MASTERING ADVANCED ENGLISH LANGUAGE

SARA THORNE
PART I Reference the structure of English.
1 The structure of English.
What is grammar? Is the study of the organization of language. Language is divided
into different levels. Within each of these levels there are certain rules and patterns
describing how the elements can be combined. Language is said to have a RANK
SCALE because the levels can be arranged hierarchically.
Open class words:
(LEXICAL WORDS) have a clearly
definable meaning.
(nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs)

Closed class words:

(GRAMMATICAL WORDS) they enable us
to build up language grammatically.
(pronouns, determiners, prepositions,
conjunctions)

OPEN CLASS WORDS:

NOUNS: (NAMING WORDS) They name people, places, things.

COMMON NOUNS: Classify things into types or general categories (car, dog).
PROPER NOUNS: Refer to specific people and places (usually written with
initial capital letter).
CONCRETE NOUNS: Refer to physical things that can be observed and
measured.
ABSTRACT NOUNS: Refer to ideas, times, qualities, emotions; they cannot be
touched or seen.
COUNT NOUNS: Can be counted and have plural form.
NON-COUNT NOUNS: Refer to substances and qualities that cannot be
counted.

*Some nouns are both count and non-count.

PLURALS: Regular nouns add s to mark it. Many noun, however, are irregular.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS: Refer to groups of people, animals and things.

POSSESSIVES: In written language s or is added to the noun to mark possession.

ADJECTIVES: (DESCRIBING WORDS) Provide extra information about nouns by
giving details of physical qualities and of psychological qualities (emotions).

ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES: Before a noun.

PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES: After COPULA VERBS or LINKING VERBS.

*Adjectives can be graded so that nouns can be compared.

*Sometimes words from other word classes do the job of an adjective (i.e.: running
boy, garden wall). A noun describing a noun is called MODIFIER.
VERBS: (DOING WORDS) Can express actions and states.

STATIVE VERBS: Express states of being or the processes in which there is no

obvious action ( to know, to believe).
DYNAMIC VERBS: Express a wide range of actions which can be physical or
perceptual.
TRANSITIVE VERBS: Have to be followed by an object to complete their
meaning.
INTRANSITIVE VERBS: Do not need to be followed by an object to make
sense.
REGULAR VERBS: Have four forms:
1. INFINITE
to walk
2. THIRD PERSON SINGULAR PRESENT
walks
3. PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE
walked
4. PRESENT PARTICIPLE
walking
IRREGULAR VERBS: Have often five forms:
1. INFINITIVE
to write
2. THIRD PERSON SINGULAR PRESENT
writes
3. PAST TENSE
wrote
4. PRESENT PARTICIPLE
writing
5. PAST PARTICIPLE
have written
LEXICAL VERBS: Express the meaning in a verb phrase (the boy ran to school).
AUXILIARY VERBS: Can be used to construct different timescales, questions
and negatives.
MODAL VERBS: Convey a range of attitudes and moods about the likelihood of
an event taking place (ability, intention, necessity/obligation, permission,
prediction, possibility).
PRESENT TENSE: Can be used to describe states of affairs and events that
occur on a regular basis. It is also used in spontaneous commentaries, proverbs
and sayings.
PAST TENSE: It refers to actions and states that took place in the past.
Sometimes is used to record indirect speech. Can be used to refer to something
hypothetical.
FUTURE TIME:
1. Simple present
2. Modal verbs shall/will + base form verb
3. be going + infinitive
4. to be + present participle
5. will/shall + to be + present participle
ASPECT: Establishes whether action or state of a verb is complete or in
progress.
1. PERFECT ASPECT: Have (auxiliary) + past participle.
2. PRESENT PERFECT: has/have + past participle . Is used for any action
continuing in the present or having relevance in the present.
3. PAST PERFECT: had + past participle. Describes a previous time in the
past.
4. PROGRESSIVE ASPECT: auxiliary be + present participle
auxiliary have + be + present participle
e.g.: present progressive ->
the boys are playing football
past progressive ->
the ladies were playing tennis
present perfect progressive ->
the lions have been roaring wildly
all day

past perfect progressive ->

throughout the summer.

the weeds had been growing

VOICE: The action of a verb and the person or thing responsible for it can be
conveyed in two ways using voice:
1. ACTIVE VOICE: Expresses the action of the verb, directly linking it to the
person or thing carrying out the action .
2. PASSIVE VOICE: Changes the focus of the sentence by reordering the
elements.
STRUCTURES OF THE PASSIVE VOICE:
1. the subject/actor of the active sentence is moved to the end of the
passive sentence and becomes the optional passive agent ( by + subject
of active sentence).
2. the object of the active sentence is moved to the front of the passive
sentence and becomes the subject.
3. the active verb is replaced by a verb in the passive form: to be + past
participle
or: have + to
be + past participle
USAGES OF THE PASSIVE:

1. Using by + actor , the subject can be delayed to the end of the sentence
creating suspence.
2. if the actor is a long phrase that seems awkward at the start of the
sentence, it can be placed at the end for fluency.
3. by omitting the by + actor , it is possible to exclude the person or thing
responsible for the action of the verb.
FINITE VERBS: Change their form to show contrast of number, tense and
person.
NON-FINITE VERBS: Never change their form.

ADVERBS: Are modifying words. They give information about time, place, and manner
and can express a speakers attitude to or evaluation of what is being said. They can
modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, sentences.

CIRCUMSTANCE ADVERBS: (ADJUNCTS) Modify verbs, by giving details of

circumstances like manner, time, frequency and place.
DEGREE ADVERBS (MODIFIERS): Modify adjectives or adverbs.
SENTENCE ADVERBS: modify a whole sentence.
1. DISJUNCT: Express speakers or writers attitudes allowing them to
comment on what is being said or written.
2. CONJUNCT: Can be used to link sentences.
FORMING ADVERBS: Many adverbs are formed by adding ly to adjectives.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE: Although some can take er and est

endings ,most require the use of more and most.
IRREGULAR ADVERBS: Have different forms.

THREE MAIN POSITIONS FOR ADVERBS:

1. In front of the sentence.

2. The middle of the sentence: after the first auxiliary, after the verb to
be as a lexical verb, or before the lexical verb.
3. The end of the sentence.
Sometimes the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb. In order to
distinguish between
them, it is important to look at the context of the word
and its function in a sentence.
CLOSED CLASS WORDS:
PRONOUNS: Are used instead of nouns, noun phrases or noun clauses. There are
seven types of pronouns:
1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS:
SUBJECT PRONOUNS: Are used when it is clear who the actor of the
sentence is (I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they).
OBJECT PRONOUNS: It replaces the noun that receives the action of the
verb (me, you, him/her/it, us, you, them).
2. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: Are used when you need to show possession of
something (mine, yours, his/hers, ours, yours, theirs).
3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS: Are used when the same person is the actor and the
receiver of the action in a sentence (myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself,
ourselves, yourselves, themselves).
4. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: Are used to point to the relationship between
the speaker and a person or a thing (this/these, that/those).
5. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS: Are used to ask questions. There are five types:
what, which, who, whom, whose.
6. RELATIVE PRONOUNS: Follow directly the nouns they describe. They
introduce relative clauses, although sometimes the pronoun itself is omitted.
There are five forms: that, which, who, whom, whose.
7. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: Have a less certain reference point than the other
pronouns listed here. There are two types:
OF PRONOUNCES: All of, both of, each ofalways followed by an object
pronoun.
COMPOUND PRONOUNS: Every/some/any/no + thing/one/body.
DETERMINERS: Precede nouns. There are five main types:
1. ARTICLES: DEFINITE or INDEFINITE. The former specifies something
particular, while the latter does not.
2. POSSESSIVE DETERMINERS: Are used to suggest the ownership of a noun.
There are seven forms: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
3. DEMONSTRATIVE DETERMINERS: Express a contrast, establishing either a
close or a more distant relationship.
4. INDEFINITE DETERMINERS: Convey a range of meaning. The most common
ones are: all, some, any, no; every, each, either, neither, one, another etc
5. NUMBERS: If precede a noun they are functioning as determiners. Both
cardinals and ordinals can be used as determiners.

It is important to look closely at the context to distinguish between pronouns and

determiners. A determiner precedes a noun; a pronoun replaces a noun, noun-phrase
or noun clause.
PREPOSITIONS: Describe relationships that exist between elements in sentences.
They convey the following relationships:

PLACE: at, on, by, opposite

DIRECTION: towards, past, out of, through
TIME: at, before, in, on
COMPARISON: asas, like
SOURCE: from, out
PURPOSE: for

CONJUNCTIONS: Are joining words

CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: (and, but, or, neithernor, eitheror)Link

lexical units of equal value.
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: Join a subordinate clause to a main
clause. They often give information on when, where, why, how or if an action
takes place.

MORPHOLOGY
MORPHOLOGY: Is the study of morphemes, the smallest units of grammar.

FREE MORPHEME: Can stand alone and is understandable in isolation.

BOUND MORPHEME (AFFIXES): Cannot occur alone and can occur at the
beginning or the end of a free morpheme.
1. PREFIXES: Precedes a free morpheme.
2. SUFFIXES: Follows a free morpheme.
Words can have multiple affixes.

DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY: Words can be created by using prefixes, suffixes or

both.

PREFIXES: Alter the meaning of a word ,but they do not always change the
word class.
SUFFIXES: Usually change the class of the free morpheme to which they are
attached.

SUFFIXES ASSOCIATED WITH NOUNS: -acy, -ation, -er/or, -ess, -ity, -ment, -ness,
-ship.
SUFFIXES ASSOCIATED WITH ADJECTIVES: -able, -ful, -ical, -less, -like, -ous, -y.
SUFFIXES ASSOCIATED WITH VERBS: -ise, -ize.
SUFFIXES ASSOCIATED WITH ADVERBES: - ly.
WORDS FORMED WITH TWO FREE MORPHEMES: duty + free = dutyfree

sign + post = signpost

INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY: Even if a suffix is added, the word class doesnt
change.

PLURALS of nouns
POSSESSIVES of all nouns
PRESENT TENSE of the regular third person singular (-s, -ies)
PRESENT PARTICIPLE of verbs (-ing)
PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE of regular verbs (-ed)

PHRASES
PHRASE: Is a single word or a group of words that act together as a unit but that do
not usually contain a finite verb.
NOUN PHRASES: Usually begins with a determiner and normally has a noun as its
most important word.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS AS HEADWORD: Both can be headwords.

ADJECTIVES AS HEADWORDS
CONSTITUENTS OF A NOUN PHRASE: A noun phrase can be made up of
either a single noun or a noun with one or more pre-modifiers and postmodifiers or qualifiers.

ADJECTIVE PHRASES: Has an adjective as its main word.

ADJECTIVES AS HEADWORD: While attributive adjectives precede a noun as

pre-modifiers in a noun phrase, predicative adjectives follow nouns and are the
head words of adjective phrases.
PRE-MODIFICATION: Can be made by adverbs and some adjectives.
POST-MODIFICATION: Of adjective phrases can take the following forms:
1. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: Will always begin with a preposition.
2. NON-FINITE INFINITIVE CLAUSES: Will always begin with an infinitive.
3. NOUN CLAUSES: Will always start with the pronoun that, although this
may be omitted.

VERB PHRASES: Generally has a lexical verb as its main verb. It can be made up of
one lexical verb, or one or more auxiliary verbs and a lexical verb.

LEXICAL VERBS AS HEADWORD: A verb phrase may consist of one lexical

verb as a headword.
AUXILIARY VERBS: A verb phrase may have up to four auxiliary verbs, the
lexical verb will always be the last element in a verb phrase.
PHRASAL VERBS: Phrases made up of a verb and an adverb. Many phrasal
verbs can stand alone.
PREPOSITIONAL VERBS: Made up of a verb and a preposition or particle.
They cannot stand alone: they must be followed by a noun phrase. Are common
in informal speech and writing.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: Has a preposition as its main word. It will
normally be followed by a noun phrase. Prepositional phrases add extra

information and are therefore optional: the can be omitted without affecting the
meaning. They can have the following characteristics:
1. POST-MODIFICATION of other phrases.
2. ADVERBIALS: Prepositional phrases can function as adverbials providing
informations about time, manner and place.
ADVERB PHRASES: Has an adverb as its main word.

ADVERBS AS HEADWORD
EXTRA INFORMATION: If omitted, will still make sense.
ADVERBIALS: Provide information about time, manner and place.

CLAUSES
CLAUSES: Are the main structures used to compose sentences. A sentence will be
made up of at least one main clause (a clause that make sense of its own and that is
not dependent on or part of another clause); it may also contain one or more
subordinate clauses. Clauses may be:

FINITE: Contains a verb marked for tense, number and person.

NON-FINITE: Contains a present participle, a past participle or an infinitive.
VERBLESS

CLAUSE ELEMENTS: Five types with different function and site.

1. SUBJECT: Describes the person who or thing which does the action of the verb
(actor of the sentence). It is usually a noun phrase or a pronoun, but it can also
be a clause.
POSITION IN THE CLAUSE: Precede the verb in a statement.
POSITION IN A QUESTION: Follows the auxiliary verb.
EFFECT ON THE VERB: Dictates the form.
EFFECT ON THE OBJECT OR COMPLEMENT: Sometimes control their
form.
2. VERB: Express a range of meanings (actions, processes, states). Its the most
important clause element and it cannot be omitted.
3. OBJECT: Describes something that is directly affected by the verb.
INDIRECT OBJECT: Something indirectly affected by the verb. It can
precede or follow the direct object.
KINDS OF OBJECT: It is a noun phrase or a pronoun.
POSITION IN THE CLAUSE: It follows the verb.
4. COMPLEMENT: Gives extra information about the subject or the object.
KINDS OF COMPLEMENT: Adjective phrase, noun phrase, pronoun, a
numeral or a clause.
POSITION IN THE CLAUSE: Follows a verb.
5. ADVERBIALS: Give information about time, manner and place.
KINDS OF ADVERBIALS: Adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, noun
phrases or clauses.
NUMBER OF ADVERBIALS: More than one can be added to a clause.
POSITION IN THE CLAUSE: Can change to create different kinds of
emphasis.

CLAUSE STRUCTURE: Most clauses will have a subject and a verb, other clause
elements are optional. It is useful to distinguish between the form of a verb and the
function of a verb phrase in a clause. In clause analysis, linguists call the verb site the
predicator.
CLAUSE TYPES: Seven types:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

subject
subject
subject
subject
subject
subject
subject

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

verb
verb
verb
verb
verb
verb
verb

+
+
+
+
+
+

direct object
indirect object + direct object
subject complement
direct object + object complement
adverbial
direct object + adverbial

SENTENCES
SENTENCE: Is a grammatical construction that makes sense on its own. In writing, it
begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop or an exclamation or question
mark.
SIMPLE SENTENCE: Contains just one clause. It has only one finite verb and is
described as a main clause.
COMPOUND SENTENCE: Contains two or more simple sentences linked by
coordinating conjunctions. Each clause in compound sentence carries equal weight
and makes sense on its own they can therefore both be described as main clauses.
When two sentences are linked, it is usually better to avoid repetition. This can be
achieved by using substitution or ellipsis.

SUBSTITUTION: A pronoun replaces a noun or a noun phrase.

ELLIPSIS: Is the omission of an element of language. As long as the reader can
easily recognize what has been deleted, part of the sentence can be omitted to
avoid repetition.

RECOGNISING SUBORDINATE CLAUSES: By identifying the word class of the first

word in the clause. It may be a subordinating conjunction a wh-word or a non-finite
verb. It is important to remember that subordinate clauses can be used in all the
clause sites except the verb.
COMPLEX SENTENCE: Clauses do not have equal value. One is the main clause,
while the others are subordinate or dependant clauses. There are six types of
subordinate clause.
1. NOUN CLAUSE: Can fill the subject or object site of a clause. There are two
main kinds:
THAT CLAUSES: Will begin with the pronoun that, although this may be
elided.
WH-CLAUSES: Will begin with a wh-word.
2. ADVERBIAL CLAUSE: Functions as an adverbial within the main clause. It
answers questions such as when?, why?, what for? An adverbial clause can be

3.

4.
5.
6.

recognized by the subordinating conjunction that marks its beginning (if,

because, unless, where, etc).
RELATIVE CLAUSE: Add extra information about one of the nouns in the main
clause. The beginning of a relative clause is usually marked by a relative
pronoun (who, whose, which, that)although it can be omitted. They follow the
nouns they post-modify or qualify.
COMPARATIVE CLAUSE: Starts with as (EQUAL COMPARISON) or contains than
(UNEQUAL COMPARISON).
NON-FINITE CLAUSE: Can be recognized by an infinitive, present participle or
a past participle at the beginning of the clause.
VERBLESS CLAUSE: While verbless main clauses (what about a cup of tea?)
are more likely to be used in informal speech, a verbless subordinate clause is
more likely to be used in formal written English (If in doubt, call.).

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCES: Co-ordination and subordination can be

used in the same sentence.
MAJOR SENTENCES: All the sentences considered so far are regular or major
sentences because they are constructed using regular patterns.
MINOR SENTENCES: (Also IRREGULAR SENTENCES) Lack some of the essential
clause elements. Minor sentences are often used in everyday conversations, on
posters, headlines, advertisements and slogans. Minor sentences can be:

FORMULAE used in social situations.

INTERJECTIONS used to express emotions.
ABBREVIATED FORMS often used on postcards or in spoken commentaries
(wish you were here).
Words or phrases used as EXCLAMATION, QUESTION or COMMANDS
(what a day!).

ANALYSING A SENTENCE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Underline the verbs in the sentence; if there are none, it is a minor sentence.
Identify the main lexical verb(s) and mark the main clause(s).
Label the clause elements.
Identify any subordinate clauses.
Identify the type of subordinate clause.

MOOD
MOOD: Shows the attitude of the speaker to the action or event referred to in the
verb phrase: we can tell, ask or command something to someone.

DECLARATIVE MOOD: Is used for making statements.

INTERROGATIVE MOOD: Is used for addressing questions. In speech, if the
word order is unchanged and intonation patterns are used to indicate a
question, the mood is declarative! The only examples of interrogative mood in
which word order is not inverted, are in sentences in which wh-words fill the
subject site.

IMPERATIVE MOOD: Is used for addressing commands or orders (there is no

subject and the verb is in the base form). Sometimes the person addressed is
named using a VOCATIVE. A vocative has two functions:
1. To call someone in order to gain his/her attention.
2. To address someone, expressing a particular social relationship or
personal attitude. Vocatives are optional and can occur at the beginning,
middle or end of the sentence.

COHESION
COHESION: Is the way in which sentences are linked to create text. There are five
forms:
1. LEXICAL COHESION: Is a kind of textual linking dependent on a writers or
speakers choice of words.
COLLOCATION: Words are associated within phrases. Because they are
often well known, they are predictable (idioms, clichs).
REPETITION: Either words or phrases are directly repeated or
SYNONYMS are used.
SUPERORDINATES AND HYPONYMS: Superordinates are general
words, while hyponyms are subdivisions of the general categories
(specific words).
2. SUBSTITUTION: One linguistic item is replaced by a shorter one. Several parts
of sentence can be replaced.
NOUN PHRASES: Can be replaced by personal pronouns, indefinite
pronouns or by the noun phrase the same . Also superordinates and
hyponyms can be substitutes.
VERB PHRASE: Can be replaced by the auxiliary verb do.
CLAUSES: Can be replaced using so as a substitute for a positive clause,
and not as a substitute for a negative clause.
3. ELLIPSIS: Part of the sentence is left out. It must be clear what the omitted
words are, so that the sentence remains meaningful.
NOUN PHRASES: Can be omitted the head of the phrase.
VERB PHRASES: Repeated lexical and auxiliary verbs can be omitted.
CLAUSES: Whole clauses can be omitted within sentence boundaries.
4. REFERENCING: References cannot be interpreted alone because they point to
something else in a discourse.
ANAPHORIC REFERENCE: Point backwards in a text.
CATAPHORIC REFERENCE: Point forwards in a text.
EXOPHORIC REFERENCE: Point beyond a text, make a connection with
something outside the discourse.
5. LINKING ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Are joining words that provide links
either within a sentence or within the larger context of discourse. There are four
main types:
ADDITIVE ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Add on information,
possibly as an afterthought (and, furthermore).
ADVERSATIVE ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Help to create a
contrast between the sentence they introduce and the preceding
sentence.

3 STYLE

CASUAL ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Link two clauses or

sentences by suggesting that one has been the result of the other
(because, since, therefore).
TEMPORAL ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Create a time link
between one clause or sentence and another (before, while, then, after
that).

FOCUS: In a traditional simple declarative sentence, the subject will come first,
followed by predicator and other clause elements. In linguistic terms, whatever comes
first in the sentence is called the THEME which usually will be the subject. However, it
is possible to change the focus through a range of devices.

MARKED THEME: Some elements of the clause can be moved to the front
of a sentence (FRONTING or FOREGROUNDING) replacing the usual
thematic subject. Adverbials are the most flexible clause element and
therefore thematic adverbials are most common. The clause element that
has replaced the subject in the initial position is called marked theme. It is
also possible to make object and complement marked themes.
END FOCUS: It is possible to put new information towards the end of
sentence, thus emphasizing the end rather than the beginning. Sometimes it
is stylistically more fluent to place the longest clause element at the end of a
sentence.
EXISTENTIAL THERE: It is also possible to create an end focus by using the
existential there. Such sentences often point to the general existence of
some state of affairs and they are therefore called EXISTENTIAL
SENTENCES. There is called a DUMMY SUBJECT because it has no
meaning in itself, instead, its function is to put the real subject in a more
prominent position (DELAYED SUBJECT).
PASSIVE VOICE: Another way to alter the focus of a sentence is to use the
passive voice instead of the active.

RHETORIC: Is the art of persuasive discourse. It is used in everyday life to persuade

people to do or believe things and in literature to help the readers to engage with and
believe in the fictional world which they are presented.

ETHOS: Is a form of persuasion which is dependent upon the individual

character of the speaker or writer.
PATHOS: It works on the emotions of the audience.
LOGOS: Is based on reasoned argument; the structure is important since it will
help convince the audience of the logic of what is being said or written.

It is useful to categorize the most common rhetoric techniques into four key areas:
1. LEXICAL CHOICE: This may be influenced by the viewpoint and tone adopted
for a particular subject or situation; it may be dictated by the particular emotive
response a writer or speaker wishes to evoke in the audience; or it may be
governed by the subject-specific nature of a topic which requires technical lexis.
2. SOUND PATTERNING: Writers and speakers can use a range of devices for
playing on the patterns and sounds of words to create certain stylistic effects:
ALLITERATION: Is the repetition of a consonant, often in the initial
position. In advertisements, captions and headlines this device can be
used to make the text more eye-catching.
ASSONANCE: Is the repetition of a vowel in a medial position. This poetic
device makes words sound sonorous and musical and is often used to
create a grave or pensive tone

CONSONANCE: Repetition of a consonant in the medial or final position.

It draws attention to a product name in advertising or enhance the
meaning of literary language by creating a hard sound.
ONOMATOPOEIA: Is the term used when the sound of a word is directly
linked to its meaning. The emphasis on the sound quality of words
focuses the readers or listeners attention on the aural aspect of the
discourse, thus creating another dimension to the meaning.
RHYME: Rhyme or half-rhyme are exact or partial repetitions of a sound,
usually at the end of a poetic line. It draws attention to certain words. It
creates a kind of end focus and can be used in a conclusive way to signal
the end of a poem or a speech in verse drama emphatically.
3. METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE: Is an important part of successful persuasive
discourse because it allows a speaker or writer to combine everyday language
with devices that create special semantic effects.
IRONY: Is the use of a word, phrase or paragraph turned from its usual
meaning to a contradictory or opposing one, usually to satirize or deflate
the person or issue.
METAPHOR: Describes one thing in terms of another, creating an implicit
comparison.
METONYMY: Is the term used when the name of an attribute or thing is
substituted for the thing itself (e.g.: the Crown - > the monarchy)
OXYMORON: Uses two apparently contradictory words put together to
create a special effect.
PARADOX: Consists of an apparently self-contradictory statement which
contains some kind of deeper meaning below the surface.
PERSONIFICATION: Is the term used when an object or idea is given
human qualities.
SIMILE: In a simile two things are explicitly compared by using a marker
such as the preposition like or as.
SYMBOLISM: Is the use of an object to represent or stand for something
else (e.g.: dove -> peace)
SYNECDOCHE: Is a rhetorical device in which the part stands for the
whole (e.g.: bars -> prison)
4. STRUCTURAL DEVICES: In order to be successful in persuading an audience a
writer or speaker also make s conscious decisions about the structural patterns
of discourse:
ANTITHESIS: Is the technique of placing two words or ideas in opposition
to create a contrary effect.
LISTING: If conjunctions are used to co-ordinate groups of words, a list is
said to be SYNDETIC; if commas are used instead, the list is described as
ASYNDETIC. Listing always has an accumulative effect and enables a
writer or speaker to create a range of impressions. A list can convey
confusion and chaos or logic and reason, depending on its context.
Equally a writer or speaker can build towards a CLIMAX or defy
expectations by concluding in an ANTI-CLIMAX.
OVERSTATEMENT: (HYPERBOLE) Is a form of persuasive exaggeration.
UNDERSTATEMENT: (LITOTES) Leaves the audience to recognize that
the writer or speaker could have put the point more strongly.
PUNS: Is a play upon words:

HOMONYMS: Have the same sound and spelling but a different

meaning.
o HOMOPHONES: Have the same sound but a different spelling and
meaning.
Newspaper headlines often play with words in a more general way
to attract
attention.
REPETITION: Of words, phrases, clauses or sentences draws attention to
key ideas. The repetition is persuasive because it is emotive.
SYNTAX: Grammatical patterns are used to add variety to a discourse
and to emphasize particular features. There is a range of syntactical
elements that can be manipulated.
o GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION: Of words can changed. When a
writer takes a modifier expressing a quality or attitude of one thing
and uses it in relation to another, the modifier is called
TRANSFERRED EPITHET.
o PARALLELISM: Phrase, clause and sentence structures are
repeated to give a sense of balance and reason to a discourse.
o SENTENCE STRUCTURE: A varied choice of sentence types will
draw the reader or listener into the discourse.
SIMPLE SENTENCES: Can suggest an innocence and
navety of style.
COMPLEX SENTENCES: Can withhold information until a
certain point in the discourse, or subordinate some ideas to
others which seem more important. The complexity is
directly related to the number of clauses.
BRANCHING: Is the arrangement and order of subordinate
and main clauses in a discourse.
LEFT BRANCHING: Forces the reader or listener to
wait for the main clause by using subordination at the
beginning of a sentence. The result can often be
dramatic because the audience has wait for all the
information. This device is better suited to written
than to speech because of the demands it makes on
the memory.
RIGHT BRANCHING: Gives the important information
first and then supplies a commentary on it or
additional information. It can often seem more natural
because it deals with information cumulatively and in
what seems to be a more logical order: it provides the
main clause first, before any embedded subordinate
clauses.
o

5 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

STANDARD ENGLISH: Is a form of English which has been accepted as a norm. It is
the variety with which other forms are compared. Even Standard English exist in a
variety of forms: spoken, written, formal, informal, personal and impersonal. It is what
we usually hear on the television and radio news. In its written form, is found in print
and in formal written varieties like essays and business letters. It is also called BBC
English or The Queens English. Any varieties which does not use the same vocabulary
or grammar as Standard English is called NON-STANDARD ENGLISH.
RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION: Is the standard form of pronunciation. It is associated
with respectability, good education and high social status. Today although RP still
exist, only 2-3% of the British population speak it in its original pure form. Now it most
commonly exists as MODIFIED RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION.
PRESCRIPTIVISM: Prescriptivists believe that English is governed by a set of rules
which dictate a proper and correct use of language. They regard one particular form of
English as the best and dislike linguistic change because they see it as a process of
decay which erodes standards and leads to a debased form of English.
DESCRIPTIVISM: Descriptivists observe language as it is spoken or written in
different situations. They aim to describe the ways in which language varies according
to the user, the use and the context. They see language change as inevitable.
Although they believe that some usage is wrong, they are more interested in
describing variations from the standard as non-standard than as incorrect.
AUDIENCE, PURPOSE AND CONTEXT: All speakers and writers make decisions
about the kinds of language they use. They think about who they will be addressing
(AUDIENCE) and the kind of relationship they need to create. They assess the formality
or informality of the occasion (CONTEXT) and the reason for the speech or writing
(PURPOSE). By assessing what is expected of us according to our audience, purpose
and context, we regularly make decisions about what is appropriate or suitable. The
term APPROPRIATENESS encourages a recognition of the variety and flexibility of
language, and recognizes that there are different linguistic expectations for different
situations.
REGISTER: Is the term used to describe variations in language according to use
(medical register, religious register).

MODE: Can be either spoken or written.

MANNER: Describes the relationship between the participants and the formality
or informality of the context in which communication takes place.
FIELD: Is linked to the subject matter: by looking at the kind of words used, we
can come to the conclusion about the topic or focus of communication.

SPOKEN AND WRITTEN ENGLISH

SPOKEN
Speech is spontaneous and often
transient. Most forms of everyday speech
are not recorded for repeated listening.
Conversations usually take place face-toface with a particular person(s). A
telephone conversation is a notable
exception.
Speakers can use paralinguistic
features as well as words to check that
communication is meaningful.
Deictic expressions (this one, over
there) referred to the present situation,
are common.
Interruptions and overlaps allowing
the addressee to participate are common.

Speech is not usually planned in

advance.
Speech often has a loose structure,
marked by repetitions, rephrasing of
ideas and comment clauses. Errors once
uttered cannot be withdrawn.
Lexis is often informal and there may be
examples of a personal lexicon developed
between familiar speakers. In more
formal contexts, vocabulary may be
subject-specific, but speech is still likely
to be marked by contractions and
comment clauses.
Intonation and pauses are used to mark
the grammatical boundaries of
utterances. They are often long, with
multiple co-ordination. Subordination
is used but speakers have to make sure
that embedded subordinate clauses do
not place too many demands upon
listeners who cannot easily reconsider an
utterance.
Prosodic features like volume, pace,
rhythm, tone and stress patterns as well

WRITTEN
Writing is permanent: the same text may
be read repeatedly or by several different
readers.
Written language may be intended for a
particular reader, but often it will be
addressed to an unknown audience.
There is no immediate feedback.
Writers must make sure that there is no
unintentional ambiguity.
All references need to be built into the
written text because the reading context
will be different for each reader.
Communication is one-way. Although the
reader may respond in a written or
spoken form, the response is rarely
immediate.
Writing is often pre-planned and ideas
can therefore be carefully organized.
Interruptions during the process of writing
are not visible in a final copy. Drafting
also means that errors can be corrected.
In many contexts informal lexical
features like contractions will be
unacceptable. Some lexical items will be
rarely used in spoken language.

Punctuation and layout are used to mark

the grammatical boundaries of
sentences. In more formal kinds of
writing, sentences are often marked by
multiple subordination and balanced
syntactical structures.

Writers use paragraphing and page layout

to organize their text. Capitalization and

as words communicate meaning.

underlining can be used for stress, while

question marks and exclamation
marks can be used to convey attitude.
Speech is a useful social tool which can
Written text is useful for recording facts
develop relationships and convey
and ideas; making notes; and
attitudes and opinions directly, and so on. developing large-scale fiction, and so on.
Because they are more permanent than
speech, written texts can be longer
without causing communication
problems.
*Written texts can imitate spoken words, so that when spoken they sound
spontaneous; likewise spoken texts can be transcribed.
While prescriptivists see speech as inferior because of its errors and hesitations,
descriptivists use speech as the basis for much of their research. Not only does spoken
language reflect how language is used in society, but language is first and foremost a
spoken phenomenon with written language as a by-product.

6 ENGLISH: A LIVING LANGUAGE

Language cannot exist on its own since it is a product of the people who speak and
write it daily, and therefore it develops to meet their needs.
DIACHRONIC APPROACH: Evolution from languages early form (Old English) to its
current form (Late Modern).
SYNCHRONIC APPROACH: Change considered at a particular moment in time.
Linguists analyse a clearly defined period in order to identify characteristic features of
English at that time.
What changes language?

HISTORICAL FACTORS: Wars, invasions, industrial and technological changes

all provide the context for the creation of new words.
CULTURAL TRANSMISSION: A distinctive form of language can give a cultural
group a sense of identity, uniting insiders and alienating outsiders.
SOCIAL FACTORS: Education, social class, age, gender, ethnic background
influence the words and grammar that individual speakers use.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: The pronunciation of words and the kinds of

words and grammatical structures used will vary and change according to the
region a speaker comes from (DIALECTS)
THE USE OF DIFFERENT REGISTERS: The words, grammatical structures and
formats chosen will vary according to use. Different fields, like law, advertising
and religion, will each have distinctive characteristic features.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH AS A WORLD LANGUAGE: English
language is affected by change both within the UK and beyond.

GENDER: Cultural system by which society constructs different identities for men and
women. Feminists believe that society instills certain codes of behavior in boys and
girls from a young age: men are seen as logical, rational and objective, while women
are emotional, intuitive and subjective. It is language that teaches individuals to act in
a certain way, that reinforces societys expectations, that makes people powerful.

SEXIST LANGUAGE: Reinforces stereotypical attitudes and expectations it

often implies male superiority. Such language can suggest that women are
inferior. It is difficult to change these ingrained habits, but in an age of political
correctness this kind of divisive language is often seen as unacceptable. So,
anti-sexist alternatives are offered as substitutes for the traditional maledominated language (chairman -> chairperson)
Differences in roles men and women take in informal conversation:
o

On the level of discourse:

Men are more likely to interrupt.
Men will often reject topics introduced by women, while women will
talk about topics raised by men.
Women are more likely to use supportive minimal vocalization.
While women are more likely to initiate conversation, they succeed
less often because males are less willing to co-operate.
Men are more likely to use familiar terms of address even where
the relative status and background of the speakers would seem to
suggest that a formal, impersonal tone is more appropriate.
Grammatical structures are also different:
Women use tag questions more frequently.
Modal verbs, modal adverbs and tentative verbs occur more often
in womens utterances.
Men are more likely to use commands, where women do use them
they are often framed as interrogatives or as hypothetical
statements.
Lexical choices often seem to be related to a speakers gender:
Women are more likely to use evaluative adjectives
Adverbs of degree are more common in womens speech.
Adjectives describing approximate amounts seem to be more
common in womens utterances.
Reduplicated forms are associated with women because they are
linked to baby talk.
Men are thought to use slang and swearing more frequently.

Womens speech is characterized by the frequency of politeness

markers.
o Phonological differences:
Women are far more likely to use high-prestige forms and to adjust
their accents to match other participants in a formal speech
encounter.
Women are less likely to drop final consonants and to speak with a
broad accent if they feel that they need to make a good
impression.
*All these features outlined are, however, stereotypical.
Gender and language are closely linked because it is through language that we
communicate and construct models which help us to understand society. Sexist
language can disparage and trivialize women and many people believe that the
words we use should be carefully chosen to promote sexual equality.
CULTURAL CHANGES BLACK ENGLISH
BLACK AMERICAN ENGLISH (BAE): Is the language used by lower-class Blacks in
urban communities, but as Blacks have become more integrated and as a Black
middle class has developed, the language form used by the 20% of Black people has
moved closer to Standard American English.
BLACK ENGLISH VERNACULAR (BEV): Is not a regional dialect because it is difficult
to link it directly to a specific geographical area. It is classified as a cultural or social
variant from the standard form.

There are different theories about the way in which Black English developed. Some
people believe that because the slaves learned English from their masters as a second
language, they passed on to their children a form of American English that was
grammatically different from American Standard English. Because of racial
segregation, the dialect features of this variety persisted and are still to be found in
Late Modern Black English.
PIDGIN LANGUAGE: Pidgins are marginal languages created by people who need to
communicate but have no common language. They are marked by simplified grammar
and a small vocabulary. Most pidgins are based on European languages reflecting
Europes history of colonization.
When a pidgin becomes the main language of a community, it has to become more
complex and be able to fulfill a wider range of functions. When later generations learn
it as a first language, it is called a CREOLE.
There are two kinds of creole Englishes:
Atlantic creole.
Pacific creole.
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES OF CREOLE LANGUAGES:

Absence of plural forms.

Third person singular pronouns are not marked for gender.
Nouns can be marked for gender by adding man (man) or meri (woman).
Verbs are not marked for person or tense; all verbs are used in the base form.
Different timescales are indicated by the addition of auxiliary verbs, or by creole
words.
Multiple nagatives are common.

Some varieties distinguish between two kinds of we.

Certain lexical patterns are distinctive:

Reduplication of words is used to extend a limited vocabulary.

Reduplication used to distinguish between two words that sound similar.
Reiterated words used to intensify meanings and create emphasis.
Many nautical words were introduced in the first contact languages that evolved
as a means of communication between the native language speakers and
traders.

INTERNATIONAL CHANGES ENGLISH AS A WORLD LANGUAGE.

The world wide status of English is linked to the growth of the British Empire and the
colonization of places like India and South Africa from the 17th century onwards. In the
military and commercial contacts that followed, native languages were often
suppressed by the British rules. In new environment, English acquires local nuances,
particularly in its lexis.
AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH: Many of the early settlers of Australia were convicts from the
lower social classes who were more likely to use distinctive regional dialects, and it is
therefore sometimes thought that the distinctive Australian accents resulted from the
mix of UK regional accents handed down to descendants of the first English speakers.
Australian English is marked by the number of Aboriginal words that have been
assimilated into the language. These words filled gaps where there were no English
equivalents.
AMERICAN ENGLISH: Is a separate form (from BE) with its own spelling patterns and
distinctive pronunciation. Some idioms, prepositions and the lexis assimilated from
Americas immigrant population are now often heard and sometimes used by UK
English speakers.
JEWISH ENGLISH: Has made mass audience familiar with a linguistic device called
FRONTING (in this kind of structure, an inversion of the word order is used to create a
mock emphasis of disbelief).
INDIAN ENGLISH: Since it is usually learnt from books which rarely keep up to date
with the subtleties of linguistic change, Indian English is often considered to be very
formal and dated.
JAPANESE ENGLISH: Is known for its amusing misinterpretations. Such variations
from the source language, however, do not really cause problems of understanding.

Not all countries welcome the spread of English.

FRANCE: The Acadmie Franaise (the official body which protects and regulates the
French language) banned the use of blended words on the radio; instead, French
equivalents must be used: failure to do so will result in a fine.