Lecture: 33

Solidification of Weld Metal

This chapter presents common solidification mechanisms observed in weld metal and
different modes of solidification. Influence of welding speed and heat input on the grains
structure of weld has been explained. Further, fundamental mechanisms used for grain
refinement of weld metal and common methods of grain refinement have been
described.
Keywords: Weld solidification, epitaxial solidification, actual temperature gradient (G),
growth rate (R), axial and columnar grains, macrostructure, inoculation grain refinement,
arc pulsation
Fundamentals of solidification of metals
During the solidification of the liquid metal fast moving disordered atoms get
arranged in a definite order to form crystal lattices such as BCC, FCC, and HCP etc. As
soon as heat source moves away, gradually heat is lost to the base metal. Rate of heat
loss depends on temperature of weld metal, weld pool size, thickness and thermal
properties base metal etc.
On cooling, liquid metal losses energy in the form of latent heat and so the
temperature is lowered which in turn decreases the average inter-atomic distance
between mobile & disordered atoms. On further cooling, attractive forces between
atoms prevent them moving away from one another and eventually completely liquid to
solid transformation takes place. Solidification of pure metals begins with temperature
arrest and then continues to take place at a constant temperature as shown in Fig. 33.1
(a) while alloys solidify over a range of temperature. The arrest in temperature is
attributed to evolution of the latent heat of solidification on transformation from the liquid
metal to solid state.

Temperature

Temperature
Solidification Time

Solidification Time

a)

b)

Fig. 33.1 Schematic of cooling curve for a) pure metal and b) alloy during the
solidification
Total energy of the molten metal reduces during solidification. On the formation
of a small nucleus e.g. cubical shape having side of length a two changes in free
energies takes place a) free energy lost during the solidification and b) free energy
required for creation of new surfaces of the cubical shape solid.
: GLS = a3 GLS*

The freezing energy lost

The surface energy needed for creation of new surfaces for a cube is

: 6a2 GI*

Where change in free energy per unit volume is GLS* (on liquid to solid state
transformation) and a is side of the cube. Therefore, volume of cube would be a3.
Where interfacial energy per unit area is GI*
Thus, total change in free energy is the algebraic sum of above two energies G = -a3
GIs* + 6a2 GI*
Interfacial
energy

G*
acr

a
G

Vol free energy

Fig. 33.2 Free energy vs grain size during the phase transformation

Above equation shows that total change in free energy will vary with change in
size of nucleus (Fig. 33.2). There is a critical size acr for a nucleus to be stable, below
which nucleus (called embryos) gets re-dissolved in the liquid metal. Figure (33.2)
shows that reduction in free energy caused by liquid to solid phase transformation is
more than increase in free energy due to creation of the new surfaces. This is the
reason why under-cooling below the equilibrium transformation temperature is required,
so that the condition of reduction in total energy is satisfied. Greater is the under cooling
temperature smaller is the critical size. This explains the dependence of nucleation rate
on under cooling temperature.
If liquid metal is already carrying solid particles then it will begin to crystallize on
them at equilibrium temperature without under-cooling. This phenomenon forms the
basis for the heterogeneous nucleation. Heterogeneous nuclei are physically and
chemically different from the freezing liquid metal. Surface bonding and crystalline
similarity for various particles in the liquid metal, are important factors to act as
heterogeneous nuclei.
These particles may or may not be wetted by liquid metal depending upon the
interface forces between them. Experimental investigations have established that two
conditions should be satisfied by the heterogeneous particles to be an effective nucleant
1) crystalline similarity between the particles and solidified liquid metal and 2) difference
in lattice size of two crystals should not be greater than 20%. However, these are not
the only conditions for particles to be an effective nucleant.
Kinetics of liquid-solid interface is described by the ratio thermal gradient (G) and
travel speed of liquid solid interface (R). Value of G and R are generally found in range
of 100-1000K/m and 10-3 to 103 m/s. Solidification mode generally varies as per
prevailing G & R value for given solidification conditions. There can be four modes of
the solidification (as per G and R value) namely a) planar (high G and low R), b)
cellular, c) columnar dendritic, and d) equaixed dendritic (low G and high R). These four
modes are shown in Fig. 33.3. Ratio of G and R determines the mode of solidification
and product of two (G, R) indicates the cooling rate so these two parameters decide the
fineness grain structure (Fig. 33.4).

a)

b)

d)

c)

e)

Fig. 33.3 Schematic of modes of the solidification a) planar, b & c) cellular, d) columnar

High cooling rate

ne
Fi

High
G/R
Planar
Cellular

n
ai
gr
rc
st

n
ai
gr

re
tu

se
ar
Co

Columnar
Dendrite

e
ur
ct
ru
st

Temperature gradient G

dendritic and e) equiaxed dendritic

Low cooling rate

Equiaxed
dendrite
Low G/R

Growth rate R

Fig. 33.4 Influence of G & R on mode of solidification and grain structure

Solidification of the weld metal can take place two ways a) epitaxial and b) noneepitaxial depending up on the composition of the weld metal. In a weld pool,

temperature gradient is observed right from the center of the weld pool to fusion
boundary of the base metal and iso-thermal temperature lines exist around the weld.
These isotherms determine the boundaries of heat affected zone, mushy zone and
liquid weld metal zone (Fig. 33.5). The peak temperature is found at the center of the
weld and then decreases gradually on approaching towards weld fusion boundary.
Grains grow from the fusion boundary towards the weld center. The growth generally
occurs at a faster rate in the direction perpendicular to the fusion boundary and opposite
to that of the heat flow than other directions.

heat affected zone

mushy zone
weld pool zone
welding direction
isotherms

Fig. 33.5 Schematic showing different zones

33.1 Epitaxial solidification
The transformation of the molten weld metal from liquid to solid state is called
solidification of weld metal and it occurs due to loss of heat from weld puddle.
Generally, solidification takes place by nucleation and growth mechanism. However,
solidification of weld metal can occur either by nucleation and growth mechanism or
directly through growth mechanism depending upon the composition of the
filler/electrode metal with respect to base metal composition. In case, when composition
of the filler/electrode is completely different from the base metal, solidification occurs by
nucleation and growth mechanism e.g. use of nickel electrode for joining steel. And
when filler/electrode composition is similar to the base metal, solidification is
accompanied by growth mechanism only on partially melted grain of the base metal
which is commonly known as epitaxial solidification (Fig. 33.6). The growth of grain on
either newly developed nuclei or partially melted grain of the base metal, occurs by

consuming liquid metal i.e. transforming the liquid into solid to complete the solidification
sequence.

Fig. 33.6 Typical micrograph showing epitaxial solidification in Al weld joint

33.2

Modes of solidification

The structure of grain in growth stage is governed by mode of solidification. There are
four type of grain commonly observed in solidified metal namely planar, cellular,
dendritic, equiaxed corresponding to the respective modes of the solidification (Fig.
33.7). Moreover, the mode of solidification in weld depends on composition and cooling
conditions experienced by weld metal at a particular location during the solidification.
Thermal conditions during solidification are determined by heat transfer in weld pool
affect the temperature gradient (G) at solid-liquid metal interface (0C/mm) and growth
rate of solidification front (R) as indicated from growth rate (mm/sec) of solid-liquid metal
interface.

Fig. 33.7 Different modes of solidification a) planar, b) cellular, c) cellular, d) dendritic

and e) cellular structure

The shape of solid-liquid metal interface determines morphology of microstructural

features of the weld metal. A stable plane solid-liquid metal interface results in planar
solidification. The condition for stability of plane solid liquid metal interface is given by
(G/R)>(T/D). Where G is the temperature gradient in liquid near solid liquid metal
interface, R is growth rate of solidification front, T is the solidification temperature
range for a given composition and D is the diffusion coefficient of solute in liquid metal
(Fig. 33.8).
Moreover, the stability of the solid-liquid metal interface is governed by thermal and
constitutional supercooling condition prevailing in the liquid metal near the solid- liquid
metal interface. Destabilization of solid-liquid metal interface results in the growth of
interface in cellular or dendritic form. The constitutional super-cooling for instability of
plane solid liquid metal interface is expressed by following relationship: (G/R)>(T/D).
A combination of high actual temperature gradient (G) and low growth rate (R) results in
planar solidification i.e. where liquid-solid interface is plane. A combination of low actual
temperature gradient (G) and high growth rate (R) results in equiaxed solidification as
shown in Fig. 33.8. A combination of intermediate G and R values results in cellular and
dendritic mode of solidification. Product of G and R indicates the cooling rate. A high
value of G.R produces finer grain structure than low G.R value. During welding, weld
pool near the fusion boundary experiences high value of G and low value of R which in
turn results in planar solidification and at the weld center reverse conditions of G and R
exist which lead to the development of equiaxed grains. In fact, G and R varies
continuously from the weld fusion boundary to the weld center therefore all common
modes of the solidification can be seen in weld metal structure in sequence of planar at
the fusion boundar, cellular, dendritic and equiaxed at the weld centre. In general,
equiaxed grain structure is the most favourable weld structure as it results in best
mechanical performance of weld. Therefore, attempts are made to achieve the fine

equiaxed grain structure in the weld by different approaches namely inoculation,

controlled welding parameters and application of external force such as electromagnetic
oscillation, arc pulsation, mechanical vibrations etc. In following sections, these
approaches will be described in detail.

Equilibrium
Temperature
gradient

solid

actual
temeprature
gradient (G)

liquid

Fig. 33.8 Schematic of temperatures distribution during solidification near solid-liquid

metal interface
In addition to microstructural variations in the weld, macroscopic changes also occur in
weld, which are largely governed by welding parameters such as heat input (as
determined by welding current and arc voltage) and welding speed. Macroscopic
observation of the weld reveals of the two types of grains based on their orientation a)
columnar grain and b) axial grain (Fig. 33.9). As reflecting from their names, columnar
grains generally grow perpendicular to the fusion boundary in direction opposite the
heat flow while axial grains grow axially in the direction of welding (Fig. 33.9). The axial
grains weaken the weld and increase the solidification cracking tendency therefore
effort should made to modify the orientation of axial grains.

weld pool

axial grains

Fig. 33.9 Schematic of axial grain in weld joints

33.3

Effect of welding speed on grain structure of the weld

Welding speed appreciably affects the orientation of columnar grains due to difference
in the shape of weld puddle. Low welding speed results in elliptical shape weld pool and
produces curved columnar grain with better distribution of low melting point phases and
alloying elements which in turn lowers solidification cracking tendency of the weld than
weld produced using high welding speed (Fig. 33.10). At high welding speed, the shape
of the trailing end of weld pool becomes like a tear drop shape and grains are mostly
perpendicular to the fusion boundary of the weld. In this case low melting point phases
and alloying elements are mostly segregated along the weld centerline,
columnar grains

columnar grains
weld pool of elipitcal
shape

weld pool of
trapezoidal shape
axial grains

a)

b)

Fig. 33.10 Effect of wending speed on shape of weld pool and grain structure at a) low speed
and b) high speed
33.4
33.4.1

Common methods of grain refinement

Inoculation

This method is based on increasing the heterogeneous nucleation at nucleation stage of

the solidification by adding alloying elements in weld pool. These elements either themself or their compounds act as nucleants. Increased number of nucleants in the weld
metal eventually on solidification results in refinement of the grains in the weld (Fig.
33.11). It is understood that elements having a) melting point higher than the liquidus
temperature of the weld metal and b) lattice parameter similar that of base metal can
perform as nucleants. For aluminium, titanium and boron based compound as such
TiB2, TiC, Al-Ti-B, Al-Zr are commonly used as grin refiner. Addition of grain refiners in
molten metal can lower the surface energy to facilitate the nucleation even with limited
under-cooling. Increase in the nucleation rate facilitates the grain refinement. For steel,
Ti, V and Al are commonly used grain refiners.

Inoculants

Fig. 33.11 Schematic of grain refinement by inoculation

33.4.2 Arc pulsation
The gas metal arc and gas tungsten arc welding process generally use constant voltage
and constant current power source. Moreover, these processes sometime use a DC
power source which can supply varying current called base current and peak current.
Base current is the minimum current primarily used to have stable arc and supplies
least amount of the heat to the weld; and solidification of the weld is expected to take
place during the base current period (Fig. 33.12). While peak current is maximum
current supplied by the power source to the weld arc to generate the heat required for
melting of the faying surfaces. The cycle of alternate heating and cooling results in
smaller weld puddle and so rapid cooling of the weld metal which in turn results in finer

grain structure than the conventional welding i.e. without arc pulsation (Fig. 33.13). It is
believed that abrupt cooling of the weld pool surface during base current period can
also lead to development of few nucleants at the surface which will tend to settle down
gradually and so making make their distribution uniform in the molten weld pool in the
settling process. Increased availability of nucleants due to surface nucleation will also

peak current

DAS [micron]

welding current

be assisting to get finer grain structure in weld.

base current

welding time

SDAS

Heat input [kJ/mm]

Fig. 33.12 Schematics of a) pulse current vs time welding and b) effect of heat input on
dendrite arm spacing

a)

b)

Fig. 33.13 Microstructure of aluminium weld developed a) without arc pulsation using
160 A current and b) arc pulsation between 120 and 160 A (200X)
References and books for further reading

Sindo Kou, Welding metallurgy, John Willey, 2003, 2nd edition, USA.

J F Lancaster, Metallurgy of Welding, Abington Publishing, 1999, 6th edition,

England.
Metals Handbook-Welding, Brazing and Soldering, American Society for Metals,
1993, 10th edition, Volume 6, USA.
R S Parmar, Welding engineering & technology, Khanna Publisher, 2002, 2nd
edition, New Delhi.
Richard Little, Welding and Welding Technology, McGraw Hill, 2001, 1st edition.
S V Nadkarni, Modern Arc Welding Technology, Ador Welding Limited, 2010,
New Delhi.
Welding handbook, American Welding Society, 1987, 8th edition, volume 1 & 2,
USA.
N R Mandal, Aluminium Welding, Narosa Publications, 2005, 2nd edition.
Sidney H Avner, Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, McGraw Hill, 2009, 2nd
edition, New Delhi.