Planet Earth

Natural cycles and resources

The earth is distinctive in the solar system because it contains all three states of water on
the surface.
The water cycle takes place in the earth's surface.
The energy for the water cycle comes from the sun
Water evaporates from the sea and other areas of water and enters the atmosphere
As it cools, it changes back into liquid water and forms clouds (tiny water droplet)
As the water droplets stick together, rain clouds are formed and the water falls back to the
surface as rain, snow or hail.
Water then either flows back to the sea or is taken in by plants, which put it back into the
atmosphere through their leaves.
We use the water by trapping it on its way back to the sea.
Carbon is the twelfth most common element in the earth, making up less than 1% of the
crust.
Without carbon, life would not exist.
The source of carbon in the carbon cycle is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Only about 0.04% of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide.
Green plants take carbon dioxide and water, combining them together to form glucose and
oxygen. This process uses energy from the sun and is called photosynthesis.
The word equation for photosynthesis is carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water (mainly seawater), where it is used by animals ( to make
their shells) and plants (in photosynthesis).
The plants are eaten by animals, in which they gain the carbon from.
Animal and plants die and rot away, or are buried, and slowly (over millions of years) are
fossilised
Tiny sea creatures die and their bodies fall to the bottom of the sea, where they slowly
(over millions of years) change to limestone.
Animals and plants breath out carbon dioxide when they respire food.
The process of respiration uses oxygen from the air, and releases carbon dioxide.
The word equation for respiration is oxygen + glucose carbon dioxide + water
When plants and animals decay after death, carbon dioxide is produced.
Wood can be burnt. This combustion produces carbon dioxide.
The word equation for combustion is carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
Fossilised plants and animals form fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas). These produce carbon
dioxide when they are burnt.
Limestone produces carbon dioxide when it is heated in industry and when it moves back
below the earth's crust.
Carbon dioxide leaves the atmosphere by photosynthesis and by dissolving in water.
Carbon dioxide is put back into the atmosphere by respiration and combustion.
A problem we face is balancing the amount of carbon dioxide added and removed in the
atmosphere.
Nitrogen is essential for plant growth and animal life.
There is plenty of nitrogen in the atmosphere (78%) but is unreactive and it is difficult to
get it into the soil for plants use.
Plants get their nitrogen from nitrates in the soil and animals get theirs from plants
When animals and plants die and decay, their nitrogen returns to the soil as bacteria help
their bodies to decay.
There are bacteria that live in the roots of some plants (bean, clover etc) which can fix
nitrogen from the atmosphere so the plants can use it.
The very high temperature of lightening can provide enough energy for nitrogen and
oxygen in the atmosphere to react. It then reacts with water in the atmosphere to form
nitric acid. When it falls with rain, it forms nitrates in the soil.

Nitrogen is also taken from the air by chemical industry when fertilizers are made by the
Haber process.

The atmosphere

Clean air has 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, 0.9% argon and 0.1% other gases (including
carbon dioxide, water vapour, neon and other noble gases).
Nitrogen is used in the manufacture of ammonia and fertilizers in the Haber process. It is
also used where an unreactive gas is needed to keep air away from certain products (eg:
used to fill bags of chips to ensure that it does not get crushed or gets rancid )
Liquid nitrogen is used in cryogenics (storing of embryos and other types of living tissue at
low temperature).
Oxygen is used in the production of steel from cast iron. It is also used to make the high
temperature flames needed to cut and weld metals (oxy-acetylene torches). It is used in
hospitals to aid the breathing of sick people.
Argon is used to fill light bulbs to prevent the tungsten filament burning away. It does not
react with tungsten even at very high temperatures.
Other noble gases are used in advertising signs, as they glow in different colours when
electricity flows through them.
Before any of the gases in the air can be used separately they have to be separated from
the air in the atmosphere.
They can be separated using fractional distillation, which works because the gases have
different boiling points.
The fractional distillation involves two stages. First, the air must be cooled until it turns
into liquid. Then the liquid air is allowed to warm up again. The various gases boil off one
at a time at different temperatures.
The main source of harmful gases is the burning of fossil fuels.
Coal and oil are contaminated with sulfur, which produces sulfur dioxide when it burns.
Sulfur + oxygen sulfur dioxide
Oxides of nitrogen are produced when air is heated in furnaces.
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen dissolve in rain water to produce acid rain.
The effects of acid rain are limestone buildings are worn away, lakes are acidified and
metals ions that are leached out of the soil damage the gills of fish, which may die.
Nutrients are leached out from the soil which the trees need and aluminum ions are freed
from clays as aluminum sulfate which damage the tree roots. Trees are unable to draw up
enough water through the damaged roots and it dies.
Wind can carry acid rain clouds away from the industrialised areas, causing the pollution to
fall on other countries.
Lime can be added to lakes and the surrounding land, to decrease the acidity.
Scrubbers can be fitted to power station furnaces. The acidic gases are passes through an
alkaline substance such as lime. This removes the acid, making the escaping gas less
harmful.
Sulfur is not a serious problem with motor vehicles. However, nitrogen dioxide is produced
because of the high temperature inside the engine's cylinder that causes nitrogen and
oxygen in the air to react. Carbon monoxide is produced when it is not burned completely
because of the lack of oxygen. Tetraethyl lead in petrol (leaded petrol) also causes
pollution because it releases toxic metal lead into the environment.
The use of lead in petrol has decreased significantly.
Nitrogen dioxide causes acid rain and can combine with other gases in very hot weather to
cause photochemical smog, which can cause breathing problems.
Carbon monoxide is a very toxic gas. It combines with the hemoglobin in blood and stops it
from carrying oxygen. Very small amount of carbon monoxide can cause dizziness and
headache. Larger quantities cause death.
Lead is a toxic metal and cause learning difficulties in children, even in small quantities.
The body cannot easily get rid of lead, so small amounts can build up to dangerous levels
over time.

Catalytic converters can be attached to the exhaust system of cars. They convert carbon
monoxide and nitrogen dioxide into carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
If there is lead in the petrol being used, the catalyst becomes poisoned and will no longer
work.
Methane, carbon dioxide, water vapour and oxides of nitrogen are causing global warming
due to the greenhouse effect.
The atmosphere helps to remove the heat from the sun
Global warming will cause the glaciers and polar ice to melt which will cause a rise in the
sea level. The surface temperature will increase and hurricanes and flooding will become
more frequent.
Carbon dioxide and methane are the two main problem gases.
Carbon dioxide enter the air by respiration and burning and is removed by plants. Burning
more fuel and cutting down forest increases the problem.
Methane is produced by animals. It is a by-product of digestion. It is also produced by the
decay of food and other dead organic matter.

Sea and river

There is plenty of water on the earth but most of it is in seas and oceans, where the salts
are dissolved in it make it unsuitable for most uses.
The amount of fresh water (less than 3% of the total) is still sufficient but it is not always in
the places needed.
Water from rivers and lakes, and from underground, can contain dissolved salts, solid
particles and bacteria.
The water purification process is used to remove the solid particles and bacteria.
Water treatment involves filtering the water to removed solid particle and adding chlorine
to kill bacteria which could cause disease.
Sea water can be made drinkable by desalination (taking the salt out). This can be done by
distillation or by forcing the water through special membrane using high pressure.
Water is used in industries to cool down reactions, to transfer heat from one part of a
factory to another or as a solvent for other substances.

The earth's crust

The earth's crust is the top layer of solid rock of the planet.
Metal ores are rocks which have a relatively high concentration of a mineral containing a
certain metal.
Rocks can be used for building and for the extraction of useful chemicals other then
metals. The most useful of these is limestone.
Limestone is used for making glass, building and roads, concrete, cement and mortar. It is
also used in the manufacturing of steel and for neutralising acidic soils and lakes.
Limestone can be heated strongly to produce lime (quicklime, calcium oxide).
A few drops of water is added to lime. The solid flakes and expands to form slaked lime.
This reaction is strongly exothermic.
If more water is added to the slaked lime, an alkaline solution (limewater) is obtained.
The cycle can be completed by bubbling carbon dioxide into limewater. A white precipitate
of calcium carbonate (limestone) is formed.
This is called the limestone cycle.
Hydrogen gas has attractions as fuel.
All that hydrogen produces on burning is water.
When hydrogen burns, it produces more energy per gram than any other fuel.
The problem of hydrogen being used as a fuel is that it is difficult to store and transport
because of its low density.
Hydrogen is not cheap. The main method of obtaining it is by the electrolysis of water,
which is not economical.

Fuel cell changes chemical energy into electrical energy.

A hydrogen fuel cell can be used to power a car.
Hydrogen has an efficiency of 60% compared with the 35% of petrol engine.
The fuel cell supplies energy as long as the reactants are fed in to the electrodes.
In the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell, hydrogen and oxygen react together to form water.
2H + O 2HO

Chemical reactions
Chemical reaction and equation

In physical change, the substance present remain chemically the same. No new
substances are formed.
Physical changes are often easy to reverse. Any mixtures produced are usually easy to
separate.
The major feature of a chemical change, or reaction, is that new substances are made
during the reaction.
Many reactions are difficult to reverse.
During a chemical reaction energy can be given out or taken in.
When energy is given out, the reaction is exothermic
When energy is taken in, the reaction is endothermic.
There are more exothermic reactions than endothermic reaction

Equations for chemical reactions.

An equation includes only chemical substances involved.

The law of conversation of mass states that the total mass of all the products of a chemical
reaction is equal to the total mass of all the reactants.

Types of chemical reaction

Synthesis (or direct combination) reactions occur where two or more substance react
together to form just one product.
Heat is required to start synthesis reaction but, once started, it continues exothermically.
Most synthesis reactions are exothermic
Photosynthesis is a synthesis reaction that is endothermic.
Photosynthesis takes place in green leaves of plants and requires energy from sunlight.
Photosynthesis is a photochemical reaction.
In photosynthesis, small molecules of carbon dioxide and water are used to make glucose.
6CO + 6HO CHO + 6O
The green pigment chlorophyll is essential for this reaction because it traps energy from
the sun.
Decomposition reaction have just one reactant, which breaks down to give two or more
simpler products.
Decomposition reactions are endothermic. They require heat energy.
Decomposition caused by heat energy is called thermal decomposition.
A few salts can be made by synthesis reaction. But majority of the salts are made by either
neutralisation or by precipitation.

Neutralisation reactions involve acids.

When acids react with bases or alkalis, their acidity is destroyed. They are neutralised and
a salt is produced.
This is known as neutralisation reaction
Precipitation reactions involve the formation of an insoluble product.
Precipitation is the sudden formation of a solid either when two solutions are mixed or
when a gas is bubbled into a solution.
Precipitation reactions are very useful in analysis and are also used in paint industry for
making insoluble pigments.
Displacement reactions are useful in working out the patterns of reactivity of elements of
the same type.
A displacement reaction occurs because a more reactive element will displace a less
reactive one from a solution of one of its compounds.

Combustion reactions are of great importance and can be very useful or destructive.
Combustion of a substance involves its reaction with oxygen and the release of energy.
These reactions are exothermic and often involve a flame.
Combustion in which a flame is produced is described as burning
Substances which undergo combustion readily and give out a large amount of energy are
known as fuels.

If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is oxidised.

If a substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it is reduced.
Redox reaction is when oxidation and reduction takes place in the same reaction.
A reducing agent is an element or compound that will remove oxygen from other
substance.
The commonest reducing agents are hydrogen, carbon and carbon monoxide.
An oxidising agent is a substance that will add oxygen to another substance
The commonest oxidising agents are oxygen (or air), hydrogen peroxide, potassium
manganate (VII) and potassium dichromate.
Two common example of oxidation reaction in everyday lives are corrosion and rancidity.
Corrosion is when the surface of a reactive metal is attacked by air, water or other
substance around it.
Rancidity is when food is oxidised and it is said to be rancid.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons

Reduction is the gain of electrons.
Oxidation is the increase in oxidation state of an atom or ion.
Reduction is the decrease in oxidation state of an atom or ion.

Potassium iodide can be used as a test for any oxidising agent.

When potassium iodide is added to a solution, the iodide ion is oxidised to iodine atom.
The colour change is from colourless to yellow-brown.
Acidified potassium manganate(VII) can be used as a test for any reducing agent
The colour change is from purple to colourless because when manganate(VII) ion is
reduced, it loses its purple colour
Acidified potassium dichromate solution can also be used as a test for any reducing agent
It changes from orange to green.

Electrolysis

Splitting up of ionic compound into negative and positive ions is called electrolysis
Electrolytes can conduct electricity
Electrolyte undergoes chemical change
Carbon in the form of graphite is the only non-metallic element to conduct electricity.
For a solid to conduct electricity, it must contain free electrons that are able to flow
through it.

There is no chemical change when an electric current is passed through a metal or

graphite.
An electrical conductor is a substance that conducts electricity but is not chemically
changed in the process.
Many power cables are made of copper because it is a very good electrical conductor.
Overhead power cables are made from aluminium because it conducts electricity well and
has a low density. It is also very resistant to corrosion. The cables then strengthened with
a steel core.
Leakage of power from overhead cables is prevented by using ceramic material.
Molten salts, solutions of salts in water, solution of acids and solutions of alkalis are
electrolytes.
The negative electrode is called the cathode and the positive electrode is called the anode.
Positive ions move towards the cathode (negative electrode) and are called cations
Negative ions move towards the anode (positive electrode) and are called anions
The metal is always formed at the cathode
The non-metal (except hydrogen) is always formed at the anode
Oxidation takes place in the anode and reduction in the cathode.
The apparatus in which electrolysis is carried out is known as electrolytic cell (or electrochemical cell)
A electrolytic cell has two electrodes (cathode and anode), electrolyte and an external
current supply.
Electrolysis of a solution of salt has different products from those obtained by electrolysis
of the molten salt. This is because water itself produces ions.
The molecule of water can split into hydrogen ions (H) and hydroxide ions (OH)
Not enough ions are produced for pure water to conduct electricity very well.
During electrolysis, the hydrogen and hydroxide are able to move to the electrode.
They compete with the ions from the salt t be discharged at the electrode.
The more reactive a metal, the more it tends to stay as ions and not be discharged. The
hydrogen ion will accept electrons instead. Hydrogen molecule will be formed at the
cathode.
The ions of less reactive a metal will accept electrons and form metal atoms at the
cathode.
If the ions of a halogen are present in a high concentration, they will give up electrons and
molecules of the halogens are formed at the anode.
If no halogen ions are present, the hydroxide ions will give up electrons to form oxygen.
Electroplating can be used to coat one metal with another.
The cathodes the object to be plated.
The anode is made from the metal being used to plate the object.
The electrolyte is a salt of the same metal.
As the process proceeds the anode dissolves away into the solution and the object
becomes thicker.
The concentration of the solution remains the same.
Electroplating can be used to give a protective coating to the metal underneath.
During electroplating, the object must be free from impurities and it must be rotated.

Acids , bases and salts

Acids

Vinegar, lemon juice, grapefruit juice and spoilt milk are all sour because of the presence
of acids
The above examples are organic acids and are present in animals and plant material
Carbonic acid from CO dissolved in water is present in fizzy drinks and is weak and dilute.
Taste shouldnt be a test to be tried since some acids can be dangerous to taste
Some acids are corrosive. They eat their way through clothing, are dangerous to the skin,
and some can attack stonework and metals. They are called mineral acids
An indicator is an easy way to detect if a solution is acidic or not.
Indicators are substances that change color if put next to an acid or alkaline solution.
The most common indicator is litmus paper.
Most common acids are hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid and ethanoic acid
Litmus
Many indicators are extracted from plants.
Indicators are colored substance that change color when added to an acid solution.
The color change is reversed if the acid is cancelled out or neutralised.
Colored extracts can be made from red cabbage or blueberries.
The most used indicator is litmus, which is extracted from lichens.
Litmus is purple in neutral and turns red when added to an acidic solution.
The color change needs a chemical reaction. The molecules of the indicator are changed in
the presence of an acid.
Substance with the opposite chemical effect to acids are needed to reverse the change
and are called alkalis which turn litmus solution blue

Litmus paper can be also used which has been soaked in litmus solution and comes in blue
and red form.
Blue litmus paper turns red in acids and red litmus paper turns blue in alkalis.
Litmus just gives a single color change.
Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are other indicators that chemists find useful. They
have different colour changes from litmus. The changes are sometimes easier to see than
that of litmus.

Universal indicators

Its another commonly used indicators

Universal indicator is a mixture of indicator dyes.
The idea of a universal indicator mixture is to imitate the colors of the rainbow when
measuring acidity.
It is useful because it gives a range of colors (a spectrum) depending on the strength of
acid or alkali.
Different acids produce different color. Same acid with different concentration will give
different color.
Strong acid turns universal indicator bright red. Weak acid turns it to orange-yellow.
Strong alkali turns universal indicator to violet and weak turns it to blue.
pH scale
pH scale is the most useful measure of the strength of an acid solution.
It was worked out by the Danish biochemist Sren Srensen who worked in the
laboratories of the Carlsberg breweries and was interested in checking the acidity of beer.
The scale runs from 1-14
Acids have a pH less than 7. the more acidic a solution, the lower the pH
Neutral substances have a pH of 7
Alkalis have a pH greater than 7
Acid and alkali solutions
All acids contain hydrogen.
Acids conduct electricity. They also conduct it better than distilled water.
This conduction of electricity shows that the solution contains ions.
Water contains very few ions
In pure water, the concentration of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are equal.
All acids dissolve in water to produce hydrogen ions meaning that all acid solutions contain
more H ions than OH ions .
The pH scale is designed for the fact that acid solution has this excess of hydrogen ions
The term pH is taken from the German 'potenz H(ydrogen)' which means the power of the
hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.
Alkalis also conduct electricity better than distilled water.
All alkalis dissolve in water to produce hydroxide ions and contain an excess of OH ions
An indicator is affected by the presence of H or OH ions
The characteristic properties of an acid and an alkali is shown when dissolved in water.
Both acid and alkali can be used in concentrated or dilute solutions.
When a large volume of water is added to a small amount of acid or alkali, it becomes
dilute.
When less amount of water is added it becomes concentrated

Metal oxides and non-metal oxides

Non-metals react/burn with oxygen to form gaseous non-metal oxides/ acidic oxides
When water is added to these non-metal oxides, they dissolve and give a solution that
turns blue litmus paper red.
Metals burn/react with oxygen to form solid metal oxides/ basic oxides.
Some of these metal oxides dissolve in water to give a solution that turns red litmus paper
to blue.
Turning blue litmus paper to read shows that some of these solutions contain acids.
The dissolved metal oxide reacts with acids to neutralise them.
Water can be thought of as a hydrogen oxide with a pH of 7 and is therefore a neutral
oxide

Water is an exception to the rule that oxides of non-metals are acidic oxides.
Neutral oxides does not react with either acidic oxides and basic oxides
CO, NO and HO are neutral oxides.
CO is a neutral oxide because it is poisonous
An amphoteric metal oxide or hydroxide is one that reacts with both acidic oxides and
basic oxides to form salt and water (neutralisation)
Zinc and aluminum are examples of amphoteric oxides
Sodium hydroxide helps in the identification of amphoteric oxides
When sodium hydroxide is added to zinc or aluminum, white precipitate of the metal is
formed
ZnCl(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Zn(OH)(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Zn(aq) + 2OH(aq) Zn(OH)(s)
This precipitate will re-dissolve if excess sodium hydroxide is added, because zinc is
amphoteric.
Zinc hydroxide + sodium hydroxide sodium zincate + water
Zn(OH)(s) + 2NaOH(aq) NaZnO(aq) +2HO(l)
Aluminum will give a similar reaction.
Zinc and aluminum will re-dissolve because they are amphoteric
They are reacting as acids with sodium hydroxide and produce a salt and water
This test is used to distinguish between zinc and aluminum salts from others but not to
distinguish them from each other
Ammonia solution (a weak alkali) is used to distinguish between zinc and aluminum from
each other. The precipitate of zinc will re-dissolve in excess of ammonia but aluminum's
will not.

Acid reactions in everyday life

Alkalis and bases

Alkalis are substances that dissolve in water to give a pH greater than 7 and turn litmus
blue
Alkalis contain excess of hydroxide ions (OH )
All metal oxides and hydroxides will neutralise acids, whether dissolved in water or not.
Alkali is just a small part of a group of substances that neutralises acids, known as bases.
All bases react in the same way with acids
Alkali is just a small group from the extended family, which is the base.
When bases react with acids, it forms salt. This type of reaction is known as a
neutralisation reactions
A base is a substance that reacts with acid to form a salt and water only
Base + acid salt + water
Most bases are insoluble in water
Bases which dissolve in water are known as alkalis
An alkali is a base that is soluble in water.
Alkalis are usually used in the laboratory as aqueous solutions
Common alkalis are sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide
(limewater) and ammonia (ammonium hydroxide). They contain OH ions, turn litmus blue
and have a pH greater than 7.
Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are the strongest compared to the others.
Alkalis have a soapy feeling to the skin. They convert the oils in the skin to soap.
Alkalis are used as degreasing agent because they convert oil and grease into soluble
soap, which can be washed away easily
Bases neutralise acids to give a salt and water only. They are oxides and hydroxides of
metals. They are mainly insoluble in water.
Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water. They feel soapy to the skin, turn litmus paper blue,
give lotion with a pH greater than 7 and give solutions than contain OH ions.
Antacids are compounds that are used to neutralise acids indigestion and include
magnesium oxide and magnesium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium
hydrogencarbonate, and calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate.

Characteristic reactions of acids

All acids can take part in neutralisation reactions.

There are three major chemical reactions in which all acids will take part.
An acid can react with a reactive metal, a base or alkali and a metal carbonate.
In all three reactions, they produce a metal compound called a salt.
In all three reactions, the hydrogen present in the acid is replaced by a metal to give the
salt.
A salt is a compound made from an acid when a metal takes the place of the hydrogen in
the acid.

Metals that are quite reactive (not very reactive) can be used to displace the hydrogen
from an acid safely. Hydrogen gas is given off.
Metal + acid salt + hydrogen
It is unsafe to try this reaction with very reactive metals because the reaction is too
violent.
No reaction occurs with less reactive metals.

When acids react with a base or an alkali, it is called neutralisation reaction

Acid + base/alkali salt + water

All carbonates give off carbon dioxide when they react with acids.
Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide

Acids and alkalis in chemical analysis

All carbonate will react with acids to give off carbon dioxide.
When carbon dioxide is passed into limewater (calcium hydroxide solution), it turns cloudy.

Some of the hydroxides are coloured.

We can add an alkali to a salt and check the colour of the precipitate.
Copper(II) salts give a light blue precipitate copper(II) hydroxide
Iron(II) salts give a light green precipitate iron(II) hydroxide
Iron(III) salts give a red-brown precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide

Some hydroxide precipitate are white

Calcium, zinc and aluminium hydroxides are white.
When excess of sodium hydroxide is added, zinc and aluminium hydroxide precipitate will
re-dissolve to give a colourless solution. Calcium hydroxide does not re-dissolve.
When ammonia solution is added to zinc and aluminium salt, the form white precipitates.
When excess ammonia solution is added to zinc and aluminium, only zinc hydroxide
precipitate will re-dissolve.

When ammonium salts react with alkali solutions, they produce ammonia gas. A damp red
litmus paper turns blue when ammonia gas passes though it.

Salts

All common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble.

All nitrates and ethanoate are soluble.
Most chlorides and sulphates are soluble. Silver chloride and barium sulphate are
insoluble.
Almost all carbonates are soluble.
The crystals of some salts contain water of crystallisation.
This water gives the crystals their shape and in some case it also gives them their colour.
Such salts are known as hydrated salts
When the hydrated salts are heated, their water of crystallisation is driven off as stream.
The crystal lose their shape an become a powder.
Copper crystals are blue but when heated they are dehydrated to form a white powder.
Crystals that have lost their water of crystallisation are said to be anhydrous.

If water is added to anhydrous salts, the powder becomes crystals again and heat is given
out.
This can be used as a test for the presence of water.

Preparing soluble salts

Method A uses a solid metal, a solid base or a solid carbonate and an acid.
An excess of the solid is added to the acid and allowed to react.
Using excess of the solid makes sure that all the acid is used up. If the acid is not used up
at this stage, the acid would become concentrated when the water is evaporated later.
When no more hydrogen is produced when a solid metal is used, the reaction with the acid
has ended
When the solution no longer turns blue litmus paper red when a solid base is used, the
reaction with the acid has ended
When no more carbon dioxide is given off when a solid carbonate is used, the reaction with
the acid has ended
The excess solid is filtered out
The filtrate (liquid part) is gently evaporated to concentrate the salt solution. This can be
done on a heated water bath.
When crystals can be seen forming (crystallisation point), heating is stopped and solution
is left to crystallise.
The concentrated solution is cooled to let crystals form.
The crystals are filtered off and washed with little distilled water. The crystals are then
dried carefully between filter papers.
Method B (titration method) involves the neutralisation of an acid with an alkali or a
soluble carbonate.
The acid solution is added to a burette.
A burette is used to accurately measure the volume of solution added.
A known volume of alkali solution is placed in a conical flask using a pipette.
The pipette delivers a fixed volume accurately.
A few drops of indicator (phenolphthalein or methyl orange) are added to the flask
The indicator is added because both the acid and alkali are colourless. It is used to find the
neutralisation point or end-point.
The acid solution is run into the flask from the burette until the indicator just changes
colour.
The volume of acid used is noted.
The experiment can be repeated using the known volume of acid without adding the
indicator or activated charcoal can be added to remove the indicator and then the
charcoal can be filtered off.
The salt solution is evaporated and cooled to form crystals as in method A.
Titration method is good to find the concentration of a particular acid or alkali solution.

Preparing insoluble salts

Some salts are insoluble in water. For example, silver chloride and barium sulphate.
Precipitation is the sudden formation of a solid either when two gases are mixed or when a
gas is bubbled into a solution.
For precipitation method, two aqueous solutions are used to form an insoluble salt.
The aqueous solutions are added to each other and an insoluble salt is formed
immediately.
The insoluble salt falls to the bottom of the tube or beaker as a precipitate.
The precipitate can be filtered off, washed with distilled water and then dried in a warm
oven.

Strong and weak acids and alkalis

The higher the hydrogen ions (H), the higher the acidity and the lower the pH
Each pH unit means a ten-fold difference in the hydrogen ion concentration.
Strong acids are completely ionised in solution in water
Weak acids are partially dissociated into ions in solution in water

The higher the hydroxide ions (OH), the higher the alkality and the higher the pH
Strong alkalis are completely ionised in solution in water
Weak alkalis are partially dissociated into ions in solution in water
Strong acids and alkalis conduct electricity well.

An acid can be neutralised by an alkali to produce a salt and water only.

Acid + alkali salt + water
The hydrogen ions from the acid and the hydroxide ions from the alkali combine to form
water molecule.
H + OH HO

Hydrogen ion (H) can be though of as a proton.

An acid is a molecule or ion that is able to donate a proton (H) to a base
A base is a molecule or ion that is able to accept a proton

How far? How fast?

Energy changes in chemical reactions

Hydrocarbon molecules contain only the elements carbon and hydrogen.

Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon molecule. When it burns, it reacts with oxygen. The
products are carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

CH + 2O CO + HO
During this reaction, bonds are first broken and then new bonds are made.
Chemical bonds are forces of attraction between atoms or ions. To break these bonds
requires energy
Breaking chemical bonds takes in energy from the surroundings. This is endothermic
process.
Making chemical bonds gives out energy to the surroundings. This is an exothermic
process.
When methane reacts with oxygen, the total energy given out is greater than the total
energy taken in. overall, this reaction gives out energy. It is an exothermic reaction.
The overall change in energy for a reaction can be shown in an energy level diagram.
Some bonds are stronger than others. They require more energy to break them, but they
give out more energy when formed.
The combustion reactions of fossil fuels such as oil and gas are exothermic.
Fossil fuels are useful because they easily ignite and burn and they are capable of
releasing large amount of energy as heat.
Rusting reaction of iron generates heat for several hours and is used in pocket handwarmers for cold regions. Similar hand-warmers can be made using the heat given out by
crystallisation of a solid from super-saturated solution
Endothermic reactions are far less common than exothermic ones.
The reaction between nitrogen and oxygen is endothermic. It is one of the reactions that
takes place when fuel is burnt in car engines.
Nitrogen + oxygen nitrogen monoxide
N + O 2NO
The bonding in the products is weaker than the reactant. Overall, energy is taken in by the
reaction.
Photosynthesis in green plants and the thermal decomposition of limestone are other
important examples of endothermic reaction.
The energy change in going from reactants to products in a chemical reaction is known as
the heat of reaction. It is given the symbol H. means change in. the energy given out
or taken in is measured in kilojoules (kJ). It is usually calculated per mole of a specific
reactant or product.
If the reactant gives out heat to the surrounding, it has lost energy. It is an exothermic
reaction. An exothermic reaction has a negative value of H
If the reactant takes in heat to the surrounding, it has gained energy. It is an endothermic
reaction. An endothermic reaction has a positive value of H

Bond energy is the average value of the strength of a bond.

The reactants involves breaking bonds so it is endothermic
The products involves making bonds so it is exothermic
The heat of reaction, H, is the energy change on going from reactant to product.
Heat of reactant = energy needed to break bonds - energy needed to make bonds

Although the vast majority of reactions are exothermic, only a few are totally spontaneous
and begin without help at normal temperatures. For example, sodium or potassium
reacting with water.
Energy is usually required to start a reaction. This is called activation energy (E). It is
required because initially some bonds must be broken before any reaction can take place.
All reactions require some activation energy. For the reaction of sodium or potassium with
water the activation energy is low.
Reactions can be thought of as the result of collisions between atoms, molecules or ions.
In many collision, the colliding particles do not have enough energy to react and just
bounce apart.
A chemical reaction will only happen if the total energy of the colliding particles is greater
than the required activation energy of the reaction.

Rates of reaction

Rate of reaction = reactants consumed time taken or products used time taken
Rate of reaction is the ratio of reactants consumed divided by time taken
The rate of reaction depends on five things. The surface area of any solid reactant, the
temperature of the reactant, the concentration of the reactant, they use of a catalyst and
the influence of light o some reactions.

The more finely powdered (or finely divided) the solid is, the greater is the rate of reaction.
Reactions involving solids take place on the surface of the solid.
A solid has a much larger surface area when it is powdered than when it is in larger pieces.
An experiment to demonstrate this is the reaction between limestone or marble chips and
dilute hydrochloric acid.
Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
CaCO + 2HCl CaCl + HO + CO
Two samples of marble chips are used. (A) has large pieces of marble chips and (B) has
small pieces of marble chips. Both the samples have the same mass.
The experiment will be carried out twice. Once with A and the other with B. the volume
and concentration of the hydrochloric acid is same in both the experiments.
A flask is kept on a balance. The marble chips and hydrochloric acid are added to the flask
with a loose cotton wool on top to prevent the liquid spraying out but allows carbon
dioxide gas to escape.
As the reaction starts, the flask will lose mass during the reaction.
Balance reading are taken at regular time intervals and the loss of mass can be worked
out.
A mass against time graph can be plotted. Both experiments are plotted and compared. B
will be more steeper than A. this means that the gas is being produced faster in B.
The total volume of gas released in the end of both experiments are the same.
The rate of a reaction increases when the surface area of a solid reactant is increased

Reactions that produce gases are also very useful in studying of the effect of concentration
on the reaction rate.
The reaction between marble chips and acid could be adapted for this.
Another reaction is the one between magnesium and excess dilute hydrochloric acid.
Two experiments will be conducted. One with C and the other with D
The acid is C is twice as concentrated as in experiment D
Apart from the concentration of the acid, everything else is the same.
The gas produced in the experiment is hydrogen and it is collected in a gas syringe.
The volume of the gas produced is measure in regular time intervals.
A graph can be plotted for both the experiments and it can be compared.
The curve for C is steeper than for D
The total volume of hydrogen at the end of both the experiments is the same.
The rate of reaction increases when the concentration increases.
A reaction can be made to go faster or slower by changing the temperature of the
reactants.
The reaction between sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid can be used.
When sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid reacts together, they form precipitate.
The precipitate formed is used to measure the rate of reaction.
A cross is marked on a piece of paper.
A flask containing sodium thiosulphate is placed on top of the paper.
Hydrochloric acid is quickly added.
The yellow precipitate of sulphur produced is very fine and stays suspended in the liquid.
With time, as more and more sulphur is formed, the liquid becomes cloudier and more
difficult to see through.
The time taken for the cross to disappear is measured.
The faster the reaction, the shorter the length of time during which the cross is visible.
The experiment is carried out several times with solutions pre-warmed to different
temperatures.

The solution and conditions of the experiments must remain the same, only the
temperature will change.
A graph can be plotted.
The rate of a reaction increases when the temperature of the reaction mixture is increased.

Catalysts

A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction. The catalyst
remains chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Manganese(IV) oxide (MnO ) is used as a catalyst for the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide.
Hydrogen peroxide(HO) is a colourless liquid. When it decomposes, it forms water and
oxygen.
We can follow the rate of reaction by collecting the oxygen in a gas syringe.
0.5g of manganese(IV) oxide is added to hydrogen peroxide.
The reaction is more faster with the presence of the catalyst.
At the end of the reaction, the solid is filtered and dried and it's mass is check to be still
0.5g.
If the amount of manganese(IV) oxide is doubled, the rate of reaction increases.
If the manganese(IV) oxide is more finely divided (powdered), the rate of reaction will
increase.

A small amount of catalyst can produce a large change in the rate of reaction.
Since they are unchanged at the end of the reaction, they can be reused.
Transition elements and their compounds make good catalysts.

Catalytic converter is used to reduce the polluting effect of a car exhaust fume.
Car exhaust fumes contain gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide and
unburnt hydrocarbons.
The catalytic converter converts these gases to less harmful products such as carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and water.
2CO + O 2CO
2NO + 2CO N + 2CO
2NO N + O
Hydrocarbons + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
The converter contains a thin coating of rhodium and platinum catalysts.
These catalysts have many tiny pores which provides a large surface area for reaction.
The presence of lead in the petrol would poison the catalyst.

Living cells also produce catalysts called enzymes.

Enzymes speed up reactions in organisms.
Each enzyme works only for a particular reaction.
Enzymes are protein.
They are very specific
They are temperature sensitive. The are denatured (inactivated) by heat. Most stop
working above 45C
They are sensitive to pH. Most enzymes work best in neutral conditions around pH 7
Biological washing powders use enzymes to remove biological stains such as seat, blood
and food.
The enzymes in the washing powders are those which break down proteins and fats.
Biological washing powders are used at a wash temperature of 40C

Collision theory pg 213

Patterns and properties of metals

The alkali metals

Group I metals are called alkali metals

They have a spectacular reaction with cold water.
They dont have many uses because they are so reactive and tarnish easily.
They are stored under oil to stop them from reacting with oxygen and water vapour in the
air.
Sodium is used in sodium vapour lamps which are the yellow street light.
The melting point of the alkali metals decreases as you go down the group
They are all soft, low density metals.
Lithium is the hardest but can still be cut with a knife. The metals get easier to cut going
down the group.
The density of the metals increases down the group. An exception is potassium which is
slightly less dense than sodium.
Alkali metals are all reactive metals.
They form positive ions with a single positive charge.
They have similar formulae
The react strongly and directly with non-metals to form salts. The salts are all white,
crystalline, ionic solid that dissolve in water
All alkalis metals react spontaneously with water to produce hydrogen gas and metal
hydroxide.
The reaction is exothermic. The heat produced can melt sodium and potassium as they
skid over the surface of the water.
Lithium does not melt as it reacts.
Lithium is the least reactive and caesium in most reactive.
The reaction with water is the same for all the group I metals
Metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Aluminium

Aluminium is the most common metal in the earth's crust.

Aluminium is a light, strong metal and has good electrical conductivity.
Aluminium is alloyed with other metals such as copper and is used in aeroplanes.
It is used in overhead power lines because it has a low density ad is a good conductor of
electricity.
Aluminium is useful because it is protected from corrosion by a stable layer of aluminium
oxide that forms in its surface.
The protective layer stops aluminium from reacting. This makes aluminium foil containers
ideal for food packaging as they resist corrosion by natural acids.
Aluminium is also used for external structures such as window frames as they resist
weathering.
Aluminium is used to extract metals from their ores because of its high reactivity.
Aluminium can be used to produce iron form iron(III) oxide.
The aluminium and iron(III) oxide are powdered and well mixed to help them react.
The reaction is powerful, exothermic and produces iron in molten state. Because of this,
the reaction is used to weld together damaged railway lines.

This reaction is an example of a redox reaction and is known as the thermit reaction.

Analytic test for aluminium pg 235

Industrial inorganic chemistry

The extraction of metals by carbon reduction

The durability, tensile strength and low cost of steel makes it the mast widely used of all
metals.
Steel is used in ship-building and watch-making.
Steel is mainly iron with between 0.2 and 1.5% carbon.
The carbon makes the iron stronger and harder.
The main ore of iron if hematite (FeO).
Iron is obtained by reduction with carbon in a blast furnace
The blast furnace is a steel tower about 30 metres high. It is lined with refractory (heatresistant) bricks of magnesium oxide which is cooled by water.
The iron ore, coke (a form of carbon made from coal) and limestone (calcium carbonate)
are added in the top of the furnace.
Blasts of hot air are sent in through holes near the bottom of the furnace.
The carbon (coke) burns in the air blast and makes the furnace very hot.
Coke burns with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide then burns with more
coke to form carbon monoxide
C + O CO
CO + C 2CO
The most important reaction in the furnace is the reduction of the ore by carbon monoxide.
FeO + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO
The iron produced flows to bottom of the furnace where it can be tapped off because the
temperature at the bottom is higher than the melting point of iron.
One major impurity in the iron ore is sand (silica, SiO)
The limestone added to the furnace helps to remove the sand.
The limestone decomposes to lime in the furnace
CaCO CaO + CO
The lime then reacts with silica to form calcium silicate which is molten
CaO + SiO CaSiO
Calcium silicate is called slag.
The slag will form a layer on top of the molten iron. It does not mix with iron because it is
less dense than the iron.
Slag is useful because it prevents iron from reacting with oxygen
The slag is tapped off separately.
When solidified, the slag is used by builders and road-makers.
The hot waste gases escape from the top of the furnace. They are used in heat exchangers
to heat the incoming air. This helps to reduce the energy costs of the process.
The iron produced in the blast furnace is called pig iron or cast iron and it is not pure.
The iron contains about 4% carbon, and other impurities.
The carbon makes the iron brittle which limits the usefulness of iron.
Iron is added to a bessmer converter to remove the impurities
The iron contains carbon, sulphur, silicon and phosphorus

Oxygen is added and reacts with the impurities to from carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide,
silicon dioxide and phosphorous pentoxide. This is called the basic oxygen process
Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide being gases escape through the mouth of the vessel.
Lime (calcium oxide) is added to the furnace and reacts with silicon dioxide and
phosphorous pentoxide to form slag which floats on top of the molten iron.
Chromium, manganese, tungsten or other transition metals can be added to make
different types of steel. These metals prevent corrosion and make steel harder.
When a metal is attacked by air, water or other surrounding substance, it corrodes.
In iron and steel, the process of corrosion is called rusting
Rust is a red-brown powder consisting mainly of hydrated iron(III) oxide (FeO.xHO).
Water and oxygen are essential for iron to rust.
Seawater increases the rate of corrosion. Acid rain also increases the rate of rust.
Aluminium is more reactive than iron, but does nor corrode in the damaging way that iron
does.
In aluminium, a very thin layer of aluminium oxide forms, which sticks strongly to the
surface the metal. This layer seals the metal and protects it from further attack.
When iron corrodes, the rust forms in flakes, not a single layer. The attack on the metal
can continue over time as rust flakes come off.
If chromium is alloyed with iron, a stainless steel is produced.
Electroplating a layer of chromium on steel is used to protect some objects from rusting
The main ore of zinc is zinc blende (ZnS).
The sulphide ore is heated very strongly in a current of air. This converts the sulphide to
metal oxide.
2ZnS + 3O 2ZnO + 2SO
The sulphur dioxide produced can be used to make sulphuric acid.
The metal oxide is heated in a blast furnace with coke. Carbon reduces the oxide to the
metal
ZnO + C Zn+ CO
Zinc vapour passes out of the furnace and is cooled and condensed in a condensing tray at
the top of the furnace.
Zinc is used in alloys such as brass and for galvanising iron.
Copper is less reactive than iron and zinc.
Most copper is extracted from copper pyrites (CuFeS)
The copper produced from this ore is suitable for piping, boilers and cooking utensils.
Then it is to be used for electrical wiring, it must be refined (purified) by electrolysis.
The extraction of metals by electrolysis
Reduction by carbon does not work for more reactive metals.
Extracting metals by electricity involves three stages. Mining the ore, purifying the ore and
electrolysis of the molten ore.
Extraction of metals by electrolysis is expensive. Energy costs to keep the ore molten and
to separate the ions can be very high.
Bauxite is an impure form of aluminium oxide.
Up to 25% of bauxite consists of the impurities iron(III) oxide and sand.
The iron (III) oxide gives bauxite its red-brown colour.
The Hall-Hroult electrolysis is the method for extracting aluminium. It was invented by
Hall (an American) and Hroult (a Frenchman)
The bauxite is treated with sodium hydroxide to obtain pure aluminium oxide (alumina).
The purified aluminium oxide (AlO) dissolves in molten cryolite (sodium aluminium
fluoride, NaAlF).
Cryolite is used to lower the temperature of aluminium oxide. The melting point of
aluminium oxide is 2030C and the cryolite lowers it to 900-1000C.
The cryolite helps to reduce the energy cost.
During the electrolysis of aluminium oxide, aluminium ions are attached to the cathode
where they form liquid aluminium metal.
Al + 3e Al

The oxide ions are attracted to the anode where they are discharged to form oxygen gas.
2O + 4e O
The oxygen reacts with the anode (graphite) because of the high temperature and forms
carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide.
C + O CO
2C + O 2CO
The anodes burn away and have to be replaced regularly.

Ammonia and fertilisers

Ammonia gas is colourless, has a distinctive smell, less dense then air and is very soluble
in water to give an alkaline solution.
Ammonia is a raw material for fertilisers and explosives.
Nitrogen is an unreactive gas and changing it into compounds useful for plant growth
(nitrogen fixation) is important for agriculture. Most plant cannot directly use ( or fix)
nitrogen from the air.
In the Haber process, nitrogen and hydrogen are directly combined to form ammonia
N + 3H 2NH
Nitrogen is obtained from air, and hydrogen from natural gas by reaction with steam.
The two gases are mixed in a 1:3 ratio and compressed to 200 atmospheres.
They are then passed over a series of catalyst beds containing finely divided iron.
The temperature of the converter is about 450C
The reaction is reversible and does not go too a completion.
A mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia leaves the converter. The proportion of
ammonia in the mixture is about 15%.
Ammonia is separated from the other gases by cooling the mixture.
Ammonia has a higher boiling point than nitrogen and hydrogen, so it condenses easily.
The nitrogen and hydrogen are re-circulated over the catalyst.
The ammonia produced is stored as liquid under pressure.
Most of the ammonia is used to manufacture fertilisers.
Some of the ammonia is converted into nitric acid by oxidation.

Plants need nitrogen, which is important for health leaves.

Plant need phosphorous, which is important for healthy roots.
Plants need potassium, which is important for the production of flowers and fruit.
Different plants need different composition of these elements.

Sulphur and sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid is made from sulphur by the Contact process.

Sulphur is produced by removing it from fuels such as gasoline.
Sulphur can also be obtained from craters of volcanoes and is mined by pumping steam
into sulphur beds underground. The sulphur is then forced to the surface by compressed
air. This is called Frasch process.
Sulphur is then burned in air to form sulphur dioxide.
Sulphur dioxide can also be produced by reacting a metal sulphite with an acid or by
heating sulphide ores in excess air
The main reaction in the Contact process is the one in which sulphur dioxide and oxygen
combine to form sulphur trioxide. This reaction is reversible.
The conditions for the production of sulphur trioxide is a temperature of 450C and 1-2
atmospheres pressure. Vanadium(V) oxide is used as the catalyst for the reaction. A yield
of 98% sulphur trioxide is achieved.
The sulphur trioxide produced is dissolved in sulphuric acid, and not water, in order to
prevent environmental problems of an acid mist which formed. The reaction with water is
also highly exothermic.
When sulphur trioxide and sulphuric acid react, they form oleum (HSO)
When oleum reacts with water, it forms sulphuric acid
S + O SO
2SO + O 2SO
SO + HSO HSO

HSO + HO 2HSO

Sulphur is used to vulcanise rubber, used in the manufacturing of fungicides and to

produce sulphuric acid.
Sulphur dioxide is used in the manufacturing of paper. It bleaches the yellow colour of the
wood pulp and makes it white. Sulphur is used instead of chlorine as it is less harmful to
the environment.
Sulphur dioxide is also used as a preservative in food industries. It kills the bacteria in the
food to prevent it from going bad. It is used in dried apricot and wine.
Sulphuric acid is used in paints and pigments, fibres and dyes, tanning leather, soap and
detergents, fertilizers and chemicals and plastics.
Sulphuric acid is used as a drying agent. It can dry gases like sulphur dioxide and
hydrochloric acid, but cannot dry a reducing gas like hydrogen sulphide or ammonia.
Limestone
Powdered limestone is used to neutralise acid soils and lakes acidified by acid rain.
It is used in the blast furnace for the extraction of iron to remove impurities in the iron ore.
Cement is made by heating powdered limestone with clay in a rotary kiln. It is then
powdered and mixed with gypsum (calcium sulphate, CaSO.2HO) to increase the
cements setting time.
Concrete is a mixture of cement and aggregate (stone chippings and gravel). The mixture
is mixed with water and can be poured into wooden moulds. It is then allowed to harden.
Sodium carbonate (NaCO) is an important industrial chemical, which is manufactured
from limestone. It is used in the manufacture of glass, soaps, detergents, paper, dyes and
other chemicals.

Lime (quicklime) is calcium oxide and is produced by roasting limestone in a lime kiln.
The limestone decomposes by heat
CaCO CaO + CO
Lime is used in agriculture to neutralise acid soils and to improve drainage in soils that
contain a large amount of clay.
Lime is used with sodium carbonate and sand in making glass.
Large amounts of lime are converted into slake lime, which is calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH))
Slaked lime is used in making bleaching powder, in making glass and for water
purification.
Slaked lime is mixed with sand to give mortar. When mixed with water and then allowed to
dry, mortar sets into a strongly bonded material to hold bricks together.

Organic chemistry
The unique properties of carbon

Carbon is unique in the variety of molecules it can form.

Organic chemistry is the chemistry of carbon-containing compounds.
Carbon atoms can join to each other to form long chains. Atoms of other elements can
then attach to the chain
The carbon atoms in a chain can be linked by single, double or triple covalent bonds.
Carbon atoms can also arrange themselves in rings.
Only carbon atoms can achieve all these different bonding arrangement to the extent that
we see.
There are more compounds of carbon than of all the other elements put together.

Alkanes

One of the simplest types of organic compound is the hydrocarbons

A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains carbon and hydrogen only.
Some hydrocarbons are saturated. These molecules contain only single covalent bonds
between carbon atoms.
Saturated hydrocarbons are known as alkanes.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Molecules of these compound contain only single
bonds between the carbon atoms in the chain.
The simplest alkane contains one carbon atom and is called methane.
Each molecule increases by a CH
The general formula for alkane is CH (where x is the number of carbon atom)
As the length of the hydrocarbon chain increases, the strength of the weak force of
attraction between the atoms is increased.
The melting and boiling point of the alkanes increases as the chains become longer.
The first for members of the alkane are gases, from 5 until 16 are liquids and 17 and above
are waxy solids.
All alkanes burn very exothermically and they make good fuels.
When alkanes are burned in a good supply of air, the products are carbon dioxide and
water vapour.
Alkane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Methane forms the major part of natural.
Propane and butane burn with very hot flames and are sold as liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG). They are kept as liquids under pressure but they vapourise easily when that
pressure is released.
Cylinders of butane (calor gas) are used in portable gas fires in the home. Butane is also
used in portable camping stoves, blow-torches and gas-lighters

The family of alkanes has similar chemical properties. Together they are an example of a
homologous series of compounds.

Alkenes

The ability of carbon atoms to form double bonds give rise to the alkenes
The alkenes are another family of hydrocarbons or homologous series.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons. Molecules of these compounds contain a carbon
double bond somewhere in the chain.
The general formula for alkenes is CH (where x is the number of carbon atoms)
Alkenes are unsaturated because it is possible to break the double bond and add extra
atoms to the molecule.
The simplest alkene contains two carbon atoms and is called ethene.
The boiling point of the alkenes increases as the chains become longer.
Alkenes are similar to other hydrocarbons when burnt. They give carbon dioxide and water
vapour when they are burnt in a good supply of air.
Alkene + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
The presence of the carbon double bond in alkene makes it more reactive than alkanes.
Other atoms can be added to alkene when the double bond breaks.
The carbon double bond (C=C) is the known as the functional group of the alkenes.
If an alkene is shaken with a solution of bromine in water, the bromine loses its colour.
Bromine has reacted with the alkene producing a colourless compound. The double bond
on the alkene breaks open and forms new bonds to the bromine atom.
When a double bond breaks open and adds two new atoms is known as an addition
reaction. In addition reaction, two substances are added together to form a single product.
An alkane would give no reaction with bromine water. The solution would stay orangebrown.
When alkene is added to acidified dilute solution of potassium manganate(VII), it turns
from purple to colourless. An alkane would produce no change.

Hydrocarbon structure and isomerism

The alkane family names all end in -ane.

The alkene family names all end in -ene.
The alkyne family names all end in -yne.
The alcohol family names all end in -ol.
The carboxylic acid family names all end in -oic acid.
The prefixes to the names of the organic compounds are standard and indicate the number
of carbon atoms in the chain.
When a halogen atom is introduced into a chain the name of the compound contains a
prefix indicating which halogen is present.
Molecules with the same molecular formula can have different structures. The same
number of atoms can be connected together n a different way. This is known as
isomerism.
The properties of compounds in isomers are quite similar. The difference shoes itself
mainly in their melting and boiling points.
All alkanes and alkenes with four or more carbon atoms posses isomers.
Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural
formula.
Alkynes are a third family of hydrocarbons
In alkynes, the molecules contain a triple carbon bond.
The simplest alkyne contains two carbon atoms and is called ethyne.
Ethyne is a highly reactive gas and is used to be known as acetylene. It is used in oxyacetylene welding torches.

Chemical reactions of the alkanes

Alkanes are unreactive compounds

They are saturated, so they cannot take part in addition reactions.
They are unaffected by acids or alkalis.
They can only take part in substitution reaction, particularly with the halogens.

Alkanes burns in a good supply of oxygen or air to form carbon dioxide and water
If the air supply is limited, then the poisonous gas carbon monoxide is formed.
Carbon monoxide is the product of incomplete combustion.
Alkane + oxygen carbon monoxide +water
Carbon monoxide is toxic because it interferes with the transport of oxygen around our
bodies by our red blood cells.
Incomplete combustion can also produce fine particles of carbon itself. These have not
even reacted to produce carbon monoxide.
The fine carbon particles (or soot) which can glow yellow in the heat of a flame. They give
a candle flame or the safety flame of a Bunsen burner their characteristic yellow colour

The substitution reaction of alkane with chloride is a photochemical reaction.

Alkane + chlorine chloroalkane + hydrogen chloride
Alkane and chloride react in the presence of sunlight.
Ultra violet light splits chlorine molecules into separate energised atoms. These atoms
then react with the alkane.
A chlorine atom replaces a hydrogen atom in an alkane molecule. The reaction can
continue further as more hydrogen atoms are substituted. Compounds such as
dichloroalkane, trichloroalkane and tetrachloroalkane are formed.
Trichloromethane (CHCl), or chloroform, was an early anaesthetic. However, a dose which
can kill a patient is not much higher than the amount needed to anaesthetise a patient.
In 1956, halothane was discovered. It is a more useful anaesthetic. Its formula is
CFCHBrCl
Substituted alkanes are also good organic solvents. 1,1,1-tricholoroethane is one solvent
that is used a lot, in dry cleaning, for example.

Chemical reactions of alkenes

Alkenes are much more reactive than alkanes

Bromination is used as the chemical test for an unsaturated hydrocarbon.

Bromine water is decolorised when shaken with an alkene.
This reaction will also work with the bromine dissolved in an organic solvent such as
hexane.

Hydrogenation is the addition of hydrogen to an alkene.

The condition for this reaction are nickel catalyst and 150-300C temperature.
The product for this reaction is an alkane
Alkene + hydrogen alkane
This reaction is also used in the manufacture of margarine from vegetable oils
The vegetable oils include corn oil and sunflower oil. They are edible oil and contain longchain organic acids (fatty acids). The hydrocarbon chains of these acids contain one or
more carbon double bond; they are unsaturated molecules.
Oils such as sunflower oil are rich in ply-unsaturated molecules. This means that the
melting point is relatively low and the oil remains liquid at normal temperatures. By
hydrogenating some, but not all, of the carbon double bonds, the liquid vegetable oil can
be made into a solid but spreadable fat (margarine).
Animal fats tend to be more saturated than vegetable oils and fats. The animal fats in
cream can be made into butter.
Many doctors now believe that unsaturated fats are healthier than saturated fats. This is
why margarines are left partially unsaturated. Not all carbon double bonds are
hydrogenated.
Olive oil is distinctive in having a high content of oleic acid, which is a mono-unsaturated
fatty acid.

Margarine can be made from olive oil without hydrogenation.

Another important addition reaction is the one used in the manufacture of ethanol. This is
known as hydration.
Ethanol is an important industrial chemical and solvent. It is formed when a mixture of
steam and ethene is passed over a catalyst of phosphoric(V) acid at a temperature of
300C and a pressure of 60 atmospheres.
Alkene + steam alcohol
Ethene + steam ethanol
This reaction produces the ethanol of high purity needed in industrial organic chemistry

Alcohols

The alcohols are a homologous series of compounds that contain -OH as the functional
group.
A functional group is a group of atoms in a structure that determines the characteristic
reactions of a compound.
The simplest alcohol contains one carbon atom and is called methanol.
The general formula of the alcohols is CHOH and they be referred to as the alkanols

The industrial method of making ethanol involves the addition reaction of hydration.
Ethanol is an important solvent a raw material for making other organic chemicals. Many
everyday items use ethanol as a solvent. These include paints, glues, perfumes,
aftershave, etc

Ethanol and carbon dioxide are the natural waste products of yeasts when they ferment
sugar.
Sugar is present in all fruits and grains, and in the sap and nectar of all plants.
Yeasts are found everywhere. They are single-cell, living fungi. They ferment sugar to gain
energy; by anaerobic respiration.
As ethanol is toxic to yeast, fermentation is self-limiting. Once the ethanol concentration
has reached about 14%, or the sugar runs out, the multiplying yeast die and fermentation
ends.
The best temperature for carrying out fermentation is 37C.
The reaction is catalysed by enzymes in yeast
Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide
CHO 2CHOH + 2CO
Alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine are made on a large scale in vast quantities in
copper or steel fermentation vats.
Beer is made from barley, with hops and other ingredients added to produce distinctive
flavours. Beer contains about 4% of ethanol
Wine is made by fermenting grape juice. Wine contains between 8 to 14% ethanol.
Stronger, more alcoholic drinks like whisky, brandy and vodka are made by distillation
Fermentation can be carried out in the laboratory using a fermentation vessel. The air-lock
allows gas to escape from the vessel but prevents airborne bacteria entering

The reactions of ethanol

Ethanol burns with a clear flame, giving out quite a lot of heat.
Ethanol + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
On a small scale, ethanol can be used as methylated spirit (ethanol mixed with methanol
or other compounds) in spirit lamps and stoves.
Ethanol is a useful fuel that some countries have developed it as a fuel for cars.
Vinegar is a weak solution of ethanoic acid (previously called acetic acid). It is produced
commercially from wine by biochemical oxidation using bacteria (Acetobacter). Wine can
also be vinegary if it is left open to the air.
The same oxidation can be achieved quickly by powerful oxidising agents such as warm
acidified potassium manganate(VII). The colour of changes from purple to colourless
Ethanol + oxygen ethanoic acid + water

CHOH + 2[O] CHCOOH + HO

Ethanol can be dehydrated to produce ethene. This is a way of preparing ethene in the
laboratory.
Ethanol vapour is passed over a heated catalyst. The catalyst can be aluminium oxide or
broken pieces of porous pot.
Ethene is not soluble in water.

Alcohols react with organic acids to form sweet-smelling oily liquids known as ester. This is
known as esterification.
Carboxylic acid + alcohol ester + water
Sulphuric acid is added to a catalyst for this esterification reaction

Organic acids and ester.

Carboxylic acids are another homologous series of organic compounds.

The functional group of carboxylic acids are -COOH.
The general formula is CH (where x is the number of carbon atoms).
Methanoic acid is HCOOH. Ethanoic acid is CHCOOH
The first two acids in the series are liquid at room temperature, though ethanoic acid will
solidify if the temperature falls only slightly.
The acids dissolve in water to produce solutions that are weakly acidic.
Methanoic acid is present in nettle stings and ant stings. Ethanoic acid is well known as the
acid in vinegar.
Carboxylic acids will react with alcohols, in the presence of a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid, to produce an ester. This is known as esterification.
Esters have strong and pleasant smells.
Many esters occur naturally.
Esters are responsible for the flavours in fruits and for scented flowers.
Esters are used as food flavourings and in perfumes.
The prefix in first part of the name in esters belongs to the alcohol and the prefix in the
second part belongs to the carboxylic acid. Eg methanoic acid reacts with ethanol to form
ethyl methanoate.
Animal fats and vegetable oils are esters. They are liquids or solids, depending on the size
and shape of the molecules present. They are esters of glycerol, an alcohol with three
hydroxyl (-OH) groups.
Fats and oils are an essential part of our diet and, although they are quite complex
molecules, they are not polymers.
Each -OH group forms an ester with a molecule of a carboxylic acid. These acids tend to
have long chains (sometimes called fatty acids).
Stearic acid (CHCOOH) is one acid that occurs in animals fats.
A complex molecule can be formed from glycerol and three molecules of stearic acid. This
is the type of molecule present in fats and oils.
Vegetable oils tend to have long-chain acids that are more unsaturated than those in
animal fats.
Soap is made by heating animals fats or vegetable oils with sodium hydroxide solution.
The reaction involves hydrolysis of ester links in the fats or oils.
The esters present are broken down to glycerol and sodium salts of acids.
Fat + sodium hydroxide soap + glycerol
This process is known as saponification

Petrochemicals and polymers

Petroleum

Fossil fuels were formed in the earth's crust from materials that was once living.
Coal comes from fossil plant material.
Petroleum (or crude oil) and natural gases are formed from the bodies of marine microorganism.
The formation of fossil fuels took place over geological period of time (many millions of
years)
These fuels are non-renewable and finite recourses.
The three major fossil fuels are coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Petroleum is a mixture of many different hydrocarbon molecules.
Most of the petroleum that is extracted from the ground is used to make fuel, but around
10% is used as a feedstock, or raw material, in the chemical industry.
Before it can be used, the various hydrocarbon molecules are separated by refining . This
is done by fractional distillation at an oil refinery
At a refinery, petroleum is separated into different fractions; groups of hydrocarbons that
have different boiling points. These boiling points are related to the number of carbon
atoms in the hydrocarbon.
Separation of the hydrocarbons takes place in a fractional distillation column, or
fractionating tower.
At the start of the refining process, petroleum is preheated to a temperature of 350-400C
and pumped in at the base of the tower.
As it boils, the vapour passes up the tower. It passes through a series of bubble caps, and
cools as it rises further up the column.

The different fractions cool and condense at different temperatures, and therefore at
different heights in the column. It is then collected on trays.
Fractions at the top are called light and fractions at the bottom are heavy.
Each fraction contains a number of different hydrocarbons. The individual single
hydrocarbons can be obtain by further distillation.
Larger molecules from the heavier fractions can be broken into smaller, more valuable,
molecules. This process is called catalytic cracking.
Cracking takes place in huge reactor. In the reactor, particles of catalyst (example silica,
alumina and zeolites) are mixed with the hydrocarbon fraction at a temperature around
500C. the cracked vapours containing smaller molecules are separated by distillation.
All cracking reactions give either an alkane with a shorter chain than the original, and a
short-chain alkene or two or more alkenes and hydrogen.

Addition polymerisation

All living things contain polymers.

Protein, carbohydrates, wood and natural rubber are all polymers.
Plastic is a synthetic polymer.
Polymers are large organic macromolecules.
Polymers are made up of small repeating units known as monomers joined together by
polymerisation.
Some polymers are homopolymers which contain only one monomer.
Other polymers are copolymers which are made of two or different types of monomer.
Alkenes take part in addition reaction where the double bond is broken and other atoms
attach to the carbons to form a large molecule. This is known as addition polymerisation.
Poly(ethene) is a chemically resistant material that is very tough and durable, and a very
good electrical insulator.
Poly(chloroethene) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is stronger and harder that poly(ethene) and
is good for making pipes for plumbing
Poly(tetrafluoroethene) or polytetrafluoroethylene or Teflon or PTFE is very stable at high
temperatures and forms a very slippery surface.
Poly(propene) is easy to shape by melting and moulding. It is used to make sturdy plastic
objects such as crates. It can also be drawn into long fibres for making ropes.

Condensation polymerisation

Nylon is a copolymer of two different monomers, a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid.

Each monomer consists of a chain of carbon atoms but they can be just drawn as boxes.
At both ends of the monomer are functional group.
An amine group (-NH) reacts with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) to make a link between
the two molecules.
Each time a link is made, a water molecule is lost
NH + COOH NHCO + HO
This type of polymer is known as condensation polymerisation.
Because an amide link (or peptide link) is formed during polymerisation, nylon is known as
polyamide.
The linkage of nylon is similar to that of proteins
Polyester are condensation copolymers made from two monomers.
One monomer is has an alcohol group (-OH) and the other has a carboxylic acid group (COOH)
When the monomers react, an ester link is formed, with water being lost each time
OH + COOH COO + HO
One polyester has the trade name Terylene.
Plastics are light, cheap and corrosion resistant and they can be easily moulded and dyed
bright colours.
Most plastics are not biodegradable which causes a problem because there are no microorganisms that can break them down.

Some modern plastics are suitable for reuse.

Proteins are what cells are made of. All tissues and organs of our bodies are made up of
protein.
Enzymes, which are responsible for controlling the body's reactions, are proteins.
Proteins are built from amino acid monomers.
There are 20 different amino acids used
Amino acids contain two functional groups -NH and -COOH
Glycine and alanine are two of the simplest amino acids. When they react together, an
amide linkage or peptide linkage is formed to produce a dipeptide.
When this is repeated many times using different amino acids, a polymer is formed.
Shot polymers (up to 15 amino acids) are known as peptides
Chains between 15-100 amino acids are known as polypeptides.
Chains involving more than 100 amino acids are called proteins.
Proteins can be hydrolysed(broken down) to amino acid by heating in concentrated
hydrochloric acid. This is the reverse of the condensation process.
The mixture of amino acids can be separated by chromatography.
Amino acids are colourless substance so a locating agent is used.
The locating agent reacts with the amino acid to produce coloured spots

Sucrose (CHO) and glucose (CHO) examples of carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates are important source of energy in our bodies, and all living organisms.
A carbohydrate is a compound contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only. The ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen is always 2:1 (as in water)
All long-chain carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are long-chain condensation polymers of
sugar molecules (monosaccharides). Starch, for example, is a polysaccharide found in
plants.
Starch and glycogen are two different polysaccharides of glucose, a monosaccharide.
Polysaccharides can be broken down in the laboratory by warming with hydrochloric acid.
(acid hydrolysis)
The sugar present in hydrolysis mixture can be analysed by chromatography.. A locating
agent must be used to detect the spots, because the sugars are colourless.
The presence of starch can be detected by testing with iodine solution. The solution turns a
deep blue colour in the presence of starch.
Fats and oils (lipids) are an essential part of our diet.
They are an energy source. Lipids provide about twice as much energy per gram as do
carbohydrates
They provide thermal insulation for the body.
Lipids are an essential part of cell membranes

Boiling points of the gases in the air

Tables

Gas

Boiling point Proportion in

mixture

Carbon
dioxide

-32

0.04

Xenon

-108

Krypton

-153

Oxygen

-183

20

Argon

-186

0.9

Nitrogen

-196

79

Neon

-246

Helium

-249

Advantages and disadvantage of hydrogen as a fuel

Advantages

Disadvantages

Renewable if produced
using solar energy
Lower flammability than
gasoline
Virtually emission-free
Zero emissions of CO
Non-toxic

Non-renewable if generated using nuclear energy or

energy from fossil fuel.
Large fuel tank required
There are no filling stations, where a car can be topped up
with hydrogen, at present.
Engine redesign needed or a fuel cell system.
Currently expensive

Properties of the three states of matter

Physical
state

Volume

Density

Shape

Fluidity

Solid

Has a fixed volume

High

Has a definite shape

Does not flow

Liquid

Has a fixed volume

Moderate to No definite shape. Takes Generally flows

high
the shape of the container easily

Gas

No fixed volume.
Expands to fill the
container

Low

No definite shape. Takes Flows easily

the shape of the container

Separation method for different type of mixture

Mixture

Method of separation

Solid + solid (powdered mixture) Uses some difference in properties. Examples:

density, solubility, sublimation, magnetism
Suspension of solid in liquid

Filtration or centrifugation

Liquid + liquid (immiscible)

Using a separating funnel or decantation

Solution of solid in liquid

To obtain solid: evaporation and crystallisation

To obtain liquid: simple distillation

Two or more liquids mixed

together (miscible)

Fractional distillation

Solution of two or more solids in Chromatography

a liquid
Difference between mixtures and compounds
Joined or
not

Mixture

Compound

The substances are not chemically

joined.
No reaction takes place.

The substances are chemically joined.

A new substance is formed.

Compositio It can be varied

n
Properties

Definite composition

The property of each substance stays The property of the new substance is
the same
different

Separation Substance can be easily separated.

It is separated using physical

Substance can not be easily

separated.

methods

It is separated using chemical

methods

Difference between metals and non-metals

Metals

Non-metal

Usually solid (except mercury) at room

temperature

Usually solid or gas (except bromine) at room

temperature

High melting and boiling point

Low melting and boiling points

Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity
(except graphite). They are insulators
Hard and dense

Softer than metals (except diamond) and low

density

Malleable and ductile

Brittle

Grey colour except gold and copper

Dull colours

Sonorous

Not sonorous

The properties of ionic and covalent compounds

Properties of a typical ionic
compounds

Reason for these properties

They are crystalline solids at room There is a regular arrangement of the ions in a lattice. Ions
temperature
with opposite charge are next to each other
They have high melting and
boiling points

Ions are attracted to each other by a strong electrostatic

force. Large amount of energy are needed to separate
them

They are often soluble in water.

They are not usually soluble in
organic solvents

Water is attracted to charged ions and so many ionic solids

dissolve

They conduct electricity when

molten or dissolved in water

In liquids or solutions, the ions are free to move about. The

can move towards the electrodes when a voltage is
supplied

Properties of covalent compounds Reason for these properties

They are often liquids or gases at
room temperature

These substances are made of simple molecules. The

atoms are joined together by covalent bonds

They have low melting and boiling The forces between the molecules (intermolecular force)
points
are only very weak. Not much energy is needed to move
the molecules further apart
They are often soluble in organic
solvents. Very few are soluble in
water

Covalent molecular substances dissolve in covalent

solvents

They do not conduct electricity

There are no ions present to carry the current

Alloys
Alloy

Composition

Properties

Brass

Copper 70%
Zinc 30%

Harder than pure copper

Gold coloured

Bronze

Copper 90%
Tin 10%

Harder than pure copper

Mild steel

Iron 99.7%
Carbon 0.3%

Stronger and harder than pure

iron

Stainless
steel

Iron 70%
Chromium
20%
Nickel 10%

Harder than pure iron

Does not rust

Solder

Tin 50%
Lead 50%

Lower melting point than tin and

lead

Difference between exothermic and endothermic reaction

Exothermic

Endothermic

H is negative

H is positive

Heat is given out

Heat is taken in

It involves bond making

It involves bond breaking

Energy of product is less than energy of

reactant

Energy of product is more than energy of reactant

Occurs spontaneously

Cannot occurs spontaneously

Examples: rusting, neutralisation

reactions, manufacture of ammonia

Examples: photosynthesis, decomposition

reactions, reaction between nitrogen and oxygen

Difference between metallic conductivity and electrolytic conductivity

Metallic conductivity

Electrolytic conductivity

Electrons flow
Has a property of elements or alloys
Takes place in solids and liquids
No chemical change takes place

Ions flow
Has a property of ionic
compounds

Takes place in liquids and

solutions
Chemical decomposition

takes place

Common acids
Type

Name

Formula

Strong or
weak

Where found or used

Organic
acid

Ethanoic
acid

CHCOOH

Weak

In vinegar

Organic
acid

Methanoic
acid

HCOOH

Weak

In ant and nettle strings

Used in kettle descaler

Organic
acid

Lactic acid

CHCCH(OH Weak
)

COOH

In sour milk

Organic
acid

Citric acid

CHO

Weak

In lemons, oranges and other citrus

fruits

Mineral

Carbonic

HCO

Weak

In fizzy soft drinks

acids

acid

Mineral
acids

Hydrochloric HCl
acid

Strong

Used in cleaning metal surfaces

Found as the dilute acid in the
stomach

Mineral
acids

Nitric acid

HNO

Strong

Used in making fertilisers and

explosives

Mineral
acids

Sulphuric
acid

HSO

Strong

In car batteries
Used in making fertilizers, paint and
detergents

Mineral
acids

Phosphoric
acid

HPO

Strong

In anti-rust paint
Used in making fertilizers

Indicator colour changes

Indicator

Colour in acid Neutral colour Colour in alkali

Litmus

Red

Purple

Blue

Phenolphthalei Colourless
n

Colourless

Pink

Methyl orange Red

Orange

Yellow

The reaction of elements with oxygen

Element

How it reacts

Product

Effect of adding water and testing

with litmus

Burns with bright blue

flame

Colourless gas
(SO)

Dissolves, turns litmus red

Nonmetals
Sulphur

Phosphor Burns with yellow flame White solid (PO) Dissolves, turns litmus red
us
Carbon

Glows red

Colourless gas
(CO)

Dissolves slightly, slowly turns

litmus red

Metals
Sodium

Burns with yellow flame White solid (NaO) Dissolves, turns litmus blue

Magnesiu Burns with bright white White solid (MgO) Dissolves, turns litmus blue
m
flame
Calcium

Burns with red flame

White solid (CaO) Dissolves slightly, turns litmus blue

Iron

Burns with yellow

sparks

Blue-black solid
(FeO)

Copper

Does not burn, turns

black

Black solid (CuO) Insoluble

Insoluble

Common alkalis and bases

Type

Name

Formula

Strong or Where found or used

weak

Alkali

Sodium hydroxide

NaOH

Strong

In oven cleaners (degreasing

(caustic soda)

agent)
In making soap and paper
Other industrial uses

Alkali

Calcium hydroxide
(limewater)

Ca(OH)

Strong

To neutralise soil acidity

To neutralise acid gases produced
by power stations

Alkali

Ammonia solution
(ammonium
hydroxide)

NH(aq) or
NHOH

Weak

In cleaning fluids in home

(degreasing agent)
Making fertilisers

Bases

Calcium oxide

CaO

Strong

Neutralising soil acidity and

industrial waste
Making cement and concrete

Bases

Magnesium oxide

MgO

Strong

In antacid indigestion tablets

Solubility of different salts

Salts

Soluble

Insoluble

Sodium salts

All are soluble

None

Potassium
salts

All are soluble

None

Ammonium
salts

All are soluble

None

Nitrates

All are soluble

None

Ethanoate

All are soluble

None

Chlorides

Most are soluble

Silver chloride and lead(II) chloride

Sulphates

Most are soluble

Lead(II) sulphate, barium sulphate and calcium

sulphate

Carbonates

Potassium, sodium and Most are insoluble

ammonium carbonate

Basicity of common acids

Acid type

Formula

Normal salts Acid salts

Monobasic (monoprotic) Hydrochloric

acid
acid

HCl

Chlorides

Monobasic (monoprotic) Nitric acid

acid

HNO

Nitrates

Monobasic (monoprotic) Ethanoic acid

acid

CHCOOH Ethanoates

Dibasic (diprotic) acid

Carbonic acid

HCO

Carbonates hydrogencarbonates

Dibasic (diprotic) acid

Sulphuric acid

HSO

Sulphates

Tribasic (triprotic) acid

Phosphoric acid HPO

Industrial catalysts

Name

hydrogensulphates

Phosphates Dihydrogenphosphates
and
hydrogenphosphates

Industrial process

Catalyst

Ammonia manufacture (Haber process)

Iron

Sulphuric acid manufacture (Contact

process)

Vanadium(V) oxide

Margarine production (hydrogenation of Nickel

fats)
Nitric acid manufacture (oxidation of
ammonia)

Platinum-rhodium

Fermentation of sugar (alcoholic drinks

industry)

Enzymes (in yeast)

Conversion of methanol to hydrocarbon Zeolite ZSM-5

Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

Manganese(IV)
oxide

The effect of changing conditions in a chemical equilibrium

Condition

Effect of equilibrium position

Catalyst

It does not affect the position of equilibrium but the reaction reaches
equilibrium faster

Temperatur Increasing the temperature makes the reaction move in the direction that
e
takes in heat (endothermic direction).
Concentrati Increasing the concentration of one substance in the mixture makes
on
equilibrium move in the direction that produces less of that substance
Pressure

This only affects reactions involving gases. Increasing the pressure shifts
equilibrium to the direction that produces fewer gas molecules

Flame colours of Group I and II metals

Metal ion

Ion

Flame colour

Lithium

Li

Red

Sodium

Na

Yellow

Potassium K

Lilac

Magnesiu
m

Mg

No colour

Calcium

Ca

Red

Strontium

Sr

Scarlet

Barium

Ba

Green

Colours of transition element ions in solution

Metal ion in
solution

Formula Colour

Copper(II)

Cu

Blue

Iron(II)

Fe

Green

Iron(III)

Fe

Red-brown

Chromium(III)

Cr

Green

Cobalt(II)

Co

Pink

Manganate(VII)

MnO

Purple

Chromate(VI)

CrO

Yellow

Dichromate(VI)

CrO

Orange

Reactivity series
Metal
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Copper
Silver
Gold

Reaction of metals with air, water and dilute hydrochloric acid

Reactivity
series

Reaction with air

Reaction with water

sodium

Burns very strongly in air Reacts with cold water to

to form oxide
give hydrogen

Reacts very strongly to

give hydrogen

Calcium

Burns very strongly in air Reacts with cold water to

to form oxide
give hydrogen

Reacts very strongly to

give hydrogen

Magnesiu
m

Burns very strongly in air Reacts with cold water to

to form oxide
give hydrogen

Reacts very strongly to

give hydrogen

Aluminium Burns less strongly in air Reacts with steam, when

to form oxide
heated, to give hydrogen

Reacts less strongly to

give hydrogen

Zinc

Burns less strongly in air Reacts with steam, when

to form oxide
heated, to give hydrogen

Reacts less strongly to

give hydrogen

Iron

Burns less strongly in air Reacts with steam, when

to form oxide
heated, to give hydrogen

Reacts less strongly to

give hydrogen

Lead

Reacts slowly to form

Does not react
oxide layer when heated

Does not react

Copper

Reacts slowly to form

Does not react

Does not react

Reaction with dilute

HCl

oxide layer when heated

Silver

Does not react

Does not react

Does not react

Gold

Does not react

Does not react

Does not react

Cast iron and carbon steels

Metal

Carbon content
(%)

Properties

Uses

Mild steel

<0.25

Easily worked
Not brittle

Car bodies, chains, pylons

Medium steel

0.25-0.45

Tougher than mild

steel

Car springs, axles, bridges

High-carbon
steel

0.45-1.5

Hard and brittle

Chisels, cutting tools, razor

blades

Cast iron

2.5-4.5

Cheaper than steel

Easily moulded

Gear boxes, engine blocks, brake

discs

Alloys of steel
Steel

Composition

Properties

Uses

Stainless
steel

Iron 74%
Chromium 18%
Nickel 8%

Tough
Does not corrode

Cutlery, surgical instruments,

kitchen sinks, chemical
plants

Tungsten
steel

Iron 95%
Tungsten 5%

Tough
Hard, even at high
temperatures

Edges of high-speed cutting

tools

Manganes Iron 87%

Tough
e steel
Manganese 13% Springy

Drill bits, springs

Alkane
Alkane

Molecular
formula

Number of carbon
atoms

Boiling point Physical state at room

temperature

Methan CH
e

-164

gas

Ethane

CH

-87

gas

Propane CH

-42

gas

Butane

CH

gas

Pentane CH

+36

liquid

Hexane CH

+69

liquid

Number of carbon
atoms

Boiling
point

Physical state at room

temperature

Ethene CH

-104

gas

Propen CH

-47

gas

Alkene
Alkene

Molecular
formula

e
Butene CH

-6

gas

Penten CH
e

+30

liquid

Alcohol
Alcohol

Molecular
formula

Number of carbon
atoms

Boiling
point

Physical state at room

temperature

Methano CHOH
l

65

liquid

Ethanol

CHOH

78

liquid

Propanol CHOH

97

liquid

Butanol

117

liquid

137

liquid

CHOH

Pentanol CHOH

Comparison of methods of ethanol production

Ethanol by hydration of ethene

Ethanol by fermentation

Originates from a non-renewable source

(crude oil)

Made from readily renewable resources

Small-scale equipment capable of

withstanding pressure

Relatively simple, large vessel

A continuous process

Need to start process again each time

A fast reaction rate

A relatively slow process

Yields highly pure ethanol

Ethanol must be purified by subsequent

distillation

A sophisticated, complex method

A simple, straightforward method

Carboxylic acids
Alkane

Molecular
formula

Melting point

Methanoic
acid

HCOOH

Ethanoic acid CHCOOH

17

Petroleum fractions
Fraction

Number of carbon
atom

Boiling point Uses

Refinery gas

1-4

Below 25

Heating and
cooking

Gasoline/petrol 4-12

40-100

Fuel in cars

Naphtha

90-150

To make chemical

7-14

Kerosene/para
ffin

12-16

150-240

Fuel in jet engines

Used as heating oil

Diesel oil/gas
oil

14-18

220-300

Fuel in diesel
engines

Fuel oil

19-25

250-320

Fuel in ships

Lubricating oil

20-40

300-350

Waxes and polishes

Bitumen
residue

Over 70

Above 350

Surfacing roads

Uses of addition polymers

Polymer

Monomer

Properties

Examples of uses

Poly(ethene)
Ethene
(polyethylene, polythene, CH=CH
PE)

Tough, durable

Plastic bags, bowls,

bottles, packaging

Poly(propene)
(polypropylene, PP)

Propene
CHCH=CH

Tough, durable

Crates and boxes,

plastic rope

Poly(chloroethene)
(polyvinyl chloride, PVC)

Chloroethene
CH=CHCl

Strong, hard (not as Insulation, pipes and

flexible as polythene guttering

Poly(tetrafluoroethene)
Tetrafluoroethene Non-stick surface,
(polytetrafluoroethylene, CF=CF
withstands high
Teflon, PTFE)
temperatures

Non-stick frying pans,

non-stick taps and
joints

Poly(phenylethene)
(polystyrene, PS)

Insulation, packaging
(foam)

Phenylethene
(styrene)
CHCH=CH

Light, poor
conductor of heat

Notes
Magnesium reacts with oxygen to produce a brilliant white flame.

Hydrochloric acid always gives a chloride salt

Nitric acid always gives a nitrate salt
Sulphuric acid always gives a sulphate salt
Ethanoic acid always gives an ethanoate salt

Homologous series
They have the same general formula
They have similar chemical properties.
They show a gradual increase in physical properties such as melting and boiling points.
They contain the same functional group.

The steeper the graph, the faster the reaction.

A horizontal line means that the reaction has stopped.
Empirical formula is the simplest possible whole-number ratio of the atoms in a compound.
Molecular formula represents the actual number of atoms present in a molecule.
Structural formula shows all the atoms in the molecule and how they are bonded together.
Ways to prevent rust page 256