Change Notice: Any information related to Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA)

in the following guideline may have been revised in the American

Urological Association's (AUA) PSA Best Practice Statement: 2009
Update. In the case of any discrepency in recommendations between
guidelines pertaining to PSA, please refer to the AUA's PSA Best
Practice Statement: 2009 Update for the latest AUA recommendation
regarding PSA testing.

Prostate Cancer
Members, (specialty):
Ian Thompson, M.D., Chair, (Urology)
James Brantley Thrasher, M.D., Co-Chair, (Urology)
Gunnar Aus, M.D., (Urology)
Arthur L. Burnett, M.D., (Sexual Medicine)
Edith D. Canby-Hagino, M.D., (Urology)
Michael S. Cookson, M.D., (Urology)
Anthony V. DAmico, M.D., Ph.D., (Radiation Oncology)
Roger R. Dmochowski, M.D., (Urology)
David T. Eton, Ph.D., (Health Services Research)
Jeffrey D. Forman, M.D., (Radiation Oncology)
S. Larry Goldenberg, O.B.C., M.D., (Urology)
Javier Hernandez, M.D., (Urology)
Celestia S. Higano, M.D., (Medical Oncology)
Stephen R. Kraus, M.D., (Neurourology)
Judd W. Moul, M.D., (Urology)
Catherine M. Tangen, Dr. P.H., (Biostatistics and Clinical Trials)

Consultants:
Hanan S. Bell, Ph.D.
Patrick M. Florer
Diann Glickman, Pharm.D.
Scott Lucia, M.D.
Timothy J. Wilt, M.D., M.P.H., Data Extraction

Guideline for the

Management of Clinically
Localized Prostate
Cancer: 2007 Update

AUA Staff:
Monica Liebert, Ph.D.
Edith Budd
Michael Folmer
Katherine Moore

This publication was supported by Grant Number C12/CCC323617-01

from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Its contents are solely
the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the
official views of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 4
Context............................................................................................................................................ 5
Definitions and Terminology.......................................................................................................... 6
Screening Tests.........................................................................................................................................................6
PSA.......................................................................................................................................................................6
DRE......................................................................................................................................................................7
Prostate Biopsy ....................................................................................................................................................7
Tumor Characteristics...............................................................................................................................................7
Tumor Grade........................................................................................................................................................7
High-Grade Cancer .............................................................................................................................................8
Tumor Stage .........................................................................................................................................................8

Initial Evaluation and Discussion of Treatment Options with the Patient...................................... 8

Life Expectancy and Health Status ...........................................................................................................................9
Tumor Characteristics...............................................................................................................................................9
Risk Strata.................................................................................................................................................................9
Treatment Options ..................................................................................................................................................10
Watchful Waiting and Active Surveillance .........................................................................................................10
Interstitial Prostate Brachytherapy....................................................................................................................12
External Beam Radiotherapy .............................................................................................................................12
Radical Prostatectomy .......................................................................................................................................14
Primary Hormonal Therapy...............................................................................................................................14
Other Treatments ...............................................................................................................................................15

Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 16
Search and Data Extraction, Review, and Categorization ......................................................................................16
Data Limitations .....................................................................................................................................................23
Guideline Statement Definitions.............................................................................................................................25
Deliberations and Conclusions of the Panel ...........................................................................................................26
Future Prostate Cancer Guideline Panel Activities.................................................................................................26

Treatment Alternatives.................................................................................................................. 27
Treatment Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 27
Treatment of the Low-Risk Patient.........................................................................................................................27
Treatment of the Intermediate-Risk Patient ............................................................................................................29
Treatment of the High-Risk Patient ........................................................................................................................30
Additional Treatment Guidelines............................................................................................................................31

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

Treatment Complications.............................................................................................................. 32
Summary of Treatment Complications...................................................................................................................32
Analysis of Treatment Complications ....................................................................................................................37
Incontinence and Other Genitourinary Toxicity ................................................................................................38
Gastrointestinal Toxicity ....................................................................................................................................39
Erectile Dysfunction...........................................................................................................................................39

Quality of Life and Treatment Decisions: A Major Patient Concern in Clinically Localized
Prostate Cancer ............................................................................................................................. 41
Randomized Controlled Trials...................................................................................................... 42
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................42
RCTs Comparing Different Treatment Modalities .................................................................................................43
Watchful Waiting Versus Radical Prostatectomy...............................................................................................43
Adjuvant Bicalutamide Therapy.........................................................................................................................45
RCTs Within Treatment Modalities........................................................................................................................46
External Beam Radiotherapy .............................................................................................................................46
External Beam Radiotherapy Fractionation ......................................................................................................47
The Role of Combined Therapy .............................................................................................................................47
Neoadjuvant Hormonal Therapy in Combination with Radical Prostatectomy.................................................47
Hormonal Therapy in Combination with Radiation Therapy.............................................................................48

Future Research Needs ................................................................................................................. 50

Acknowledgments and Disclaimers: Guideline for the Management of Clinically Localized
Prostate Cancer: 2007 Update...................................................................................................... 55
References..................................................................................................................................... 56

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

Introduction
In December 1995, the American Urological Association (AUA) published the Report on the
Management of Clinically Localized Prostate Cancer.1 The document was the culmination of six
years of work by 17 clinicians and scientists and required the evaluation of 12,501 scientific
publications with the detailed extraction of information from 165 papers that met the rigorous
criteria of the panel of experts (Appendix 1). The Panel noted that a lack of evidence precluded
specific recommendations for optimal treatment of an individual patient, which patients should
be offered all treatment options, and that patient preferences should guide decision making.
Since 1995, approximately 2,600,000 men2 in the United States have been diagnosed with
prostate cancer, and nearly 375,000 men3, 4 have lost their lives to this disease. In addition, the
National Cancer Institute4 has spent $2.1 billion on prostate cancer research and as of November
2005, approximately 28,111 scientific papers concerning prostate cancer have been published in
peer-reviewed medical journals (OVID Search, December 31, 1995 to October 23, 2005; key
word: prostatic neoplasms). At the same time, mortality rates from prostate cancer have been
declining: 34,475 men died in 1995 compared with an estimated 30,350 in 2005.4 Several
pivotal randomized clinical trials related to prostate cancer treatment have been completed,
including a chemoprevention study,5 along with studies demonstrating prolongation of life in
men with hormone-refractory metastatic disease6, 7 and improved outcomes in men with
nonmetastatic disease.8-35 With the use of new and combined treatments, the frequency and
variety of complications have differed from those previously reported. Advances have been
made in prostate cancer imaging, biopsy methodology, in understanding causative factors and
disease, in treatment-related quality of life and in predicting the behavior of individual tumors
using risk strata.
Despite these advances, no consensus has emerged regarding the optimal treatment for the most
common patient with prostate cancer: the man with clinically localized stage T1 to T2 disease
with no regional lymph node or distant metastasis (T1 to T2N0-NxM0). Of the 234,460 men in
the United States diagnosed with prostate cancer annually, 91% have localized disease.36 For
these men and their families, the bewildering array of information from scientific and lay sources
offers no clear-cut recommendations.

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

Understanding this challenge for patients with newly diagnosed localized prostate cancer and the
explosion in research and publications, the AUA re-impaneled the Prostate Cancer Clinical
Guideline Panel (Appendix 2) for the purpose of reexamining and updating its analysis of
treatment options. We herein report the results of a 5 -year effort to update the 1995 Guideline.
The online version of this Guideline, which can be accessed at
http://www.auanet.org/guidelines/, contains appendices that include additional documents used
in the conduct of the analysis and the graphics detailing the Panels findings.

Context
A contemporary man with localized prostate cancer is substantially different from the man with
prostate cancer of 20 years ago. With the advent of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening
beginning in the late 1980s and the dramatic increase in public awareness of the disease, the
average new prostate cancer patient has generally undergone multiple prior PSA tests and may
even have experienced one or more prior negative prostate biopsies. When the cancer is detected,
it is in a substantially earlier stage, often nonpalpable clinical stage T1c with, perhaps, one to
several positive biopsy cores. The typical patient usually is very familiar with his PSA history
and has a history of multiple visits to either his primary care provider or urologist. The most
common patient will likely have Gleason score 6 or 7 disease, reflecting the most common
current grading category and the fact that contemporary uropathologists assign this score more
often than in the past when this group of tumors was frequently diagnosed one or two scores
lower.37 The average patient of today also will more commonly have serum PSA levels in the 4
to 10 ng/mL range, and often in the 2.5 to 4.0 ng/mL range. In many cases, the patients PSA
history will include sufficient data to allow a prediagnosis PSA velocity or doubling time to be
calculated. Generally, the treating physicians will personalize the patients risk based on serum
PSA level, highest/worst Gleason score, clinical stage, and burden of disease (either number or
percent of biopsy cores with cancer).
Following diagnosis, today's patient will oftentimes be better informed and consequently request
a second opinion by other physicians including other urologists or such specialists as radiation
and medical oncologists. Many centers offer multidisciplinary clinics where the patient can
consult with urologists, and with radiation and medical oncologists at one location. After
considering the options and gathering several opinions, a patient and his family will choose
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

among active surveillance, interstitial prostate brachytherapy, external beam radiotherapy, and
radical prostatectomy with treatment generally commencing two to three months after diagnosis.
Aside from this complex decision, where the evidence basis for action has been suboptimal,
patients now also are faced with subtle but important technical decisions such as choosing the
type of surgery (e.g., open versus laparoscopic/robotic prostatectomy), the type of radiotherapy
(e.g., conformal versus intensity modulated), the type of brachytherapy isotope, or whether a
combination (e.g., brachytherapy and external beam radiotherapy) of therapies should be used.
Minimal data currently are available for the following interventions: high-intensity focused
ultrasound, cryotherapy, high-dose rate interstitial prostate brachytherapy, and primary hormonal
therapy. Conclusions regarding outcomes of these treatments cannot be made.
It is in this very changed environment that we present the 2007 AUA Prostate Cancer Clinical
Guideline Panel report.

Definitions and Terminology

The reader desiring a greater degree of information regarding the terminology used herein is
directed to Appendix 3, which provides a glossary of terms important to a full understanding of
the management options of localized prostate cancer.
Screening Tests
Clinically localized prostate cancer generally causes no symptoms. Slowing of the urinary
stream, arising at night to void, and increased urinary frequency are common symptoms
associated with aging but often are unrelated to the presence of prostate cancer. It is for this
reason that early detection tests have been developed in order to identify prostate cancer while it
remains confined to the prostate. The two most commonly used tests are a serum PSA level and a
digital rectal examination (DRE).38, 39
PSA
PSA is a protein produced by cells within the prostate, and in men PSA can be measured in the
blood. While higher blood PSA levels often are noted in men with prostate cancer, PSA
elevation is not specific for prostate cancer. At present, a higher PSA test value is the most
common reason why prostate cancer is detected in the United States.

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

DRE
A DRE is an examination by a physician using a gloved finger placed into the rectum to feel the
surface of the prostate. The region of the prostate adjacent to the rectal wall is where tumors
commonly develop; hard regions or asymmetry may indicate the presence of prostate cancer.
Prostate Biopsy
Although a higher PSA value or abnormal DRE may raise the suspicion of prostate cancer,
detection requires confirmation with a prostate biopsy. At the time of biopsy, several small cores
of tissue are removed from the prostate and are then examined by a pathologist to determine if
cancer is present.
Tumor Characteristics
Tumor Grade
Tumor aggressiveness can be determined by the pathologists examination of the microscopic
pattern of the cancer cells. The most commonly used tumor grading system is the Gleason
grading.40, 41 This system assigns a grade for each prostate cancer from 1 (least aggressive) to 5
(most aggressive) based on the degree of architectural differentiation of the tumor. Tumors often
show multiple different grade patterns within the prostate or even a single core biopsy. To
account for this, the Gleason score is obtained by assigning a primary grade to the most
predominant grade present and a secondary grade to the second most predominant grade. An
exception to this is in the case where the highest (most aggressive) pattern present in a biopsy is
not either the most predominant or second most predominant pattern; in this situation, the
Gleason score is obtained by combining the most predominant pattern grade with the highest
grade. The Gleason score is then displayed as, for example, 3+4 where 3 would be the most
common pattern of tumor and 4 the second most common pattern (or highest pattern) of tumor
seen in the core. Given that the individual Gleason value can range from 1 to 5, the added values
(Gleason scores or sums) can range from 1+1 to 5+5 or from 2 to 10. Generally, Gleason
scores of 2 to 4 are uncommon; as a result, the majority of detected tumors range from 5 to 10.
Occasionally, if a small component of a tumor on prostatectomy is of a pattern that is higher than
the two most predominant patterns, then the minor component is added as a tertiary grade to the

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

report (e.g., 60% pattern 3, 35% pattern 4, and 5% pattern 5 should be reported as 3+4 with
tertiary grade 5).
High-Grade Cancer
With each increase in tumor score (e.g., from Gleason 5 to 6), there is an increase in tumor
aggressiveness. High-grade cancer commonly refers to the most aggressive of tumors, generally
Gleason scores of 8 to 10 (the most aggressive group), but also can include Gleason 7 tumors.
Tumor Stage
Tumor stage refers to the degree to which the tumor has involved the prostate gland or has
spread. As with other tumors, prostate cancers that involve only a small portion of the prostate
are more successfully treated than those that have extended throughout the gland. Similarly,
tumors that remain confined to the prostate are also more successfully treated than those that
have extended beyond the confines of the gland. Finally, tumors that have spread to sites remote
to the prostate (e.g., metastatic disease in lymph nodes or bone) have the poorest outcomes. The
American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) has established a system of tumor staging
(Appendix 4).42
For the purposes of this guideline, the Panel chose to only examine treatment options for the
most common group of patients diagnosed today: the patient whose tumor is confined to the
prostate. Using the AJCC nomenclature, these tumors are clinical stage T1 (normal DRE) or T2
(abnormal DRE but no evidence of disease beyond the confines of the prostate), N0 to Nx (no
evidence of spread to regional lymph nodes or regional lymph nodes were not assessed), and M0
(no evidence of metastatic spread).

Initial Evaluation and Discussion of Treatment Options with the Patient

Standard: An assessment of the patients life expectancy, overall health status, and
tumor characteristics should be undertaken before any treatment decisions can be
made.
[Based on review of the data and Panel consensus.]

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

Life Expectancy and Health Status

Life expectancy, rather than patient age, is a major factor to consider in treatment selection.
Thus, the Panel did not specify a chronological age cutoff point for the patient to whom this
Guideline applies. When a mans life expectancy is relatively long, localized prostate cancer can
be a cause of morbidity and mortality. At an advanced patient age or when life expectancy is
relatively short, competing hazards for mortality reduce the chance that a man will experience
disease progression or die from prostate cancer (Appendix 5).10, 43
The patients overall health status is the sum of all conditions and includes both patient and
family history as well as the present state of the patients well-being and the degree of any
coexistent disease. There are two reasons to evaluate overall health status prior to deciding on an
intervention: (1) overall health status influences life expectancy, and (2) overall health status
may affect patient response to adverse events resulting from particular interventions. In the
management of prostate cancer, urinary, sexual, and bowel functions are important to consider
when choosing a therapy.
Tumor Characteristics
Tumor characteristics, including PSA level and such changes as velocity and doubling time,44, 45
Gleason score, and tumor stage are predictive of cancer outcomes. Using PSA, Gleason score,
and tumor stage, risk strata have been defined that are significantly associated with PSA
recurrence and cancer-specific mortality.46 Therefore, these risk strata have been used as the
basis for the current data analysis and treatment option specifications. Because of the differences
in outcome by risk group for a given treatment, the Panel opted to develop treatment
recommendations based on these risk strata. The size (volume) of the prostate gland may impact
the treatment choice in some situations and, thus, requires consideration prior to instituting
therapy.
Risk Strata
Risk stratification schemes have been developed based on the PSA level, biopsy Gleason score,
and 2002 AJCC clinical T-category that are associated with the risk of PSA failure and prostate
cancer-specific mortality following radical prostatectomy, external beam radiotherapy, or
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

interstitial prostate brachytherapy.47 While variations on this system exist, for the purpose of this
report the following scheme was used:
x

Low risk: PSA 10 ng/mL and a Gleason score of 6 or less and clinical stage T1c or
T2a

Intermediate risk: PSA >10 to 20 ng/mL or a Gleason score of 7 or clinical stage T2b
but not qualifying for high risk

High risk: PSA >20 ng/mL or a Gleason score of 8 to 10 or clinical stage T2c
*For updated information on PSA levels see PSA Best Practice Statement: 2009 Update, pg.26

Treatment Options
Watchful Waiting and Active Surveillance
The great disparity between cancer incidence and mortality indicates that many men may not
benefit from definitive treatment of localized prostate cancer. Autopsy studies have shown that
60% to 70% of older men have some areas of cancer within the prostate.48, 49 This can be
compared with the 15% to 20% of men diagnosed with prostate cancer during their lifetime and
with the 3% lifetime risk of death from prostate cancer.36 Men who choose not to undergo
immediate therapy may opt for continued follow-up under a program of watchful waiting or
active surveillance.
Watchful waiting, as studied in randomized controlled trials (RCTs),10, 19, 50 is based on the
premise that some patients will not benefit from definitive treatment of the primary prostate
cancer. The decision is made at the outset to forgo definitive treatment and to instead provide
palliative treatment for local or metastatic progression if and when it occurs. Options for local
palliation could include transurethral resection of the prostate or other procedures for the
management of urinary tract obstruction, and hormonal therapy or radiotherapy for palliation of
metastatic lesions.
In contrast to watchful waiting, a program of active surveillance is based on the premise that
some, but not all, patients may benefit from treatment of their primary prostate cancer. A
program of active surveillance has two goals: (1) to provide definitive treatment for men with
localized cancers that are likely to progress and (2) to reduce the risk of treatment-related
complications for men with cancers that are not likely to progress.

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An ideal regimen for active surveillance has not been defined but could include periodic physical
examination and PSA testing or periodic repeat prostate biopsies to assess for sampling error of
the initial biopsy as well as for subsequent progression of tumor grade and/or volume. Active
surveillance currently is under study in non-randomized trials in Canada, the United Kingdom,
and the United States.51-53 A multicenter randomized trial of active surveillance versus
immediate intervention was to have opened in the United States in 2006.
Which patients are suitable candidates for active surveillance? Patients with lower risk tumors
(low Gleason score, PSA level, and clinical stage) could be candidates for this treatment strategy.
Several studies have shown that patients with lower grade, localized prostate cancer have a low
risk for clinical progression within the first 10 to 15 years after the diagnosis.37, 51, 54-56 Thus, this
treatment strategy may be best suited for men with a shorter life expectancy. Generally, patients
with high-grade tumors have a relatively poor prognosis and are not suitable for active
surveillance but, as will be noted in this report, often have poor outcomes with any therapy.
Under special conditions, some patients with a longer life expectancy may opt for active
surveillance as their primary management. This may include patients with very small areas of
cancer in their biopsy or patients who, at the time of diagnosis, are reluctant to accept the side
effects of potentially curative therapies. If the tumor shows evidence of progression (e.g.,
increased grade, volume, or stage) while the patient still has a reasonable life expectancy,
curative treatments (e.g., surgery or radiation) can be initiated.53 This can be a difficult clinical
decision since signs of progression must be identified before the cancer evolves to a stage (or
grade) where therapy is no longer curative. Currently, providing evidence-based
recommendations for when to intervene in patients with a long life expectancy are not possible
since markers of disease progression are poorly validated. Most reports describe a clinical
strategy that includes regular PSA level measurement and DRE with a periodic repeat prostate
biopsy along with an option of more active therapy if biochemical (increasing PSA) or
histopathologic (increased tumor grade or volume) progression occurs.57, 58 In this Guideline
document, the Panel used the term active surveillance to refer to a monitoring program without
initial treatment for the patient with localized cancer. As noted previously, this monitoring
program and its goals may be different based on patient and tumor characteristics and thus is

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distinct from watchful waiting in which a lesser degree of monitoring may be used and in which
treatment is generally instituted if metastases or symptoms develop.
Interstitial Prostate Brachytherapy
Permanent interstitial prostate brachytherapy as a treatment has been performed since the
1960s.59 Initially, patients were taken to the operating room for an open lymphadenectomy at
which time they underwent placement of iodine 125 seeds. After much experience, the
limitations of this technique were identified by researchers at the Memorial Sloan-Kettering
Cancer Center60 and, in the late 1980s, a transperineal approach was developed as a definitive
treatment for localized prostate cancer.61
Patients with clinically localized prostate cancer are considered candidates for interstitial prostate
brachytherapy, but practitioners differ with respect to which risk groups are offered this
approach. Some practitioners will use this treatment option for low-risk disease only while others
will treat both low and intermediate-risk patients.62 Prior to initiating therapy, a transrectal
ultrasound-based volume study is performed to assess prostate volume and to determine the
number of needles and corresponding radioactive seeds, the isotope, and the isotope strength
necessary for the procedure. The radioactive needles are implanted via a transperineal approach
under guidance of transrectal ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging. Common regimens
employ 120 Gy (palladium) or 140 Gy (125I) with postoperative dosimetry performed for each
patient. Treatment alternatives include different isotope types in combination with hormonal
therapy and/or external beam radiotherapy.62, 63 One of the most important factors in predicting
the effectiveness of an implant is implant quality. An excellent implant is defined as one in
which 90% or more of the prostate gland volume receives at least 100% of the prescription
dose.64
External Beam Radiotherapy
External beam radiotherapy has been utilized for the treatment of prostate cancer since the
1930s, with the radiation source at that time being low-energy orthovoltage equipment. Since
then, technological enhancement has been significant. In the late 1960s, megavoltage irradiation
with the first linear accelerators improved the ability to deliver high-radiation doses safely.
Through the 1980s, inclusion of computed tomography (CT) scan-based treatment planning

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improved the accuracy of treatment delivery, permitting more precise targeting of the prostate,
seminal vesicles, and lymph nodes. Simultaneously, this advance facilitated better identification
of the adjacent dose, limiting toxicity to structures such as the bladder, rectum, and small bowel.
The CT scan-based design coupled with 3-dimensional planning allowed for the early work in
radiation dose escalation. As a result of these changes in the 1980s and 1990s, radiation doses
were increased safely from the then typical doses of 65 Gy to 75 to 79 Gy. In the 1990s, the
advent of intensity modulation radiotherapy (IMRT) and image guidance radiotherapy either
with transabdominal ultrasound or the intraprostatic placement of fiducial markers further
refined treatment delivery. The resulting dose accuracy and escalation provide proven
improvements in local tumor elimination and reduction in late radiation-related complications.
For men considering external beam radiotherapy, the pretreatment evaluation commonly
includes, at minimum, a DRE, serum PSA level, and biopsy with Gleason histologic scoring,
preferably recording the number of positive cores, the number of cores sampled, and the
presence or absence of perineural invasion or tertiary grade. Radiographic staging (CT and bone
scan) is recommended for patients with a Gleason score >7 or a PSA level >20 ng/mL prior to
treatment*. Age and general medical condition, except for exceptional circumstances, do not
present an issue for a patient candidate. External beam radiotherapy is indicated as a curative
treatment for prostate cancer in men who do not have a history of inflammatory bowel disease
such as Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, or a history of prior pelvic radiotherapy.
*For updated recommendations on radiographic staging and PSA levels see PSA Best Practice statement: 2009 update pp.33-35

The results of RCTs have guided the use of dose escalation and neoadjuvant or adjuvant
hormonal therapy. As a result, hormonal therapy often is prescribed for men with Gleason score
7 cancer or higher or a PSA level in excess of 10 ng/mL in conjunction with standard-dose
external beam radiotherapy (~70 Gy). Alternatively, dose escalation can be performed safely to
78 to 79 Gy using a 3-dimensional conformal radiation technique and at least four fields with a
margin of no more than 10 mm at the prostatic rectal interface. Such techniques include a CT
scan for treatment planning and either a multileaf collimator, IMRT, or proton radiotherapy
using a high-energy (6 mV or higher) photon beam. For low-risk patients, the RCTs suggest a
benefit of dose escalation. For patients in the intermediate-risk category, RCTs have shown
either short-course hormonal therapy (~ 6 months) and standard-dose external beam radiotherapy
or dose escalation (78 to 79 Gy) should be considered standard. For patients with locally
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advanced or high-grade disease (Gleason score >7), RCTs have shown two to three years of postradiation adjuvant hormonal therapy to improve survival. Follow-up at six-month intervals for
five years and annually thereafter is common for the assessment of the oncological outcome.
Radical Prostatectomy
Radical prostatectomy is a surgical procedure in which the entire prostate gland and attached
seminal vesicles plus the ampulla of the vas deferens are removed. Radical prostatectomy may
be performed using a retropubic or perineal incision or by using a laparoscopic or roboticassisted technique. Depending on tumor characteristics and the patient's sexual function, either
nerve-sparing (to preserve erectile function) or non-nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy is
commonly performed.65 Pelvic lymphadenectomy can be performed concurrently with radical
prostatectomy and is generally reserved for patients with higher risk of nodal involvement.39
Generally, healthy patients undergoing radical prostatectomy will be hospitalized for one to three
days after surgery. Patients with significant medical illnesses or postsurgical complications may
require a longer period of hospitalization. Patients are discharged from the hospital with an
indwelling urethral catheter for one to two weeks to temporarily drain the bladder.
Because the entire prostate gland is removed with radical prostatectomy, the major potential
benefit of this procedure is a cancer cure in patients in whom the prostate cancer is truly
localized. In cases where the prostate cancer is of a high grade, when the tumor has spread
outside of the prostate gland, or when the tumor is not completely excised, removing the prostate
may not ensure that all the cancer is eliminated, putting the patient at risk for recurrence.
Primary Hormonal Therapy
Primary androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) may be employed with the goal of providing
symptomatic control of prostate cancer for patients in whom definitive treatment with surgery or
radiation is not possible or acceptable. The concept of ADT should be distinguished from the use
of neoadjuvant (before radical prostatectomy or radiation therapy) or adjuvant (after radical
prostatectomy or radiation therapy) hormonal therapy. Information from the CaPSURE database,
a prospective, longitudinal registry of patients with all stages of prostate cancer from both
community practice and academic institutions in the United States, shows that the use of primary
hormonal therapy for men with localized prostate cancer has increased significantly among men

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with low- and intermediate-risk disease since the 1995 AUA Guideline was published.66 A
recent report derived from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER)-Medicare
database found very similar results.67
However, published data describing the use of ADT alone as primary therapy for localized
prostate cancer are either retrospective and/or do not specifically address the clinical stage T1 to
T2 population discussed in this Guideline. Because of the paucity of any data, primary ADT has
not been considered a standard treatment option for localized disease. Furthermore, there is a
growing body of evidence that shows that ADT is associated with an increased risk of
cardiovascular disease and diabetes.68 Use of ADT in men who are at risk for or who are already
diagnosed with heart disease and/or diabetes may negatively impact the overall health of such
patients. Unfortunately, it is often these patient conditions that prompt the use of ADT rather
than surgery or radiation. Therefore, the Panel consensus at the initiation of this Guideline was
that primary hormonal therapy would not be included with the standard options of active
surveillance/watchful waiting, surgery, or radiation therapy. The Panel recognizes that this
opinion may change with time if prospective data become available.
Other Treatments
In addition to the treatment modalities described and evaluated by the Panel, a number of
additional treatments as well as combinations of treatments have been used for the management
of clinically localized prostate cancer. These treatments include cryotherapy,69 high-intensity
focused ultrasound, high-dose interstitial prostate brachytherapy, and combinations of treatments
(e.g., external beam radiotherapy and interstitial prostate brachytherapy). Cryosurgery for the
treatment of localized prostate cancer will be the topic of a forthcoming AUA best practice
policy. The Panel did not include the other treatment options in the analysis and
recommendations due to a combination of factors, including limited published experience and
short-term follow-up as well as the similar issues that affected evaluations of other treatment
options (see the Methodology and the Summary of Treatment Complications sections for an
explanation of data limitations).

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Methodology
Due to the lack of randomized studies with sufficient follow-up to accurately assess treatment
impact on patient survival, the 1995 Guideline Panel (Appendix 1) was unable to achieve its
primary goal of publishing summary outcomes tables that compared the available treatments for
localized prostate cancer. Five years hence, with the subsequent development of measures of
biochemical progression, meaningful risk categories, and patient quality-of-life measures as well
as the availability of a more careful and extensive collection of outcomes data, a Guideline
Update Panel was appointed (Appendix 2). It appeared that useful outcomes tables might be
generated at this time. To that end, a two-pronged process was devised. First, the Panel began a
literature search and data extraction to capture clinical treatment outcomes for patients with
clinical stage T1 to T2N0M0 prostate cancer. Second, a project was begun to review the
available quality-of-life measures and determine if reliable quality-of-life differences could be
assessed for the alternative prostate cancer treatments. This second project ultimately was
suspended due to lack of funding as well as to methodologic challenges to such an analysis and
will not be reported further in this document.
Search and Data Extraction, Review, and Categorization
A series of four PubMed searches was conducted between May 2001 and April 2004 to capture
articles published from 1991 through early 2004. The search terms included the MeSH Major
Topics of prostate cancer and prostatic neoplasms and were limited to human subjects and to
the English language. The resulting 13,888 citations and abstracts were screened for articles
reporting outcomes (efficacy or side effects) of prostate cancer treatment in patients with clinical
stage T1 or T2 disease (Figure 1; Appendix 6).

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Figure 1. Article selection process for the 2007 Prostate Cancer Guideline Update

Identified on PubMed Searches*

Initial Search 1991-2002 = 10,644
December 2003 Search 2002-2003 = 2,781
April 2004 Search 12/2003-4/2004 = 463
Total = 13,888

Met Initial Screening Criteria

Initial Search = 1,331
December 2003 Search = 402
April 2004 Search = 31
Total = 1,764

Met Criteria for Extraction

Initial Search = 448
December 2003 Search = 125
April 2004 Search = 19
Total = 592

Accepted
n = 436
Case series/report
Case-control study
Cohort study
Controlled trial
Database or surveillance
Other
Review/policy

Rejected
n = 156
352
3
34
28
14
4
1

No outcomes data
Not local disease
T1 T2 patients <50
Not treatment-related
Duplicate
Other exclusion
Unidentified

31
38
7
0
10
60
10

* Search terms were the MeSH Major Topics of prostate cancer and prostate neoplasms.

Abstracts were screened for articles reporting outcomes (efficacy and safety) of prostate cancer
treatment in patients with clinical stage T1 or T2 disease. Articles were rejected if patients with
higher stage disease were included in the study and the outcomes were not stratified by stage.

Articles were rejected if outcomes were not reported or stratified for early-stage patients.

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Articles were rejected if patients with higher stage disease were included in the study and the
outcomes were not stratified by stage. The 592 articles meeting these inclusion criteria were
retrieved for data extraction. An extraction form (Appendix 7) was developed that included
patient characteristics, treatments, and outcomes data such as the definition of biochemical
progression used in the study, survival, disease-free survival, and progression to invasive disease
(Refer to the Glossary in Appendix 3). During the extraction process, articles again were scanned
for relevance and were rejected if outcomes were not reported or stratified for clinically localized
disease or if outcomes in fewer than 50 patients were reported. Detailed and repeated training of
extractors was performed both by the AUA guidelines staff and consultants and by members of
the Minneapolis Veterans Administration Center for Chronic Disease Outcomes Research,
Cochrane Review Group in Prostate Diseases. After the data extraction from individual articles,
several data quality assurance audits were performed. Double extraction of articles was not
routinely performed. Weekly meetings with the data-extraction team were held to review the
extraction process and to address questions. At that time, a 10% sample of articles was selected,
and the extracted data, in the presence of the original article, were reevaluated by two other
members, including the senior research associate and Dr. Wilt, the project director.
Discrepancies and their reasons (e.g., errors of omission, commission, and interpretation) were
resolved by discussion. Values that appeared to be out of bounds on any article (e.g., very low
age, impossible histologic scores) were noted. Additional quality checks were performed by
members of the AUA guidelines staff, consultants, and Panel members, discrepancies were
noted, and feedback was provided to extractors and resolved through additional discussion and
review. Upon completion, data from 592 articles were extracted and entered into a Microsoft
Access (Microsoft, Redmond, WA) database that serves as the basis for the results reported
herein (Appendix 8).
The Panel met multiple times, both face-to-face and by teleconference, to review the extracted
data. Attempts were made to delete reports/studies of insufficient quality (e.g., those that did not
stratify patients appropriately or lacked data concerning key outcomes) and to determine which
reports/studies overlapped so that duplicate data for the same patients would not be included. In
addition to evidence tables, a large number of graphic displays of the extracted data were
reviewed by the Panel. Displays of efficacy data were based primarily on PSA recurrence due to

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the lack of long-term follow-up. The variation in definition of PSA recurrence among the studies
caused considerable variation in the results as illustrated in Figure 2 and Appendix 11.
Summarizing data concerning complications presented two problems. First, methods of
categorizing complications were not standardized across studies. For example, some studies
reported percentages of patients with gastrointestinal complications while others reported
separate percentages for nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Second, not all studies reported
complications by time since treatment initiation, and those that did report such information were
inconsistent with regard to the time points selected.

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Figure 2. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) recurrence-free survival in patients with low-, intermediate-, and high-risk prostate cancer treated
with interstitial prostate brachytherapy, external beam radiotherapy, or radical prostatectomy.*,,

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Although definitions of PSA recurrence-free survival varied considerably across studies/reports,70 all definitions were considered acceptable and the
data were included in these graphs.

Data for relevant patient groups from extracted articles are plotted on these graphs. Each article may have contributed to more than one patient
group. Single points indicate groups for which data were reported at a single-time point. Points connected by lines indicate groups for which data
were reported at multiple time points; analysis methods for deriving point estimates over time were variable but frequently were Kaplan-Meier
estimates.

Meta-analysis of combinations of data was not possible. See the discussion of data limitations in the Methodology section.

To resolve the first problem, the Panel reviewed all of the reported complications and collapsed
those that were similar into summary categories (Appendix 10) that are used in the graphs in this
document (Figures 3-5). For articles in which multiple individual complications were collapsed
into a single category, the Panel assumed that there was no overlap between individual
complications; thus, the percentage of patients in the summary category was the sum of the
percentages for the individual complications. For example, if an article reported that 8%, 7%,
and 6% of patients experienced nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, respectively, the percentage of
patients with a gastrointestinal complication would be estimated to be 21%. This method of
aggregation yields upper-bound estimates of complication rates. The Panel explored the
alternative of assuming complete overlap between individual complications (yielding an estimate
of 8% for gastrointestinal complications in the previously described example) but concluded that
such lower-bound estimates would be less useful.
To resolve the second problem (i.e., the inconsistent reporting of the times at which
complications were measured), the Panel decided to disregard timing and to simply use the
highest rate reported for a given complication in each study.
With these two decisions -- to use upper-bound estimates of complication rates and to use the
highest rate for a complication regardless of measurement time -- the Panel elected to show the
highest rates of complications occurring for each patient group in each study. As a result,
estimates should consistently err on the side of overstating actual complication rates.
It is worth noting that the most difficult complications to categorize were urinary incontinence
and erectile dysfunction for which there were a large number of different measures. Ultimately,
the Panel elected to use consolidated measures of severity for each of these outcomes.71, 72
Based on the data review and subsequent identification of the data limitations detailed later in
this document, meta-analysis was not deemed appropriate and further analysis and development
of summary outcomes estimates were not undertaken. Thus, the present Guideline suffered the
same problem as the original 1995 version: the data are still insufficient to provide adequate
summary outcomes estimates for the target patient(s).

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Data Limitations
Specific data limitations identified were:
1.

A lack of data supporting the most important outcomes: patient survival, disease-free
survival, and progression to metastatic disease.

2.

The use of PSA recurrence as a measure of long-term disease control. PSA recurrence
has not been shown to correlate well with longer term outcomes and has been
inconsistently defined. The articles reviewed by the Panel included approximately 166
different criteria for PSA recurrence that made a comparison of treatment outcomes
impossible (Appendix 11). A separate paper detailing this variation in definition of PSA
recurrence is in preparation.70 It should be noted that after the construction of the current
Guideline, the American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology (ASTRO)
recommended the adoption of PSA nadir + 2 ng/mL as the definition for PSA failure
because it was found to be more closely associated with clinical failure (local and
distant) and distant failure than the prior ASTRO definition of PSA failure.73, 74
Therefore, future guidelines will incorporate this new definition of PSA failure.

3.

The existence of few RCTs. As with the previous guideline, most of the studies were
based on data from patient series. Patient selection bias could not be controlled for valid
comparisons.

4.

Duplication of data from articles that reported studies of the same or overlapping sets of
patients that had either been reanalyzed or analyzed after additional follow-up. The
Panel conducted multiple separate data extractions and analyses in an attempt to control
for this rereporting of treatment series but was unable to correct for this bias due to
incomplete data reporting in the individual treatment series.

5.

Inconsistencies in approaches to reporting patient characteristics. Frequently, the series

would report outcomes in categories of patients but these categories were rarely similar
across the series. For example, outcomes of treatment in one series of patients with low
risk disease might include a Gleason score <7, a PSA <10 ng/mL, and clinical stage T1
to T2b disease while a second series might define low risk as a Gleason score of <6, a
PSA <10 ng/mL, and clinical stage T1 to T2a disease. Combining or contrasting
outcomes with such a wide range of definitions was not possible.

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6.

Inconsistencies in reporting the number of patients at risk at the various follow-up times
shown. Even though most studies currently report survival data using Kaplan-Meier
calculations, by not including the number of patients at risk at fixed time points (e.g.,
five years post-surgery), it is not possible to combine weighted-like estimates across
cohorts of patients.

7.

Incomplete and/or inconsistent reporting of complications, most evident for the two most
common complications -- erectile dysfunction and urinary incontinence. For both of
these complications, a variety of outcome measures was used in the studies/reports.
Unfortunately, all measures are not necessarily based on common definitions of these
complications. This further jeopardizes the aggregation of these complications into
incidence rates. The Panel has prepared separate analyses of the variation in reporting
these complications.

8.

The combination of patients with clinical stage T3 disease with those with stage T1 to
T2 when reporting outcomes. As the Panel's mandate was to make recommendations for
clinically localized prostate cancer, the inclusion of patients with T3 disease in many
series made these reports nonapplicable to the target patient population for this
Guideline.

The lack of and inconsistencies in the data were also, in part, due to the design and process of the
data extraction. The strict inclusion criteria used to define the body of literature extracted may
have caused potentially useful studies to be excluded from the analysis. For example, many
radiotherapy studies reported outcomes for patients with clinical stage T1 to T3 disease. If the
patients with T1/T2 disease could not be separated from those with T3 disease, this series was
rejected from the extraction process because of T3 contamination. In addition, some of the
variation in outcomes may have been due to the variation in the groups examined as data were
extracted by patient group based on such characteristics as stage, PSA level, and grade.

A quantitative synthesis of the results of the quality-of-life literature also was impossible due to
cross-study diversity in the following:
1. Measures used to capture quality-of-life data. A wide variety of instruments has been
used. While some studies use validated instruments, others use ad hoc, study-specific
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measures with unknown psychometric properties. Differences in instrument content limit

the ability to combine scale scores from different measures.
2. Formats of reporting quality-of-life data. Appropriate summary statistics for computing
effect sizes (i.e., means and variances) are not always reported. Some investigators report
scale and/or subscale means, others report median scale and/or subscale scores, and still
others report only frequencies of select items.
3. The time points of follow-up assessment. Follow-up assessment points are often studyspecific and vary considerably. Many retrospective series report aggregated summary
scores that cover a wide range of follow-up time points.
Guideline Statement Definitions
The Panel developed guideline statements based on the limited data. As in the previous
guideline, the present statements were graded with respect to the degree of flexibility in their
application. Although the terminology has changed slightly, the current three levels are
essentially the same as in the previous guideline. A "standard" has the least flexibility as a treatment policy; a "recommendation" has significantly more flexibility; and an "option" is even more
flexible. These three levels of flexibility are defined as follows:
1.

Standard: A guideline statement is a standard if: (1) the health outcomes of the
alternative interventions are sufficiently well known to permit meaningful decisions, and
(2) there is virtual unanimity about which intervention is preferred.

2.

Recommendation: A guideline statement is a recommendation if: (1) the health

outcomes of the alternative interventions are sufficiently well known to permit
meaningful decisions, and (2) an appreciable but not unanimous majority agrees on
which intervention is preferred.

3.

Option: A guideline statement is an option if: (1) the health outcomes of the
interventions are not sufficiently well known to permit meaningful decisions, or (2)
preferences are unknown or equivocal.

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Deliberations and Conclusions of the Panel

The Prostate Cancer Clinical Guideline Update Panel found wide variation in the outcomes for
each treatment of prostate cancer such that it was necessary to describe most guideline
statements (described later) as options. The reasons why no further treatment policies could be
made were summarized previously. Nonetheless, some guideline statements were developed by
the Panelalmost universally based on the results of RCTs, many of which were published since
the publication of the 1995 Guideline. As such, the guideline statements contain several stronger
treatment policies based on these RCTs. In the guideline statements, the Panel selected the term
should when the results of one or more RCTs do apply to the patient with clinical stage T1 to
T2N0M0 disease and the term may when the results of one or more RCTs may apply to this
patient population. (For example, if an RCT showed an improvement in metastasis-free survival
for surgery when compared to watchful waiting in a population of men with organ-confined
prostate cancer but did not provide an analysis strictly for low-risk disease, this observation was
modified by the term "may" for patients with low-risk disease.)
The collective writing efforts of the Panel members and consultants resulted in this report. After
Panel approval, a draft underwent peer review by 87 individuals, including members of the
Practice Guidelines Committee, the AUA Board of Directors, and external prostate cancer
experts. The Guideline was modified where the Panel deemed necessary in response to
comments from 27 reviewers. A final version of the report was generated and the Panel voted for
approval. This version was then forwarded, in turn, for approval of the Practice Guidelines
Committee and the Board of Directors.
This Guideline is published on the AUA website and printed in The Journal of Urology. The
guideline statements are published annually in a pocket guide. This Guideline is expected to be
updated when the Practice Guidelines Committee determines that additional treatments or
evidence about existing treatments warrant a revision.
Future Prostate Cancer Guideline Panel Activities
Because the Panel was unable to develop guideline statements other than Options for the
majority of the important decisions that patients and physicians face in the management of

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clinically localized prostate cancer due to a lack of comparable data - particularly RCTs - the
Panel has recommended that changes be made in the approach to prostate cancer guideline
development. The Panel has recommended that this Guideline be updated regularly and that
these updates be based solely on evidence from RCTs. Other data can be presented to the
Guideline Panel but it is unlikely, given the experience with previous data, that treatment series
will affect guideline development.

Treatment Alternatives
Standard: A patient with clinically localized prostate cancer should be informed
about the commonly accepted initial interventions including, at a minimum, active
surveillance, radiotherapy (external beam and interstitial), and radical
prostatectomy. A discussion of the estimates for benefits and harms of each
intervention should be offered to the patient.
[Based on Panel consensus.]
When making a decision regarding treatment, patients and physicians should weigh their
perception/understanding of cancer control with the potential side effects. In this Guideline, a
synopsis of the results in these two domains is presented. Cancer control is presented stratified
by risk group as defined previously; complications are presented stratified by treatment. It is
important to recognize that as combined modality therapy has become more frequently utilized
for men with high-risk disease, the rate of occurrence of complications also has increased as
compared to what is reported in this Guideline for single-modality therapy.

Treatment Recommendations
Treatment of the Low-Risk Patient
Option: Active surveillance, interstitial prostate brachytherapy, external beam
radiotherapy, and radical prostatectomy are appropriate monotherapy treatment
options for the patient with low-risk localized prostate cancer.
[Based on review of the data and Panel consensus.]

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Active surveillance, interstitial prostate brachytherapy, external beam radiotherapy, and radical
prostatectomy are all options for treatment of the low-risk patient. Study outcomes data do not
provide clear-cut evidence for the superiority of any one treatment.
Standard: Patient preferences and health conditions related to urinary, sexual, and
bowel function should be considered in decision making. Particular treatments have
the potential to improve, to exacerbate or to have no effect on individual health
conditions in these areas, making no one treatment modality preferable for all
patients.
[Based on review of the data and Panel consensus.]
Standard: When counseling patients regarding treatment options, physicians
should consider the following:
x

Two randomized controlled clinical trials show that higher dose radiation may
decrease the risk of PSA recurrence27, 35;

Based on outcomes of one randomized controlled clinical trial, when watchful

waiting and radical prostatectomy are compared, radical prostatectomy may be
associated with a lower risk of cancer recurrence, cancer-related death, and
improved survival.10

[Based on review of the data and Panel consensus.]

Standard: Patients who are considering specific treatment options should be
informed of the findings of recent high-quality clinical trials, including that:
x

For those considering external beam radiotherapy, higher dose radiation may
decrease the risk of PSA recurrence27, 35 ;

When compared with watchful waiting, radical prostatectomy may lower the
risk of cancer recurrence and improve survival.10

[Based on review of the data and Panel consensus.]

Standard: For patients choosing active surveillance, the aim of the second-line
therapy (curative or palliative) should be determined and follow-up tailored
accordingly.

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[Based on Panel consensus.]

Patients who opt not to initially treat their prostate cancers may have differing expectations. For
example, some may desire to monitor the tumor carefully on a program of active surveillance
that includes frequent PSA and DRE testing and with regular repeat biopsies in order to
intervene the moment that there is any evidence of tumor progression. Other men may have a
greater focus on current quality-of-life issues, may have little interest in intervention, and may
opt for more of a watchful waiting program. The follow-up schedule for these two aims will be
different with more frequent and extensive evaluations in the former and fewer in the latter.
Treatment of the Intermediate-Risk Patient
Option: Active surveillance, interstitial prostate brachytherapy, external beam
radiotherapy, and radical prostatectomy are appropriate treatment options for the
patient with intermediate-risk localized prostate cancer.
[Based on review of the data and Panel consensus.]
Active surveillance, interstitial prostate brachytherapy, external beam radiotherapy, and radical
prostatectomy are all options for the treatment of intermediate-risk localized prostate cancer.
Study outcomes data do not provide clear-cut evidence for the superiority of any one treatment.
Standard: Patient preferences and functional status with a specific focus on
functional outcomes including urinary, sexual, and bowel function should be
considered in decision making.
[Based on review of the data and Panel consensus.]
Standard: When counseling patients regarding treatment options, physicians
should consider the following:
x

Based on outcomes of one randomized controlled clinical trial, the use of

neoadjuvant and concurrent hormonal therapy for a total of six months may
prolong survival in the patient who has opted for conventional dose external
beam radiotherapy14;

Based on outcomes of one randomized controlled clinical trial, when watchful

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waiting and radical prostatectomy are compared, radical prostatectomy may be

associated with a lower risk of cancer recurrence, cancer-related death, and
improved survival10;
x

Based on outcomes of two randomized controlled clinical trials, higher dose

radiation may decrease the risk of PSA recurrence.27, 35

[Based on review of the data and Panel consensus.]

Standard: Patients who are considering specific treatment options should be
informed of the findings of recent high-quality clinical trials, including that:
x

For those considering external beam radiotherapy, the use of hormonal

therapy combined with conventional-dose radiotherapy may prolong
survival14;

When compared with watchful waiting, radical prostatectomy may lower the
risk of cancer recurrence and improve survival10;

For those considering external beam radiotherapy, higher dose radiation

may decrease the risk of PSA recurrence.27, 35

[Based on review of the data and Panel consensus.]

Standard: For patients choosing active surveillance, the aim of the second-line
therapy (curative or palliative) should be determined and follow-up tailored
accordingly.
[Based on Panel consensus.]
Treatment of the High-Risk Patient
Option: Although active surveillance, interstitial prostate brachytherapy, external
beam radiotherapy, and radical prostatectomy are options for the management of
patients with high-risk localized prostate cancer, recurrence rates are high.
[Based on review of the data.]
Standard: When counseling patients regarding treatment options, physicians
should consider the following:
x

Based on outcomes of one randomized controlled clinical trial, when watchful

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waiting and radical prostatectomy are compared, radical prostatectomy may be

associated with a lower risk of cancer recurrence, cancer-related death, and
improved survival10;
x

Based on results of two randomized controlled clinical trials, the use of adjuvant
and concurrent hormonal therapy may prolong survival in the patient who has
opted for radiotherapy.11, 14

[Based on review of the data.]

Standard: High-risk patients who are considering specific treatment options should
be informed of findings of recent high-quality clinical trials, including that:
x

When compared with watchful waiting, radical prostatectomy may lower the
risk of cancer recurrence and improve survival10; and

For those considering external beam radiotherapy, use of hormonal therapy

combined with conventional radiotherapy may prolong survival.11, 14

[Based on review of the data.]

Active surveillance, interstitial prostate brachytherapy, external beam radiotherapy, and surgery
remain treatment options for the patient with high-risk disease due to the lack of evidence of
superiority of one therapy over another. Despite the lack of high-quality evidence of treatment
benefit among these patients, a high risk of disease progression and death from disease may
make active treatment a preferred option. Treatments chosen for high-risk patients (non-nervesparing prostatectomy, higher dose radiation, or a combination of radiation and hormonal
therapy) are all associated with a high risk of erectile dysfunction.
Additional Treatment Guidelines
Recommendation: Patients with localized prostate cancer should be offered the
opportunity to enroll in available clinical trials examining new forms of therapy,
including combination therapies, with the goal of improved outcomes.
[Based on Panel consensus.]
The Panel feels strongly that all physicians treating patients with prostate cancer have the
responsibility to inform patients of the availability of clinical trials for the management of this

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disease. It will be essential for the entire medical community to participate in offering and
encouraging participation in these trials in order to both advance the care for the disease as well
as to provide guidance for patients who currently have few data to determine optional therapy.
Recommendation: First-line hormone therapy is seldom indicated in patients with
localized prostate cancer. An exception may be for the palliation of symptomatic
patients with more extensive or poorly differentiated tumors whose life expectancy
is too short to benefit from treatment with curative intent. The morbidities of ADT
should be considered in the context of the existing comorbidities of the patient when
choosing palliative ADT.
[Based on Panel consensus.]

Treatment Complications
Summary of Treatment Complications
Graphic displays visually represent the rates of frequently reported complications (Figures 3-5)
drawn from the interstitial prostate brachytherapy, external beam radiotherapy, and radical
prostatectomy case series. There were too few watchful waiting or active surveillance series to
warrant graphic display. As described in more detail in the Methodology section, because of
the variation in complication reporting, similar complications were collapsed into a summary
category. For studies in which the complications were collapsed, the complication rate estimate
was maximized by assuming that there was no overlap between the individual reports of the
complication (i.e., the percentage of patients in the summary category was the sum of the
percentages for each individual report of the complication). In a series in which the complication
was presented by time since treatment initiation, the Panel simply used the highest rate reported
and disregarded the timing. Each circle on a graph represents one series reporting the
complication. These graphs show the variability of complication rates across the reporting series
reviewed by the Panel. It must be emphasized that the graphs show neither the size of each series
nor the confidence interval for the indicated percentage.

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Figure 3. Rate of complications reported with interstitial prostate brachytherapy*

* For some complications, no data were available.

ED, erectile dysfunction; GI, gastrointestinal; GU, genitourinary.

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Figure 4. Rate of complications reported with external beam radiotherapy*

* For some complications, no data were available.

ED, erectile dysfunction; GI, gastrointestinal; GU, genitourinary.

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Figure 5. Rate of complications reported with radical prostatectomy*

* For some complications, no data were available.

ED, erectile dysfunction; GI, gastrointestinal; GU, genitourinary.

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Some of the complications apply to all three treatment modalities, but not necessarily to the same
extent. Urinary incontinence, for example, is reported by eight articles (12 patient groups with 27
individual symptom/time-data points) as a complication of interstitial prostate brachytherapy, by
10 articles (12 patient groups with 34 symptom/time-data points) as a complication of external
beam radiotherapy, and by 14 articles (20 patient groups with 42 symptom/time-data points) as a
complication of radical prostatectomy. To some degree, each form of therapy has its own
spectrum of complications. For example, hematuria is reported in several interstitial prostate
brachytherapy and external beam radiotherapy series but is not reported in any surgical series.
The Panel was unable to determine that any one therapy has a more significant cumulative overall risk of complications.
Caveats. The complications data are subject to some of the same problems as the prostate cancer
outcomes data, namely: selection biases due to lack of randomization, duplication of data from
separate reports of overlapping patient sets, and inconsistencies in reporting the number of at-risk
patients. Other sources of bias and variability exist that are unique to the reporting of
complications. These include:
1. Publication bias. The possibility exists that centers publishing their results are those with
low-complication rates, a positive bias. The data also could be negatively biased since
many of the series are not sufficiently recent for complication rates to reflect modern
improvements in radiotherapy and surgical therapy techniques.
2. Mode of data collection. The manner in which complication data are collected is highly
variable. Some series provide complications as self-reports of patients responding to
standardized questionnaires regarding quality of life. Others rely on physician reports
of complications or clinical grading criteria (e.g., Radiation Therapy Oncology Group
morbidity classification). Still other series provide little detail as to how the complication
data were collected. The likely result is considerable variability, especially in the more
subjective complications such as urinary and sexual dysfunction.
3. Definitional variability. Considerable variability exists in the definition of many
complications. For example, the following definitions of incontinence were observed:
no control over urination, any leakage of urine, leakage of urine daily or more
often, requiring the use of protective pads, and requiring the use of a catheter.

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Proctopathy, a condition arising from radiotherapy, was indicated by a diversity of

different symptoms including bowel movement frequency, tenesmus, discomfort/pain
with bowel movements, and rectal bleeding.
4. Follow-up reporting variability. Many series fail to report follow-up time points at which
each complication occurred or was measured. Retrospective series, in particular, often
report rates corresponding to a wide interval of time. Hence, the timing of the various
complications may be difficult to ascertain. Furthermore, there are far too many series
that only assess complications at a single-time point. This makes defining trajectories for
the most common complications impossible. Complications such as incontinence and
erectile dysfunction, for instance, can fluctuate greatly as time since treatment passes. In
general, single-point estimates have the potential to be highly misleading.
5. Lack of attention to patient preferences. Few series incorporate patients subjective
appraisals (or preferences) for functional states. Individual patients may appraise various
complications and functional states differently throughout the course of treatment and
follow-up.
6. Variability in the graphs was the result, in part, from the methods used to extract data
from the articles. For some articles, multiple patient groups were reported. In several of
these, complications were reported separately while in others they were reported in
aggregate.
Analysis of Treatment Complications
Among the complications associated with treatments for clinically localized prostate cancer,
those reported most often and with the greatest degree of variability were: incontinence and
other genitourinary toxicity (i.e., irritative and obstructive urinary symptoms), hematuria, gastrointestinal toxicity, proctopathy, and erectile dysfunction (impotence). Due to their salience, the
Panel devoted special attention to these complications by highlighting findings from several of
the extracted case series.
Complicating the assessment of many of these patient-centered outcomes are the changes that
occur over time. For example, in the case of erectile dysfunction, early loss of erections after
radical prostatectomy may be followed by later return of all or some function. Gradual
physiologic loss of erections over time with active surveillance is expected, and a loss of
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function over time after radiotherapy also has been described.75 Single-point estimates of
function provide overly simplistic descriptions of a complex outcome and do not incorporate
patient-weighted preferences, including preferences for earlier or late function, or decision-regret
measures.
Incontinence and Other Genitourinary Toxicity
The reported risk of urinary incontinence following prostate cancer therapies ranged from 3% to
74% for radical prostatectomy, 0% to 61% for interstitial prostate brachytherapy, and 0% to 73%
for external beam radiotherapy (Figures 3-5). Most surgically treated men will experience
transient urinary incontinence. Longitudinal follow-up data indicate that men do become more
continent of urine over time, especially at one year and beyond posttreatment.76, 77 One crosssectional series reported rather high rates of urinary leakage for two groups of patients treated
with interstitial prostate brachytherapy (one group treated with interstitial prostate brachytherapy
only, the other group treated with both interstitial prostate brachytherapy and external beam
radiotherapy),78 but, in general, incontinence is less frequently observed in radiotherapy series.
Incontinence is also less frequently observed in surveillance groups.79
The variability observed in incontinence rates likely reflects not only actual differences in the
risk of incontinence among series but also differences in defining, reporting, diagnosing, and
quantifying urinary incontinence. After reviewing the literature, the Panel concluded that it is not
possible to make any comparisons of the risk of urinary incontinence among these forms of
treatment other than to say that urinary incontinence can occur with any form of treatment for
localized prostate cancer. While there may be a series in which careful assessment of urinary
incontinence following a specific treatment have been made, overall there were insufficient data
to provide a broad assessment of outcomes for prostate cancer management.
Other types of genitourinary toxicity have been reported in external beam radiotherapy series.
Increasing irritative symptoms such as urinary frequency and urgency are common early after
external beam radiotherapy but also have been shown to generally return to pretreatment levels
by one and two years posttreatment.34, 80 Obstructive symptoms such as straining and painful
urination (collectively referred to as dysuria) also increase shortly after external beam
radiotherapy but will return to pretreatment levels by one and two years after treatment.34

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Hematuria appears to be uncommon (equal to or less than 5% in most series). However, it is

quite common early after interstitial prostate brachytherapy implantation. In one series, 100% of
men developed hematuria in the 12- to 48-hour period after the implant.81 In this same series
only 3% of these men had hematuria for up to six weeks after the implant. In another interstitial
prostate brachytherapy series, only 7% of men had hematuria within 12 months of the implant.61
Gastrointestinal Toxicity
Bowel and other gastrointestinal problems have been reported in several radiotherapy series.
Diarrhea and loose stools are common after external beam radiotherapy, typically affecting 25%
to 50% of men after treatment.34, 80, 82, 83 Some series indicate that these problems can linger for
two to three years after radiotherapy in some men.34, 83 Bowel urgency and stool frequency,
problems that many older men experience prior to treatment, appear to be exacerbated by
external beam radiotherapy, especially in the first year after treatment completion.34 The Prostate
Cancer Outcomes Study75 evaluated a large group of men who underwent radical prostatectomy
(n=1,156) or external beam radiotherapy (n=435) for clinically localized prostate cancer. In this
study, bowel side effects were more common among men who received radiotherapy.
Nonetheless, bowel symptoms also were seen among men who underwent radical prostatectomy.
Studies also show that 12% to 39% of men will experience rectal pain in the year after
completion of external beam radiotherapy with rates decreasing over time.34, 82
Proctopathy appears to be the dominant complication of interstitial prostate brachytherapy,
though it does not seem to occur frequently. Symptoms of late radiation proctopathy such as
rectal bleeding, rectal ulceration, tenesmus, and discomfort are reported at 10% in the published
series.61, 78, 84, 85 Rates of these problems increase slightly as the rectal volumes receiving the
prescribed dose increase.84 Finally, combining interstitial prostate brachytherapy with external
beam radiotherapy can result in higher rates of certain complications (e.g., rectal bleeding and
diarrhea) than treatment with brachytherapy alone.78
Erectile Dysfunction
A functional outcome of major practical interest following prostate cancer treatment is the loss of
erectile function and its recovery over time. Published reports of clinical series demonstrate
variability in assessing and defining erectile function that complicates assessments of risk. Based

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on recent literature, it is evident that reporting of functional outcomes following prostate cancer
treatment has evolved dramatically in recent years. Whereas physician reports of sexual outcome
were common in the past,86-88 validated sexual health outcome survey instruments have recently
been introduced to capture patient perceptions of health outcomes following treatment.89-92
Complicating the picture further, many reports use imprecise, outmoded terms such as
impotence, which can confound assessments of erectile function if their application implies
other aspects of the male sexual response cycle, such as libido or orgasm frequency.
Furthermore, certain methodological problems continue to bias results. As in 1995, studies are
still difficult to interpret because of patient selection for treatment. Younger and more functional
men still tend to undergo surgery. Older and less functional men still tend to receive
radiotherapy. A final confounding factor of this analysis is the development of effective oral
agents for the treatment of erectile dysfunction. These agents have been demonstrated to improve
sexual function in some men treated for prostate cancer. Thus, in early treatment series, reported
rates of erectile dysfunction may be greater than in more recent series.
Recognizing these limitations, we summarize herein the case series data on erectile dysfunction
(erections insufficient for penetration or intercourse).
Erectile dysfunction rates in some surgical series are as high as 60% to 90% one or more years
following treatment.76, 79, 83, 93 Nerve-sparing procedures appear to result in preserved function
for many men, though selection factors may bias the results of some of the early studies of this
technique as erectile dysfunction rates were reported for only preoperatively potent men.86, 87, 94
Among the series that include men treated with external beam radiotherapy, erectile dysfunction
rates range from 0% to 85% at one year and later posttreatment.34, 83, 93, 95, 96 Three-dimensional
conformal techniques appear to result in greater preservation of erections.95, 96 Rates of erectile
dysfunction below 50% at a year or more after treatment have been commonly observed in
interstitial radiation series; however, some of these series only follow initially potent men.85, 97, 98
In one study, younger men (<60 years) were more likely to maintain erections than older men.85
Finally, even men under watchful waiting or active surveillance will experience erectile
dysfunction over time.79, 93

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There is a definite need to consistently apply scientifically based methodology to the study of
erectile function outcomes following prostate cancer treatment. In addition to the fundamental
requirements of current clinical trial study design, including prospective accrual of data and
documentation of pretreatment level of sexual functioning, the application of validated selfreport instruments that measure sexual function should be employed.92 Since sexual health
recovery frequently continues beyond one year and extends for as long as four years following
treatment, serial and sufficiently long-term assessments are invaluable.88, 99, 100 Finally, it is
important to consider other factors that can influence erectile function when reporting results
(i.e., risk stratification according to nerve-sparing technique, age, partner availability, interest in
sexual activity, and comorbid conditions).86, 88, 100, 101

Quality of Life and Treatment Decisions: A Major Patient Concern in

Clinically Localized Prostate Cancer
The term health-related quality of life (HRQL) is typically used in the health-care arena to
refer to the impact that disease and treatment have on a persons physical, emotional, and social
functioning and well-being, including the impact on daily functioning.102-106 HRQL is a patientcentered outcome and thus must be rated by the patient because physicians often underestimate
the impact of disease and treatment on their patients well-being.107 HRQL is assessed by
validated questionnaires and surveys administered to the patient in a standardized manner.108 In
prostate cancer, HRQL usually is divided into prostate cancer-specific and general issues.
Prostate cancer-specific HRQL refers to the disease-specific sequelae of prostate cancer,
including urinary, bowel, and sexual functioning. General HRQL refers to generic issues of wellbeing common to any medical population, including physical, role, social, emotional, and
cognitive functioning, vitality/fatigue, pain, general health status, global quality of life, and life
satisfaction.109
As stated previously in the Methodology section, the Panel felt it was not possible to fully
extract and quantitatively synthesize the HRQL data from the selected series. Instead, the Panel
has chosen to present a brief summary of the findings of two recently conducted comprehensive
reviews of the HRQL literature in prostate cancer: one by Eton and Lepore,109 the other by
Penson et al.108 Given that there is substantial conceptual overlap between the complications (as

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previously reported) and the domains that define prostate cancer-specific HRQL, to reduce
redundancy the Panel chose to restrict attention to the general domains of HRQL.
Most of the early studies addressing general HRQL issues (i.e., general physical function, role
function, social function, emotional well-being, body pain, general health, or vitality/energy)
found few differences across treatments for clinically localized disease.109 Furthermore, early
studies found no differences in general HRQL domains between treated men and untreated men
(surveillance groups) or between treated men and age-matched, healthy men without prostate
cancer.110, 111 In more recent longitudinal studies, both surgery- and radiotherapy-treated men
have reported some declines in role function and vitality/energy shortly after treatmentthe
surgically treated men reporting the most dysfunction.112, 113 Most men in both of these treated
groups, though, reportedly recovered function by one year. Following external beam
radiotherapy, fatigue was commonly reported but, as long as it was temporary, did not appear to
be emotionally distressing to most men.113, 114 Men treated with interstitial prostate
brachytherapy appear to have only slight declines in general HRQL.108 Physical and functional
status declines have been reported in the first few months after implant, but pretreatment levels
of function are regained by most men at one year after implant.115 A few studies have indicated
certain risk factors for poor general HRQL in men after treatment for localized prostate
cancer.109 These include the presence of comorbid psychiatric conditions (i.e., prior psychiatric
history, alcohol abuse, drug abuse) and the experience of pain after treatment.116-118
Synthesizing the findings of studies featuring quality-of-life data with those featuring treatment
complications data leads to the conclusion that many men treated for clinically localized prostate
cancer will experience some posttreatment problems that may impact their daily lives. Thus,
there are trade-offs that must be considered and each patient needs to determine which sideeffect profile is most acceptable to them when making a decision about treatment.

Randomized Controlled Trials

Introduction
In general, RCTs provide the highest level of evidence for answering research questions and
developing treatment standards. Most importantly, the ability to control the influence of

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potentially confounding variables, both known and unknown, allows investigators to reach
conclusions that are applicable to individuals and generalized to populations. For this reason, the
Panel agrees that RCTs, which address specific questions on the management of clinically
localized prostate cancer, deserve special consideration.
RCTs were identified from the pool of articles generated by the Guideline Panel and from the
Cochrane trials registry for prostate cancer, which was last updated on September 2, 2005.
Articles selected for discussion herein were limited to studies executed as prospective RCTs that
investigated the impact of interventions on treatment outcomes for localized prostate cancer.
Some studies culled from the Cochrane registry did not meet the strict criteria established by the
Panel but were felt to merit discussion as they provided the best available quality of evidence to
answer specific research questions. These limits yielded 27 studies for incorporation into this
portion of the Guideline (Tables 1-4).8-13, 15-29, 31-35, 44, 119
Two broad conclusions can be drawn from the review of RCTs for localized prostate cancer and
will subsequently be discussed in greater detail. First, there are very few trials investigating a
direct comparison of two different treatment modalities (e.g., active surveillance vs. external
beam radiotherapy or external beam radiotherapy vs. radical prostatectomy). Second, there are
many RCTs that investigate interventions within a particular treatment modality (e.g., radical
prostatectomy alone vs. neoadjuvant androgen deprivation plus radical prostatectomy or different
doses of radiation). As a consequence, the highest quality evidence to identify a superior
treatment modality for a particular patient is lacking, but there is some high-quality evidence to
support various modifications within treatment modalities.
RCTs Comparing Different Treatment Modalities
Watchful Waiting Versus Radical Prostatectomy
Given the slow progression of many localized prostate cancers, it has long been recognized that
not all cases warrant intervention. Two RCTs, one in the pre-PSA era, have reported long-term
follow-up of patients randomized to watchful waiting or radical prostatectomy, but the second
one is not yet mature. The Veterans Administration Cooperative Urological Research Group
(Table 1)20 reported on 142 patients with clinical stage I or II adenocarcinoma of the prostate
who were randomized to watchful waiting or radical prostatectomy between 1967 and 1975.20

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This study was underpowered to detect treatment differences, and applicability of these findings
to contemporary patients is limited given both stage and grade migration since the advent of PSA
screening for prostate cancer.
More recently, the Scandinavian Prostate Cancer Group Study No. 4 (Table 1)10 reported on 695
men with clinical stage T1 or T2 prostatic adenocarcinoma (comparable to current T1 to T2N0M
TNM stage) who were randomized to watchful waiting (n=348) or radical prostatectomy (n=347)
between 1989 and 1999. Although this trial was conducted after PSA level testing was available,
only 5% of men were diagnosed by screening. Still, the distribution of serum PSA levels at the
time of diagnosis more closely reflects contemporary populations in which PSA screening is
widespread. After a median follow-up of 8.2 years, treatment with radical prostatectomy was
associated with significantly lower risk of disease-specific mortality, overall mortality, metastatic
disease, and local progression (Table 5).10
Table 5. Outcomes of the Scandinavian Prostate Cancer Group Study No. 4: median follow-up
of 8.2 years10
RP

WW

% (n)

% (n)

9.6% (30)

Overall mortality

Numbers needed to

Relative risk (95% CI)

p value

14.9 % (50)

0.56 (0.36 to 0.88)

0.01

20

27% (83)

32% (106)

0.74 (0.56 to 0.99)

0.04

20

Distant metastasis

15.2% (50)

25.4% (79)

0.60 (0.42 to 0.86)

0.004

10

Local progression

19.2% (64)

44.3% (149)

0.33 (0.25 to 0.44)

<0.001

Disease-specific
mortality

treat

CI, confidence interval; RP, radical prostatectomy; WW, watchful waiting.

In preplanned subset analyses, the investigators found that the reduction in risk of death from
prostate cancer in those randomized to prostatectomy was more pronounced in the population of
men less than 65 years of age and independent of PSA level or Gleason score at diagnosis
(p=0.08 for treatment by age-group interaction). However, caution must be used in interpreting
subset analyses.

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The Prostate Cancer Intervention Versus Observation Trial (PIVOT)50 is an ongoing RCT
comparing radical prostatectomy to watchful waiting in patients with clinical stage T1 or T2
disease. Initiated in 1994, accrual was slow and finally was completed with an enrollment of 731
patients in 2002. Follow-up is planned for 15 years, with overall mortality as the primary
endpoint. Although findings will not be available for some time, study findings will be more
applicable to contemporary patients diagnosed with localized prostate cancer.
Adjuvant Bicalutamide Therapy
The bicalutamide Early Prostate Cancer Program was a multicenter series of three international
RCTs launched to assess the efficacy and tolerability of bicalutamide, either alone or in
combination with radical prostatectomy, radiation therapy, or watchful waiting, in patients with
clinically localized or locally advanced prostate cancer. Approximately two thirds of the patients
had localized disease. This program included three separate controlled trials designed to allow
for combined analysis (Table 1).20, 33, 119 The North American trial119 included patients who
mainly opted for prostatectomy, the trial conducted in Europe33 and other countries worldwide
enrolled primarily patients receiving radiotherapy, and the Scandinavian study20 was comprised
primarily of patients choosing watchful waiting. Each study had similar endpoints, but
bicalutamide treatment duration differed across the three studies. Early reports and a subsequent
analysis with longer follow-up33 have consistently demonstrated significantly improved
progression-free survival with bicalutamide in the overall study population compared to placebo,
but no overall survival benefit was seen. A number of subset analyses were performed based on
study number, primary treatment received, clinical stage, and other factors. One analysis
conducted at a median of just over five years of follow-up indicated that men with localized
prostate cancer managed with watchful waiting plus bicalutamide had reduced overall survival in
comparison to men managed with watchful waiting alone.20, 33 Because the risk of a falsepositive result increases with multiple statistical testing, this must be considered when evaluating
the results of subset analyses. While the explanation for this difference in overall survival noted
in this subgroup analysis is not readily apparent, there is some suggestion that men who are
considering watchful waiting for their clinically localized prostate cancer may not benefit from
the addition of bicalutamide as part of their immediate therapy.

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RCTs Within Treatment Modalities

External Beam Radiotherapy
External beam radiotherapy dosage. Three recent RCTs have compared different external beam
radiotherapy dosages. The first, from M. D. Anderson Hospital (Table 2),27 compared the
efficacy of 70 versus 78 Gy in 305 patients with clinical stage T1 to T3N0 prostate cancer
randomized between 1993 and 1998. The primary endpoint was freedom from failure (FFF),
which included biochemical failure defined as three successive rises in PSA level.27 With a
median follow-up of 60 months, FFF in the 78 Gy arm was 70% compared to 64% in the 70 Gy
arm, representing a significant difference (p=0.03). The higher dose was associated with a
significantly greater risk of grade 2 or higher late rectal toxicity (26% for 78 Gy versus 12% for
70 Gy; p=0.001). This study was performed before intensity-modulated radiotherapy and other
more sophisticated computerized treatment planning were available, and the results for patients
with T3 disease could not be separated from those with clinical stage T1 to T2 disease.
A similar French study, the Groupe dEtude des Tumeurs Uro-Genitales (GETUG) (Table 2),9
reported early toxicity results on 306 patients with clinical stage T1 (Gleason score 7 or PSA
10 ng/mL) or T2 to T3a disease randomized between 1999 and 2002 to 70 versus 80 Gy. Data
regarding treatment efficacy is not yet available, but the authors reported no significant
differences in treatment toxicity between the two radiation groups. Again, patients with clinical
stage T1 to T2 disease were not separable from those with T3a disease.
A multicenter RCT from Loma Linda and Massachusetts General Hospitals (Table 2)35 reported
results for 392 patients with clinical stage T1 to T2 prostate cancer randomized to 70.2 or 79.2
Gy, using a combination of photon and proton beams.35 At five years, there was no difference in
overall survival, but the higher-dose therapy conferred a 49% reduction in the risk of
biochemical failure (p<0.001). There was no difference in the incidence of acute or late
gastrointestinal or genitourinary toxicity of grade 3 or higher between these two groups. Still,
both acute and late grade 2 gastrointestinal toxicity was significantly more common in the highdose arm.

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External Beam Radiotherapy Fractionation

One RCT has reported on efficacy of hypofractionation of external beam radiotherapy and one
study is ongoing. The first, a multicenter Canadian study (Table 2)25 that accrued 936 patients
from 1995 to 1998, randomized men with clinical stage T1 to T2 prostate cancer to 66 Gy in 33
fractions versus 52.5 Gy in 20 fractions. The primary endpoint was biochemical and/or clinical
failure, defined as three successive increases in PSA levels, clinical evidence of local or
metastatic failure, commencement of hormonal therapy, or death due to prostate cancer. With a
median follow-up of 5.7 years, there was no conclusive evidence for superior efficacy of either
treatment regimen. Acute gastrointestinal toxicity was slightly higher in the hypofractionated
arm, but there is no difference in late toxicity between the two arms. A similar RCT currently is
under way in Australia with comparable findings regarding toxicity, but for which efficacy data
are not yet available.34
The Role of Combined Therapy
Neoadjuvant Hormonal Therapy in Combination with Radical Prostatectomy
Several studies have assessed the value of neoadjuvant hormonal therapy (NHT) prior to radical
prostatectomy. However, the optimal duration of treatment and the value of this intervention are
not yet entirely clear. Initial results from various trials demonstrated a decrease in the rates of
positive surgical margins in those men treated with NHT prior to surgery. In a study randomizing
213 men with clinical stage T1b to T2c prostate cancer to radical prostatectomy versus a 12week course of 300 mg cyproterone acetate with subsequent surgery, Goldenberg et al. (Table
3)16 found positive surgical margins in 64.8% of men undergoing surgery only compared to a
27.7% positive surgical margin rate in the NHT group (p=0.001). While several other groups
have reached similar conclusions regarding immediate pathologic outcomes with various NHT
combinations and duration,8, 12, 15, 22, 28, 31, 32, 120, 121 it appears that NHT prior to radical
prostatectomy does not impart an overall advantage in terms of biochemical recurrence rates
compared to radical prostatectomy alone.8, 21, 31, 32, 120, 121 These findings do not support the
routine use of NHT prior to radical prostatectomy.

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Hormonal Therapy in Combination with Radiation Therapy

In contrast to the findings of RCTs in the neoadjuvant setting, RCTs studying primary external
beam radiotherapy alone or in combination with ADT have demonstrated advantages for
radiation and hormonal therapy. In an RCT of 456 men, Radiation Therapy Oncology Group
(Table 4)26 8610 demonstrated improved local control (p=0.016), time to distant metastasis
(p=0.04), and cause-specific survival (p=0.05) for patients with cT2 to T4. In a subset analysis,
there was a suggestion that the benefit may be seen more in patients with Gleason score of 6 or
lower. Standard external beam radiotherapy with concurrent hormonal ablation that was
continued for three years imparts an overall survival advantage (five-year estimates 78% vs.
62%, p=0.0002) among prostate cancer patients with clinical stage T1 to T2 with World Health
Organization grade 3 tumors, or cT3 to T4N0-1M0 any grade tumors compared to radiotherapy
alone.11 Similar results have been found by Radiation Therapy Oncology Groups 8531 (Table
4)24 and 9202 (Table 4).17
More recently, DAmico et al. (Table 4)44 reported the outcomes of 206 men with clinical stage
T1b to T2bNx, PSA levels 10 ng/mL, or Gleason score 7 who were randomized to six months
of androgen suppression in combination with external beam radiotherapy or radiotherapy alone.
All patients were treated with 70 Gy three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy. Those in the
combination arm started radiation after two months of treatment with hormonal therapy. This
study demonstrated improved disease-specific (p=0.02) and overall survival (p=0.04) in the
combined treatment arm with a median follow-up of 4.5 years. In addition, fewer patients
required treatment for recurrence in the combination arm (p=0.002).
Other studies have aimed to define the optimal duration and timing of androgen ablation in
combination with radiotherapy. Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 9413 (Table 4)29 was a
randomized 2 x 2 factorial clinical trial designed to test whether whole pelvic (WP) radiotherapy
improved progression-free survival compared to prostate-only (PO) radiotherapy and whether
neoadjuvant and concurrent hormonal therapy (NCHT) improved progression-free survival
compared to adjuvant hormonal therapy in men receiving radiotherapy. Patients treated with WP
radiotherapy had superior progression-free survival compared to PO radiotherapy (p=0.02).
There was no difference in progression-free survival between the two hormonal treatment
regimens. However, in order to analyze a factorial designed trial by its factors, there must be no

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statistical interaction between them. In this study, there appears to be a biologic interaction
between the volume radiated and timing of hormonal treatment (p=0.011 for progression-free
survival). Essentially, this means that it is more appropriate for this study to be analyzed and
reported as a four-arm trial. The investigators note that NCHT was beneficial in terms of
progression-free survival for those receiving WP radiotherapy while the adjuvant hormonal
therapy group had more favorable progression-free survival among those with PO radiotherapy.29
Another recently published RCT of 378 men with clinical stage T1c to T4 disease (Table 4)13
suggests that there was no advantage of eight compared to three months of NHT prior to 66 Gy
radiotherapy for men with localized prostate cancer. The five-year biochemical failure-free
survival rates were 62% versus 61%, respectively (p=0.36).13 Another smaller clinical trial from
Canada (Table 4)23 found no biochemical-free survival advantage with the addition of adjuvant
hormonal ablation (n=55) versus neoadjuvant hormonal ablation (n=63) and standard
radiotherapy (seven-year estimates of 69% versus 66%, respectively; p=0.60) in a mixed patient
population consisting primarily of T2 but also some T3 prostate cancer patients. However, when
the sample size is so small, the risk of false-positive and false-negative results is a serious
concern.
In summary, many effective therapies for prostate cancer have been developed over time, but
there is a paucity of high-quality evidence to favor particular treatment modalities for men with
localized prostate cancer, and this evidence is not easily developed. Two examples of the latter
phenomenon include the Southwest Oncology Group (SWOG) Study 8890 and the Surgical
Prostatectomy Versus Interstitial Radiation Intervention Trial (SPIRIT). SWOG 8890 attempted
to compare radical prostatectomy to external beam radiotherapy with a goal of randomizing 900
to 1,000 patients. The study accrued a total of six patients in 21 months and was thereafter
closed. The same accrual problem occurred with SPIRIT, an RCT comparing radical
prostatectomy with permanent interstitial prostate brachytherapy in patients with clinical stage
T1c or T2a disease. Despite considerable efforts and resources to recruit patients, including
attempts to enroll patients in the United Kingdom, the study accrued only 56 of the total of 1,980
needed and ultimately closed within 17 months after it was initiated. From these experiences, it
seems likely that some trials will never be done due in part to patient and/or physician biases.

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Future Research Needs

The development of this Guideline has revealed a host of issues that the global medical
community, in both academic and private practice settings, is obligated to consider and act upon.
Only by doing so will the future treatment guideline development processes be successful and
will better guidance be made available for patients with newly diagnosed prostate cancer. Panel
members concluded that continuous updates of this guideline would only be reasonable for the
inclusion of high-quality data from RCTs. Panel members were frustrated in their decision
making by the poor quality of data available, generally in the form of case series, and were of the
opinion that these series have added little to assist patients in deciding among treatment options.
Since 1995, when the first Panel effort was completed, tens of thousands of manuscripts have
been published worldwide, but a lack of randomized clinical trials and the inconsistencies in
outcomes definitions, among other challenges, have resulted in little progress in furthering the
development of an evidence-based guideline.
The Panel has identified a number of opportunities for investment in research, clinical trials, and
reporting of results that would provide the foundation for useful updates of this evidence-based
guideline:
I. Determining which prostate cancers require therapy:
a. Markers of biological aggressiveness of prostate cancer are critical to the management of
this disease with its highly variable clinical behavior in the setting of an 18% lifetime
risk in the United States.36 These biomarkers may be constitutional, behavioral, or
somatic. Valuable studies of these markers will derive from studies of patients managed
with active surveillance, and it will be necessary in all other patients to factor in how
treatment modulates the predictive value of these biomarkers. Additional biomarkers
may prove useful to predict response to therapy.
b. Because of the potential for significant overdetection and overtreatment of prostate
cancer, integrating biomarkers of aggressiveness with early detection programs is
desirable. The ideal biomarker of prostate cancer detection thus would be positive in a
man with potentially aggressive disease and negative in both the man without disease
and in the man with disease of very low biologic risk.

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c. An essential element for rapid validation of biomarkers of disease aggressiveness will be

the validation of surrogate endpoints of disease progression. The most desirable
endpoints on which to base disease aggressiveness are overall survival, metastasis-free
survival, disease-specific survival, and risk of disease-related morbidity. Due to the time
required to reach these endpoints, surrogate markers of these endpoints would accelerate
the development of validated biomarkers of disease.
II. Determining the best therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer:
a. The only method to address the most important question in the treatment of prostate
cancer is to increase the number of and accrual to clinical trials. These clinical trials
must ask fundamental questions such as, is radical prostatectomy or interstitial prostate
brachytherapy superior for the management of prostate cancer? Given the poor track
record of two such studies (SPIRIT and SWOG 8890), radical change is necessary to the
conduct of these clinical trials. Elements of change could include encouraging patients,
physicians, funding agencies (including third-party payers), governments, and academic
organizations to write RCT protocols and to participate in them. The medical community
must acknowledge that the lack of RCTs precludes conclusions regarding optimal
treatment and quality of life with the available therapeutic options at this time. Medical
care providers, who treat patients with prostate cancer, and the patients themselves must
move to an expectation that patients with prostate cancer should enroll in a clinical
trial. To meet this need, trials must be available and obstacles to accrual must be
eliminated.
b. It is imperative that definitions of outcomes be standardized. Among these are:
1. Biochemical (PSA) recurrence. PSA recurrence is currently only defined by ASTRO

after external beam radiotherapy*. A similar definition is needed for interstitial

prostate brachytherapy. The Panel has developed a definition for surgery. Although a
validated definition for active surveillance will require long-term studies, it also is
necessary.
* In the PSA Best Practice Statement: 2009 Update the AUA defined biochemical recurrence as an initial PSA value
less than or equal to 0.2 ng/mL followed by a subsequent confirmatory PSA value less than or equal to 0.2 ng/mL

2. Metastasis-free survival. There is no consensus on the definition of metastasis-free

survival since, for example, adenopathy above the pelvic brim could be considered
M1 disease. As nodal metastases above the pelvic brim constitute M1 disease and as
cross-sectional imaging often is omitted from clinical practice, a lack of standardized
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follow-up protocols for imaging studies can significantly alter estimates of this
endpoint.
3. Disease-specific survival. Most patients with localized prostate cancer are elderly,

have comorbidities, and usually die of other diseases. Assessment of cause of death is
optimally performed by a panel of experts who use pre-established rules for cause-ofdeath attribution. In none of the case series reviewed by this Panel was such an
endpoint review panel described. Among the RCTs reviewed, only one trial described
an endpoint review panel and also indicated that there were prespecified rules for
attributing cause of death. Cause-of-death rules must be developed and applied
consistently by endpoint review panels.
4. Complications. The Panel was concerned by the range of definitions of complications

and degrees of toxicity that were reported in the published patient series. The use of
the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Common Toxicity Criteria is encouraged; it is
recommended that more detailed toxicity criteria be added to the NIH criteria and that
these be used consistently.122
5. HRQL measures. With the unclear impact of therapy on the outcomes of prostate

cancer and with the clear evidence of diagnosis and treatment on various system
functions (e.g., urinary, sexual, and gastrointestinal), the Panel believes that each
report of outcomes of therapy for prostate cancer should include appropriate measures
of HRQL or patient-reported outcomes. Validated and widely used measures, with
available comparative data, are highly recommended. Efficace and colleagues123 from
the European Organization of Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life unit
have provided a minimum set of criteria for assessing HRQL outcomes reporting in
clinical trials. These can be considered good practice guidelines for promoting
scientific rigor, clinical relevance, and usability of HRQL data. Among their more
important recommendations are:
o

Stating a priori hypotheses about expected changes in HRQL.

Providing a rationale for using a specific HRQL measure.

Using only well-validated measures with psychometric properties (i.e., reliability,

validity, responsiveness) reported or referenced.

Using adequate domains of HRQL relevant to the studied population.

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Reporting how the instrument was administered and documenting baseline

compliance, specific timing of assessments, and patterns of missing HRQL data.

Addressing clinical significance of HRQL findings (i.e., extending beyond the

traditional focus on mere statistical significance by including consideration of the
clinical relevance and importance of HRQL findings).

Inclusion of appropriate assessments of complications and HRQL is imperative in the

clinical trials setting because it allows patients and physicians to directly compare
outcomes across the various treatment modalities.
c. Risk stratification has potential merit given the outcomes displayed in graphics from this
analysis. Unfortunately, current methods of risk stratification do not assist patients in
making a treatment decision. For example, the patient with low-risk disease does not
have one clear-cut superior treatment based on RCTs but a range of options. The same is
true for the patient with high-risk disease. It is recommended that a consensus be
developed for a risk-stratification system that would assist patients and their physicians in
treatment decision making. The strata should be based on both tumor and host
characteristics and appropriate biomarkers when they become available and are validated.
One possible system would include three strata: Stratum One: A prostate cancer that has
low-malignant potential during the patient's life expectancy. A patient with a Stratum
One tumor might thus be a candidate for active surveillance. Stratum Two: A prostate
cancer for which monotherapy would have a high likelihood of disease control. Stratum
Three: A prostate cancer for which monotherapy is unlikely to provide a high rate of
disease control and for which multimodal therapy may be appropriate. These disease
strata would facilitate both patient treatment decision making as well as the development
of clinical trials.
III. Protocol design and reporting of study results:
a. The Panel feels that because of the substantial differences among disease stage,
especially between clinical stage T1 to T2 and T3 to T4 disease, any future studies
including both groups of subjects should report all data stratified by T1 to T2.
b. For groups and institutions that report on the same patient populations in multiple papers,
it is strongly recommended that a single cohort be described, followed, and reported on,
and clear reference to previous publications of the same cohort must be made. In their

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53

review of the literature, the Panel was extremely challenged in attempting to discern if a
report from a single institution described the same patients and outcomes as had been
published previously in an earlier paper.
c. Many high-impact medical journals have rigorous standards for the reporting of
outcomes of clinical trials. The Panel strongly encourages all medical journals that
consider publishing prospective studies on prostate cancer to adopt these criteria.
Examples can be found on the following websites: Journal of the American Medical
Association at http://jama.ama-assn.org/ifora_current.dtl; The New England Journal of
Medicine at http://authors.nejm.org/Misc/MsSubInstr.asp; and The Journal of Urology at
http://www.jurology.com/pt/re/juro/home.htm. Appropriate editorial and
biostatistical/epidemiologic support must be made available to manuscript reviewers to
assist in adhering to these standards.

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Acknowledgments and Disclaimers: Guideline for the Management of

Clinically Localized Prostate Cancer: 2007 Update

This document was written by the Prostate Cancer Clinical Guideline Update Panel of the
American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc., which was created in 2001.
The Practice Guidelines Committee (PGC) of the AUA selected the committee chairs. Panel
members were selected by the chairs. Membership of the committee included urologists with
specific expertise on this disorder. The mission of the committee was to develop
recommendations that are analysis- or consensus-based, depending on panel processes and
available data, for optimal clinical practices in the diagnosis and treatment of clinically localized
prostate cancer. This document was submitted for peer review to 87 urologists and other healthcare professionals. After the final revisions were made, based upon the peer-review process, the
document was submitted to and approved by the Practice Guidelines Committee and the Board
of Directors of the AUA. Funding of the committee was provided by the AUA. The publication
also was supported by Grant Number C12/CCC323617-01 from Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention. Committee members received no remuneration for their work. Each member of the
committee provided a conflict-of-interest disclosure to the AUA.
This report is intended to provide medical practitioners with a consensus of principles and
strategies for the treatment of clinically localized prostate cancer. The report is based on current
professional literature, clinical experience, and expert opinion. It does not establish a fixed set of
rules or define the legal standard of care, and it does not preempt physician judgment in
individual cases.

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96. Hanks, G. E., Hanlon, A. L., Pinover, W. H., al-Saleem, T. I. and Schultheiss, T. E.:
Radiation therapy as treatment for stage T1c prostate cancers. World J Urol, 15: 369,
1997
97. Wallner, K., Roy, J., Zelefsky, M., Fuks, Z. and Harrison, L.: Short-term freedom from
disease progression after I-125 prostate implantation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys, 30:
405, 1994
98. Zelefsky, M. J., Hollister, T., Raben, A., Matthews, S. and Wallner, K. E.: Five-year
biochemical outcome and toxicity with transperineal CT-planned permanent I-125
prostate implantation for patients with localized prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol
Phys, 47: 1261, 2000

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99. Walsh, P. C., Marschke, P., Ricker, D. and Burnett, A. L.: Use of intraoperative video
documentation to improve sexual function after radical retropubic prostatectomy.
Urology, 56: 184, 2000
100. Bradley, E. B., Bissonette, E. A. and Theodorescu, D.: Determinants of long-term quality
of life and voiding function of patients treated with radical prostatectomy or permanent
brachytherapy for prostate cancer. Br J Urol Int, 94: 1003, 2004
101. McCammon, K. A., Kolm, P., Main, B. and Schellhammer, P. F.: Comparative quality-oflife analysis after radical prostatectomy or external beam radiation for localized prostate
cancer. Urology, 54: 509, 1999
102. Cella, D. F.: Measuring quality of life in palliative care. Semin Oncol, suppl., 22: 73, 1995
103. Leplege, A. and Hunt, S.: The problem of quality of life in medicine. JAMA, 278: 47, 1997
104. Osoba, D.: Self-rating symptom checklists: a simple method for recording and evaluating
symptom control in oncology. Cancer Treat Rev, 19: 43, 1993
105. Patrick, D. L. and Erickson, P.: Assessing health-related quality of life for clinical decisionmaking. In: Quality of Life Assessment: Key Issues in the 1990s. Edited by S. R. Walker
and R. M. Rosser. Boston: Dordrecht Kluwer, pp. 11-64, 1993
106. Schumacher, M., Olschewski, M. and Schulgen, G.: Assessment of quality of life in
clinical trials. Stat Med, 10: 1915, 1991
107. Litwin, M. S., Lubeck, D. P., Henning, J. M. and Carroll, P. R.: Differences in urologist
and patient assessments of health related quality of life in men with prostate cancer:
results of the CaPSURE database. J Urol, 159: 1988, 1998
108. Penson, D. F., Litwin, M. S. and Aaronson, N. K.: Health related quality of life in men with
prostate cancer. J Urol, 169: 1653, 2003

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109. Eton, D. T. and Lepore, S. J.: Prostate cancer and health-related quality of life: a review of
the literature. Psychooncology, 11: 307, 2002
110. Litwin, M. S., Hays, R. D., Fink, A., Ganz, P. A., Leake, B., Leach, G. E. et al: Quality-oflife outcomes in men treated for localized prostate cancer. JAMA, 273: 129, 1995
111. Joly, F., Brune, D., Couette, J. E., Lesaunier, F., Heron, J. F., Peny, J. et al: Health-related
quality of life and sequelae in patients treated with brachytherapy and external beam
irradiation for localized prostate cancer. Ann Oncol, 9: 751, 1998
112. Lubeck, D. P., Litwin, M. S., Henning, J. M., Stoddard, M. L., Flanders, S. C. and Carroll,
P. R.: Changes in health-related quality of life in the first year after treatment for prostate
cancer: results from CaPSURE. Urology, 53: 180, 1999
113. Beard, C. J., Propert, K. J., Rieker, P. P., Clark, J. A., Kaplan, I., Kantoff, P. W. et al:
Complications after treatment with external-beam irradiation in early-stage prostate
cancer patients: a prospective multi-institutional outcomes study. J Clin Oncol, 15: 223,
1997
114. Monga, U., Jaweed, M., Kerrigan, A. J., Lawhon, L., Johnson, J., Vallbona, C. et al:
Neuromuscular fatigue in prostate cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy. Arch
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115. Lee, W. R., McQuellon, R. P., Harris-Henderson, K., Case, L. D. and McCullough, D. L.:
A preliminary analysis of health-related quality of life in the first year after permanent
source interstitial brachytherapy (PIB) for clinically localized prostate cancer. Int J Radiat
Oncol Biol Phys, 46: 77, 2000
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survivors of lung, colon and prostate cancer. Qual Life Res, 3: 127, 1994

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117. Borghede, G., Karlsson, J. and Sullivan, M.: Quality of life in patients with prostatic
cancer: results from a Swedish population study. J Urol, 158: 1477, 1997
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Pain, 53: 159, 1993
119. See, W. A., Wirth, M. P., McLeod, D. G., Iversen, P., Klimberg, I., Gleason, D. et al:
Bicalutamide as immediate therapy either alone or as adjuvant to standard care of patients
with localized or locally advanced prostate cancer: first analysis of the early prostate
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120. Fair, W. R., Cookson, M. S., Stroumbakis, N., Cohen, D., Aprikian, A. G., Wang, Y. et al:
The indications, rationale, and results of neoadjuvant androgen deprivation in the
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suppl., 49: 46, 1997
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therapy with or without radical prostatectomy for T1b-T3N0M0 prostate cancer. Int J
Urol, 11: 218, 2004
122. National Institute of Health website: http://ctep.cancer.gov/forms/CTCAEv3.pdf. Accessed
October 2, 2006
123. Efficace, F., Bottomley, A., Osoba, D., Gotay, C., Flechtner, H., Dhaese, S. et al: Beyond
the development of health-related quality-of-life (HRQOL) measures: a checklist for
evaluating HRQOL outcomes in cancer clinical trialsdoes HRQOL evaluation in
prostate cancer research inform clinical decision making? J Clin Oncol, 21: 3502, 2003

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71

1995 to
1998

See et al.119;
Iversen et
al.20

Intervention (n)
Radical prostatectomy plus oral
placebo (n=74) vs. oral placebo
(n=68)

Stage T1 to T4,
M0, any stage N

Bicalutamide 150 mg (n=607) vs.

placebo (n=611) once daily with
standard of care (radical
prostatectomy, radiation therapy, or
watchful waiting) until treatment
failure

Stage T1 (all
Radical prostatectomy (n=347) vs.
were T1b, T1c) or watchful waiting (n=348)
T2, PSA <50
ng/mL

Entry criteria
VACURG stage I
or II

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1989 to
1999

Enrollment
period
1967 to
1975

BillAxelson et
al.10

Author
Iversen et
al.20

72

Results
Outcomes (median 23 years):
x Overall survival, prostatectomy vs.
placebo, 10.6 vs. 8 years, respectively
(p=ns)
x Gleason histological grade 7 to 10 vs. 4
(RR 5.2; p<0.001)
10-Year outcomes (median 8.2 years)
prostatectomy vs. watchful waiting,
respectively:
x Disease specific mortality, the primary
endpoint, 9.6% vs.14.9% (RR 0.56, CI
0.36 to 0.88; p=0.01)
x Overall mortality, 27.0% vs. 32.0% (RR
0.74, CI 0.56 to 0.99; p=0.04)
x Distant metastasis, 15.2% vs. 25.4% (RR
0.60, CI 0.42 to 0.86; p=0.004)
x Local progression, 19.2% vs. 44.5% (RR
0.33, CI 0.25 to 0.44; p<0.001)
Outcomes (median 5.3 years):
x Overall mortality, 26.9% vs. 25.9%
(p=ns)
x Progression-free survival improved with
bicalutamide (HR 0.57, CI 0.48 to 0.68;
p<0.0001)

Table 1. Randomized, controlled trials comparing watchful waiting/placebo to other interventions *

Entry criteria
Stage T1b to T4,
M0, any stage N
(N0 in one trial)

Intervention (n)
Bicalutamide 150 mg (n=4052) vs.
placebo (n=4061) once daily with
standard of care (radical
prostatectomy, radiotherapy, or
watchful waiting)

Results
Outcomes (median 5.4 years):
x No difference in overall survival (HR
1.03, CI 0.92 to 1.15; p=0.6)
x Bicalutamide improved progression-free
survival (HR 0.73, CI 0.66 to 0.80;
p<0.0001)
x In the North American arm, no
improvement in progression-free survival
(HR 1.02, CI 0.83 to 1.26; p=ns)

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73

CI, 95% confidence interval; HR, hazard ratio; ns, not significant; PSA, prostate-specific antigen; RR, relative risk; VACURG, Veterans Administration
Cooperative Urological Research Group.

* The information herein only summarizes the key study methods and results; please see the original papers for complete designs, results, and conclusions.

combined
analysis of
worldwide
trials includes
data reported
by Iversen et
al.20

Author
Wirth et
al.33 This

Enrollment
period
Not
reported

Stage T1 to
T2, N0, M0

Conventional (64 Gy in 32 fractions

within 6.5 weeks; n=61) vs.
hypofractionated (55 Gy in 20 fractions
within 4 weeks, n=59) radiotherapy

Non-inferiority trial comparing a longterm (66 Gy in 33 fractions over 45

days; n=470) vs. short-term (52.5 Gy in
20 fractions over 28 days; n=466)
radiotherapy regimen

Intervention (n)
70 Gy (n=150) vs. 78 Gy (n=151)

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

1996 to
1999

Yeoh et al.34

Entry criteria,
stage
Stage T1 to
T3, NX/N0,
M0

Stage T1 to
T2, PSA
d40 ng/mL

Enrollment
period
1993 to
1998

Lukka et al.25 1995 to

1998

Author
Pollack et
al.27

Table 2. Randomized, controlled trials evaluating external beam radiotherapy*

74

Results
6-Year outcomes (median 60 months) for 70
vs. 78 Gy, respectively:
x Freedom from clinical/biochemical
failure, the primary endpoint, 64% vs.
70% (p=0.03)
x No difference in overall survival
x Rectal complications grade 2 or higher,
12% vs. 26% (p=0.001)
5-Year outcomes (median 5.7 years) for
long- vs. short-term arm, respectively:
x Primary endpoint: biochemical or clinical
failure, 53% vs. 60% (HR 1.18 in favor
of long-term arm; CI 0.99 to 1.41); the
possibility of the short-term arm being
inferior could not be ruled out
x Grades 3 to 4 GI or GU toxicity: acute,
7.0% vs. 11.4% (4.4 difference; CI 8.1 to
0.6); late, 3.2% vs. 3.2%
4-Year outcomes (mean 44 months) for
conventional vs. hypofractionated groups:
x Biochemical relapse-free, 86.2% vs.
85.5% (p=ns)
x No difference in GI morbidity between
groups; 4 of 6 GI signs (rectal pain,
mucous discharge, urgency of defecation,
and rectal bleeding) were still increased
at 2 years

1999 to
2002

Author
Zietman et
al.35

Beckendorf
et al.9

Stage T2 or
T3a, PSA
<50 ng/mL
(T1 allowed if
Gleason score
7 or PSA
10 ng/mL)

Entry criteria,
stage
Stage T1b to
T2b, PSA
levels <15
ng/mL

70 Gy (n=153) vs. 80 Gy (n=153)

Intervention (n)
70.2 Gy (n=197) vs. 79.2 Gy (n=195)

Results
5-Year outcomes (median 5.5 years), 70.2
vs. 79.2 Gy dose groups, respectively:
x Primary endpoint: biochemical failure,
61.4% (CI 54.6 to 68.3) vs. 80.4% (CI
74.7 to 86.1; p<0.001)
x Grade 2 acute GI morbidity, 41% vs.
57% (p=0.004), late GI morbidity, 8% vs.
17% (p=0.005)
x No difference in overall survival
x No efficacy outcomes yet available
x No difference in urinary or GI morbidity
between groups

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

75

CI, 95% confidence interval; GI, gastrointestinal; GU, genitourinary; Gy, gray; HR, hazard ratio; ns, not significant; PSA, prostate-specific antigen.

* The information herein only summarizes the key study methods and results; please see the original papers for complete designs, results, and conclusions.

Enrollment
period
1996 to
1999

1991 to
1995

1992 to
1994

Schulman et
al.31

Soloway et
al.32

Stage T2b, NX,

M0, PSA <50
ng/mL

Stage T2 to T3,
N0/M0, PSA
<100 ng/mL

Stage T1b to T3a,

NX, M0

Radical prostatectomy alone (n=144)

or with 3-month neoadjuvant therapy
with leuprolide 7.5 mg monthly and
flutamide 250 mg t.i.d. (n=138)

Radical prostatectomy alone (n=63)

vs. 3-month neoadjuvant therapy
with triptorelin 3.75 mg monthly
(n=63). Cyproterone 50 mg b.i.d.
was administered 1 week before and
2 weeks after first triptorelin
injection
Radical prostatectomy alone (n=210)
or with 3-month neoadjuvant therapy
(n=192) with goserelin 3.6 mg
monthly and flutamide 250 mg t.i.d.

Intervention (n)
Radical prostatectomy alone (n=71)
or with 3-month neoadjuvant therapy
with LHRH agonist and flutamide
(n=90)

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

1991 to
1994

Enrollment Entry criteria,

period
stage
Study
Stage B or C
initiated in
1988

Aus et al.8

Author
Labrie et
al.22

76

Results
Surgical outcomes:
x Positive margins in 33.8% vs. 7.8% for
prostatectomy alone and with
neoadjuvant therapy, respectively
(p=0.001)
Outcomes (median 82 months),
prostatectomy alone vs. with neoadjuvant
therapy, respectively:
x Biochemical progression-free survival
51.5% vs. 49.8% (p=ns)
x Surgical outcome: positive margins,
45.5% vs. 23.6% (p=0.016)
4-Year outcomes, prostatectomy alone vs.
with neoadjuvant therapy, respectively:
x Primary endpoint: patients with PSA
progression, 32.5% vs. 26.4% (p=ns)
x Surgical outcome: pathological
downstaging, 7% vs. 15% (p<0.01)
5-Year outcomes, prostatectomy alone vs.
neoadjuvant therapy, respectively:
x No biochemical recurrence after 5 years,
67.6% vs. 64.8% (p=ns)
x Surgical outcome: positive margins, 48%
vs. 18% (p<0.001)

Table 3. Randomized controlled trials evaluating radical prostatectomy alone and in combination with neoadjuvant therapy*

1996 to
1999

1995 to
1998

Bono et al.12

Gleave et
al.15

Stage T1b, T1c,

or T2

Stage B or C (T2
to T3, N0, M0)

Stage A2 , B, or C

Entry criteria,
stage
Stage T1 to T2,
PSA <50 ng/mL

77

Results
5-Year outcomes (median 6 years),
prostatectomy alone vs. with neoadjuvant
therapy, respectively:
x Biochemical recurrence, 33.6% vs.
37.5% (p=ns)
x Overall survival, 93.9% vs. 88.4%
(p=ns)
Surgical outcomes:
x Positive surgical margins, 64.8% vs.
27.7% (p=0.001)
All patients received leuprolide 3.75 5-Year outcomes for those receiving
mg every 28 days for 24 months and chlormadinone prior to or after
chlormadinone 100 mg daily for 3
prostatectomy, respectively:
months. Radical prostatectomy was
x Overall survival, 77% vs. 70% (p=ns)
performed prior to (n=86) or at the
x No clinical relapse, 72% vs. 68% (p=ns)
end (n=90) of chlormadinone therapy x No biochemical recurrence, 63% vs.
63% (p=ns)
Radical prostatectomy alone (n=107) Surgical outcomes, prostatectomy alone and
or with neoadjuvant bicalutamide 50 with 3 or 6 months neoadjuvant therapy,
mg daily and goserelin 3.5 mg every respectively:
28 days for 3 months (n=114) or 6
x Negative surgical margins for stage B,
months (n=82)
48.7%, 75.6%, 81.0% (p<0.001)
x Negative surgical margins for stage C,
25.9%, 64.3%, 70.8% (p<0.001)
Radical prostatectomy with either 3
Interim outcomes, 3- and 8-month therapy,
months (n=223) or 8 months (n=234) respectively:
neoadjuvant therapy with leuprolide x Patients with detectable preoperative
7.5 mg monthly and flutamide 250
PSA, 56.7% and 24.9% (p=0.0001)
mg t.i.d.
x Positive surgical margins, 23% and 12%
(p=0.01)

Intervention (n)
Radical prostatectomy alone (n=101)
or with 12-week neoadjuvant therapy
with cyproterone 300 mg daily
(n=112)

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

1993 to
1995

Homma et
al.18

Author
Goldenberg
et al.16 ;
Klotz et al.21

Enrollment
period
1993 to
1994

Entry criteria,
stage
Stage T1a to T2b,
N0, M0
Intervention (n)
Radical prostatectomy alone (n=92)
or with 3-month neoadjuvant
leuprolide 3.75 mg and cyproterone
300 mg weekly, 1 week prior to and
2 weeks after first leuprolide
injection (n=91)

Results
Surgical outcomes:
x Positive margins in 60% and 39% of
patients undergoing prostatectomy alone
or with neoadjuvant therapy (p=0.01)

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

78

b.i.d., twice daily; LHRH, luteinizing hormonereleasing hormone; ns, not significant; PSA, prostate-specific antigen; t.i.d., three times daily.

* The information herein only summarizes the key study methods and results; please see the original papers for complete designs, results, and conclusions.

Author
Prezioso et
al.28

Enrollment
period
Not
reported

1987 to
1992

Lawton et
al.24

Stage T1 to T2
with regional
lymph node
involvement and
all T3

Entry criteria,
stage
Stage T2 to T4,
M0, with or
without pelvic
lymph node
involvement

79

Results
8-Year outcomes (median 6.7 and 8.6 years
for all and living patients, respectively) for
radiation alone vs. with hormone therapy,
respectively:
x Primary endpoint: local failure, 42% vs.
30% (p=0.016)
x Disease-free survival, 21% vs. 33%
(p=0.004)
x Death from prostate cancer, 31% vs. 23%
(p=0.05)
x Overall survival, 44% vs. 53% (p=ns)
Radiation with adjuvant goserelin
8-Year outcomes (median 5.6 and 6 years for
3.6 mg monthly initiated during final all and living patients, respectively) for
week (n=477) and continued
radiation with adjuvant therapy or upon
indefinitely/until progression or
relapse, respectively:
radiation alone with goserelin
x Local failure, 23% vs. 37% (p<0.0001)
initiated at relapse (n=468) [RTOG
x Disease-free survival, 36% vs. 25%
protocol 8531]
(p<0.0001)
x Overall survival, 49% vs. 47% (p=ns)

Intervention (n)
Radiation alone (n=230) or with
goserelin 3.6 mg every 4 weeks and
flutamide 250 mg t.i.d. initiated 2
months before and continuing during
radiation therapy (n=226) [RTOG
protocol 8610]

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

Enrollment
period
1987 to
1991

Author
Pilepich et
al.26

Table 4. Randomized controlled trials evaluating hormone therapy in combination with radiation therapy*

1990 to
1999

Author
Bolla et al.11

Laverdiere et
al.23

Stage T2 to T3

Entry criteria,
stage
Stage T1 to T2
(WHO grade 3)
or T3 to T4 (any
grade), M0;
excludes patients
with common
iliac or paraaortic lymph
node involvement
Compared radiation therapy with or
without an LHRH antagonist and
an antiandrogen
Study 1: Radiation alone (n=43) or
in combination with 3-month
neoadjuvant (n=63) or
neoadjuvant, concurrent, and
adjuvant therapy, total 10 months
(n=55)
Study 2: Radiation with neoadjuvant
and concurrent therapy, total 5
months (n=148), or neoadjuvant,
concurrent, and adjuvant, total 10
months (n=148)

Intervention (n)
Radiation alone (n=208) or in
combination with goserelin 3.6 mg
every 4 weeks for 3 years, starting
on first day of irradiation, and
cyproterone 50 mg t.i.d. for 1 month,
starting 1 week prior to goserelin
(n=207; 65% completed study)

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

Enrollment
period
1987 to
1995

80

Study 1: 7-Year outcomes (median 5 years)

for radiation alone or with 3-month or 10month therapy, respectively:
x Biochemical-free survival, 42%, 66%,
69% (p0.009) for comparison between
radiation alone and the other 2 groups
Study 2: 4-year outcomes (median 3.7 years)
for 5- and 10-month therapy, respectively:
x Biochemical failure, 34.7% vs. 31.8%
(p=ns)

Results
Outcomes (median 66 months) for radiation
alone vs. with hormone therapy, respectively:
x Primary endpoint: 5-year disease-free
survival, 40% vs. 74% (HR 0.34, CI 0.36
to 0.73)
x Overall 5-year survival, 62% vs.78%
(p=0.0002)
x Specific (death from prostate cancer) 5year survival, 79% vs. 94% (p=0.0001)

1995 to
1999

Stage T1 to T4,
biochemical
failure 34.7% vs.
31.8% (p=ns),
elevated PSA
<100 ng/mL, at
least a 15%
estimated risk of
lymph node
involvement (T2c
to T4 also
eligible if
Gleason score
6)

Entry criteria,
stage
Stage T2c to T4,
PSA <150
ng/mL, no
involved lymph
nodes in the
common iliac or
higher chains

Patients received 4 months therapy

with goserelin 3.6 mg or leuprolide
7.5 mg monthly and flutamide 250
mg t.i.d.: neoadjuvant (administered
2 months prior to and during) or
adjuvant (administered immediately
following) either whole pelvic or
prostate-only radiation:
Group 1: whole pelvic, neoadjuvant
(n=322)
Group 2: prostate only, neoadjuvant
(n=323)
Group 3: whole pelvic, adjuvant
(n=322)
Group 4: prostate only, adjuvant
(n=325)
[RTOG protocol 9413]

Intervention (n)
All patients received goserelin 3.6
mg every 4 weeks and flutamide 250
mg t.i.d. for 2 months before and
during radiation therapy. Therapy
was discontinued in the short-term
group (n=761) and continued for 2
years in the long-term group
(n=753) [RTOG protocol 9202]

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

Roach et al.29

Author
Hanks et al.17

Enrollment
period
1992 to
1995

81

Results
5-Year outcomes (median 5.8 years for all
and 6.3 years for alive patients) for short-term
vs. long-term groups, respectively:
x Disease-free survival, 28.1% vs. 46.4%
(p<0.0001)
x Overall survival, 78.5% vs. 80.0% (p=ns)
x Biochemical failure, 55.5% vs. 28.0%
(p<0.0001)
x Late GI toxicity grade >3, 1.2% vs. 2.6%
(p=0.037)
4-Year outcomes (median 60 months) for
groups 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively; RR (CI):
x Disease progression, including death to
any cause, 1.0, 1.52 (1.19 to 1.93), 1.32
(1.03 to 1.68), 1.29 (1.01 to 1.65)
x Death to any cause, 1.0, 1.35 (0.87 to
2.09), 1.54 (1.00 to 2.36), and 1.21 (0.78
to 1.90)
x Biochemical failure, 1.00, 1.52 (1.15 to
2.01), 1.30 (0.97 to 1.73), and 1.24 (0.92
to 1.65)

1995 to
2001

Author
Crook et al.13

DAmico et
al.44

Stage T1b to
T2b, Nx, M0,
PSA between 10
to 40 ng/mL,
Gleason score
>7

Entry criteria,
stage
Stage T1 to T4,
M0

3-Dimensional conformal radiation

therapy alone (n=102) or in
combination with neoadjuvant,
concurrent, and adjuvant (initiated 2
months prior to and continuing
through 2 months after radiation)
flutamide 250 mg t.i.d. and
leuprolide 7.5 mg monthly or 22.5
mg every 3 months (n=88) or
goserelin 3.6 mg monthly or 10.8
mg every 3 months (n=10)

Intervention (n)
Radiation therapy with 3-month
(n=177) or 8-month (n=184)
neoadjuvant goserelin every 4 weeks
and flutamide 250 mg t.i.d. initiated
2 weeks prior to goserelin

Results
5-Year outcomes (median 44 months) for 3and 8-month groups, respectively:
x Freedom from biochemical failure, 61%
vs. 62% (p=ns)
x No evidence of disease, 64.2% vs. 66.3%
(p=ns)
5-Year outcomes (median 4.5 years) for
radiation therapy alone or with hormone
therapy, respectively:
x Overall mortality, 23% vs. 12%, HR 2.07,
CI 1.02 to 4.20 (p<0.05)
x Prostate cancer-specific mortality, 6% vs.
0% (p=0.02)
x Biochemical failure, 46% vs. 21%, HR
2.86, CI 1.69 to 4.86 (p<0.001)

Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.

82

CI, 95% confidence interval; GI, gastrointestinal; HR, hazard ratio; LHRH, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone; ns, not significant; PSA, prostate-specific
antigen; RR, relative risk; t.i.d., three times daily; WHO, World Health Organization.

The duration of flutamide treatment was not reported.

* The information herein only summarizes the key study methods and results; please see the original papers for complete designs, results, and conclusions.

Enrollment
period
1995 to
2001

Guideline for the Management of Clinically

Localized Prostate Cancer: 2007 Update
American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
Appendixes

Table of Contents

Appendix 1
Prostate Cancer Clinical Guideline Panel Members and Consultants (1995) ................. 2
Appendix 2
Prostate Cancer Clinical Guideline Update Panel Members and Consultants (2007) ..... 3
Appendix 3
Glossary.......................................................................................................................... 6
Appendix 4
American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Tumor, Nodes, Metastasis (TNM)
Prostate Cancer Staging System .................................................................................. 14
Appendix 5
Expectation of Life by Age and Sex: United States, 2003 ............................................. 16
Appendix 6
Details of the Article Selection Process......................................................................... 17
Appendix 7
Article Extraction Form.................................................................................................. 19
Appendix 8
Bibliography of Extracted Articles Listed by Primary Author ......................................... 27
Appendix 9
Efficacy Outcomes Graphs ........................................................................................... 59
Appendix 10
Complication and Adverse-event Categories .............................................................. 150
Appendix 11
Variability of Definitions of Biochemical Recurrence Reported in the
Extracted Articles Subcategorized by Initial Treatment ............................................ 165

Appendix
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Appendix 1. Prostate Cancer Clinical Guideline Panel Members and Consultants

(1995)
Members
Richard G. Middleton, M.D., Chairman
Ian M. Thompson, M.D.
Mark S. Austenfeld, M.D.
William H. Cooner, M.D.
Roy J. Correa, Jr., M.D.
Robert P. Gibbons, M.D.

Harry C. Miller, Jr., M.D.

Joseph E. Oesterling, M.D.
Martin I. Resnick, M.D.
Stephen R. Smalley, M.D.
John H. Wasson, M.D.

Consultants
Claus G. Roehrborn, M.D.
Hanan S. Bell, Ph.D.
Brent Blumenstein, Ph.D.
Scott Optenberg, Dr. PH
Patrick M. Florer
Curtis Colby

Appendix
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Appendix 2. Prostate Cancer Clinical Guideline Update Panel Members and Consultants
(2007)
Members
Ian M. Thompson, M.D., Chairman
Department of Urology
University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
San Antonio, Texas
James Brantley Thrasher, M.D., Co-Chairman
Department of Urology
University of Kansas Medical Center
Kansas City, Kansas
Gunnar Aus, M.D.
Department of Urology
Sahlgrenska University Hospital
Gteborg, Sweden
Arthur L. Burnett, M.D.
Department of Urology
The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
Baltimore, Maryland
Edith D. Canby-Hagino, M.D.
Lt Col, U.S. Air Force Medical Corps,
Department of Urology
Wilford Hall Medical Center
Lackland Air Force Base, Texas
Michael S. Cookson, M.D.
Vanderbilt University
Department of Urologic Surgery
Nashville, Tennessee
Anthony V. D'Amico, M.D., Ph.D.
Department of Radiation Oncology
Brigham and Womens Hospital and Dana Farber Cancer Institute
Harvard Medical School
Boston, Massachusetts
Roger R. Dmochowski, M.D.
Department of Urologic Surgery
Vanderbilt University
Nashville, Tennessee

Appendix
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David T. Eton, Ph.D.

Evanston Northwestern Healthcare and
Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine
Evanston, Illinois
Jeffrey D. Forman, M.D.
Department of Radiation Oncology
Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute
Wayne State University School of Medicine
Detroit, Michigan
S. Larry Goldenberg, O.B.C., M.D.
Department of Urologic Sciences
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, British Columbia
Celestia S. Higano, M.D.
Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine and
Department of Urology
University of Washington
Seattle Cancer Care Alliance
Seattle, Washington
Javier Hernandez, MD
L.T.C., U.S. Army Medical Corps
Urology Service
Brooke Army Medical Center
Fort Sam Houston, Texas
Stephen R. Kraus, M.D.
Department of Urology
University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
San Antonio, Texas
Judd W. Moul, M.D.
The Division of Urologic Surgery, Department of Surgery and
Duke Prostate Center
Duke University
Durham, North Carolina
Catherine M. Tangen, Dr. P.H.
Southwest Oncology Group Statistical Center
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center
Seattle, Washington

Appendix
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Consultants
Hanan S. Bell, Ph.D.
Patrick M. Florer
Diann Glickman, Pharm.D.
Scott Lucia, M.D.
Timothy J.Wilt, M.D., M.P.H.

Data Extractors
Supervisor
Timothy J. Wilt, M.D., M.P.H.
Department of Medicine and
Center for Chronic Disease Outcomes Research
University of Minnesota School of Medicine
Minneapolis Veterans Administration Center for Chronic Disease
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Staff
Lucy Alderton
Christine Ashley
Sander M. Latts, Ph.D.
Amy Linabery
Roderick MacDonald
Indy Rutks
James Tacklind
Data Entry
Alisha Baines
Kyle Moen

Appendix
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Appendix 3. Glossary
Active surveillance A program of active surveillance is based on the premise that prostate cancers at low
risk of disease progression can be monitored regularly and if disease progression develops treatment can be
instituted. The two goals of this approach to prostate cancer management are to reduce the risk of treatmentrelated complications for men with cancers that are not likely to progress and to identify tumors that are
progressing and institute therapy sufficiently early for disease control.
American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology (ASTRO) National professional society of
radiation oncologists.
Androgen deprivation therapy (also known as androgen suppression, hormonal therapy, hormonal
ablation, or androgen ablation) Medical therapy administered for the purpose of achieving castrate levels
of the male hormone.
Bicalutamide One of several nonsteroidal antiandrogen drugs.
Biochemical-free survival (also known as PSA-free survival or biochemical failure-free survival)
Length of time after treatment during which no detectable tumor marker (prostate-specific antigen; PSA) is
found. Can be reported for an individual patient or for a study population.
Biochemical progression (or recurrence) The finding of an increasing amount of prostate-specific
antigen, detected by comparison to its prior value, following initial treatment.
Biomarker A distinctive biological or biologically derived indicator used to measure or indicate an event,
effect or progress of a disease or condition. One example of a biomarker is prostate-specific antigen (PSA).
Biopsy cores, prostate biopsy Procedure where a rectal ultrasound is used to image the prostate gland and
then to remove small prostate tissue samples (cores) for pathology diagnosis.
Bladder neck contracture A narrowing at the point where the bladder is reconnected to the urethra after
prostate surgery.
Brachytherapy isotope A radioactive substance that can be permanently or temporarily inserted into a
tissue site (e.g., prostate).
Case-control study A type of observational epidemiologic investigation in which subjects are selected on
the basis of whether they do (cases) or do not (controls) have a particular disease under study. The groups
are then compared with respect to the proportion having a history of an exposure or characteristic of interest.
Case report/series The case report is the most basic type of descriptive study of individuals, consisting of
a careful, detailed report by one or more clinicians of the profile of a single patient. The individual case
report can be expanded to a case series, which describes characteristics of a number of patients with a given
disease.
Chemoprevention The use of natural or synthetic substances to reduce the risk of developing disease.
Clinical progression The worsening of a disease characterized by increased tissue or organ damage,
biochemical markers and/or worsening of symptoms.
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Clinical trial (also known as a controlled trial or as an intervention study) May be viewed as a type of
prospective cohort study because participants are identified on the basis of their exposure status and are
followed to determine whether they develop the disease. The distinguishing feature is that the exposure
status of each participant is assigned by the investigator.
Clinically localized Clinical staging is based on information gained up to the initial definitive treatment.
Clinically localized prostate cancers are those that are presumed to be confined within the prostate based on
pre-treatment findings such as physical exam, imaging, and biopsy findings. Clinically localized prostate
cancers fall into the Tumor, Nodes and Metastasis (TNM) category of clinical T1 and T2 tumors.
Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials Database that contains a comprehensive list of
references for controlled trials and other healthcare interventions; includes citations not listed in other
bibliographic databases (e.g., MEDLINE, EMBASE), such as conference proceedings, meeting abstracts,
and ongoing trials.
Cohort Group of individuals or study subjects followed prospectively over a period of time in clinical
research of various designs.
Cohort study In a cohort study, subjects are classified on the basis of the presence or absence of exposure
to a particular factor and are then followed for a specified period of time to determine the development of
disease in each exposure group. Cohort studies can be prospective or retrospective. The feature that
distinguishes a prospective from a retrospective cohort is whether the outcome of interest has occurred at the
time the investigator initiates the study.
Competing hazards for mortality Medical conditions other than prostate cancer, within the same
individual, with the potential to cause illness or death.
Computed tomography (CT) scan Imaging technology that captures radiographic images of crosssectional planes of the body.
Conformal radiotherapy Radiation therapy shaped to increase precision of the radiation beam.
Cryotherapy Transperineal technique for cryoablation of prostate tissue. Employs transperineal probes
or needles that deliver freeze/thaw cycles to prostate tissue using argon and helium gases. Treated tissues
undergo coagulative necrosis from a combination of direct injury to cells caused by ice-crystal formation
during freezing and ischemia from the microcirculatory occlusion that occurs during thawing. Treatment of
the prostate is monitored in real time with a transrectal diagnostic ultrasound transducer.
Definitive treatment Definitive treatment is intended to permanently eradicate prostate cancer, thus
affording permanent freedom from disease, through either removal of the prostate or in situ therapy such as
external beam radiotherapy or brachytherapy.
Disease-free survival Length of time after treatment during which the patient is alive and no cancer is
found. Can be reported for an individual patient or for a study population.
Disease-specific mortality The incidence of death directly attributable to the disease.

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Disease-specific survival The percentage of subjects in a study who have survived for a defined period of
time without cancer recurrence. Usually reported as time since diagnosis or treatment.
Distant metastases The spread of prostate cancer from the initial or primary site of disease to another part
of the body; prostate cancer that has metastasized falls into the Tumor, Nodes, and Metastasis (TNM)
category of M1 metastasis.
Dose escalation Radiation therapy delivered to doses that are higher than the conventional dose (e.g., >70
Gy).
EORTC European Organisation for the Research and Treatment of Cancer.
Erectile dysfunction Erections insufficient for penetration or intercourse. Old definition: Inability to
achieve or sustain an erection for satisfactory sexual activity.
Evidence-based Term used to describe medical tests, procedures, and treatments that are based on sound
medical scientific research studies.
External beam radiotherapy Radiation therapy delivered from an external source of radiation.
First-line hormone therapy (or primary hormonal therapy) Ablative hormonal therapy in a patient not
previously treated with any hormonal therapy.
Grade, tumor grade An ordinal scale that connotes the clinical behavior of a malignancy. Cancers with a
high grade tend to have higher and more rapid rates of progression. Cancers with a low grade tend to have
lower and slower rates of progression. The most common system of grading prostate cancer is the Gleason
scoring system.
Health-related quality-of-life (HRQL) The impact of a disease and its treatment on a persons physical,
emotional and social functioning and well-being, including the impact on daily functioning. HRQL is a
subjective, patient-reported outcome and as such must be rated by the patient.
Hematuria Blood in the urine.
High-dose rate interstitial prostate brachytherapy A procedure in which catheters containing a
radioactive source (e.g., iridium-192) are temporarily placed into the prostate gland under image guidance
for the purpose of therapeutic radiation delivery.
High-grade cancer Includes prostate cancers with a Gleason score of 8 to 10. Some prostate cancers with
a Gleason score of 7 may demonstrate clinical behavior similar to cancers with a Gleason score of 8 to 10.
High-intensity focused ultrasound Transrectal, noninvasive technique for thermal ablation of prostate
tissue. Employs piezoelectric transrectal ultrasound probes (therapeutic transducers) of varying focal depth
to generate high frequency ultrasonic vibrations which are converged onto a small focal point resulting in
focal hyperthermia and coagulative necrosis. Treatment of the prostate is monitored in real time with a
diagnostic ultrasound transducer that is arranged confocally with the therapeutic transducer.
Hormone-refractory Prostate cancer that demonstrates progression (determined by rising prostate-specific
antigen and/or clinical evidence of metastatic or local progression) in spite of castrate levels of androgens.
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Hypofractionation of external beam radiotherapy A form of radiation therapy where a higher dose of
radiation is given each day in order to shorten the overall time course of the delivery of radiation therapy
without decreasing the biological effect.
Implant quality A measure based on the postimplant dosimetry that provides information on what
proportion of the prostate gland received the intended radiation dose (i.e., prescription dose).
Inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn's, ulcerative colitis) Inflammatory bowel disease includes two
chronic diseases (Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis) that cause inflammation of the intestines. Ulcerative
colitis is a disorder of the large intestine and more commonly affects the rectum. Although Crohns disease
can affect any part of the digestive tract, it is more common in the last part of the small intestine.
Instruments (as in quality-of-life instruments) Also referred to as tools, questionnaires, or surveys; these
are measures used to evaluate the impact of a disease and/or its treatment on symptoms, complications and
overall well-being. Instruments are typically completed by the patient alone but also may be administered by
a third-party interviewer.
Intensity-modulated radiotherapy Radiation therapy that is modified in order to deliver a more
conformal radiation treatment. The modification involves varying the intensity of the beam across the
treatment volume providing the highly shaped (conformed) beam.
Interstitial prostate brachytherapy A procedure in which radioactive sources are placed into the prostate
permanently or temporarily using image guidance for the purpose of therapeutic radiation delivery.
Intraprostatic placement of fiducial markers Small radiopaque markers placed in the prostate gland for
localization purposes.
Irritative urinary symptoms Symptoms that result in a limited capacity to store urine in the bladder.
Symptoms include frequent and urgent urination.
Laparoscopic radical prostatectomy Laparoscopic prostatectomy is the complete removal of the prostate
using long, narrow instruments that are introduced through small skin incisions. During this procedure, a
telescopic instrument called a laparoscope is inserted into the abdomen through a small incision. A camera
attached to the laparoscope allows surgeons to view inside the abdomen and pelvis. Usually, four more
small incisions are made in the abdomen to accommodate surgical instruments and the surgery is performed.
Libido Sexual desire; sexual drive.
Life expectancy Measure of time, usually in years or months, to define the average survival of groups of
people.
Linear accelerator A machine capable of generating photons whose energy exceeds 4mV.
Lymph nodes Small rounded masses of tissue distributed along the lymphatic system that serve to filter
impurities such as infection and cancerous cells. Lymph nodes associated with the prostate can be removed
at the time of radical prostatectomy to see if the cancer has spread.

Appendix
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Lymphadenectomy Surgical removal of the lymph nodes that drain the organ to be removed. During
radical prostatectomy, the pelvic lymph nodes that drain the prostate can be removed for examination.
Medical oncologist Doctor or physician who specializes in treating cancer patients with chemotherapy and
other anticancer medicines.
Meta-analysis Systematic statistical analysis that combines the results of several studies that address a
given problem.
Metastasis-free survival The percentage of subjects in a study who have survived without cancer spread
for a defined period of time. Usually reported as time since diagnosis or treatment. Can be reported for an
individual or a study population.
Morbidity This term has two meanings. It can refer to complications of treatment, or alternatively, can
refer to other medical problems that can impact on symptoms or life expectancy.
Monotherapy Use of only a single treatment modality (e.g., surgery alone or radiation alone) for the
treatment of a medical condition.
Mortality A measure of the rate of death within a given population; may describe the population as a
whole or a specific group within a population.
Multileaf collimator A radiation therapy modification device that provides the creation of a 3-dimensional
conformal beam.
Neoadjuvant Prior to definitive therapy.
Neoadjuvant hormonal therapy (NHT) Hormonal therapy administered prior to definitive therapy.
Nerve-sparing radical prostatectomy Complete removal of the prostate performed with the intent to
preserve the set of nerves to the penis that affect the man's ability to have an erection and that is in close
proximity to the prostate gland. Some tumors can be removed using a nerve-sparing technique. Nervesparing surgery sometimes preserves the man's ability to have an erection after radical prostatectomy.
Nonmetastatic disease Prostate cancer that has not spread to lymph nodes or metastatic sites.
Obstructive urinary symptoms Symptoms arising from a compromised ability to empty the urinary
bladder. This may result from inflammatory swelling that restricts the flow of urine through the urethra.
Symptoms include pushing and straining to start urination and a weak urine stream.
Overall survival The percentage of subjects in a study who have survived for a defined period of time.
Usually reported as time since diagnosis or treatment. Also called the survival rate.
Palliative treatment, palliation Palliative treatment is intended to relieve symptoms but is not expected to
be a cure. Palliative treatment may be given in combination with other treatments intended to cure the
disease or alone when a cure is not possible or indicated. The main purpose of palliative therapy is to
improve the patients comfort and quality-of-life.

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Pathologist Doctor or physician who is specially trained to examine tissues and to diagnose conditions.
Positive surgical margin The term used by the pathologist to describe the finding of cancer cells at the cut
edge of the radical prostatectomy specimen. A finding of a positive surgical margin may place a patient at
increased risk for cancer recurrence.
Postoperative dosimetry An imaging procedure performed following permanent interstitial prostate
brachytherapy usually using computerized tomography to locate the radioactive sources with respect to the
prostate gland permitting a calculation of the radioactive dose that is to be delivered as a result of the
radioactive source implantation.
Proctopathy Inflammation of the mucous membranes of the rectum; may give rise to a range of bowel and
gastrointestinal symptoms such as increased movement frequency, discomfort with bowel movements, rectal
bleeding and tenesmus.
Progression-free survival The duration that a patient is alive without any objective evidence of disease
progression.
Progression (local and/or metastatic) A change in the status indicating continuing growth or regrowth of
the cancer, either within the prostate (local) or systemic spread (metastatic).
Prospective clinical trial (or prospective controlled trial) A study in which patients with a predefined
condition are followed and information collected regarding their condition or other outcomes (e.g., qualityof-life). (See the definition of clinical trial or randomized clinical trial.)
Prostate biopsy Removal of small cores of prostate tissue, usually with a spring-loaded biopsy needle
usually obtained using transrectal ultrasound for guiding of the biopsy needle.
Prostate cancer-specific mortality A measure of the rate of death attributable to the prostate cancer
within a given population.
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) doubling time (PSA DT) Calculation of PSA DT assumes first order
kinetics for the increase in PSA over time. With this assumption, the increase in PSA follows an exponential
growth curve, meaning a plot of log PSA over time would produce a linear slope that would remain constant.
Most reports on PSA DT use a minimum of three consecutive PSA values, separated by a minimum of three
months. Linear regression is used to calculate the slope of the log PSA line. The PSA DT is calculated as
log x 2 divided by the slope of the log PSA line.
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) failure The state in which the serum level of PSA does not respond
appropriately to therapy; this could be failure to drop or to stabilize or could be a continuous rising level.
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) recurrence The reappearance of a detectable and rising PSA following
definitive treatment of localized and/or metastatic prostate cancer.
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) velocity PSA velocity usually is calculated from at least three
measurements obtained over a 2-year period. PSA velocity is calculated by the equation [(PSA2
PSA1/time1 in years) = (PSA3 PSA2/time2 in years)] divided by 2. PSA1 equals the first, PSA2 equals the
second and PSA3 equals the third serum PSA measurement. Time1 equals the time interval between the first
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and second PSA measurements, and time2 equals the time interval between the second and third PSA
measurements.
Proton radiotherapy A charged-particle form of conformal radiation therapy.
PubMed National Library of Medicines search service that provides links to medical journals, medical
databases, medical articles and other information. PubMed can be reached at www.pubmed.gov.
Radiation oncologist Doctor or physician who specializes in treating cancer patients with radiation.
Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) National clinical trials group of radiation oncologists in
the United States.
Radical perineal prostatectomy Radical perineal prostatectomy is the complete surgical removal of the
entire prostate through an incision in the skin between the scrotum and the anus.
Radical prostatectomy Radical prostatectomy is the complete surgical removal of the entire prostate
gland that may be performed through an open incision or through a laparoscopic approach.
Radical retropubic prostatectomy Radical retropubic prostatectomy is the complete surgical removal of
the entire prostate through an incision in the lower abdomen.
Randomized clinical trial (or randomized controlled trial) A form of clinical trial or scientific
procedure used in the testing of the efficacy of medicines or medical procedures. It is widely considered the
most reliable form of scientific evidence because it is the best known design for eliminating the variety of
biases that regularly compromise the validity of medical research. Randomization may be a simple
allocation of treatment or it may be more complex or adaptive.
Regional lymph node In the context of prostate cancer, refers to lymph nodes in the obturator fossa and
along the external and internal iliac blood vessels.
Robotic-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy Complete removal of the prostate using long,
narrow instruments introduced through small skin incisions, guided with a telescope and assisted by a robotic
instrument.
Screening Testing for a disease prior to the development of symptoms using any combination of history,
physical diagnosis, and laboratory and/or radiographic testing. The goal of screening is to identify a disease
in its early stages to improve the likelihood of cure and/or prevention of complications from the disease.
Screening for prostate cancer most commonly consists of a combination of digital exam of the prostate and
the measurement of prostate-specific antigen in the blood.
Second-line therapy Can include definitive and palliative treatments. Includes any treatment that is
offered following evidence of disease recurrence or progression after initial treatment.
Seminal vesicles An internal structure in the male located behind the bladder and above the prostate gland
that contributes fluid to the ejaculate.
Somatic Functions related to the skeletal or voluntary muscles (in contrast to the functions related to the
visceral or involuntary muscles).
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Southwest Oncology Group (SWOG) National clinical trials group conducting multicenter cancer
treatment studies for the National Cancer Institute.
Surrogate endpoint An outcome measure that is used in place of a primary endpoint (outcome). In clinical
trials, a surrogate endpoint is a measure of effect of a certain treatment that may correlate with a real
endpoint but has no guaranteed relationship.
Survival The ratio of those who survive a disease per number of persons diagnosed with the disease in a
given amount of time.
Tenesmus A painful spasm of the anal sphincter corresponding with a need to defecate. Ineffectual and
painful straining of stool.
Transabdominal ultrasound Imaging technology that utilizes the measurement of reflection or
transmission of high frequency sound waves to obtain anatomical data of intra-abdominal structures.
Transperineal One route and the most commonly used route through which catheters containing
radioactive sources are placed for the purpose of performing prostate brachytherapy.
Trans-rectal ultrasound (TRUS) An ultrasonographic imaging procedure in which an ultrasound
transducer is inserted into the rectum and used to image the prostate and adjacent structures. TRUS
frequently is used to provide image guidance for prostate biopsies or radioactive seed placement.
Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) Transurethral resection of the prostate is the partial
removal of the inner portion of the prostate gland surrounding the urethra. The technique involves the
insertion of a lighted instrument with an attached electrical loop called a resectoscope in the penile urethra,
and is intended to relieve obstruction of urine flow due to enlargement of the prostate.
Urethral catheter A rubber or silicone tube that is placed within the bladder through the opening at the tip
of the penis to allow passage of urine from the bladder to a collection device such as a bag.
Urethral stricture A narrowing of the urethra.
Urinary incontinence Involuntary loss of urine.
Urologist Doctor, physician, or surgeon who specializes in caring for people with diseases of the genital
and urinary tract.
Vas deferens, ampulla of the vas The vas deferens are muscular ducts that transport sperm from the
epididymis (where sperm maturation occurs) to the ejaculatory duct located within the prostate gland. The
ampulla of the vas is a dilated segment of the vas deferens located near the seminal vesicles.
Watchful waiting A prostate cancer management strategy based on the premise that not all prostate
cancers will develop symptoms or spread during a patients lifetime. Patients managed with watchful waiting
are generally followed until symptoms develop at which time treatment for symptoms is initiated. This
strategy may differ from active surveillance in which treatment is generally initiated when there is evidence
that a tumor thought to be small and slow growing appears to be increasing in size or in growth rate.

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Appendix 4. American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) Tumor, Nodes, Metastasis (TNM)
Prostate Cancer Staging System (Available at:
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/prostate/HealthProfessional/page3)
Primary tumor (T)

TX: Primary tumor cannot be assessed

T0: No evidence of primary tumor
T1: Clinically unapparent tumor not palpable or visible by imaging
T1a: Tumor incidental histologic finding in 5% of tissue resected
T1b: Tumor incidental histologic finding in >5% of tissue resected
T1c: Tumor identified by needle biopsy (e.g., because of elevated PSA)
T2: Tumor confined within prostate*
T2a: Tumor involves 50% of one lobe or less
T2b: Tumor involves >50% of one lobe but not both lobes
T2c: Tumor involves both lobes
T3: Tumor extends through the prostate capsule**
T3a: Extracapsular extension (unilateral or bilateral)
T3b: Tumor invades seminal vesicle(s)
T4: Tumor is fixed or invades adjacent structures other than seminal vesicles: bladder neck, external
sphincter, rectum, levator muscles, and/or pelvic wall

* Note: Tumor that is found in one or both lobes by needle biopsy but is not palpable or reliably visible by
imaging is classified as T1c.
** Note: Invasion into the prostatic apex or into (but not beyond) the prostatic capsule is not classified as
T3, but as T2.
Regional lymph nodes (N)

Regional lymph nodes are the nodes of the true pelvis, which essentially are the pelvic nodes below
the bifurcation of the common iliac arteries. They include the following groups (laterality does not
affect the N classification): pelvic (not otherwise specified [NOS]), hypogastric, obturator, iliac (i.e.,
internal, external, NOS), and sacral (lateral, presacral, or promontory [e.g., Gerotas], or NOS).
Distant lymph nodes are outside the confines of the true pelvis. They can be imaged using ultrasound,
CT, MRI, or lymphangiography and include: aortic (paraaortic, periaortic, or lumbar), common iliac,
inguinal (deep), superficial inguinal (femoral), supraclavicular, cervical, scalene, and retroperitoneal
(NOS) nodes. Although enlarged lymph nodes occasionally can be visualized, because of a stage
migration associated with PSA screening, very few patients will be found to have nodal disease, so
false-positive and false-negative results are common when imaging tests are employed. In lieu of
imaging, risk tables generally are used to determine individual patient risk of nodal involvement.
Involvement of distant lymph nodes is classified as M1a.

NX: Regional lymph nodes were not assessed

N0: No regional lymph node metastasis
N1: Metastasis in regional lymph node(s)

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Distant metastasis (M)*

MX: Distant metastasis cannot be assessed (not evaluated by any modality)

M0: No distant metastasis
M1: Distant metastasis
M1a: Nonregional lymph node(s)
M1b: Bone(s)
M1c: Other site(s) with or without bone disease

* Note: When more than one site of metastasis is present, the most advanced category (pM1c) is used.
Histopathologic grade (G)

GX: Grade cannot be assessed

G1: Well-differentiated (slight anaplasia) (Gleason 2-4)
G2: Moderately differentiated (moderate anaplasia) (Gleason 5-6)
G3-4: Poorly differentiated or undifferentiated (marked anaplasia) (Gleason 7-10)

AJCC TNM Stage Groupings

Stage I

T1a, N0, M0, G1

Stage II

T1a, N0, M0, G2-4

T1b, N0, M0, any G
T1c, N0, M0, any G
T1, N0, M0, any G
T2, N0, M0, any G

Stage III

T3, N0, M0, any G

Stage IV

T4, N0, M0, any G

Any T, N1, M0, any G
Any T, any N, M1, any G

Appendix
Copyright 2007American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 15

Appendix 5. Expectation of Life by Age and Sex:

United States, 2003*43
Age
Total
All Males
Female
0
77.5
74.8
80.1
1
77.0
74.3
79.6
5
73.1
70.4
75.7
10
68.2
65.5
70.7
15
63.2
60.6
65.8
20
58.4
55.8
60.9
25
53.7
51.2
56.0
30
48.9
46.5
51.2
35
44.2
41.9
46.4
40
39.5
37.3
41.6
45
35.0
32.8
37.0
50
30.6
28.5
32.4
55
26.3
24.4
28.0
60
22.2
20.4
23.8
65
18.4
16.8
19.8
70
14.9
13.5
16.0
75
11.8
10.5
12.6
80
9.0
8.0
9.6
85
6.8
6.0
7.2
90
5.0
4.4
5.2
95
3.6
3.2
3.7
100
2.6
2.3
2.6
* This represents the average number of years that the members of the
hypothetical cohort may expect to live at various ages.

Appendix
Copyright 2007American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 16

Appendix 6. Details of the Article Selection Process

Citations Retrieved
Initial Literature searches
December, 2003 Literature search
April, 2004 Literature search

10,644
2,781
463

Total Citations Retrieved & Reviewed

13,888

Articles Selected for Winnowing

Initial Literature searches
December, 2003 Literature search
April, 2004 Literature search
Total Articles selected for Winnowing

1991 - 2002
2002 - 2003
Dec, 2003 - Apr, 2004
(total does not include 376
articles in the prostate cancer
database with information
regarding quality-of-life
outcomes)

1,331
402
31
1,764

%
Citations
Retrieved
13%
14%
7%
13%

448
125
19
592

%
Winnowed
34%
31%
61%
34%

% Citations
Articles Selected for Extraction
Initial Literature searches
December, 2003 Literature search
April, 2004 Literature search
Total Articles to be extracted

Extraction Status as of June, 2006 FINAL

Accepted
Rejected
Total Extracted to date
% Complete

436
156
592
100%

%
Extracted
74%
26%

Retrieved
4%
4%
4%
4%

%
Winnowed
25%
9%
34%

% Citations
Retrieved
3%
1%
4%

Winnowing Phase
Reasons for Rejection
No Outcomes Data
Not re Local Disease
T1-T2 Pts < 50
Treatment not relevant
No about Treatment
T3/T4 contamination
Other Exclusion

Occurrences
435
60
35
15
37
401
187

(note - articles may be rejected for several reasons)

Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 17

Data Extraction Phase

Reasons for Rejection
No Outcomes Data
Not re Local Disease
T1-T2 Pts < 50
Not re Treatment
Duplicate
Other Exclusion

Characteristics of Accepted Articles

Study Design
Case Series/Report
Case-control study
Cohort Study
Controlled Trial
Database or Surveillance
Other
Review/Policy

Occurrences
31
38
7
0
10
60

(note - articles may be rejected for several reasons)

Articles
352
3
34
28
14
4
1
436

Numbers of Rows in databases

Groups Defined
Treatment Groups Defined
Overall Outcome Groups

2,963
2,960
2,860

Outcome Timepoints
Complications Main
Complications Predefined on form
Erectile Dysfunction
Incontinence
Other Complications
Radiation Toxicity Main
Radiation Toxicity - Cystitis
Radiation Toxicity - Proctitis

10,773
532
224
273
256
803
25
10
53

Total
166,321
2,155
33,880
12,486
43,157
510
514
259,023

Overall Patients
Fewest
38
84
88
52
313
51
514
38

Other Info

Articles double reviewed from title & abstract

July, 2000
Cochrane Library, June, 2001
Sep, 2002
Dec, 2003
Apr, 2004
Other - Data Entry
Total:

8,744
165
1,733
2,781
463
2
13,888

double blind review by panel

members
ProCite < 100,000
Procite >= 200,000 < 300,000
Procite >= 300,000 < 400,000
Procite >= 400,000 < 500,000
Procite >= 600,000 < 700,000

Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 18

Most
4,839
1,933
2,991
1,804
11,429
289
514
11,429

Appendix 7. Article Extraction Form (continued on next page)

Appendix
Copyright 2007American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 19

Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 20

Appendix
Copyright 2007American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 21

Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 22

Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 23

Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 24

Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 25

Appendix
Copyright 2007American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 26

Appendix 8. Bibliography of Extracted Articles Listed by Primary Author (includes

Procite1 number and citation)
47159

Aboseif, S. R., Konety, B., Schmidt, R. A., Goldfien, S. H., Tanagho, E. A., Narayan, P. A. Preoperative
urodynamic evaluation: does it predict the degree of urinary continence after radical retropubic
prostatectomy? Urol Int. 1994; 53: 68-73

46632

Adolfsson, J., Ronstrom, L., Lowhagen, T., Carstensen, J., Hedlund, P. O. Deferred treatment of
clinically localized low grade prostate cancer: the experience from a prospective series at the
Karolinska Hospital. J Urol. 1994 Nov; 152: 1757-60

43908

Adolfsson, J., Steineck, G., Hedlund, P. O. Deferred treatment of clinically localized low-grade
prostate cancer: actual 10-year and projected 15-year follow-up of the Karolinska series. Urology.
1997 Nov; 50: 722-6

401690

Albert, M., Tempany, C. M., Schultz, D., Chen, M. H., Cormack, R. A., Kumar, S., Hurwitz, M. D.,
Beard, C., Tuncali, K., O'Leary, M., Topulos, G. P., Valentine, K., Lopes, L., Kanan, A., Kacher, D.,
Rosato, J., Kooy, H., Jolesz, F., Carr-Locke, D. L., Ric Late genitourinary and gastrointestinal toxicity
after magnetic resonance image-guided prostate brachytherapy with or without neoadjuvant external
beam radiation therapy. Cancer. 2003 Sep 1; 98: 949-54

45904

Albertsen, P. C., Fryback, D. G., Storer, B. E., Kolon, T. F., Fine, J. Long-term survival among men
with conservatively treated localized prostate cancer. JAMA. 1995 Aug 23-30; 274: 626-31

42469

Algan, O., Pinover, W. H., Hanlon, A. L., Al-Saleem, T. I., Hanks, G. E. Is there a subset of
patients with PSA > or = 20 ng/ml who do well after conformal beam radiotherapy?. Radiat Oncol
Investig. 1999; 7: 106-10

46255

Amakasu, M., Akimoto, S., Akakura, K., Masai, M., Shimazaki, J. Disease progression in stage A
prostate cancer. Int J Urol. 1995 Mar; 2: 39-43

603260

Amling, C. L. , Riffenburgh, R. H. , Sun, L. , Moul, J. W. , Lance, R. S. , Kusuda, L. , Sexton, W. J. ,

Soderdahl, D. W. , Donahue, T. F. , Foley, J. P. , Chung, A. K. , McLeod, D. G. Pathologic variables
and recurrence rates as related to obesity and race in men with prostate cancer undergoing radical
prostatectomy. J Clin Oncol. 2004 Feb 1; 22: 439-45

40246

Amling, C. L., Bergstralh, E. J., Blute, M. L., Slezak, J. M., Zincke, H. Defining prostate specific antigen
progression after radical prostatectomy: what is the most appropriate cut point?. J Urol. 2001 Apr; 165:
1146-51

41279

Amling, C. L., Blute, M. L., Bergstralh, E. J., Seay, T. M., Slezak, J., Zincke, H. Long-term
hazard of progression after radical prostatectomy for clinically localized prostate cancer:
continued risk of biochemical failure after 5 years. J Urol. 2000 Jul; 164: 101-5

47373

Anderson, G. A., Lawson, R. K., Gottlieb, M. S. Quantitation of potentially undiagnosed

incidental carcinoma of the prostate in patients treated non-surgically for benign prostatic
hyperplasia. Br J Urol. 1993 Oct; 72: 465-9

40525

Anderson, P. R., Hanlon, A. L., Horwitz, E., Pinover, W., Hanks, G. E. Outcome and predictive
factors for patients with Gleason score 7 prostate carcinoma treated with three-dimensional
conformal external beam radiation therapy. Cancer. 2000 Dec 15; 89: 2565-9

The citations were maintained in a Procite database. The Procite number represents the access number for the citation in
that database.

Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 27

43940

Anderson, P. R., Hanlon, A. L., Movsas, B., Hanks, G. E. Prostate cancer patient subsets showing
improved bNED control with adjuvant androgen deprivation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1997 Dec 1;
39: 1025-30

43210

Anderson, P. R., Hanlon, A. L., Patchefsky, A., Al-Saleem, T., Hanks, G. E. Perineural invasion and
Gleason 7-10 tumors predict increased failure in prostate cancer patients with pretreatment PSA <10
ng/ml treated with conformal external beam radiation therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1998 Jul
15; 41: 1087-92

40447

Arai, Y., Okubo, K., Terada, N., Matsuta, Y., Egawa, S., Kuwao, S., Ogura, K. Volume-weighted mean
nuclear volume predicts tumor biology of clinically organ-confined prostate cancer. Prostate. 2001 Feb
1; 46: 134-41

48556

Arcangeli, G., Micheli, A., Arcangeli, G., Pansadoro, V., De Paula, F., Giannarelli, D., Benassi, M.
Definitive radiation therapy for localized prostatic adenocarcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1991
Mar; 20: 439-46

43970

Arterbery, V. E., Frazier, A., Dalmia, P., Siefer, J., Lutz, M., Porter, A. Quality of life after
permanent prostate implant. Semin Surg Oncol. 1997 Nov-Dec; 13: 461-4

43632

Asbell, S. O., Martz, K. L., Shin, K. H., Sause, W. T., Doggett, R. L., Perez, C. A., Pilepich, M. V.
Impact of surgical staging in evaluating the radiotherapeutic outcome in RTOG #77-06, a phase III
study for T1BN0M0 (A2) and T2N0M0 (B) prostate carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1998 Mar
1; 40: 769-82

402880

Augustin, H., Graefen, M., Palisaar, J., Blonski, J., Erbersdobler, A., Daghofer, F., Huland, H.,
Hammerer, P. G. Prognostic significance of visible lesions on transrectal ultrasound in impalpable
prostate cancers: implications for staging. J Clin Oncol. 2003 Aug 1; 21: 2860-8

47171

Aus, G. Prostate cancer. Mortality and morbidity after non-curative treatment with aspects on
diagnosis and treatment. Scand J Urol Nephrol Suppl. 1994; 167: 1-41

46135

Aygun, C., Blum, J., Stark, L. Long-term clinical and prostate-specific antigen follow-up in 500
patients treated with radiation therapy for localized prostate cancer. Md Med J. 1995 May; 44: 363-8

46564

Bagshaw, M. A., Cox, R. S., Hancock, S. L. Control of prostate cancer with radiotherapy: long-term
results. J Urol. 1994 Nov; 152: 1781-5

47661

Bagshaw, M. A., Kaplan, I. D., Cox, R. C. Prostate cancer. Radiation therapy for localized
disease. Cancer. 1993 Feb 1; 71: 939-52

310003

Bahn, D. K., Lee, F., Badalament, R., Kumar, A., Greski, J., Chernick, M. Targeted cryoablation of the
prostate: 7-year outcomes in the primary treatment of prostate cancer. Urology. 2002 Aug; 60: 3-11

40005

Barry, M. J., Albertsen, P. C., Bagshaw, M. A., Blute, M. L., Cox, R., Middleton, R. G., Gleason,
D. F., Zincke, H., Bergstralh, E. J., Jacobsen, S. J. Outcomes for men with clinically
nonmetastatic prostate carcinoma managed with radical prostactectomy, external beam
radiotherapy, or expectant management: a retrospective analysis. Cancer. 2001 Jun 15; 91:
2302-14

40373

Battermann, J. J., van Es, C. A. The learning curve in prostate seed implantation. Cancer
Radiother. 2000 Nov; 4 Suppl 1: 119s-122s

Appendix
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April 11, 2007

Page 28

44568

Beyer, D. C., Priestley, J. B. = Jr Biochemical disease-free survival following 125I prostate

implantation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1997 Feb 1; 37: 559-63

405360

Bianco, F. J. = Jr, Kattan, M. W., Scardino, P. T., Powell, I. J., Pontes, J. E., Wood, D. P. = Jr
Radical prostatectomy nomograms in black American men: accuracy and applicability. J Urol. 2003
Jul; 170: 73-6; discussion 76-7

408490

Bianco, F. J., Grignon, D. J., Sakr, W. A., Shekarriz, B., Upadhyay, J., Dornelles, E., Pontes, J.
E. Radical prostatectomy with bladder neck preservation: impact of a positive margin. Eur Urol. 2003
May; 43: 461-6

41827

Blank, K. R., Whittington, R., Arjomandy, B., Wein, A. J., Broderick, G., Staley, J., Malkowicz, S. B.
Neoadjuvant androgen deprivation prior to transperineal prostate brachytherapy: smaller volumes,
less morbidity. Cancer J Sci Am. 1999 Nov-Dec; 5: 370-3

40600

Blank, L. E., Gonzalez Gonzalez, D., de Reijke, T. M., Dabhoiwala, N. F., Koedooder, K.
Brachytherapy with transperineal (125)Iodine seeds for localized prostate cancer. Radiother
Oncol. 2000 Dec; 57: 307-13

41603

Blasko, J. C., Grimm, P. D., Sylvester, J. E., Badiozamani, K. R., Hoak, D., Cavanagh, W.
Palladium-103 brachytherapy for prostate carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000 Mar 1;
46: 839-50

48658

Blasko, J. C., Ragde, H., Grimm, P. D. Transperineal ultrasound-guided implantation of the

prostate: morbidity and complications. Scand J Urol Nephrol Suppl. 1991; 137: 113-8

45892

Blasko, J. C., Wallner, K., Grimm, P. D., Ragde, H. Prostate specific antigen based disease control
following ultrasound guided 125iodine implantation for stage T1/T2 prostatic carcinoma. J Urol. 1995
Sep; 154: 1096-9

43907

Blute, M. L., Bostwick, D. G., Bergstralh, E. J., Slezak, J. M., Martin, S. K., Amling, C. L., Zincke, H.
Anatomic site-specific positive margins in organ-confined prostate cancer and its impact on outcome
after radical prostatectomy. Urology. 1997 Nov; 50: 733-9

310449

Bohmer, D., Deger, S., Dinges, S., Schnorr, D., Loening, S. A., Budach, V. High-dose rate
brachytherapy--the Charite experience. Front Radiat Ther Oncol. 2002; 36: 177-82

44163

Borghede, G., Aldenborg, F., Wurzinger, E., Johansson, K. A., Hedelin, H. Analysis of the local
control in lymph-node staged localized prostate cancer treated by external beam radiotherapy,
assessed by digital rectal examination, serum prostate-specific antigen and biopsy. Br J Urol. 1997
Aug; 80: 247-55

44001

Borre, M., Nerstrom, B., Overgaard, J. The natural history of prostate carcinoma based on a
Danish population treated with no intent to cure. Cancer. 1997 Sep 1; 80: 917-28

41068

Brachman, D. G., Thomas, T., Hilbe, J., Beyer, D. C. Failure-free survival following brachytherapy
alone or external beam irradiation alone for T1-2 prostate tumors in 2222 patients: results from a
single practice. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000 Aug 1; 48: 111-7

404620

Brandli, D. W., Koch, M. O., Foster, R. S., Bihrle, R., Gardner, T. A. Biochemical disease-free survival
in patients with a high prostate-specific antigen level (20-100 ng/mL) and clinically localized prostate
cancer after radical prostatectomy. BJU Int. 2003 Jul; 92: 19-22; discussion 22-3

Appendix
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April 11, 2007

Page 29

41524

Brasso, K., Friis, S., Juel, K., Jorgensen, T., Iversen, P. The need for hospital care of patients with
clinically localized prostate cancer managed by noncurative intent: a population based registry study.
J Urol. 2000 Apr; 163: 1150-4

42846

Brasso, K., Friis, S., Juel, K., Jorgensen, T., Iversen, P. Mortality of patients with clinically localized
prostate cancer treated with observation for 10 years or longer: a population based registry study. J
Urol. 1999 Feb; 161: 524-8

42695

Brewster, S. F., Oxley, J. D., Trivella, M., Abbott, C. D., Gillatt, D. A. Preoperative p53, bcl-2, CD44
and E-cadherin immunohistochemistry as predictors of biochemical relapse after radical
prostatectomy. J Urol. 1999 Apr; 161: 1238-43

48415

Burmeister, B. H., Probert, J. C. Radiation therapy for the management of localized prostate
carcinoma. Aust N Z J Surg. 1991 Sep; 61: 658-62

402540

Buyyounouski, M. K., Horwitz, E. M., Hanlon, A. L., Uzzo, R. G., Hanks, G. E., Pollack, A. Positive
prostate biopsy laterality and implications for staging. Urology. 2003 Aug; 62: 298-303

310300

Cagiannos, I., Graefen, M., Karakiewicz, P. I., Ohori, M., Eastham, J. A., Rabbani, F., Fair, W.,
Wheeler, T. M., Hammerer, P. G., Haese, A., Erbersdobler, A., Huland, H., Scardino, P. T., Kattan, M.
W. Analysis of clinical stage T2 prostate cancer: do current subclassifications represent an
improvement?. J Clin Oncol. 2002 Apr 15; 20: 2025-30

443990

Carter, C. A., Donahue, T., Sun, L., Wu, H., McLeod, D. G., Amling, C., Lance, R., Foley, J., Sexton,
W., Kusuda, L., Chung, A., Soderdahl, D., Jackmaan, S., Moul, J. W. Temporarily deferred therapy
(watchful waiting) for men younger than 70 years and with low-risk localized prostate cancer in the
prostate-specific antigen era. J Clin Oncol. 2003 Nov 1; 21: 4001-8

40883

Carvalhal, G. F., Humphrey, P. A., Thorson, P., Yan, Y., Ramos, C. G., Catalona, W. J. Visual
estimate of the percentage of carcinoma is an independent predictor of prostate carcinoma
recurrence after radical prostatectomy. Cancer. 2000 Sep 15; 89: 1308-14

47393

Catalona, W. J., Basler, J. W. Return of erections and urinary continence following nerve
sparing radical retropubic prostatectomy. J Urol. 1993 Sep; 150: 905-7

42296

Catalona, W. J., Carvalhal, G. F., Mager, D. E., Smith, D. S. Potency, continence and
complication rates in 1,870 consecutive radical retropubic prostatectomies. J Urol. 1999
Aug; 162: 433-8

46624

Catalona, W. J., Smith, D. S. 5-year tumor recurrence rates after anatomical radical retropubic
prostatectomy for prostate cancer. J Urol. 1994 Nov; 152: 1837-42

42973

Catalona, W. J., Smith, D. S. Cancer recurrence and survival rates after anatomic radical retropubic
prostatectomy for prostate cancer: intermediate-term results. J Urol. 1998 Dec; 160: 2428-34

42115

Cha, C. M., Potters, L., Ashley, R., Freeman, K., Wang, X. H., Waldbaum, R., Leibel, S. Isotope
selection for patients undergoing prostate brachytherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1999 Sep 1;
45: 391-5

45107

Chaikin, D. C., Broderick, G. A., Malloy, T. R., Malkowicz, S. B., Whittington, R., Wein, A. J. Erectile
dysfunction following minimally invasive treatments for prostate cancer. Urology. 1996 Jul; 48: 100-4

406580

Chaussy, C., Thuroff, S. The status of high-intensity focused ultrasound in the treatment of localized
prostate cancer and the impact of a combined resection. Curr Urol Rep. 2003 Jun; 4: 248-52

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April 11, 2007

Page 30

40703

Chaussy, C., Thuroff, S. High-intensity focused ultrasound in prostate cancer: results after 3 years. Mol
Urol. 2000 Fall; 4: 179-82

46823

Chauvet, B., Felix-Faure, C., Lupsascka, N., Fijuth, J., Brewer, Y., Davin, J. L., Kirscher, S.,
Reboul, F. Prostate-specific antigen decline: a major prognostic factor for prostate cancer treated
with radiation therapy. J Clin Oncol. 1994 Jul; 12: 1402-7

415750

Cheng, G. C., Chen, M. H., Whittington, R., Malkowicz, S. B., Schnall, M. D., Tomaszewski, J. E.,
D'Amico, A. V. Clinical utility of endorectal MRI in determining PSA outcome for patients with biopsy
Gleason score 7, PSA <or=10, and clinically localized prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.
2003 Jan 1; 55: 64-70

310356

Choo, R., Klotz, L., Danjoux, C., Morton, G. C., DeBoer, G., Szumacher, E., Fleshner, N., Bunting, P.,
Hruby, G. Feasibility study: watchful waiting for localized low to intermediate grade prostate
carcinoma with selective delayed intervention based on prostate specific antigen, histological and/or
clinical progression. J Urol. 2002 Apr; 167: 1664-9

40042

Chuba, P. J., Moughan, J., Forman, J. D., Owen, J., Hanks, G. The 1989 patterns of care study for
prostate cancer: five-year outcomes. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2001 Jun 1; 50: 325-34

444910

Coen, J. J., Chung, C. S., Shipley, W. U., Zietman, A. L. Influence of follow-up bias on PSA failure
after external beam radiotherapy for localized prostate cancer: results from a 10-year cohort
analysis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2003 Nov 1; 57: 621-8

310027

Coen, J. J., Zietman, A. L., Thakral, H., Shipley, W. U. Radical radiation for localized prostate
cancer: local persistence of disease results in a late wave of metastases. J Clin Oncol. 2002 Aug
1; 20: 3199-205

48505

Collins, C. D., Lloyd-Davies, R. W., Swan, A. V. Radical external beam radiotherapy for localised
carcinoma of the prostate using a hypofractionation technique. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 1991 May;
3: 127-32

301088

Connell, P. P., Ignacio, L., Haraf, D., Awan, A. M., Halpern, H., Abdalla, I., Nautiyal, J., Jani, A. B.,
Weichselbaum, R. R., Vijayakumar, S. Equivalent racial outcome after conformal radiotherapy for
prostate cancer: a single departmental experience. J Clin Oncol. 2001 Jan 1; 19: 54-61

310468

Critz, F. A. A standard definition of disease freedom is needed for prostate cancer: undetectable
prostate specific antigen compared with the American Society of Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology
consensus definition. J Urol. 2002 Mar; 167: 1310-3

417660

Critz, F. A. Time to achieve a prostate specific antigen nadir of 0.2 ng./ml. after simultaneous
irradiation for prostate cancer. J Urol. 2002 Dec; 168: 2434-8

42910

Critz, F. A., Levinson, A. K., Williams, W. H., Holladay, C. T., Griffin, V. D., Holladay, D. A.
Simultaneous radiotherapy for prostate cancer: 125I prostate implant followed by external-beam
radiation. Cancer J Sci Am. 1998 Nov-Dec; 4: 359-63

42701

Critz, F. A., Levinson, A. K., Williams, W. H., Holladay, C. T., Griffin, V. D., Holladay, D. A.
Prostate specific antigen nadir achieved by men apparently cured of prostate cancer by
radiotherapy. J Urol. 1999 Apr; 161: 1199-203; discussion 1203-5

44863

Critz, F. A., Levinson, A. K., Williams, W. H., Holladay, D. A. Prostate-specific antigen nadir: the
optimum level after irradiation for prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1996 Nov; 14: 2893-900

Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

April 11, 2007

Page 31

44524

Critz, F. A., Levinson, A. K., Williams, W. H., Holladay, D. A., Holladay, C. T. The PSA nadir that
indicates potential cure after radiotherapy for prostate cancer. Urology. 1997 Mar; 49: 322-6

44371

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Appendix 9. Efficacy Outcomes Graphs

These graphs are an intermediate work product. As such, they are subject to a number of
problems such as possible mistaken data, redundant data (i.e., data from articles that report on
the same patients), groups separated by factors irrelevant to the graph (e.g., a graph based on
PSA level may have two lines from the same article where patients have different Gleason
scores). Thus, the Panel considered these graphs to be sufficiently heterogeneous so that
conclusions could not be drawn based on the data and that further refinement would not be
helpful.

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Appendix
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Appendix
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Appendix
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Appendix
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Appendix 10. Complication and Adverse Events Categories (continued on next

page)

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American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Bladder
Inflammation
Bacterial cystitis
Bladder spasm
Bladder stones
Cystitis
detrusor instability
Diurnal urinary frequency
dysuria
Dysuria requiring medication
Dysuria/Urinary frequency - minimal
Dysuria/Urinary frequency - minimal (Grade 1)
Dysuria/Urinary frequency - moderate
Dysuria/Urinary frequency - moderate (Grade 2)
Dysuria/Urinary frequency - severe
Dysuria/Urinary frequency - severe (Grade 3)
Dysuria/urinaty frequency - minimal
Frequency 1-2 hrs
Frequency 1-2/hrs
Grade 1 GI toxicity increase frequency & urgency
Grade 1 GU toxicity increase frequency & urgency
irritative symptoms
irritative uropathy
irritative uropathy chronic
Micturition frequency
Mild dysuria
Nocturia > 3 times per night
Nocturia 2-3/night
Nocturia 4+/night
Nocturnal urinary frequency
Pain on urination
retention
Severe dysuria
uropathy

Obstruction
Acute retention
Acute urinary retention
Acute urinary retention (Grade 3)
Acute urinary retention requiring catheterization (Grade 3)
Additional deobstruction procedures needed
Bladder Neck Contracture
Bladder Outlet Obstruction
contracture
Difficulty with urination
Hesitancy in urination
Local problems requiring TURP
Long-term urinary complaints
obstructive and irritative
obstructive symptoms
Readmission for urinary retention
Slower stream with urination
surgery to alleviate obstructions

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American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

treatment for bladder neck contracture > 1 time

urinary retention
Urinary retention
Urinary retention requiring catheters
Urinary symptoms requiring a transurethral resection of the prostate
Urinary toxicity mild (persistent acute retention, urethra stenosis or incont) requiring only meds
Urinary toxicity severe (persistent acute retention, urethra stenosis, or incont) req med intervent
Vesical neck contracture

Bleeding
Less Significant
Blood in urine visible to patient
Decreased hemoglobin
Delayed bleeding
Gross hematuria post-implant (12-48 hrs)
Hematuria
Persistent hematuria for up to 6 wks

Significant
blood transfusion
Coagulopathy
Flank hematoma
Hemotoma
Major Bleeding
melena
pelvic hematoma
Transfusion
Transfusion needed

Cardiac
Cardiac
arrhythmias
Cardiac arrhythmia
MI
myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction (MI)

Death
Death
death
Death from cardiovascular complications during estrogen treatment
Death from cerebrovascular disease
Death from chronic pulmonary disease w/ respiratory failure
Death from congestive heart failure
Death from gastric adenocarcinoma
Death from hepatoma
Death from myocardial infarction
Death from pneumonia
death of myocardial infarction (less than 6 months)

January, 2007

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American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Death secondary to cardiac arrest

Disease-related deaths
Mortality
Perioperative Death
Post-operative deaths
Treatment-related deaths

DVT
DVT
deep vein thrombophlebitis
deep vein thrombosis
Deep venous thromboses
deep venous thrombosis
DVT
lower extremity deep vein throm
lower extremity deep vein thrombosis

ED
A little or some interest in sex
A lot of interest in sex
Ability to maintain an erection sufficient for vaginal penetration and
Ability to maintain an erection sufficient for vaginal penetration and orgasm
Able to maintain an erection sufficient for intercourse
at least fair sexual function
Before treatment no sexual arousal or erection
Cannot get erection
difficulty getting an erection
erectile disfunction preventing vaginal intercourse
Erectile dysfunction
Erectile dysfunction - no erections
Erectile dysfunction - none
Erectile dysfunction - none (no erections?)
Erectile dysfunction - none or little
Erectile dysfunction - none or only a little
Erectile dysfunction - some or a lot
Erectile Dysfunction preventing vaginal intercourse
erection > 50% of the time
erection insufficient for penetration
erection not firm enough for intercourse
erection not sufficiently rigid for penetration and intercourse
Erections - none
Erections - none or little
Erections - some or a lot
erections > 50% of the time
erections > 50% of time
Erections firm enough for sexual intercourse
Erections not firm enough for sexual intercourse
Erections sufficient for vaginal penetration <50% of intercourse attempts
erections, not sexually active
erections, sexually active
full erection
January, 2007

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Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Impotence
Impotence (not further defined)
Inability to achieve and maintain an erection for sexual intercourse
inability to achieve full erection
inability to achieve partial or full erection
Inability to gain erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual intercourse
Inability to have an erection sufficient for vaginal intercourse
Inability to have an erection sufficient for vaginal penetration and orgasm
Inability to have erections firm enough for sexual intercourse
inability to obtain an erection
inability to penetrate a vagina
inadequate erection for penetration without manual assistance
Inadequate erections
in-adequate erections
loss of full potency
loss of potency
minimal or no tumescence
no erection
no erection in past month
No erection in the month prior to follow-up
no erection since treatment
No erections
No interest in sex
No or little difficulty
Not having the ability to sustain an erectionw/o the use of meds or chemical assistance
Not reporting postop spontaneous erections, for subjects who were sexually active preoperatively
opposite of sufficiently firm erection for intercourse
opposite of sufficiently firm erections for intercourse
patient unable to maintain erectile function after treatment
patients concerned about sexual function
prostate surgery reduced ability to have erection
sexual function was preserved in 221 of 26 pts
Sexual impotence
small .. No sexual impairment
Small ... no sexual impairment
small no impairment
small no sexual impairment
Small sexual impairment
smallno sexual impairment
Some or a lot of difficulty
treatment for impotence
Unable to achieve erection strong enough to sustain intercourse
Unable to have full erection
Unable to have full or partial erection
where timepoint is > or = 6 months

ED Grade 0
Grade 0
Grade 0 (see comments)

January, 2007

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American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

ED Grade 1-3
Grade 1-3
Grades 1, 2, 3
Grades 1-3

ED Grade 1-5
Grades 1-5
Grades 1-5 (see comments)

ED Grade 4-5
Grade 4, 5
Grades 4, 5

Edema
Edema
Edema, chronic
Genital edema

Fever
Fever
Fever

GI Toxicity
Less Significant
Abdominal pain in past year
Acute grade II gastrointestinal and genitourinary toxicities
Acute rectal symptoms
Anal fissure
Anorectal telangiectasia
Bowel (Grade 1)
Bowel (Grade 2)
Bowel urgency - almost every day
Bowel urgency - rarely or not at all
Bowel urgency - some days
bright-red rectal bleeding
Constipation in past year
Defecation urgency
Diarrhea
duodenal ulcers
enteritis
GI symptoms
Grade 1 rectal bleeding detected with colonoscopy
Grade 1 rectal bleeding with colonoscopy
Grade 1 rectal symptoms
grade 2 gastrointestinal

January, 2007

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American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Grade 2 GI - diarrhea necessitating medication

Grade 2 late rectal morbidity >=300Gy
Grade 2 late rectal morbidity >=400Gy
Grade 2 late rectal morbidity >=500Gy
Grade 2 rectal bleeding require cortisone enema
Grade 2 rectal bleeding required cortisone enema
grade 2 rectal complications
Grade 2 rectal symptoms
Grade 2 rectosigmoid sequelae
hemorrhoids
ileus
Incidence of loose stool/diarrhea - minimal
Incidence of loose stool/diarrhea - moderate
Intestinal toxicity (rectal ulcer, bleeding)
Late Grade 2 GI toxicity
Late grade 2 GI toxicity (rectal bleeding)
Late toxicity Grade 1 other GI
Late toxicity Grade 1-2 bowel
Late toxicity Grade 1-2 other GI
loose stools
Loss of appetite in past year
Minimal to no late rectal toxicity (Grade 0-1)
Nausea, vomiting, ileus
None to mild acute GI toxicity not requiring theraputic intervention (Grade 1)
Other GI (Grade 1)
Other GI (Grade 2)
passed mucus
Perianal abscess
Proctitis
Prolonged ileus
Radiation-induced rectal ulcerations
rectal bleeding
Rectal bleeding - late grade 2
Rectal bleeding in past year
Rectal burns
Rectal discomfort
rectal fissure
Rectal morbidity
Rectal mucous discharge
rectal pain
Rectal pain on defication
rectal pain or discomfort
Rectal ulcer treated w/ corticosteroid enemas & resolved
rectal ulceration
Rectal ulceration - radiation induced
Rectal urgency in past year
rectovesical fistulas
Required medication for relief of GI symptoms (Grade 2)
RTOG bowel toxicity Grade 0
RTOG bowel toxicity Grade 1
RTOG bowel toxicity Grade 2
RTOG grade 2 rectal bleeding
Stool consistency - loose diarrhea
Stool frequency - 2-3 times per day to uncontrolled diarrhea
January, 2007

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American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Superficial ulcer of rectal mucosa

Significant
Bowel (Grade 3)
Grade 3 GI - bloody diarrhea or stool incontinence needing narcotics
Grade 3 or higher GI toxicities
Grade 3 rectal bleeding require argon plasma coagulation
Grade 3 rectal bleeding required coagulation
Grade 3 rectal symptoms
Grade 4 GI - obstruction, fistula, or perforation
Grade 4 rectal symptoms
Grades 3, 4 late rectal morbidity
hematochezia/severe hematochezia
Incidence of loose stool/diarrhea - severe
Late toxicity Grade 3 bowel
Other GI (Grade 3)
recal injury
Rectal Injury
RTOG bowel toxicity Grade 3
sigmoid resection (RTOG grade 2,3)
Small bowel enterotomy
Small bowel obstruction
Vesicosigmoid fistula

GI/GU Toxicity
Less Significant
Acute toxicity Grade 0-1
Acute toxicity Grade 0-1 toxicity
Grade 0
Grade 1
Grade 1,2 RTOG morbidity
Grade 1+
Grade 2
Grade 2 complications
Late toxicity Grade 1 other
Maximum/Patient (Grade 1)
Maximum/Patient (Grade 2)
No rectal symptoms
None to mild acure gastrourinary (gu) toxcicity requiring no theraputic intervention (grade 1)
Other (Grade 1)
Other (Grade 2)
RTOG grade 1 or 2 GI and GU toxicity
some degree bladder / bowel irritation
urgency

Significant
Grade 2+
Grade 2+ GU/GI late toxicity
Grade 3
Grade 3 complications
Grade 3 RTOG
Grade 3, 4 gastro/genitour toxicity
Grade 3+
January, 2007

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American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Grade 4
Grade 4 complications
Grade 5
Late toxicity > or = Grade 2
Late toxicity > or = Grade 2 GU/GI
Late toxicity > or = Grade 2+
Late toxicity > or = Grade 3
Late toxicity > or = Grade 3 GU/GI
Late toxicity > or = Grade 3+
Late toxicity > or = Grade 3+ GU/GI
Late toxicity Grade 2+
Late toxicity Grade 3
Late toxicity Grade 3+
Maximum/Patient (Grade 3)
Other (Grade 3)

GU Toxicity
???
Retained pelvic drain

Less Significant
Bladder (Grade 1)
Bladder (Grade 2)
Diverticulitis
grade 2 genitourinary
Grade 2 GU - bladder symptoms mandating urinary anesthetic
Grade 2 incontinence (not further defined)
grade 2 urinary symptoms
Grade 2 urinary toxicity that persisted >1 year after the procedure
GU symptoms
GUS
Late grade 2 urinary symptoms requiring medications
Late grade 2 urinary toxicity
Late toxicity Grade 1-2 bladder
Late toxicity Grade 1-2 other GU
Minimal to no late GU toxicity
Other GU (Grade 1)
Other GU (Grade 2)
Required medication for relief of urinary symptoms (Grade 2)
RTOG late bladder morbidity 0/1
RTOG late bladder morbidity Grade 2

Significant
Acute GU toxicities (Grade 4)
Bladder (Grade 3)
Grade 2 or higher GU complication
Grade 3 incontinence
Grade 3 stress incontinence
Late grade 3 urinary toxicity
Late grade 4 urinary toxicity
Late toxicity Grade 3 bladder
Other GU (Grade 3)
RTOG late bladder morbidity Grade 3
January, 2007

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Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Hernia
Hernia
Port hernia
scar hernia

Incontinence - Fecal
Incontinence - Fecal
Does wear a pad for protection against losing control of bowels only
Fecal Incontinence

Incontinence - Urinary
< once a week
>3 pads
0 or 1 pad per day
1-2 pads
3 or more pads/day
Absence of urinary control while upright - total incontinence
Always leak
Any incontinence
Any urine incontinence
Artificial genitourinary sphincter
Artificial sphincter needed
Can't reach bathroom in time
Circumstance under which urine leak occurs: strain
Currently any incontinence
Daily dripping or leaking
Daily leaking
detrusor and sphincter instability
Dripping more than a few drops of urine daily
Drips urine after voiding
Drips urine daily - more than a few drops
Drips uring with full bladder
Dry28 of 29
Dry83 of 86
Frequent dribbling
Frequent leakage
frequent urination
Grade 1 incontinence (not further defined)
Incontinence
Incontinence before RP
Incontinence from resection
Incontinence- needing a pad to keep outer garment dry
Incontinence requiring pads
Incontinence requiring surgery
Incontinent per author
Incontinent preoperatively
Involuntary loss of urine with/without pad use
Leak more than a few drops
Leak urine during the day
January, 2007

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Page 9

American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Leakage every day

Leaked daily
Leaked more than a few drops
Leaking with bladder full
Leaking/dribbling
Mild stress
Mild stress - no treatment
Mild, requiring 2 pads / day
Minor post-implant dribbling requiring occasional use of pads
Moderate or severe urinary morbidity
More than 1 pad (nocturnal)
More than one per day
Needing pads to keep the outer garments dry
No control
No more than 1 pad (diurnal)
No more than 1 pad (nocturnal)
Occasional dribbling
Occasional leakage
occasional stress incontinence
Once a week
One pad or fewer
Other
Pad needed
Partial incontinence
Persistent total (more than 6 months post-op)
Post void dripping
Rare incontinent (< 1 pad/day)
Required at least 1 pad
Requiring pads
Severe (not defined)
Severe, artificial sphincter implant being considered
Some degree of incontinence at time of follow-up
Some urine leakage
Stress (more than 6 months post-op)
Stress (not defined, wear safety pads)
Stress incontinence
Stress incontinence (mild - requiring 1-2 pads/day)
Stress incontinence (urinary leakage with laughing/sneezing)
Stress incontinence + total incontinence
Stress incontinence and total incontinence
Stress incontinent (> 1 pad/day)
Stress urinary incontinence
surgery to attempt to correct incontinence
Total incontinence
Total requiring diversion
Totally incontinent
Two pads or more
Urinary incontinence
Urinary incontinence after therapy
Urinary incontinence no TURP
Urinary incontinence severe enough to require a pad daily
Urinary incontinence w/ TURP
Urinary leak
Urinary leak - daily or more often
January, 2007

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Page 10

American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Urinary leak - once per week

Urinary leak - once per week or less
Urinary leakage
Urinary leakage - daily or more often
Urinary leakage - once per week
Urinary leakage with any activity resulting in increased intra-abdominal pressure and wears pads
Urinary morbidity grade 3
Urinary morbidity grades 1, 2
Use of no pads/liners per day
Use of one pad/liner per day
Use of pads or urinary leakage (diurnal)
Use of pads or urinary leakage (nocturnal)
Used pads
Uses pad (average of 1 per day)
Using pad
weak sphincter
Wearing pads as a precaution
Where timpoint is < 3 months
Where timpoint is > 3 months
Wore pad in last week

Infection
Bladder Infection
urinary infection
Urinary tract infections
UTI
UTI's

Epididymo-orchitis
Epididymo - orchitis
orchioepididymitis

Kidney Infection
pyelonephritis

Lung
Aspiratiional pneumonia
pneumonia

Prostatitus
prostatitus

Sepsis
Bacteremia
Readmission for sepsis
Sepsis
septicemia

Wound Infection
Abdominal incisional abscess
pelvic abscess
Perineal incisional abscess
January, 2007

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permission.

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American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Wound Infection
wound infections

Long Term CX
???
Long-term complications...overall

Lymphocele
Lymphocele
Lymphocele
lymphorrhea

None
None
Complication-free survival time
None
normal control

Organ Injury
Cervical plexus injury
Cervical plexus injury

Obdurator Nerve Injury

Obturator nerve injury

Postoperative neuropathy
Post operative neuropathy

Ureter
injury of ureter
intraoperative lesionsureter
ureteral injury
Ureteral Obstruction

Urethral necrosis
superficial urethral necrosis
urethral necrosis

Other CX
???
any postoperative complication
day to day activities affected at least to some degree by prostate cancer or effects of treatment
displaced catheter
Epigastric artery injury
Excess drainage
Hot flushes
iliac vein laceration (more than 6 months post-op)
mild to severe complications
January, 2007

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Page 12

American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

Minor miscellaneous
necrosis
parietal complications
some persisting degree of physical unpleasantness from prostate cancer or treatment
sqamous cell carcinoma of rectum
transient cerebral ischemia
Unexplained weight loss in past year

Pulmonary
Embolism
PE
pulmonary embolism
Pulmonary Embolus

Respiratory - Other
Respiratory (atelectasis)
respiratory distress

Skin Toxicity
Skin Grade 1
Late toxicity Grade 1 skin
Skin (Grade 1)

Skin Grade 2
Skin (Grade 2)

Skin Grade 3
Skin (Grade 3)

Stricture
Stricture
Anastomotic stricture
genitourinary strictures
Severe vesicourethral strictures requiring urinary diversion
Short, bulbomembrous urethral stricture
Short, bulbomembrous urethral stricture - 1 office dilation
Short, bulbomembrous urethral stricture - repeat office dilation
stricture
Urethral Stricture
Urethral stricture (grade 3)

Urinary - Rectal Diversion

Significant
Colostomy
Prostatic necrosis following implant led to radical prostectomy and partial colectomy

Urine leak, fistula

Urine leak, fistula
Anastomotic leak
January, 2007

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Page 13

American Urological Association, Inc.

Prostate Cancer Guidelines Panel

Complications and Adverse Events

Groupings

fistula
Prostate-rectal fistula
prostatic rectal fistula
prostratic-rectal fistula
Renal / transient anastomatic leaks
Urethrorectal fistula
Urine leak, fistula

Wound Separation
Wound Separation
fascial dehisence
wound dehiscense (less than 6 months)
wound separation

January, 2007

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permission.

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April 11, 2007

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Page 14

Appendix 11. Variability of Definitions of Biochemical Recurrence Reported in

the Extracted Articles Subcategorized by Initial Treatment (with permission
from Cookson M, et al.70)
Definitions of biochemical recurrence for patients treated with radiation therapy
Descriptor
2 Consecutive adjusted PSA rises >=10% and a final PSA >1.5 ng/mL
2 Consecutive elevations above a nadir or a nadir > 1ng/mL
2 Consecutive elevations from nadir; and failure to attain
PSA of 1.0 or 0.5 ng/mL at last follow-up
2 Consecutive PSA increases
2 Consecutive PSA increases >=1.5 ng/mL
2 Consecutive PSA increases >= 1.5 ng/mL
Above nadir or nadir >=4.0 ng/mL
2 Consecutive PSA increases 3 months apart
2 Consecutive PSA increases 3 months apart and a PSA nadir > 1.0ng/mL
2 Consecutive PSA increases with nadir <=1.5 ng/mL
2 Consecutive PSA values >0.1 ng/mL
2 Consecutive PSA values > 0.1 ng/mL following undetectable
2 Consecutive PSA values > 0.4 ng/mL
2 Consecutive PSA values > 1.0 ng/mL
2 Consecutive PSA values > 4 ng/mL
2 Consecutive PSA values > 0.4 ng/mL
2 Consecutive PSA rises > 2 ng/mL or commencement of
androgen deprivaion
2 Consecutive PSA rises or a nadir > 1.0 ng/mL
2 Consecutive rising PSA >= 1ng/mL over nadir
2 Elevations in PSA or PSA > 1ng/mL
2 Increases above nadir (<1 ng/mL) in 1 year
2 Increases above nadir (<1 ng/mL) in 1 year; 2 increases above
nadir (<1 ng/mL) in 1 year; PSA nadir <4, no time limit
2 Increases above nadir (<1.5 ng/mL) in 1 year
2 Or more consecutive values were increasing or
2 most recent value exceeded its predecessor by 1 ng/mL
2 PSA values > 0.2 ng/mL
2 Rising PSA > 1.5 ng/mL
2 Rising PSA values
2 Rising PSA values > 0.5 ng/mL
2 Sequential rises in serum PSA;
or a PSA >1 ng/mL, 2 or more years after radiation;
or a PSA > 4 ng/mL 2 or more years after radiation
3 Consecutive PSA increases
3 Consecutive PSA increases > 0.2 ng/mL
3 Consecutive PSA increases > 0.5 ng/mL
Appendix
Copyright 2007American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

Incidence
1
1
1
15
4
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
9
1
1
April 11, 2007
Page 165

3 Consecutive PSA increases > 1.0 ng/mL

3 Consecutive PSA increases or positive biopsy
3 Consecutive PSA increases with back dating
3 Consecutive PSA increases > 10% or a single dramatic rise
3 Consecutive PSA increases or any rise great enough to provoke
androgen suppression
3 Consecutive rising PSA values of at least 10% of the prior reading
3 Rising PSA values
A rise in PSA levels > 0.2 ng/mL for RRP pts and 2 consecutive rising
PSA levels after a nadir for RT patients. Detectable
PSA levels immediately after RT
Any consecutive PSA readings progressively higher than
the lowest reading
Any 3 of: 2 consecutive increasing values; PSA > 4 with preimplant > 4;
preimplant with normal value
Any rise of 2 ng/mL >current nadir or ASTRO (months ending in 0.1)
Any rise of 2 ng/mL> current nadir or ASTRO (months ending in 0.1) or
modified ASTRO: censored half way between last non-rising PSA
and first rise (months ending in 0.2)
ASTRO
ASTRO PSA > 0.2 ng/mL
ASTRO or PSA > 1 ng/mL
ASTRO with back dating
ASTRO with modifications
Change in tumor; tumor progression
Elevated PAP > 2 L
If nadir PSA< 2 ng/mL, 2 consecutive rises > 2.0 ng/mL;
if nadir > 2 ng/mL, 2 consecutive rises above nadir;
initiation of hormone therapy after RT
Increase in PSA > 1.0 ng/mL for those receiving hormone therapy;
ASTRO for non-hormone therapy
No change in tumor; tumor progression
No clinical evidence of recurrence and PSA <= 1.5 ng/mL
and not rising
No definition provided
Normal PSA baseline, which at best doubled during follow up to > 4 ng/mL;
or above normal baseline not less than 50% rise to > 4 ng/mL after
nadir
PSA < 1.0 ng/mL
PSA <=0.2 ng/mL
PSA <= 0.5 ng/mL
PSA <= 1.5 ng/mL
PSA > 0.1 ng/mL
PSA >0.2 ng/mL
PSA >0.2 ng/mL following undetectable
PSA >0.2 ng/mL for RP, ASTRO for all others
Appendix
Copyright 2007American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

2
1
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
70
1
2
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
1
2
7
1
1
April 11, 2007
Page 166

PSA >0.3 ng/mL

PSA >0.4 ng/mL
PSA >0.5 ng/mL
PSA >1.0 ng/mL
PSA >1.0 ng/mL over nadir
PSA >1.5 ng/mL
PSA >2.0 ng/mL and > 1 ng/mL over nadir
PSA >2.0 ng/mL
PSA >2.0 ng/mL over nadir
PSA >4.0 ng/mL
PSA >4.0 ng/mL or rising PSA
PSA >pretreatment PSA
PSA >= 1ng/mL
PSA >= 1ng/mL above nadir
PSA >= 1ng/mL above nadir or detectable PSA after surgery
PSA doubling < 10 months
PSA nadir > 0.5 ng/mL or rise above level
PSA not maintained at <= 1 ng/mL or increase of >= 0.5 ng/mL in 1 year
PSA of >= 4.0 ng/mL or >= 1.5 ng/mL
PSA plateaued at a value of >1 ng/mL
PSA value of >=1 ng/mL or
a PSA value that rose >= 0.5 ng/mL in <= 1 year posttreatment
on 2 consecutive measurements, with the rise defined at the time of
failure
Rise in PSA > 0.2 ng/mL after radical prostatectomy
and 3 consecutive increasing PSA level above the nadir
following external beam radiation therapy
Rising PSA
Rising PSA > 0.1 ng/mL
Rising PSA > 0.2 ng/mL
Rising PSA > 1.0 ng/mL
Rising PSA > 1.5 ng/mL
Rising PSA > 4.0 ng/mL
Rising PSA >+ 1.0 ng/mL for 2 or more consecutive values or clinician
initiation of hormone therapy for 1 rise of PSA from nadir
Rising PSA >= 1.5 ng/ml
Rising PSA >= 4.0 ng/mL
Rising PSA or > 4.0 ng/mL
Radiation therapy subjects ASTRO definition: 3 consecutive rising PSA
levels after a nadir; time to failure: midway between the time of nadir
and first PSA increase. Radical prostatectomy subjects: 2
consecutive detectable PSA levels (> 0.2 ng/mL), time to failure:
time of initial detection
1
Serial evaluation of PSA
Single PSA > 0.2 ng/mL or 2 PSA values = 0.2 ng/mL

Appendix
Copyright 2007American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

3
4
5
4
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
2
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1

1
1

April 11, 2007

Page 167

Definitions of biochemical recurrence for patients treated with radical prostatectomy

Descriptor

Incidence

2 Consecutive PSA values >= 0.1 ng/mL

2
2 Consecutive PSA increases >0.1 ng/mL
3
2 Consecutive PSA increases > 0.1 ng/mL following undetectable
1
2 Consecutive PSA increases > 0.2 ng/mL
2
2 Consecutive PSA increases > 0.3 ng/mL
1
2 Consecutive PSA increases 3 months apart
1
2 Consecutive PSA values >0.1 ng/mL
4
2 Consecutive PSA values > 0.1 ng/mL following undetectable
4
2 Consecutive PSA values >0.2 ng/mL
6
2 Consecutive PSA values > 0.2 ng/mL following undetectable
1
2 Consecutive PSA values > 0.4 ng/mL
3
2 Consecutive PSA values >= 0.1 ng/mL
1
2 Consecutive PSA values >= 0.4 ng/mL
1
2 Consecutive PSA values >= 1.0 ng/mL
1
2 Consecutive PSA values (>0.2) or > 0.1
1
2 PSA values > 0.15 ng/mL six months apart
1
2 PSA values >0.2 ng/mL following undetectable
1
2 PSA values >1 ng/mL
2
2 PSA values >0.4 ng/mL
1
2 Rising PSA values >0.4 ng/mL
1
3 Rising PSA values >0.4 ng/mL
1
A return to measurable PSA levels or PSA level that continues to rise
1
Detectable PSA post-prostatectomy or a rise in PSA levels > 0.2 ng/mL
for radical prostatectomy patients and 2 consecutive rising PSA levels
after nadir for radiation therapy patients
1
ASTRO
8
ASTRO-PSA > 0.2 ng/mL
1
Detectable PSA based on stage according to 1992 AJCC
1
Elevated PAP > 2 L
1
Failure to reach undetectable PSA
1
No definition provided
2
No PSA relapse or PSA relapse in >=4 years
1
Undetectable PSA (< 0.2 ng/mL) at one year
1
Detectable PSA (> 0.2 ng/mL) after surgery
14
PSA > 0.1-0.4 and rising
1
PSA > 0.2 ng/mL
35
PSA > 0.3 ng/mL
6
PSA > 0.4 ng/mL
14
PSA > 0.5 ng/mL
2
PSA > 0.6 ng/mL
3
PSA > 0.7 ng/mL
1
PSA > 1.5 ng/mL
1
Appendix
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All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

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Page 168

PSA > 2.0 ng/mL

PSA >= 0.1 ng/mL
PSA >= 1 ng/mL above nadir or detectable PSA after surgery
PSA >= 1.4 ng/mL
PSA doubling < 10 months
PSA nadir > 0.5 ng/mL or rise above level
Rising PSA > 0.1 ng/mL
Rising PSA > 0.2 ng/mL
Rising PSA > 0.4 ng/mL
Rising PSA >= 0.4 ng/mL
Rising PSA >= 0.7 ng/mL
Rising PSA >= 4 ng/mL
Single PSA > 0.2 ng/mL or 2 PSA values = 0.2 ng/mL

1
5
1
1
1
3
1
3
3
1
2
1
1

Definitions of biochemical treatments other than radical prostatectomy or radiation therapy

Descriptor
2 Consecutive rises > 0.2 ng/mL or
commencement of androgen deprivation
2 Or more consecutive values rising above a nadir if it was
higher than its predecessor by 1 ng/mL or
by a factor of 1.5
ASTRO
ASTRO with back dating
Evidence of disease progression based on biopsy at 6 months:
PSA nadir < 4 ng/mL beyond 6 months
PSA nadir < 0.5 ng/mL beyond 7 months
Multiple rising PSA
PSA > 0.1 ng/mL
PSA > 0.2 ng/mL
PSA > 0.4 ng/mL
PSA > 4.0 ng/mL
PSA doubling time < 2 years; final PSA > 8 ng/mL, < 0.5 on
regression analysis of iPSA on time
PSA doubling time of < 2 years
PSA level increased by 25-50% per year
Rising PSA >= 1.5 ng/mL

Appendix
Copyright 2007American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
All rights reserved. Not to be copied or distributed without permission.

Incidence
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

April 11, 2007

Page 169

1
Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADT

androgen deprivation therapy

AJCC

American Joint committee on Cancer

ASTRO

American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology

AUA

American Urological Association

CT

computed tomography

EBRT

external beam radiotherapy

ED

erectile dysfunction

DRE

digital rectal examination

GI

gastrointestinal

GU

genitourinary

Gy

gray

HRQL

health-related quality of life

NHT

neoadjuvant hormonal therapy

PGC

Practice Guidelines Committee

PO

prostate only

PSA

prostate specific antigen

QOL

quality of life

RCT(s)

randomized controlled trial(s)

RP

radical prostatectomy

RTOG

Radiation Therapy Oncology Group

SPIRIT

Surgical Prostatectomy versus Interstitial Radiation Intervention Trial

SWOG

Southwest Oncology Group

2
3-D

3-dimensional

vs.

versus

WP

whole pelvic

WW

watchful waiting