Liquid Fuels I

Petroleum

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Liquid Fuels

Petroleum
Unconventional sources
Colloidal

Fuel
Bituminous sands
Natural gas liquid
Oil shale
Biofuel

Alcohols
Vegetable Oils

Synthetic

fuel derived from

Gas reforming
Liquefaction
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Petroleum

From the Greek words

petra

(rock)
oleum (oil)

a. k. a.
Crude
Crude

Oil

Oil

Flammable liquid found trapped by a nonpermeable

layer of rock
A mixture of
Hydrocarbons

of different molecular weights

Organic compounds
Inorganic compounds/contaminants
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Petroleum

Produced by
Same

geological process as natural gas. Hence,

commonly found together with natural gas.
Anaerobic decomposition or organic material and
usually produced from organic sediments at

Depths of 1 6 km
Temperature of 60 150oC to 150

Greater depth translate to higher gas yield

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Petroleum

General Requisite of petroleum formation

Porous

rock to contain oil

Impervious rock cover to prevent it from escaping
Geological structure that permits wide area collection of
oil in a restricted area
Source material for petroleum formation

Theory of Formation
Biogenic

First proposed by Georg Agricola

Widely accepted petroleum formation theory

Abiogenic

First proposed by Alexander von Humboldt

Not acknowledged by most geologists due to limited scientific
basis and inability in prediction for oil deposits
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Biogenic Origin of Petroleum

Accumulation of dead organic material in like

Gelatinous

vegetal matter

Animal
Microscopic

plant or bacterial organism like

zooplankton, plankton or algae

in clays and sands at the bottom of sea or

lakes

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Biogenic Origin of Petroleum

Oil formation would require formation of

organic matter-rich layer of mud or
sediment. Favorable conditions are:
Stagnant

sea or lake bottom

Anoxic condition or very low oxygen level results
in partial decay

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Biogenic Origin of Petroleum

Geological movement/deposition of
sediment, i.e. sand, stone and mud, on the
seabed or lakebed compresses organic
matter due to its weight. Increases in depth
result in increase of pressure and
temperature. Oil formation starts at
temperature > 70oC.
Initial formation of
waxy material known
as kerogen.
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Biogenic Origin of Petroleum

Kerogen
Mixture

of organic material derived from

geopolymers, i.e. degraded biomaterial
Age or maturity is due to changes brought about
by

Loss of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur

Isomerization and aromatization

which are associated with increasing depth of

burial having the corresponding color changes
Yellow
Orange
Brown
Black
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Biogenic Origin of Petroleum

With the passage of time, sediment hardens into

sedimentary rock.
Oil window is temperature range at which oil
forms (60-160oC).
Below

minimum temperature, kerogen does not

change to oil
Within oil window, kerogen is converted to oil
Above maximum temperature, oil is converted to
natural gas by thermal cracking (> 160oC), i.e. gas
window

High pressure and temperature (~ 100 oC to

160oC) broke down (catagenesis, i.e.
semidestructive distillation) long hydrocarbons
to shorter chains by an endothermic reaction.
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Biogenic Origin of Petroleum

Oil formed in the source rock migrates

through pores of permeable rocks. Process
takes millions of years for oil/gas to migrate
a few kilometers.

(rock containing organic matter)

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

(rock containing organic matter)

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Biogenic Origin of Petroleum

Oil/gas are trapped and accumulate in

impermeable rock structure, i.e. caprock

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Crude Oil Production

Oil-retaining cap rock is penetrated by drilling

and continued until bottom of the well, i.e.
richest part of the oil-bearing rock, is located
Natural pressures of reservoir will force the oil,
gas and some water out to the surface
As the oil is removed, water moves in to take
the place of the oil
Reservoir pressure is lowered by water
displacement
A point will be reach when the reservoir
pressure is too low to force out the oil
Gas or water is injected to the well to increase
reservoir pressure
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Crude Types

Base
Paraffinic
Naphthenic

or Asphaltic

Mixed

Composition
Paraffinic

(1560%)
Naphthenic (3060%)
Aromatics (3-30%)
Asphaltic (Remainder)

Sulfur Content
Sweet
Sour
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Crude Composition

Hydrocarbons
Paraffins

(Alkanes)

Saturated hydrocarbons
Stable compound
Normal (straight chain) and iIso (branched) forms

Olefins

Unsaturated paraffinic hydrocarbons like alkenes,

alkynes, dienes, trienes, etc
Unstable and chemically reactive
Form from cracking
Smoky when burned
Causes gum formation when oxidized
Base material for polymerization
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Crude Composition
Naphthenes

Saturated ring hydrocarbons, i.e. cycloparaffins

Aromatics

Unsaturated stable ring hydrocarbons

Has good antiknock quality
Smoky when burned
Good solvent

Traces of
Sulfur
Nitrogen
Oxygen

Impurities
Water
Sediments
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Petroleum Fractions

Light Ends
Gases

(C1C5) [< 38 oC]

Refinery Offgases
Natural Gas
LPG

Whites

Naphtha and Gasoline (C4C12) [38 149oC]

Avgas
Middle Distillates
Jet Fuel and Kerosene (C10C20) [130 260oC]
Gasoil/Diesel

and Heating Oils (C14C30) [254 316oC]

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Petroleum Fractions

Blacks
Light

Fuel Oil (C28C50)

Heavy

Fuel Oil (C40C70)

Residue

and Asphalt

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Processes in Petroleum Refining

Fractional Distillation (Separation)

Atmospheric
Vacuum

Cracking (Hydrocarbon Breakdown)

Thermal
Catalytic

Polymerization (Chain Elongation)

Absorption
Removal

of heavier hydrocarbons from lighter compounds by

contact process

Hydrogenation
Process

similar to cracking but in the presence of hydrogen

environment
Unsaturated hydrocarbons becomes saturated
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Processes in Petroleum Refining

Fractional Distillation (Separation)

Atmospheric
Vacuum

Cracking (Hydrocarbon Breakdown)

Thermal
Catalytic

Polymerization
Reverse

of cracking
Creation of heavier compounds from lighter
compounds through chain elongation

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Processes in Petroleum Refining

Absorption
Removal

of heavier hydrocarbons from lighter

compounds by contact process
Vapors are removed by heating absorbing
medium

Hydrogenation
Process

similar to cracking but in the presence of

hydrogen environment
Unsaturated hydrocarbons becomes saturated

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Processes in Petroleum Refining

Dehydrogenation
Hydrogen

removal process
Maximum octane number that can be produced is
about 100

Alkylation
Production

of isoparaffin by reacting olefin and

paraffin
Product is high octane fuel with high boiling point
and low vapor pressure

Blending of Finished Products

Mixing

of various fractions to produce final

product within desired specifications
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Density
Density

or Specific Gravity at

Air
15oC or 60oF

oAPI

a. k. a. API Gravity
Created as API Gravity Scale in 1921 by American
Petroleum Institute, which is an oil industry standard
for density measurement
Measure of how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is
compared to water (10oAPI), i.e.
< 10, heavier than water
> 10, lighter than water
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Usually ranges between 10 and 70

Low specific gravity has high API gravity
Obtained by
Direct Measurement (Hydrometer Method)

Liquid is to poured into a tall cylinder

Hydrometer is gently lowered into the
liquid like graduated cylinder
Hydrometer is allowed to float freely
until stabilized
Point at which the surface of the liquid
touches the stem of the hydrometer is
noted and reading made directly

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties
Indirect

Method (Density Measurement)

Density is measured using hydrometer or oscillating U

tube
Density adjustment made due to
Temperature difference from standard of 60 oF to
account for sodalime glass expansion/contraction
Meniscus correction for opaque oil
Specific gravity is calculated
141.5
API gravity calculated using o API
131.5

SG (60 / 60o F )

Temperature Correction
High accuracy for oAPI range of 30 to 90
Formula
o
o

API at 60o F

API Observed Temp

500

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

560 Observed Temp ( F )

o

25

Physical Properties

Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP)

Absolute

vapor pressure exerted by 100mL liquid

exposed to air 4 times its volume in a bomb
immersed at 100oF bath
Applies to volatile crude oil and volatile
nonviscous petroleum liquid except LPG
Measure of fuel volatility that affects

Engine start up and warm up

Easy acceleration
Vapor lock tendency, i.e. combustion failure due to
vaporization of fuel in fuel lines or delivery system

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Sulfur
Forms

SO2 and/or SO3 when burned that reacts

with water vapor to form sulfurous acid or in
some cases sulfuric acid
Determined by analytical chemical tests

Corrosion Test
Measures

presence of sulfur and sulfur

compounds by reacting sample with copper
Test is done either done by copper-strip or
copper-dish method
Clean brightly polished copper surface changes
to gray or black
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Doctor Test
Used

to determine presence of sulfur compounds like

hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans in light distillate
based on color change
Reaction
Na2PbO2 + H2S PbS + 2 NaOH
Sodium
Plumbite

Black
Color

Na2PbO2 + 2 RSH Pb(RS)2 + 2 NaOH

Lead Mercaptide
(Brown Color)
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Gum Content
a.

k. a. Existent Gum
Measures presence of gum and gum forming
potential due to presence of olefins or cracked
material
Process

50 mL sample is exposed at temperature of 320oF to

evaporate volatile compounds
Air is blown to promote low temperature oxidation of
the fuel resulting to gum formation
Result is reported as milligrams gum per 100 mL
sample
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Octane Number
a.

k. a. octane rating
Measures tendency of fuel to

Knock or detonate when burned in a spark ignition

engine
Burned on a controlled manner

Knocking

(or detonation) is the very rapid and

uncontrollable burning of a fuel-air mixture in a
cylinder which results in an abnormally rapid
pressure rise and shock wave generates a sound.
Intensity of knock is measured by a knockmeter,
which indicates the rate of pressure rise during
combustion.
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties
Determined

by comparing the performance of the

fuel with the performance of a mixtures of iso
octane and n-heptane with iso-octane arbitrarily
set at 100 and n-heptane at 0.
Does not relate to

Octane content of fuel

Energy content of fuel

High

performance engine require octane number

of at least 93
Can be boosted by addition of

Organometallic additives like TEL

Hydrocarbons like isooctane and toluene
Oxygenates like MTBE, ETBE and EtOH
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties
Measurement

method

Research Octane Number (RON)

Most common rating used around the world
Determined by running the fuel in a test engine with
variable compression ratio under controlled
conditions, i.e. low to medium speed knock or at
600 rpm
Motor Octane Number (MON)
a. k. a. aviation lean octane rating
Measure how fuel behaves under load, i.e. high
speed knock
Has no relation to RON but is around 8 to 10 points
below RON
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties
Determined

by running the fuel in a test engine with

Preheated fuel mixture

High engine speed, i.e. 900 rpm
Variable ignition timing

AntiKnock Index (AKI)

a. k. a. Pump Octane Number (PON)
Average of RON and MON
Around to 4 to 5 points below RON
Observed Road Octane Number (RdON)
Developed in the 1920s
Determined by testing fuel over a stretch of level
road using a multicylinder engine car at open
throttle or a chassis dynamometer under conditions
simulating highway driving
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Neutralization Number
a.

k. a. acid number
Measures the amount of acidity present in fuel
specifically naphthenic acid, which result to
corrosiveness of fuel
Parameter is measured in terms of mg KOH required to
neutralize a gram of sample

Smoke Point
Measures

tendency of a liquid fuel to form soot

Higher smoke point result in lower soot forming tendency
Experimentally determined by burning the fuel in a
special wick lamp and slowly increasing the height of the
flame until smoke begins to appear
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Distillation Curve/Test
Used

to determine volatility of fuel by measuring

temperature at which a certain volume of liquid is
evaporated
Measurements taken are

Initial Boiling Point (IBP)

Increments of 10% Fuel Evaporated
Final Boiling Point (FBP)

ASTM

Test Methods

D86 for petroleum products at atmospheric pressure

D 1160 for petroleum products at reduced pressure

Freeze Point
Temperature

at which fuel freezes, particularly critical

for jet fuel

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Cloud Point
Temperature

below which wax in diesel or biowax in

biodiesel form a cloudy appearance due to crystal
formation
Tendency to plug filters and/or small orifices at cold
operating temperature
Presence of solidified waxes result in

Thickens fuel and clogs filters and injectors in engines

Wax accumulation on cold surfaces (e.g. pipeline or heat
exchanger fouling) and forms fuel- or oil-water emulsion

Wax

crystals typically first form at the lower

circumferential wall with the appearance of a
whitish or milky cloud
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Cold Filter Plugging Point (CFPP)

Lowest

temperature, expressed in 1C, at which

a given amount of fuel still passes through a
standardized filtration device at a specified time
when cooled under certain conditions
Gives estimate for the lowest temperature that a
fuel will give trouble free flow in certain fuel
systems, which is important as in cold temperate
countries
Fuel with high cold filter plugging point will clog
up vehicle engines more easily
Generally around 3oC lower than cloud point
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Flash Point
Lowest

temperature at which a fuel will vaporize

sufficiently to form a combustible mixture of fuel
vapor and air above the fuel and requires ignition
source
At flash point, vapor will cease to burn when
ignition source is removed
Characterize the fire hazard of liquid fuel, i.e. both
flammable and combustible liquids

Fire Point
Temperature

(higher than flash point) at which a

fuel will have enough vapors that will rise to
produce a continuous flame above the liquid
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Autoignition Temperature
a.

k. a. kindling point
Indication of the relative difficulty of combusting
a fuel
Lowest temperature required to initiate selfsustained combustion, i.e. spontaneous ignition,
in atmospheric air in the absence of a spark or
flame
Temperature supply activation energy needed for
combustion

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Pour Point
Indication

of low temperature fluidity of the

fuel, i.e. temperature at which

Liquid will flow or pour

Crude oil be readily pumpable

Restriction

of flow is due to

Formation of paraffin wax crystals

Viscosity effect
Thermal history

Hence, it can be a misleading view of handling

properties of crude oil.

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties
Pour

point range can be observed for sample to

be between upper and lower pour points.
Between the upper and lower pour points, fuel
sample may appear liquid or solid because wax
crystals form more readily when it has been
heated within the past 24 hours and contributes
to the lowering of pour point

Viscosity
Measure

resistance of fluid to flow

Standard measured of viscosity is in terms of
kinematic viscosity

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Cetane Number (for diesel)

Measure

of ignition delay, i.e. time between

start of injection and onset of combustion in
compression-ignition engine
Determined by comparing performance of a fuel
with the performance of a mixtures of

n-cetane (hexadecane)
iso-cetane (heptamethylnonane)

with cetane number arbitrarily set

100 for n-cetane

15 for iso-cetane

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties
Ignition

delay is measured in a standardized

prechamber diesel engine at 900 rpm with
Water temperature of 100oC
Inlet air temperature of 150 oF
Test is questionable at low cetane (CN < 35).

Formula

Cetane Number (CN) = % ncetane + 0.15 * % isocetane

Cetane

number (CN) can be calculated from cetane

index (CI)
CN = 5.28 + 0.371CI + 0.112 CI 2
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties
Cetane

index can be calculated from correlations

based on parameters like

Aniline point (temperature at which aniline and the

fuel are miscible)
API gravity (G)
Midboiling point temperature in oF (TM) using ASTM
D86 Distillation test

ASTM D976 Method

CI = 420.34 + 0.016G 2 + 0.192 log TM
+ 65.01 log 2 TM 0.0001809 TM 2

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Metal content
Presence

Pollution
Scale formation
Catalyst poisoning/deactivation

Some

in fuel can result to

metals being monitored are

Vanadium
Nickel
Lead
Sodium
Calcium
Iron
Silicon
Aluminum
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Carbon Residue
Weight

percent of carbon deposit that will remain

after evaporating the fuel
Used as a gauge in comparing fuel with regard to

Clean burning property

Tendency of oils to crack and form hard carbon deposits
upon heating

Fore

heavy fuel, 10 grams of a fuel is heated to a

very high temperature in a covered crucible
For light fuels with less than 5% carbon residues,
the last 10% residuum from distillation test can be
tested. For such case, the percentage is done
with respect to the weight of 10% residuum
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Carbon Residue
Weight

percent of carbon deposit that will

remain after evaporating the fuel
Used as a gauge in comparing fuel with regard to

Clean burning property

Tendency of oils to crack and form hard carbon
deposits upon heating in an inert atmosphere

Can

be expressed as

Ramsbottom Carbon Residue

Conradson Carbon Residue
Micro Carbon Residue

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties
Fore

heavy fuel, fuel is heated to a very high

temperature and cooled afterwards. Percentage is
based on weight difference.
For light fuels with less than 5% carbon residues, the
last 10% residuum from distillation test can be tested.
For such case, the percentage is done with respect to
the weight of 10% residuum

Ash
Solid

matter that remains after complete combustion

of the fuel
Quantity is measured similar to Conradson Carbon
Residue test except that temperatures are sufficiently
high enough to ensure complete carbon combustion.
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

Asphaltene content
Primarily

composed of

Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sulfur
Trace amounts of Vanadium and Nickel

C:H

ratio is approximately 1:1.2, depending on

source
Operationally defined as n-heptane-insoluble,
toluene-soluble component carbonaceous material
like crude oil, bitumen or coal
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Physical Properties

(Bottoms) Sediments and Water

Conducted

to determine the percentage of

impurities in the fuel
Liquid fuel is dissolved in benzol and centrifuged
for 10 minutes at a speed of 1500 rpm

Heating Value
Higher
Lower

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Whole Crude Analysis

API Gravity
ASTM Distillation
Sulfur
Trace Metals
Pour Point
Salt Content
Naphthenic acid or Neutralization number
Water and Sediment

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Critical Product Specifications

LPG
Specific

gravity
Hydrocarbon composition
Corrosion, Cu strip
Hydrogen sulfide

Gasoline
Specific

gravity
Aromatics and Benzene Content
RON, MON, DON
Corrosion, Cu strip
Doctor Test
RVP
Distillation Recovery at 10%, 50% and 90%
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Critical Product Specifications

Kerosene/Jet Fuel
Specific

gravity
Freeze point
Smoke point
Distillation
Corrosion, Cu strip
Aromatics, % vol

Critical Product Specifications

Diesel
Sulfur

content
Flash point
Pour point
Cloud point
Cold filter plugging point
Distillation at 90% recovery
Specific gravity
Viscosity
Cetane number/Diesel index

Critical Product Specifications

Industrial Fuel Oil

Sulfur

content
Flash point
Pour point
Specific gravity
Viscosity
Bottoms, Sediment and Water
Metals

Critical Product Specifications

Bitumen/Asphalt
Penetration
Softening

point

Ductility
Flash

point

Colloidal Fuel

Emulsion of powdered solid fuel and a liquid

fuel/medium like coal in water or coal in
kerosene
Additive may be added to ensure emulsified
state
Fuel has high viscosity
High velocity required to move solution

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Bituminous Sands

a. k. a.
Oil

sands
Tar sands

Unconventional petroleum deposit found in

sand containing bitumen, clay, sand and water
Formed by migration of oil to sand reservoir
Costly due to energy intensive processes of
bitumen extraction and upgrading
Largest deposits are in
Athabasca

Oil Sands (Alberta, Canada)

Orinoco River (Venezuela)
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Bituminous Sands

Bitumen
Hydrogendeficient,

i.e. unsaturated, oil which

has a mix of hydrocarbon (primarily polycyclic
aromatics) of chain length of up to 2,000 carbon
atoms that makes it

Impossible to burn
Extremely viscous and does not flow unless
Heated
Diluted
Tarry

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Bitumen Extraction Process

Hot Water Extraction

Commonly

used process
Recover oil to as high as 98%
Process

Sand is mixed with hot caustic solution and agitated.

Additional heating can be provided by steam.
Bitumen floats to the top when small air bubbles attach to
bitumen droplets during frothing
Centrifugation separates oil, water and fine solids (~ 75%
recovery)
Oil recovery is further enhanced to > 90% by secondary
process, i.e.
Tailings oil recovery
Naphtha recovery from froth
Settling and Centrifugation
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Bitumen Extraction Process

Cycling Steam Stimulation (CSS)

a.

k. a. huffandpuff method
Used since 1950s in Californian oil fields
Accidentally discovered by Shell while doing
steam flooding in Venezuela when one of its
steam injectors blew out
Process is effective for the first few cycles
Recovery range is around 20% to 25%
Economic viability is dictated by cost of steam
injection versus oil revenues

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Bitumen Extraction Process

Process

Steam at 300340oC is injected into wells for weeks to

months (Injection Stage)
Sand is soaked for days to weeks (Soaking Stage)
In the production stage, hot oil flows out by
Natural flow due to increased reservoir pressure
caused by steam injection
Artificial lift or using pumps when reservoir pressure
goes down
Process is repeated when production rate falls

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Bitumen Extraction Process

Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD)

Developed

in the 1980s by Alberta Oil Sands

Technology and Research Authority
Cheaper than Cycling Steam Stimulation (CCS)
Recovers up to 60% of the oil in situ
Process

Two horizontal wells are drilled in the oil sand, i.e.

At the bottom of formation
Five meters above the bottom
Steam is injected at the upper well, which melts the
bitumen
Bitumen is collected at the lower well and pump to the
surface
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Bitumen Extraction Process

Vapor Extraction Process (VAPEX)

Similar

to SAGD but hydrocarbon solvents are

injected instead of steam
Process

Has better energy efficiency than SAGD

Partially upgrades bitumen to oil in situ
Economic viability is dictated by cost of steam injection
versus oil revenues

Process

Steam at 300340oC is injected into wells for weeks to

months
Sand is soaked for days to weeks
Hot oil is pumped out for weeks to months
Process is repeated when production rate falls
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Synthetic Crude

Derived from upgrading of bitumen and require

approximately 1 to 1.25 GJ per barrel of bitumen
1st commercial production of synthetic crude in
1967 by Great Canadian Oil Sands
Properties is dependent on upgrading processes
used and typically has low sulfur and around 30 oAPI
Requires approximately 1 to 1.25 GJ energy
Can be used to produce
Gasoline
Aviation

fuel

Diesel
Lubricating

oils

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Synthetic Crude

Bitumen conversion process

Removal

Water
Sand
Physical waste if any
Lighter products

Catalytic

of

purification by

Hydrodemetallization
Hydrodesulfurization
Hydrodenitrogenation

Upgrading

by

Coking (Removal of carbon)

Hydrogenation (Addition of hydrogen)
Hydrocracking
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Natural Gas Liquid (NGL)

a. k. a.
Casing

head gasoline
Drip gas
Natural gasoline
Raw gas
White gas

Consists of hydrocarbons of four to six carbons

Used as
Cleaner
Denaturing

additive for fuel alcohol

Lantern fuel
Solvent
Stove fuel
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Natural Gas Liquid (NGL)

Typical Composition of Casinghead type

gasoline
36.7%
14.5%
23.5%
14.9%
10.4%

Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Illuminants (Pentane & Others)

Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

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Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) Processes

Fractionation
of component by boiling off one
hydrocarbon at a time
Flow Diagram
nButane

C5 plus
mixture
Fuel Technology by Andrew Benedict Tengkiat

Butanes

Propane
Debutanizer

NGL
Feed

Ethane

Depropanizer

Separation

Deethanizer

Butane
Splitter
(Deisobutanizer)

isoButane
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Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) Processes

Sweetening
Used

to remove mercaptans by

Separation
Conversion
Desulfurization

Process

used

Molecular Sieve
NGL is passed through a membrane to selectively
remove mercaptans based on pore diameter

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Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) Processes

Mercaptan Oxidation (Merox)

Process

Mercaptan is extracted by caustic solution containing

Merox catalyst
Mercaptan is oxidized to disulfide by catalyst with air
Disulfide is decanted
Caustic solution is recycled

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Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) Processes

Flow

Diagram

Excess Air

Extracted
Product

Decanter
Air
Reactor

Contactor

Feed

Disulfide

Rich
Merox
Caustic

Merox-Caustic
Solution

Catalyst
Injection
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Coal Liquefaction Methods

Pyrolysis of coal
Catalytic gas reforming (FischerTropsch
Process)
Hydrogenation of coal (Bergius Process)

FischerTropsch Process

Partial combustion of coal at

substoichiometric air yields carbon monoxide
and hydrogen rich gas
Gas is fed in a catalytic reactor to reform
carbon monoxide and hydrogen to
hydrocarbons (paraffins and olefins) and
alcohols

Oil Shale

Contains kerogen
Process requires lots of water
Expensive process and there is difficulty in
disposal
Yields 7 to 50 gallons per ton
Largest deposit in the Colorado Plateau

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Oil Shale

Shale is mined, crushed and conveyed to

recovery plant
Shale is heated to break open the shale and
recover the kerogen by passing heated air
through the raw shale in a retort
Crude shale oil is coke to produce
hydrocarbon gases, distillates and heavy
residues

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Products from Oil Shale

Distillate and hydrocarbon gases are

hydrogenated and cracked to produce
Fuel

or combustible gases
Gasoline
Kerosene
Diesel fuels, heavy gas oil and fuel oils
Lubricating oils
Ammonium sulfate

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