestone. Among other things he derived
correction factors relating the behaviour of the bellows convolution to
that of a simple strip beam. This approach has subsequently been the
basis of standards and other publications presenting formulae for handcalculation for bellows design.
Such formulae have been included in national pressure vessel codes,
among which the ASME code is the most well-known [9]. The most
comprehensive and widely accepted text on bellows design is however
the Standards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association (EJMA),
which has now reached its seventh edition [10]. A comparison of the
ASME code and the EJMA standards is given by Hanna [11], concluding
that the two conform quite well in most aspects. However, some
significant differences exist and are discussed. The EJMA standards is
found to comply better with experience, and is therefore recommended
except when code approval is necessary.
Comparisons of the EJMA standards with finite element and
experimental analyses can be found in many papers, for example TingXin et al [12,13] and Osweiller [14]. The EJMA organisation itself has
also conducted research to verify the standards. In summary, the EJMA
formulae for stresses and stiffness for axial loading are found to be
correct to within approximately 20 % for most bellows configurations.
No comparisons regarding torsion loading have been found. An
explanation of some of the EJMA formulae is given by Broyles [15].
Less has been found on the dynamic behaviour of bellows and most of
these studies concentrate on axial vibrations, for example Gerlach [16]
and Jakubauskas and Weaver [17]. Dealing also with transverse
vibrations are EJMA [10] and Ting-Xin et al [13], both using Bernoulli-

Euler beam theory to simulate the bellows. Morishita et al [18] and

Jakubauskas and Weaver [19,20,21] include rotary inertia in the beam
model. The conclusion is that rotary inertia is important to consider,
especially for bellows with a low length over diameter ratio. The error
can otherwise amount to several hundred per cent.
The concept of fluid added mass to account for inertia effects due to
the fluid inside the bellows has been established for long time. The latest
developments is that of Jakubauskas and Weaver [19,20,21], which is the
first study including the influence of convolution distortion on the fluid
added mass. The resistance to motion because of the pumping of fluid in
and out of the convolutions, when distorted due to the bending of the
bellows, is modelled as added inertia. This is shown to be significant for
the higher natural frequencies of bellows containing a high-density fluid
such as water. As the fluid in exhaust systems is of low density, all
influence of fluid mass can be neglected in the present study. Added
masses and other complications of end caps, braid, and inner-liner,
present in some bellows, are only briefly discussed in this work.
The drawbacks of all studies of the dynamic behaviour of bellows
found in the literature are that they deal with only one type of vibration at
the time and treat the bellows as an isolated unit with specified boundary
conditions. For these cases various methods for hand-calculations are
presented. No descriptions of a bellows model suitable for integrating in
a finite element analysis of a whole dynamic system have been found.
The aim of this work is to propose a method of modelling flexible
metal bellows by the existing beam element formulation of the
computation software I-DEAS Master Series 6, in which the whole
exhaust system is to be analysed later on. Axial, bending and torsion
characteristics of the bellows itself, as well as the interaction with the rest
of the system, should be possible to consider. Experimental results will
be used for verification.
Of course the bellows could be modelled directly by shell elements.
This would be straightforward, but the finite element representation of
the bellows would then constitute a very large part of the overall model.
Due to its special geometry thousands of elements would be required. It
would consequently be very time consuming to perform the analysis of
the whole system due to a rather small part of it. This would be especially
disadvantageous when many simulations are to be performed when
studying the influence of design alterations of the system. Hence the
attempt of modelling the bellows by beam elements.

3 Characteristics of Bellows
3.1 Geometry
The basic design of a flexible connection for exhaust systems is shown in
figure 3.1. The gas-tight bellows is the main part, and critical to the
desired function. An inner-liner is sometimes used for heat protection and
to reduce the risk of flow induced vibrations. A braid is sometimes used
for protection from outer mechanical influence. The parts are connected
at the ends with end caps. This work deals with the bellows itself. See
section 4.8 for a brief discussion of some ideas of how the other parts
could be modelled.

braid

gas-tight
bellows
gas
tight bellow

innerline
inner-liner
end cap

Figure 3.1. Basic flexible connection design.

The bellows convolutions are most commonly corrugated from thin-gage

metal using mechanical or hydraulic forming. The geometry of a Ushaped convolution is defined in figure 3.2. Rr is the meridional radius of
the convolution root, Rc is the meridional radius of the convolution crown
and h is the convolution height. Rm is the mean radius of the bellows, that
is, the distance from the bellows center-line to mid convolution height,
and s is the material thickness.

10

Rc
s
h
Rm

Rr

Center-line
x
Figure 3.2. U-shaped convolution geometry.

It is assumed that s << Rr, Rc, h << Rm. With n as the number of
convolutions the length of the whole bellows is
L = 2( R r + Rc )n

(3.1)

With these assumptions it feels natural to think of the bellows as an

equivalent thin-walled pipe of length L, radius Rm, and wall thickness sp,
according to figure 3.3.

sp

2Rm

Figure 3.3. Thin-walled pipe analogy of bellows.

11

By defining special values for wall thickness and material properties this
pipe can be a good model of the corresponding bellows.

3.2 Mass and Rotary Inertia

For the real bellows the mass per unit length is varying periodically. The
mean value can be determined either by measuring the mass of the
bellows and divide by the length of it, or, if the bellows do not yet exist
physically, according to
m=

2R m [ ( R r + Rc ) + 2(h Rr Rc )]s
2( R r + Rc )

(3.2)

where is the mass density of the bellows material. In this work the mass
per unit length will be considered constant and equal to this mean value,
which is a good approximation except for very low numbers of
convolutions. Furthermore, all mass is assumed located at the mean
radius of the bellows, in accordance with the thin-walled pipe analogy.
For bending rotations the rotary inertia of the cross-section per unit
length is then
J = J yy = J zz

mR m2
=
2

(3.3)

and for torsion rotations the rotary inertia of the cross-section per unit
length is
J xx = mR m2

(3.4)

With the product of wall thickness and mass density equal to

sp p =

m
2Rm

(3.5)

12

the equivalent pipe will have a mass per unit length, and the cross-section
will have rotary inertia per unit length, equal to that of the corresponding
bellows.
For example, the real bellows material mass density can be used (p =
) and the wall thickness calculated. Alternatively the wall thickness can
be set to a small value and the mass density of the fictive pipe material
calculated. The I-DEAS concept of Non-structural Mass can also be
involved, see section 4.2. Which method to use is of less importance. The
important thing is to simulate the bellows mass distribution, both axially
and within the cross-section.

3.3 Axial Vibrations

The axial stiffness can be determined in one of the following ways:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

By shell finite element calculations.

By measurements on the actual bellows.
By using EJMA formulae.

The advantage of method (i) is that arbitrarily good accuracy can be

obtained for the theoretical bellows design. The necessary number of
elements is low because only one half convolution has to be modelled
and axial symmetry can be utilised.
The advantage of method (ii) is that influences of tolerances in
fabrication, material etc. will be automatically included. A disadvantage
is that the bellows must already exist, which is often not the case at an
early stage of product development and when different design
configurations are to be tested. Another disadvantage is of course that
measurement inaccuracies will also be included.
The advantage of method (iii) is that it is quick and simple. Only
hand-calculations are necessary. A disadvantage is that it may be too
inaccurate, depending on the specific bellows at hand. For most
commonly used bellows configurations the axial stiffness is however
predicted to within approximately 20 % and often better. Another
disadvantage is that tolerances in fabrication, material etc. are not
included, which is true also for method (i). Some EJMA calculations are
given in appendix A.

13

The relation between the total axial stiffness, kT, and the axial stiffness
of one half convolution, k, is
kT =

k
2n

(3.6)

The axial stiffness of the equivalent pipe is

kp =

E p Ap

(3.7)

where Ep is the modulus of elasticity of the pipe material and

Ap = 2Rm s p

(3.8)

is the cross-sectional area of the pipe. Now, putting kp equal to the total
axial stiffness of the bellows gives
Ep =

k ( R r + Rc )
kT L
kT L
=
=
2R m s p
2R m s p
Ap

(3.9)

Thus, with this modulus of elasticity the equivalent pipe will have an
axial stiffness equal to that of the corresponding bellows.
As the bellows, modelled as the equivalent pipe, is a kind of a rod the
differential equation governing the bellows axial vibrations is the same as
that of a uniform rod given by for example Weaver et al [22],
2u Ep 2u

=0
t 2 p x 2

(3.10)

where u is the axial displacement, t is time, and x is the axial coordinate,

see figure 3.4.

14

u
x
x

dx

Figure 3.4. Displacements of bellows (pipe/rod) in axial vibration.

For specified boundary conditions analytical solutions for natural

frequencies and mode shapes of equation (3.10) can be obtained [22].
Such solutions can be used for verification and convergence test of the
finite element model.

3.4 Bending Vibrations

The special geometry of the bellows makes it very flexible in overall
bending but very stiff against radial deflections. This means that
significant transverse deflections and rotations of cross-sections
perpendicular to the bellows axis can take place, with ovalling and shear
deformations remaining negligible. This is confirmed by for example
Jakubauskas [19]. Thus, although being far from a beam in appearance, a
beam representation of the bellows should be relevant.
The bending stiffness of this beam can be expressed in terms of the
axial stiffness. The cross-sections of the bellows are assumed to remain
plane so the bending stiffness can be expressed in terms of the modulus
of elasticity from equation (3.9), and the area moment of inertia for the
pipe cross-section, which is
I p = I yy = I zz = R m3 s p

(3.11)

Thus,
E p I p = E p R m3 s p =

k T LR m2 k ( R r + Rc ) Rm2
=
2
2

The equivalent pipe will automatically have this bending stiffness.

15

(3.12)

The differential equation governing the bending vibrations of the

bellows can be obtained from the general differential equation for
bending vibrations of a pipe conveying fluid, given by for example
Paidoussis and Li [23] or Blevins [24],
4w
2w

(
)
+
A
+
A
p p
f f
x 4
t 2
p2 I p 4 w

Ep 4 w
2 2 +
p I p 1 +

x t
G
G p t 4
p

2w
2w
+ 2 f Af V
+ ( pR m2 + f Af V 2 ) 2 = 0
tx
x
Ep I p

(3.13)

where w is the transverse displacement, see figure 3.5, f is the fluid

density, f is the flow area, V is the flow velocity, and p is the is the fluid
pressure.
w

dx

Figure 3.5. Displacements of bellows (pipe/beam) in bending vibration.

The non-dimensional factor is the shear coefficient, or form factor for
shear, in Timoshenko beam theory and depends on the shape of the crosssection [25,26]. The fifth term is the Coriolis force and the sixth term
accounts for the pipe curvature effects of pressure and centrifugal force.
The fluid density in exhaust systems is low, so all terms including this
is cancelled. The influence of transverse shear for the bellows is
negligible as discussed above. The shear coefficient is therefore close to

16

zero. For the bellows used in experiments by Jakubauskas and Weaver

[21] the influence of a fluid pressure of 200 kPa on the fundamental
frequency was approximately 7 %. For the higher natural frequencies this
influence is smaller. Two bar was the maximum pressure allowed by the
EJMA standards for that bellows according to Jakubauskas and Weaver.
The mean pressure in exhaust systems is rather low, so also the pressure
term is cancelled. What remain of equation (3.13) is thus
4w
2w
4w

E p I p 4 + p Ap 2 p I p 2 2 = 0
x
t
x t

(3.14)

For specified boundary conditions approximate analytical solutions for

natural frequencies and mode shapes of equation (3.14) can be obtained
[22]. Such solutions can be used for verification and convergence test of
the finite element model.

3.5 Torsion Vibrations

The torsion stiffness can be determined by the same methods as for the
axial stiffness. The relation between the total torsion stiffness, cT, and the
torsion stiffness of one half convolution, c, is
cT =

c
2n

(3.15)

The torsion stiffness of the equivalent pipe is

cp =

Gp K p

(3.16)

where Gp is the shear modulus of elasticity of the pipe material and

K p = I yy + I zz = 2 I p = 2Rm3 s p

(3.17)

is the polar area moment of inertia of the pipe cross-section. Now,

putting cp equal to the total torsion stiffness of the bellows gives

17

Gp =

cT L cT L
cT L
c ( R r + Rc )
=
=
=
3
2 I p 2R m s p
Kp
2R m3 s p

(3.18)

Thus, with this shear modulus of elasticity the equivalent pipe will have a
torsion stiffness equal to that of the corresponding bellows.
As the bellows, modelled as the equivalent pipe, is a kind of a rod the
differential equation governing the bellows torsion vibrations is the same
as that of a uniform rod given by for example Weaver et al [22],
2 G p 2

=0
t 2 p x 2

(3.19)

where is the torsion angle, see figure 3.6.

x
x

dx

Figure 3.6. Displacements of bellows (pipe/rod) in torsion vibration.

For specified boundary conditions analytical solutions for natural

frequencies and mode shapes of equation (3.19) can be obtained [22].
Such solutions can be used for verification and convergence test of the
finite element model.
It should be pointed out that bellows are not primarily designed for
torsion. The torsion stiffness is high compared to the others. So, the
bellows will be highly stressed if torsion deflections are not kept small.
Much of the problems when bellows were first introduced into
automotive exhaust systems can probably be attributed to this fact. These
bellows had rather few convolutions, and as seen from equation (3.15)
the total torsion stiffness is inversely proportional to the number of
convolutions. Today longer bellows are mostly used. This means on the
other hand that axial and bending stiffness, and the corresponding natural

18

frequencies, are also lowered. Although not designed for torsion it is

important to consider also this degree of freedom when studying bellows
as a part of a dynamic system.

19

4 Beam Finite Element Model of Bellows

4.1 Beam Elements
Analytical solutions to equations (3.10), (3.14) and (3.19) are difficult to
make use of in a dynamic analysis of a whole system of which the
bellows is only one part. It is therefore desired to simulate the bellows
behaviour by a finite element representation, which is necessary anyway
to analyse the whole system.
Of course the bellows could be modelled directly by shell elements.
Due to its special geometry thousands of elements would however be
required. In this chapter the possibility of modelling the bellows by the
standard beam elements of I-DEAS Master Series 6 [27] is discussed.
Either the two-noded linear or the isoparametric three-noded parabolic
beam element included in the I-DEAS Simulation module is suitable for
modelling the bellows (pipe). Each node has three translational degrees
of freedom and three rotational degrees of freedom.
The cross-sectional properties of the beam elements can be defined in
the Beam Sections task in two ways:
(i)

(ii)

By drawing the cross-section geometry. The software then

calculates the cross-sectional properties from the given
geometry.
By explicitly key in the cross-sectional properties in the Key-In
dialogue frame.

Method (ii) together with the characteristics of the beam finite element
formulation makes it possible to simulate the bellows as described in the
following sections.

4.2 Mass and Rotary Inertia

Mass can be applied to the beam element model in three ways:
(i)

By defining a mass density of the beam material in the

Material Property Table.

20

(ii)
(iii)

By defining a Non-structural Mass per unit length in the

Physical Property Table.
By defining lumped mass in the Create Individual Element
command.

The software combines methods (i) and (ii) so that the mass per unit
length will be
m = A + m d

(4.1)

where is the mass density of the beam material, A is the cross-sectional

area, and md is the defined Non-structural Mass per unit length. For
bending rotations the rotary inertia of the cross-section per unit length
will be
md
) I yy
A
m
= ( + d ) I zz
A

J yy = ( +
J zz

(4.2)

where Iyy and Izz are the area moments of inertia of the cross-section with
respect to the y- and z-axis, respectively. For torsion rotations the rotary
inertia of the cross-section per unit length will be
J xx = ( +

md
)( I yy + I zz )
A

(4.3)

Thus, the software uses information about the cross-section inherent in

the area and the area moment of inertia to calculate the mass moments of
inertia for the cross-section. Choosing for example method (i) (md = 0 as
default) for the pipe cross-section, equations (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3)
together with equations (3.8), (3.11) and (3.17) give
m = p Ap = p 2R m s p

(4.4)

J = J yy = J zz = p I p = p R s =
3
m p

21

p Ap R m2
2

mR m2
2

(4.5)

J xx = p 2 I p = p 2Rm3 s p = p Ap R m2 = mR m2

(4.6)

in agreement with equation (3.3), (3.4) and (3.5). The same will result
from method (ii) if instead is set to zero and md is set to the desired m.
A warning from the software can be avoided by giving a small value for
instead of exactly zero. For simplicity it is recommended to use only
one of the methods, although it is possible to combine them (both 0
and md 0) for the same result. Which method to choose is of less
importance. Method (iii) simulates a point mass. Thus, by that method
the rotary inertia would not be included.
In conclusion it is possible to correctly simulate the bellows (pipes)
mass and mass moments of inertia in the beam finite element model.

4.3 Axial Vibrations

The I-DEAS beam finite element formulation of axial displacements is
based on the theory of a uniform rod. Thus, for axial vibrations of the
equivalent pipe the software produces approximate solutions to the
differential equation (3.10).
In conclusion the beam finite element model will therefore correctly
simulate the axial vibrations of the bellows (pipe), provided that the pipe
properties have been chosen according to chapter 3.
For more about the element formulation, see the interactive
documentation Smart View in I-DEAS Master Series 6 [27] and
background texts by Przemieniecki [28] and Hinton and Owen [29].

4.4 Bending Vibrations

The I-DEAS beam finite element formulation of bending is based on
Timoshenko beam theory, which includes deformation due to transverse
shear and in dynamics the influence of rotary inertia [22,27,28,29]. Thus,
for bending vibrations of the equivalent pipe the software produces
approximate solutions to the differential equation

22

Ep I p

Ep
4w
2w
m
+
J 1 +
4
2

Gp
x
t

4w
J 4 w

+
=0
4
x 2 t 2
G

t
p

(4.7)

Equations (3.14) and (4.7) are identical if the shear coefficient is set to
zero in the beam element model. In the I-DEAS beam finite element
formulation the corresponding parameter is called Shear Area Ratio.
Using the Key-In method to define the cross-sectional properties the
influence of transverse shear can be cancelled by setting this Shear Area
Ratio to a small value, for example 10-10 (zero is not accepted).
In conclusion the beam finite element model will correctly simulate
the bending vibrations of the bellows (pipe), provided that the pipe
properties have been chosen according to chapter 3 and software
parameters according to above.

4.5 Torsion Vibrations

The I-DEAS beam finite element formulation of torsion displacements is
based on the theory of a uniform rod. Thus, for torsion vibrations of the
equivalent pipe the software produces approximate solutions to the
differential equation (3.19).
To simulate both the low axial stiffness and the high torsion stiffness
of the bellows by setting the shear modulus of elasticity greater than the
modulus of elasticity the standard equation of a real material
Gp =

Ep

(4.8)

2(1 + )

must be overridden. This is possible in I-DEAS by defining Poissons

ratio, , as a Null Property in the Material Property Table. Had
transverse shear been significant for the bellows, bending vibrations
would have been affected by the value of the shear modulus of elasticity.
However, with the Shear Area Ratio set to zero according to above the
value of the shear modulus of elasticity is irrelevant to the bending
behaviour.
Alternatively equation (4.8) could have been fulfilled for a reasonable
value of Poissons ratio and instead the polar area moment of inertia Kp
changed according to equation (3.18). This fictive value could then be

23

given in the Key-In dialogue frame in the Beam Sections task. The mass
moment of inertia for torsion would not be affected since in the software
this is based on the area moment of inertia according to equation (4.3)
and not the polar area moment of inertia. Which method to use is of less
importance.
Thus, the thin-walled pipe analogy do not hold entirely. It should be
remembered that the bellows is not a pipe, rod or beam. With the special
geometry and characteristics of the bellows it is hardly surprising that
trying to model it in such a way will lead to some contradiction. Of
course, no real beam can combine all bellows characteristics. It would
then be unnecessary to fabricate bellows.
In conclusion the beam finite element model will correctly simulate
the torsion vibrations of the bellows (pipe), provided that the pipe
properties have been chosen according to chapter 3 and software
parameters according to above.

4.6 Summary of Modelling Procedure

The modelling procedure for finding natural frequencies and mode
shapes is summarised bellow. Some experience of I-DEAS Simulation is
required since all details regarding software handling are not described.
1. Declare geometry and material properties of the bellows: mean
radius, Rm, root radius, Rr, crown radius, Rc, convolution height, h,
material thickness, s, number of convolutions, n, material mass
density, , modulus of elasticity, E, Poissons ratio, .
2. Determine the length of the bellows according to equation (3.1) or by
measurements.
3. Determine the mass per unit length of the bellows according to
equation (3.2) or by measurements.
4. Determine the mass density, p and wall thickness, sp of the
equivalent pipe according to equation (3.5).
5. Determine the axial stiffness, k or kT, and the torsion stiffness, c or cT,
of the bellows by one of the methods described in section 3.3.
6. Determine the modulus of elasticity, Ep, of the equivalent pipe
material according to equation (3.9) and the shear modulus of
elasticity, Gp, of the equivalent pipe material according to equation
(3.18).

24

7. Define the cross-section of the equivalent pipe in the Beam Sections

task. The properties area, Ap, area moment of inertia, Ip, and polar
area moment of inertia, Kp can by calculated by equations (3.8),
(3.11), and (3.17), respectively, and given in the Key-In dialogue
frame (method (ii) of section 4.1).
Alternatively the cross-section of the equivalent pipe can be drawn
(method (i) of section 4.1). The software then calculates these
properties. Now calling the Key-In dialogue frame, with the drawn
section active, will result in a dialogue frame already completed with
these properties.
In any case, set (change) the Shear Area Ratio to a small number.
Name the Beam Section.
8. Define the material of the equivalent pipe. Use for example the Quick
Create command, in the Meshing task, and change values of mass
density to p, modulus of elasticity to Ep, and shear modulus of
elasticity to Gp. Define Poissons ratio as a Null Property. Name the
Material.
9. Create linear or parabolic beam elements at the proper location in the
Meshing task.
In the case of a bellows being modelled as a part of a system the
beam elements representing the bellows are of course located at the
actual location of the bellows in the assembly. In the case of a
bellows studied as a separate unit, beam elements are created on an
arbitrary line of the length of the bellows.
10. Create boundary conditions in the Boundary Conditions task.
In the case of a bellows being modelled as a part of a system the
proper interaction (mutual boundary conditions) must be simulated.
Since the rest of the system is also modelled by beam or shell
elements this is readily fulfilled by simply connecting the end nodes
of the bellows model to the corresponding nodes of the rest of the
system. Boundary conditions for the whole system are then defined.
In the case of a bellows studied as a separate unit, proper boundary
conditions are applied to the end nodes.
11. Perform a Normal Mode Dynamics analysis and study the results.

25

4.7 Examples and Verification

The procedure above is exemplified for the bellows used for experiments
by Jakubauskas and Weaver [21], and one of the bellows used for
experiments by Ting-Xin et al [13].

4.7.1

Specimen from Jakubauskas and Weaver

1. Geometry and material properties.

Rm
Rr
Rc
h
s
n

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

84,2 mm
3,53 mm
2,48 mm
15,7 mm
0,368 mm
13
7860 kg/m3
2,07 . 1011 Pa
0,3

2. Length.
L = 2 (3,53 + 2,48) 13 = 156 mm.
The measured length was 155,5 mm.

3. Mass per unit length.

7860 2 0,0842
( (0,00353 + 0,00248)
2 (0,00353 + 0,00248)
+ 2(0,0157 0,00353 0,00248)) 0,000368

m=

= 4,87 kg/m.
The measured mass per unit length was 4,631 kg/m.

26

4. Mass density and wall thickness of the equivalent pipe.

Using the measured mass per unit length and setting the wall thickness
to
s p = 1 mm,
the fictive density becomes

p =

4,631
= 8750 kg/m3.
2 0,0842 0,001

5. Axial and torsion stiffness.

One half convolution is modelled in I-DEAS Simulation according to
figure 4.1.
C

D
A
Figure 4.1. Shell element model of half convolution.

Because there is no variation in the circumferential direction it is only

necessary to model a thin sector, using only one element in that
direction, provided that proper boundary conditions are prescribed.
These are given in table 4.1. In the radial direction six isoparametric
eight-noded parabolic thin shell elements are sufficient. The
difference in deflection result by using instead 12 elements is below
0,15 %, implying that the model has converged.

27

Table 4.1. Boundary conditions when determining axial stiffness.

Edge
AB
BC
CD
AD

r
Free
Free
Free
Free

Translation

Zero
Zero
Zero
Zero

x
Free
Zero
Free
Free

r
Zero
Zero
Zero
Zero

Rotation

Free
Zero
Free
Zero

x
Zero
Zero
Zero
Zero

A unit force is applied to edge AD in the axial direction and the

corresponding deflection x is calculated. With a sector angle of two
degrees the axial stiffness for one half convolution becomes
k=

360 1 360
1

= 1,11 MN/m.
2 x
2 1,62 10 4

in good agreement with k = 1,126 MN/m calculated by the finite

element method by Jakubauskas and Weaver. The EJMA standards
(see appendix A) gives k = 1,1 MN/m.
The same finite element model is used when calculating the torsion
stiffness, but the boundary conditions are now according to table 4.2.
The difference in deflection result by using instead 12 elements is
below 0,1 %, implying that the model has converged.

Table 4.2. Boundary conditions when determining torsion stiffness.

Edge
AB
BC
CD
AD

r
Zero
Zero
Zero
Zero

Translation

Free
Zero
Free
Free

x
Zero
Zero
Zero
Zero

28

r
Free
Zero
Free
Zero

Rotation

Free
Zero
Free
Zero

x
Free
Zero
Free
Zero

A unit force is applied to edge AD in the circumferential direction and

the corresponding deflection is calculated. With a sector angle of
two degrees the torsion stiffness for one half convolution becomes

360
c=

0,0157 2
h
1 ( Rm ) 2
1 (0,0842
)
360
2 =
2

= 5,58 MNm/rad.
2

1,88 10 7

The EJMA standards (see appendix A) gives c = 4,5 MNm/rad.

Clearly the error in the EJMA standards prediction of torsion stiffness
is rather large. Jakubauskas and Weaver do not deal with torsion for
this bellows.

6. Modulus of elasticity and shear modulus of elasticity.

The modulus of elasticity of the equivalent pipe material becomes
Ep =

1,11 10 6 (0,00353 + 0,00248)

= 12,6 MPa.
2 0,0842 0,001

The shear modulus of elasticity of the equivalent pipe material

becomes
5,58 10 6 (0,00353 + 0,00248)
Gp =
= 8,94 GPa.
2 0,0842 3 0,001
As seen Gp > Ep, implying a negative if equation (4.8) was to be
fulfilled.

7. Cross-section.
The cross-section of the equivalent pipe is drawn in the Beam
Sections task. Then the Key-In dialogue frame is called and the Shear
Area Ratio is changed to 10-10 for both the y- and z-direction. The
section is named Bellows Section 1.

29

8. Material.
By the Quick Create command the mass density is changed into p,
the modulus of elasticity is changed into Ep, and the shear modulus of
elasticity is changed into Gp. Poissons ratio is defined as a Null
Property. The material is named Bellows Material 1.

9. Elements.
In this case the bellows is studied as a separate unit so a line of L =
156 mm is drawn on the workplane in the Master Modeler task.
Beam elements are created on this line in the Meshing task.

10. Boundary conditions.

Jakubauskas and Weaver used fixed boundary conditions at both ends
of the bellows. So in the Boundary Conditions task all degrees of
freedom are fixed at the end nodes of this model.

11. Normal mode dynamics analysis.

The model is analysed in Normal Mode Dynamics using Lanczos
method for solving the eigenvalue problem. The first four bending
modes are given and compared to the results of Jakubauskas and
Weaver in table 4.3.
Sufficient accuracy for the bending modes is achieved by ten to
twenty linear beam elements. The difference in result for the fourth
natural frequency between using ten and twenty elements is below
0,3 %, implying that the model has converged. The differences for
the lower natural frequencies are even less.
The convergence for axial and torsion vibrations are a bit slower.
The first four axial natural frequencies are analytically (from [22])
122, 243, 365, and 487 Hz. The same predicted by twenty linear
beam elements are, with the difference to the analytical result in
parenthesis, 122 (0 %), 244 (0,4 %), 368 (0,8 %), 495 (1,6 %).

30

The first four torsion natural frequencies are analytically (from

[22]) 3240, 6480, 9720, and 13000 Hz. The same predicted by twenty
linear beam elements are, with the difference to the analytical results
in parenthesis, 3240 (0 %), 6510 (0,4 %), 9810 (0,9 %), 13200 (1,5
%).

Table 4.3. Bending modes of sample bellows.

The first column includes frequencies calculated in this work, the
second column includes frequencies calculated in [21] (adjusted for
the slight difference in axial stiffness and length used in the
calculations) and the third column includes frequencies measured in
[21]. The differences between frequencies calculated in this work and
measured frequencies from [21] are given in the fourth column.
Mode
Calculated
(this work)
197
326
462
585

1
2
3
4

4.7.2

Frequency [Hz]
Calculated
Measured
(from [21])
(from [21])
196
202
325
337
449
475
571
606

Specimen from Ting-Xin et al

1. Geometry and material properties.

Rm
Rr
Rc
h
s
n

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

173,5 mm
4,9 mm
6,3 mm
24,5 mm
0,47 mm
9
7950 kg/m3
2,0 . 1011 Pa
0,3

31

Difference
[%]
2,5
3,3
2,8
3,6

2. Length.
L = 2 ( 4,9 + 6,3) 9 = 202 mm.
In addition to this corrugated length a 15 mm straight pipe section is
present at each end. The thickness of this is 0,49 mm.
3. Mass per unit length.
7950 2 0,1735
( (0,0049 + 0,0063)
2 (0,0049 + 0,0063)
+ 2(0,0245 0,0049 0,0063)) 0,00047

m=

= 11,2 kg/m.

4. Mass density and wall thickness of the equivalent pipe.

Setting the wall thickness to
s p = 1 mm,
the fictive density becomes

p =

11,2
= 10300 kg/m3.
2 0,1735 0,001

5. Axial and torsion stiffness.

One half convolution is modelled in I-DEAS Simulation in the same
way as in the previous example. The axial stiffness for one half
convolution becomes
k=

360 1 360
1

= 1,22 MN/m.
2 x
2 1,47 10 4

32

The EJMA standards gives k = 1,2 MN/m.

The torsion stiffness for one half convolution becomes
0,0245 2
h
1 ( Rm ) 2
1 (0,1735
)
360
360
2
2

= 38,4 MNm/rad.
c=

2
2
1,22 10 7
The EJMA standards gives c = 25,4 MNm/rad. Clearly the error in the
EJMA standards prediction of torsion stiffness is rather large. TingXin et al do not deal with torsion for this bellows.

6. Modulus of elasticity and shear modulus of elasticity.

The modulus of elasticity of the equivalent pipe material becomes
Ep =

1,22 10 6 (0,0049 + 0,0063)

= 12,5 MPa.
2 0,1735 0,001

The shear modulus of elasticity of the equivalent pipe material

becomes
Gp =

38,4 10 6 (0,0049 + 0,0063)

= 13,1 GPa.
2 0,1735 3 0,001

7. Cross-section.
The cross-section of the equivalent pipe is drawn in the Beam
Sections task. Then the Key-In dialogue frame is called and the Shear
Area Ratio is changed to 10-10 for both the y- and z-direction. The
section is named Bellows Section 2. The cross section of the straight
end sections is also defined. This is called Ends of Bellows 2.

33

8. Material.
By the Quick Create command the mass density is changed into p,
the modulus of elasticity is changed into Ep, and the shear modulus of
elasticity is changed into Gp. Poissons ratio is defined as a Null
Property. The material is named Bellows Material 2. The material of
the straight end sections is also defined. This is called Real Bellows
Material 2.

9. Elements.
In this case the bellows is studied as a separate unit so a line of L =
202 mm, plus one line of 15 mm in each end for the straight sections,
are drawn on the workplane in the Master Modler task. Beam
elements with cross-section Bellows Section 2 and material Bellows
Material 2 are created on the line representing the convoluted part.
Beam elements with cross section Ends of Bellows 2 and material
Real Bellows Material 2 are created on the lines representing the end
sections.

10. Boundary conditions.

Ting-Xin et al used fixed boundary conditions at both ends of the
bellows. So in the Boundary Conditions task all degrees of freedom
are fixed at the end nodes of this model.

11. Normal mode dynamics analysis.

The model is analysed in Normal Mode Dynamics using Lanczos
method for solving the eigenvalue problem. The first four axial
modes are given and compared to the results of Ting-Xin et al in table
4.4. The first four bending modes are given and compared to the
results of Ting-Xin et al in table 4.5.
The first four torsion natural frequencies are 2630, 5280, 7950,
and 10700 Hz.

34

Table 4.4. Axial modes of sample bellows.

The first column includes frequencies calculated in this work and the
second column includes frequencies measured in [13]. The differences
are given in the third column.
Mode

1
2
3
4

Frequency [Hz]
Calculated
Measured
(this work)
(from [13])
86
83
173
164
261
351
-

Difference
[%]
3,6
5,5
-

Table 4.5. Bending modes of sample bellows.

The first column includes frequencies calculated in this work and the
second column includes frequencies measured in [13]. The differences
are given in the third column.
Mode

1
2
3
4

4.7.3

Calculated
(this work)
157
240
338
421

Frequency [Hz]
Measured
(from [13])
325
-

Difference
[%]
4
-

Discussion of Results

As seen from tables 4.3-4.5 the agreement between theory and

experiments is excellent, implying that the bellows can actually be
modelled by standard beam elements according to the above procedure.

35

An interesting observation is that the measured frequency of 325 Hz

in table 4.5 is claimed to be the first natural frequency by Ting-Xin et al.
This must be a misunderstanding due to the simple beam theory used in
their work. With Bernoulli-Euler beam theory the first mode becomes
close to the measured value. However, including the rotary inertia of the
cross-section it is clear that the first natural frequency (157 Hz) is far
below the measured value, but the third natural frequency is close to it.
Most likely Ting-Xin et al have actually measured the third natural
frequency and have been mislead by their theoretical calculations to
classify it as the first mode.
The torsion natural frequencies are much higher than the axial and
bending natural frequencies. However, if the bellows is a part of a curved
exhaust system it is important to include also this degree of freedom. In
interaction with the rest of the system torsion modes may well appear at
lower frequencies. No experimental results of torsion natural frequencies
have been found in the literature.

4.8 Modelling of end caps, braid and inner-liner

If end caps, braid and inner-liner are present the dynamic behaviour of
the flexible connection is of course influenced in some way.
The end cap can be modelled as a separate beam element with its
actual pipe cross-section, which is connected to the neighbour element of
the bellows model. This connection exists in reality for all degrees of
freedom.
For the braid it is more complicated. In bending vibrations the braid is
forced to move with the bellows, so in that case the mass and stiffness
could be added to the beam elements representing the bellows. For axial
and torsion vibration it is however not obvious that the braid must move
in phase with the bellows for all modes. For axial and torsion vibrations
bellows and braid should then be uncoupled. This could probably be
facilitated by describing the braid by separate beam elements that are
connected to the bellows elements only for some degrees of freedom.
The End Release command available for the linear beam element in IDEAS Master Series 6 will then probably come in handy. Non-linearity
of the braid due to friction is probably negligible. It may however imply
different stiffness for push and pull deformations. If the braid is tightly
wrapped around the bellows the stiffness for pulling will be much higher

36

than for pushing. When the ends of the flexible connection is pulled apart
the diameter of the braid strive to decrease. With the high radial stiffness
of the bellows this is almost prevented. In this case the fibres in the braid
must themselves be stretched. On the other hand, when the ends of the
bellows are pushed towards each other, the diameter of the braid strives
to increase. This is not prevented by the bellows. The fibres in the braid
will then only change orientation, which they do without much
resistance.
For the inner-liner it is also more complicated. Non-linearity due to
friction is probably rather high. It is therefore thought to be better to
model the inner-liner separately and connect it to the bellows in some
way in the overall systems analysis. The complication regarding different
connections to the elements representing the bellows for axial, bending
and torsion modes discussed for the braid, holds also for the inner-liner.
The above components with their complications are not elaborated
further in this work.

37

5 Conclusions
In this work a procedure for modelling flexible metal bellows by the
existing beam finite element formulation of the computation software
I-DEAS Master Series 6 has been suggested. Experimental results from
other investigators have been used for verification. The agreement is
excellent.
In spite of the geometry of the bellows being far from a beam, it has
been shown that the bellows dynamic behaviour can be modelled by
beam elements. In this way the model size is reduced by a factor of 1001000 compared to a shell elements model. This is especially
advantageous when the bellows is only a part of for example an exhaust
system to be optimised with respect to overall design parameters.
In comparison to semi-analytical methods the beam finite elements
have the advantages that axial, bending and torsion degrees of freedom
are included simultaneously and that the interaction between the bellows
and the rest of the system, also modelled by beam or shell finite
elements, is easily facilitated.
If braid and inner-liner are present the dynamic behaviour of the
flexible connection will be influenced and the dynamic analysis more
complicated. Most probably it will then be necessary to consider nonlinear effects. Some ideas regarding these complications have been
discussed in this work, but primarily these components are suggested to
be subject for further investigations. Another suggestion for further work
is the study of torsion of the bellows. Only little has been found about
this in the literature and exciting formulae in for example the EJMA
standards have been found considerably poorer than the corresponding
formulae for axial deformations.

38

6 References
1. Korane K. J.: Cutting Emissions with Metal Bellows, Machine
Design, August 24, 1995.
2. Unpublished internal reports of AP Automotive Systems, Inc, Torss,
Sweden. Personal communication with Kristian Althini and Per
Folkesson, 1996-1999.
3. Hermann M., Jnsson A., Broman G. (supervisor): Static
Characteristics of Flexible Bellows, Masters Thesis, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Karlskrona/Ronneby,
Karlskrona, Sweden, 1997.
4. Lindberg T., Mrtman S., Jnsson A. (supervisor): Dynamic
Characteristics of Flexible Bellows, Masters Thesis, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Karlskrona/Ronneby,
Karlskrona, Sweden, 1998.
5. Snedden N. W.: The Strength and Stability of Corrugated Bellows
Expansion Joints, Ph.D. Thesis, D43087/82, Churchill College,
University of Cambridge, Cambridge, 1981.
6. Becht C. IV, Imazu A., Jetter R., Reimus W. S. (editors): Metallic
Bellows and Expansion Joints 1989, The 1989 ASME Pressure
Vessels and Piping Conference - JSME Co-Sponsorship, Honolulu,
Hawaii, July 23-27, 1989.
7. Andersson W. F.: Analysis of Stresses in Bellows Part I Design
Criteria and Test Results, Atomic International, NAA-SR-4527,
United States Atomic Energy Commission, 1964.
8. Andersson W. F.: Analysis of Stresses in Bellows Part II
Mathematical, Atomic International, NAA-SR-4527, United States
Atomic Energy Commission, 1965.
9. ASME: ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIIIDivision 1, Appendix BB, New York, 1986.
10. EJMA: Standards of the Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association,
seventh edition, 1998.
11. Hanna J. W.: A Comparison of the ASME Appendix BB to the EJMA
Standards, in Metallic Bellows and Expansion Joints 1989, pp 7985, The 1989 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference - JSME
Co-Sponsorship, Honolulu, Hawaii, July 23-27, 1989.
12. Ting-Xin L., Bing-Liang G., Tian-Xiang L., Qing-Chen W.: Stresses
and Fatigue Faliure of U-Shaped Bellows, in Metallic Bellows and

39

Expansion Joints 1989, pp 13-19, The 1989 ASME Pressure

Vessels and Piping Conference - JSME Co-Sponsorship, Honolulu,
Hawaii, July 23-27, 1989.
13. Ting-Xin L., Bing-Liang G., Tian-Xiang L.: Natural Frequencies of
U-Shaped Bellows, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and
Piping 42, pp 61-74, 1990.
14. Osweiller F.: Design of an Expansion Joint by a Finite Element
Program Comparison with the EJMA Standards, in Metallic
Bellows and Expansion Joints 1989, pp 87-94, The 1989 ASME
Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference - JSME Co-Sponsorship,
Honolulu, Hawaii, July 23-27, 1989.
15. Broyles R. K.: EJMA Design Equations Developments in a
Progressing Technology 1994 (editor W. J. Bees), in The 1994
ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference, Minneapolis,
Minnesota, June 19-23, 1994.
16. Gerlach C. R.: Flow-Induced Vibarations of Metal Bellows, ASME
Journal of Engineering for Industry 91, pp 1196-1202, 1969.
17. Jakubauskas V. F. and Weaver D. S.: Natural Vibrations of Fluid
Filled Bellows, ASME Journal of Pressure Vessels Technology 118,
pp 484-490, 1996.
18. Morishita M., Ikahata N., Kitamura S.: Dynamic Analysis Methods of
Bellows Including Fluid-Structure Interaction, in Metallic Bellows
and Expansion Joints 1989, pp 149-158, The 1989 ASME Pressure
Vessels and Piping Conference - JSME Co-Sponsorship, Honolulu,
Hawaii, July 23-27, 1989.
19. Jakubauskas V. F.: Transverse Vibrations of Bellows Expansion
Joints, Ph.D. Thesis, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada, 1996.
20. Jakubauskas V. F. and Weaver D. S.: Transverse Vibrations of
Bellows Expansion Joints Part I: Fluid Added Mass, Journal of
Fluids and Structures 12, pp 445-456, 1998.
21. Jakubauskas V. F. and Weaver D. S.: Transverse Vibrations of
Bellows Expansion Joints Part II: Beam Model Development and
Experimental Verification, Journal of Fluids and Structures 12, pp
457-473, 1998.
22. Weaver W. Jr., the late Timoshenko S. P., the late Young D. H.:
Vibration Problems in Engineering, Fifth Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, 1990.

40

23. Paidoussis M. P., Li G. X.: Pipes Conveying Fluid A Model

Dynamical Problem, Journal of Fluids and Structures 7, pp 137-204,
1993.
24. Blevins R. D.: Flow Induced Vibrations, Second Edition, Van
Nostrand, 1990.
25. Timoshenko S. P. and Gere J. M.: Mechanics of Materials, Van
Nostrand, 1972.
26. Cowper G. R.: The Shear Coefficient in Timoshenko Beam Theory,
Journal of Applied Mechanics, vol 33, no 2, (Trans. ASME, vol 88,
Series E), pp 335-340, June, 1966.
27. I-DEAS Master Series 6, Structural Dynamics Research Corporation
(SDRC), 2000 Eastman Drive, Milford, Ohio 45150, USA.
28. Przemieniecki J. S.: Theory of Matrix Structural Analysis, McGrawHill Inc., 1968.
29. Hinton E. and Owen D. R. J.: Finite Element Programming,
Academic Press Inc., 1977.

41

42

Appendix A

43

EJMA Stiffness Calculations

The axial stiffness expression for one half convolution according to the
EJMA standards, converted into SI-Units and the notation of this work, is
k = 6,80

Rm Es 3
h 3C f

(A.1)

where Cf is a non-dimensional coefficient given in a diagram in the

standards (SECTION C/PAGE 128). This coefficient is a function of the
non-dimensional groups
( R r + Rc )

(A.2)

1,1 2 R m s
( R r + Rc )
h

(A.3)

For the bellows in section 4.7 these become

(0,00353 + 0,00254)
1,1 2 0,0842 0,000368

= 0,694

(0,00353 + 0,00254)
= 0,383
0,0157
giving Cf = 1,4. Thus, The axial stiffness for one half convolution for this
bellows becomes
k = 6,8

0,0842 2,07 1011 0,000368 3

= 1,1 MN/m.
0,0157 3 1,4

The torsion stiffness expression for one half convolution according to the
EJMA standards, converted into SI-Units and the notation of this work, is

44

h
( R m ) 3 Gs
2
c = 12,6
1,14( R r + Rc ) + 2h

(A.4)

where s is the nominal material thickness, that is the thickness of the

material before the convolutions have been formed.
With
G=

2,07 1011
E
=
= 7,96 1010 Pa
2(1 + ) 2(1 + 0,3)

the torsion stiffness for one half convolution becomes

c = 12,6

0,0157 3
) 7,96 1010 0,000386
2
= 4,5 MNm/rad.
1,14(0,00353 + 0,00254) + 2 0,0157

(0,0842

45

Correspondence to:
Dr Gran Broman
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Karlskrona/Ronneby
371 79 Karlskrona, SWEDEN

Telephone:
Fax:
E-mail:

+46 455-38 55 04
+46 455-38 55 07
[email protected]