MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS

What is meant by measurement?

Types of instruments
1.Absolute instruments
2.Secondary instruments

indicating integrating
recording

 Absolute instrument:

 Indicationg instruments:
Indicating instruments indicate the value of the
electrical quantity to be measured generally by
the deflection of the pointer on the calibrated
scale.
e.g.- voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter

Essential system of Indicating

Instruments:
1.A deflection system
2.A controlling system
3.A damping system

Deflection system:
It is that part of the instrument
mechanism which utilize some physical effect of
electric current or voltage to produce a
mechanical force. This deflection or force
causes the system along with the pointer
attached to it to move from its zero position.
The magnetude of the deflection
force(deflection of pointer) depents on the
value of electrical quantity to be measured.

Control systems:
It is that part of the instrument which brings
into play a force called controlling force. This force
opposes the deflection force and increases with the
increase in the deflection of the moving system, to
limit its movement.
The pointer is brought to rest at a position
where the two opposing forces i.e. deflection and
controlling forces are equal.

Types of control system:

1.Spring control
2.Gravity control

Spring control (diagram):

Spring control:
It utilizes two spiral hairsprings of non magnetic
alloy such as phosphorousbronze or beryllium-copper.
The springs are oppositly wound so when the
moving system deflects, one spring winds up while the
outer unwind thus the controlling torque is produce by
the combined torsion of spring, since the torsional
torque is praportional to the angle of twist, the
controlling torque is directly praportional to the
angular deflection of pointer.
Scale of spring control type instruments is
uniform.
Td I,
Also
Tc
At final deflection or steady state position:
Tc = Td
Therefore I

Gravity Control (Diagram):

Gravity control:
In this a small adjustable weight is attached to the
moving system(pointer) in such a way that in deflection
condition it produces a restoring or controlling torque.
Weight W1 provides the controlling torque, W2 is for
balancing the weight of the pointer.
Tc = W1 sin x L =W1L sin
Thus Tc sin
As
Td I
Tc sin
At steady state position deflection torque=controlling torque
Thus I sin
Thus the scale of the gravity control type instrunts is
nonuniform

Damping system:
It is that part of the instrument which
provides damping force to damp the oscillations
of the pointer before come to a rest.
Because of the inertia, the pointer of the
instrument oscillate about its final deflected
position for some time before coming to rest.
This causes the waste of time in taking reading,
thus damping force act as a brake to prevent the
oscillations of the moving system and brings the
pointer to its final deflected position quickly.
There are three types of damping instruments:
1.Critical damp- Pointer rises quickly to its final
position without oscillation.

2.Under damp- oscillations of the system will

not be completely preventated.
3.Over damp: In this the response of the system
is slow and lethargic.

Damping curves:

Methods of damping:
1. Air friction or pneumatic damping
2. Eddy current or electromagnetic damping
3. Fluid friction damping

Air friction or pneumatic damping:

Air Friction or Pneumatic Damping:

In this system a light aluminium piston is attached
to the spindle of the instrument and is arranged to
move in a fix air chamber closed at one end. The
cross section of the chamber may be either circular
or rectangular and the clearance between the
piston and the side of the chamber is small and
uniform. Compression and suction action of the
piston on the air in the chamber damp the possible
oscillations of moving system, because the motion
of the piston in either direction is oppose by the air.
In second case a thin aluminium vane, mounted on
the spindle, moves with very small clearance in a
sector shaped box. Any tendency of the moving
system to oscillate is damped by the action of the
air on vane.

Eddy current damping:

Eddy current damping:

It is the most efficient type of the damping
In this a thin disc usually of copper or aluminium
is mounted on the spindle. When this disc moves
in the magnetic field of permanent magnet, line
of force are cut and eddy current are set up in it.
The force that exists between these current and
magnetic field is always in the direction opposing
the motion and therefore, provide necessary
damping.
The magnitude of the induce current and
therefore of the damping force which is
dependent on it, is directly proportional to the
velocity of moving system.

Fluid friction damping:

Fluid friction damping:

In this method of damping, a light disc is attached
to the spindle of the moving system and
completely submerge in the damping oil in a pot.
The motion of the disc is always opposed by a
frictional drag on the disc. This frictional drag is
zero when the disc is stationary and increases with
the speed of the rotation of the disc.
For increase damping, vanes in a vertical planes,
carried on a spindle and immersed in oil are used.
Fluid friction damping can only be used in the
instruments which are use in the vertical position.

Ammeter and voltmeter

Types of ammeter and voltmeter
1.Permanent magnet moving coil type
(P.M.M.C.)
2.Moving iron (M.I.)

Attraction type

Repulsion type

Permanent magnet moving coil

ammeter and voltmeter

PMMC.
Principle of Operation: When a current

carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,

it experiences a force and tends to move in the
direction as per Flemings left hand rule.
Fleming left hand rule: If the first and the second

finger and the thumb of the left hand are held so

that they are at right angle to each other, then the
thumb shows the direction of the force on the
conductor, the first finger points towards the
direction of the magnetic field and the second
finger shows the direction of the current in the wire.

Construction:

A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum

frame (spindle) positioned between the poles
of a U shaped permanent magnet which is
made up of magnetic alloys like alnico.
The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing and
thus the coil is free to rotate. The current is fed
to the coil through spiral springs which are two
in numbers. The coil which carries a current,
which is to be measured, moves in a strong
magnetic field produced by a permanent
magnet and a pointer is attached to the spindle
which shows the measured value.

PMMC instruments internal structure

Working:
When a current flow through the coil, it generates a
magnetic field which is proportional to the current in
case of an ammeter. The deflecting torque is
produced by the electromagnetic action of the
current in the coil and the magnetic field.
The controlling torque is provided by two
phosphorous bronze flat coiled helical springs. These
springs serve as a flexible connection to the coil
conductors.
Damping is caused by the eddy current set up in
the aluminum coil which prevents the oscillation of
the coil.

Torque Equation

Applications:
The PMMC has a variety of uses onboard ship. It can be
used as:
1)Ammeter:
When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a very
small current range, the moving coil is connected across a
suitable low resistance shunt, so that only small part of
the main current flows through the coil.
The shunt consists of a number of thin plates made up of
alloy metal, which is usually magnetic and has a low
temperature coefficient of resistance, fixed between two
massive blocks of copper. A resistor of same alloy is also
placed in series with the coil to reduce errors due to
temperature variation.

ammeter

Applications..
Voltmeter:
When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is
connected in series with high resistance. Rest
of the function is same as above. The same
moving coil can be used as an ammeter or
voltmeter with an interchange of above
arrangement

Applications..
Galvanometer:
Galvanometer is used to measure small value of
current along with its direction and strength.
It is mainly used onboard to detect and
compare different circuits in a system

Applications.
Ohm Meter:
The ohm meter is used to measure resistance of
the electric circuit by applying a voltage to a
resistance with the help of battery. A
galvanometer is used to determine the flow of
current through the resistance. The
galvanometer scale is marked in ohms and as
the resistance varies, since the voltage is
fixed, the current through the meter will also
vary.

Advantages:
The PMMC consumes less power and has great

accuracy.
It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc
of 270 degree.
The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter
with suitable resistance.
It has efficient damping characteristics and is
not affected by stray magnetic field.
It produces no losses due to hysteresis.

Disadvantage:
The moving coil instrument can only be used on
D.C supply as the reversal of current produces
reversal of torque on the coil.
Its very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit
with a rectifier.
Its costly as compared to moving coil iron
instruments.
It may show error due to loss of magnetism of
permanent magnet.

Moving Iron Instruments Voltmeter

and Ammeter
Construction and basic principle operation of
moving-iron instruments
Moving-ironinstrumentsare generally used to
measure alternating voltages and currents. In
moving-iron instruments the movable system
consists of one or more pieces of speciallyshaped soft iron, which are so pivoted as to be
acted upon by themagnetic fieldproduced by
the current in coil.
There are two general types of moving-iron
instruments namely:
1.Repulsion(or double iron) type
2.Attraction(or single-iron) type

The brief description of different

components of a moving-iron
instrument is given below:

Moving element:a small piece of soft iron in the

form of a vane or rod.
Coil:to produce the magnetic field due to current
flowing through it and also to magnetize the iron
pieces.
In repulsion type, afixedvane or rod is also used
and magnetized with the same polarity.
Control torqueis provided by spring or weight
(gravity).
Damping torqueis normally pneumatic, the
damping device consisting of an air chamber and a
moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
Deflecting torqueproduces a movement on an
aluminum pointer over a graduated scale.

Repulsion type:

Attraction type:

Working:
The deflecting torque in any moving-iron
instrument is due to forces on a small piece of
magnetically soft iron that is magnetized by a
coil carrying the operating current. In
repulsion type movingiron instrument consists
of two cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted
within a fixed current-carrying coil. One iron
vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is
free to rotate, carrying with it the pointer shaft.
Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by
the coil that consists of only few turns if the
instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if
the instrument is a voltmeter.

Working:
Current in the coil induces both vanes to become
magnetized and repulsion between the similarly
magnetized vanes produces a proportional
rotation. The deflecting torque is proportional to
the square of the current in the coil, making the
instrument reading is a true RMS quantity
Rotation is opposed by a hairspring that produces
the restoring torque. Only the fixed coil carries
load current, and it is constructed so as to
withstand high transient current.
Moving iron instruments having scales that are
nonlinear and somewhat crowded in the lower
range of calibration

Application:
Measurement of Electric Voltage and Current
Moving iron instruments are used as Voltmeter
and Ammeter only.
Both can work on AC as well as on DC.

Ammeter:
Instrument used to measure current in the circuit.
Always connected in series with the circuit and
carries the current to be measured.
This current flowing through the coil produces the
desired deflecting torque.
It should have low resistance as it is to be
connected in series.

Application:
Voltmeter
Instrument used to measure voltage between
two points in a circuit.
Always connected in parallel.
Current flowing through the operating coil of
the meter produces deflecting torque.
It should have high resistance. Thus a high
resistance of order of kilo ohms is connected in
series with the coil of the instrument

Advantages:

The instruments are suitable for use in AC

and DC circuits.
The instruments are robust, owing to the
simple construction of the moving parts.
The stationary parts of the instruments are
also simple.
Instrument is low cost compared to moving
coil instrument.
Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional
error.

Errors:
Error due to variation in temperature.
Error due to friction is quite small as torqueweight ratio is high in moving coil instruments.
Stray fields cause relatively low values of
magnetizing force produced by the coil. Efficient
magnetic screening is essential to reduce this
effect.
Error due to variation of frequency causes change
of reactance of the coil and also changes the
eddy currents induced in neighbouring metal.
Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to
the square of the current due to non-linear
characteristics of iron material.