Academic Writing Course

How to write technical papers

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Academic Writing Course

How to write technical papers

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ie iN cadem vitin een i i Course ENELSON STUDY SKILLS IN ENGLISH Academic Writing Course R.R. Jordan NEW EDITION Nelson“Thomas Nelson and Sons Lad Nekon House Mayfield Road Waltorcon Thames Surrey Kriz sev UK 51 York Place Edinburgh ENL3]D UK “Thomas Nelson (Hong Kong) Lid ‘Toppan Boiding 10 22r Westlands Road Quarry Bay” Hong Kong © RR Jordan, 1980, 1990 First published by Coline ELT SBN 0-00:370249.9, ‘Acknowledgements lam grateful to the following colleagues for their comments ‘on pilot versions ofthe material and for some ideas which have been incorporated in this course: Gerry Abbott, Ian ‘Anderson, Clare and Mike Beaumont, Graham Cawood, Richard Cullen, Ken James, Jane Jordan, Alan Matthews, ‘Teresa O'Brien, Donald Sim, Richard Walker, Molly Winder, and Peter Wingard. 1am indebted to Alan Matthews for kindly providing most of Appendix 6. In particular, lam grateful to my colleague, June OBrien, for many useful suggestions for the revised edition. Lam also grateful to numerous overseas students at the University of Manchester for whom most of the material in this course was originally composed. | wish to express my gratitude to Marilyn Oates for typing the manuscript of the revised edition. Grateful acknowledgements are made to the following for ideas: “What Are Science Students Expected to Write?” — J. Friederichs & H. D. Pierson ~ in ELT Journal, Vol XXXV No. 4, July 1981. ‘Essay Examination Prompts and the Teaching of Academic Writing’ ~ D. Horowitz ~ in English for Specific Purposes, Vol. 5 No. 2, 1986. “Answering Examination Questions’ ~ P. M. Howe ~ Collins ELT 1983. ‘Writing Theses and Dissertations’ — J.P. Ryan ~ University of Manchester 1982, “The care and ‘maintenance of hedges’ ~ J. Skelton — in ELT Journal, Vol. 42.No, 1, January 1988. “Examining Examination Papers’ ~ J. Swales in English Language Research Journal, No. 3, 1982. Lam grateful to the following for permission to reproduce ‘or make use of copyright material: Unit 2: ‘bottle diagram’ ‘based on Plastics ~ Macdonald Junior Reference Library 1969. Unit 6: "What is language?’ ~ adapted from The Story of Language, C. L. Barber ~ Pan 1964. Unit 7: ‘The classification of bids’ ~ adapted from The Book of British Birds, Drive Publications Ltd. 1969 and Ornithology: An Introduction, Austin L, Rand — Penguin 1974. Unit 9: ‘Climate’ ~ adapted from The Doomsday Book, G. Rattray ‘Taylor — Thames and Hudson 1970. Unit 10: A survey of unemployment’ ~ based on Illustrated Economics, Peter Donaldson ~ B.B.C.; ‘Adjusting to higher education’ — adapted from Teaching and Learning in Higher Education ~ R. Beard and J. Hartley ~ Harper & Row, 4th edition, 1984. Unit Li: Chart 1 — schools — Statistics of Schools: D.ES. Graph I “Marriages in England and Wales'— adapted from ‘Marriage and divorce statistics’ ~ O.P.CS.z “This edition frst published by Thomas Nelson and Sons Ld 1992, ISBN 0-17-556624-0 NPN 987654 Allrighs reserved. No part of tis publication may be reproduced, ‘Copied or transmited save with written permission o in ‘ctordance withthe pronsions ofthe Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988, or under the tem of any cence pert Iimited copying sued bythe Copyright Licensing Agency. 90 Toutenham Court Road, London WIP SHE. Any person who docs any unauthorised act inflation to this puistion maybe ible pronection and el aims Printed in Chins HMSO; Diagram: 1: ‘Percentage of households with certain | proposals I Y Conclusion 1. The discussion, argument, or comment in the development of the topic may be very straightforward, in which case ideas will be added together one after the other. The basic connective 1 artd is used here. (A number of connectives have a similar or related meaning to ard.) 2. Sometimes the comments may be expressed in another way, or an alternative proposal may be made. This is represented by the basic connective 2 or. (A number of other connectives have a similar meaning.) After the alternative has been considered, the main argument will continue. 3. There are also occasions in arguments etc. when the opposite is considered or referred to. This is represented by the basic connective 3 but. (There are also a number of other connectives with a similar meaning.) After the opposite or opposing view has been considered, the main argument is continued. A list of the connectives divided into the main groups of and, or, but is contained in Appendix 8: Connectives (page 118).nit Exercises In the following exercises practice is given in some examples of the three main groups of connectives. 1 ‘And’ type: Connectives of Result Look at the following example: therefore, as a result, accordingly, \ he had some good He passed his examinations; | consequently, | news to tell his thus, parents. hence, Because he passed his examinations, Note: ‘The connectives (in tales) join a cause he passed his examinations) with a result, effector consequence(‘he had some good news to tellhisparents), Exercise 1a To the following sentences add (2) a suitable connective from the list above, and (b) an appropriate result, effect or consequence from ‘the list below. 1 Many students find it difficult to read newspapers in English... 2. Most students living abroad are interested in news of their own, country... se TER 3, When a student goes abroad to study he/she may have to complete about twelve different forms Result, Effect or Consequence: British news is found to be of most interest. they usually read the international news first in the newspapers. an average of five books per month are read. not many read one regularly. it is useful to be able to answer questions briefly. eange Exercise 1b Complete the following by adding a suitable ending of your own, 4 The lecture was very difficult to understand. Consequently, Carlos was only able to read very slowly in English. Therefore, 10ie 2. ‘Or type: Connectives of Reformulation Look at the following example: He said that he had kept the library book for several years. | In other words To put it more simply, | he had stolen it. Ie would be better to say Note: “The connectives (in italics) introduce a reformulation of what hhas come before. The reformulation appearsin different words and is used to make the i ‘modifyit Exercise 2a To the following sentences add (a) a suitable connective from the list above, and (b) an appropriate reformulation from the list below. 1 Maria is rather slow at learning . . 2 Helen finds languages quite easy... 3. Anna speaks English like a native-speaker . . Reformulation: she speaks it excellently. she speaks slowly. she is taking a long time to improve her English. she has little difficulty in learning English. she speaks it with great difficulty. eange Exercise 2b Complete the following by adding a suitable ending of your own. 4 Margaret is bilingual. In other words, 5 Some people say that if you are good at music you will also be good at learning languages. In other words, — ‘But’ type: Connectives of Concession Look at the following example: However, Nevertheless, The time available for | Nonetheless, it was still possible discussion was very | Yer, to produce some limited. In spite of that, interesting All the same, arguments. Note: ‘The connectives in tales) indicate the surprising nature of what follows in view of what wassaid before; akind of contrasts indicated Exercise 3a To the following sentences add (a) a suitable connective from the list above, and (6) an appropriate concession (or contrast) from the list over the page. 1 Some of the examination questions were very difficult . 2 There was only limited money available for research .. "2 canes 3 The project was very complicated . Concessi Dimitrios was not able to do it. Juan succeeded in completing it in time. ‘Abdul was able to obtain a grant. Oscar did not manage to complete them. Ali managed to answer them satisfactorily. Exercise 3b Complete the following by adding a suitable ending of your own, 4 It seemed likely that he would fail the test. However, —_ 5 There were a number of good reasons why he should not finish the experiment. Nevertheless, Now turn to page 127 and check your answers. For a list of the connectives and more information turn to Appendix 8: Connectives (page 118).nit Unit 2. Description: Process and Procedure When we describe a process or procedure, _+ ed e.g. it was heated). we often use the present passive tense A description that does not involve a (is/are + verb stem + ed e.g. it is process or procedure is often written in manufactured) to give a general the present simple active tense (verb stem description. + s e.g. it comprises). When we report a particular procedure Sequence, or order, is important in both we are concerned with only one particular _ describing a process or reporting a occasion in the past; then we often use the procedure. past passive tense (was/were + verb stem Stage 1 1a Read the following carefully. Note particularly the verb forms that General Description are used: some of the present passive verb forms have been underlined. How paper is made Paper is made from wood, and many of the world’s paper mills are found in those countries which have great forests — Canada, Sweden and Finland. The trees are felled or cut down. The branches and leaves are removed. The trees are transported to the sawmill The bark is stripped from the trunks. The trunks are sawn into logs. They are conveyed to the paper mill. They are placed in the shredder. They are cut into small chips. ‘They are mixed with water and acid. They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp. This wood pulp is cleaned. Itis also chemically bleached to whiten it. It is passed through rollers to flatten it. Sheets of wet paper are produced The water is removed from the sheets. ‘These sheets are pressed, dried and refined until the finished paper is produced. b_ Read carefully through the text again and underline any further verbs in the present passive tense. 2a When describing a process, sequence markers, e.g. first, then, next, finally . . . are often used (see Appendix 8: Connectives, Section 1, age 118). They help to link the sentences. b Sometimes, in order to avoid repeating a subject, a relative pronoun and relative clause are used. 3nit2 4 e.g. The bark is stripped from the trunks. The trunks are sawn into logs. becomes: The bark is stripped from the trunks which are sawn into logs. ‘Some of the sentences from the text have been joined together below to form a paragraph. Spaces have been left in the sentences. In the spaces write an appropriate verb (and some preposition), and, if suitable, a relative pronoun, First, the logs ______in the shredder. Then they Siena Fea shall chips a and acid. Next they ____ toa heavy pulp __ -It_____also chemically to whiten it. After this, it rollers to flatten it. Then, sheets of wet paper —- Finally, the water____ from the sheets until the finished paper Look at the sequence of pictures below. Underneath there are a ‘number of sentences describing how a breakfast cereal is made. The sentences are in the wrong order. Write them out in the correct, order using the sequence of pictures to help you, How a breakfast cereal is made It is stored in the silos These are woven into biscuits. The wheat is harvested from the field. Each biscuit is baked until brown. It is cut into thin strips. The grain is cooked to soften it. It is packed ready to be eaten. The wheat grain is transported to the silos. Look carefully at the diagram on page 15 of the stages of manufacture of glass bottles. Six boxes have been numbered and left empty. Now read carefully the sentences next to the diagram. They are in the wrong order and are not complete.itz a Write the sentences in the correct order. bb Join them together by means of sequence markers (e.g. then, next) © Complete the sentences by putting the verb (given at the end of ‘each sentence) in the appropriate passive form d_ Finally, from the information in the sentences, write the correct names in the six boxes in the diagram. if How glass bottles are made It into bottles in the mould. (shape) Sometimes broken glass_________. (add) The bottles — to strengthen the glass. (reheat and cool) Glass ______ from sand, limestone, and soda ash (make) They are ready ____. (use) Glass ______ (produce) This mixture strongly in a furnace. (heat) ONO CTOTOME ces caer rommmmnatanees oe as a0 proportions. (mix) Stage 2 1. Look at the following table carefully. Specific Procedure Writing in English: Manchester University (50 students) % type of (average) (average) students | writing frequency Tength 32 ‘essay 5 per term 2000 words 34 report 2 per term 4000 words 14 dissertation 1 per year 8000 words 2 thesis 1 after 300-1000 pages 2-3 years The information in the table can be described (as an alternative to using the table). Notice the construction of the following sentence: 52% of the students wrote essays, of an average frequency of 5 per term, of an average length of 2000 words. Now read the following paragraph, which describes some of the information contained in the table. Complete the spaces with information from the table. A survey was conducted among _______ overseas postgraduate students at _________. The purpose of the survey was to discover the type, and of academic writing that was expected of the students by their supervisors or tutors, — — of the students _________ reports, of an 2 per term, average length 15nit 2 16 Stage 3 Advice oe Below the steps or stages in conducting a survey are given. in the spaces in each sentence write an appropriate verb from the following list. Put the verbs in the past passive tense e.g. wasiwere asked. Verbs: request, collect, carry out, publish, analyse, distribute A survey —_____ among 50 students. First, questionnaires ~~ to the students, ‘Then the students to write answers to the questions. After this, the completed questionnaires —___. Next, the answers Finally, the results| Note: See Unit 15 (page 88) for conducting an actual survey 1s 2 Read carefully the following description of the procedure for writing an essay. It gives advice in the form of what you should do. (Most of the verbs are in the passive: simple conditional.) When you have finished reading do the exercise in 2. The Stages of Writing an Essay First, the topic, subject or question should be thought about carefully: what is required in the essay should be understood. Then a note should be made of ideas, perhaps from knowledge or experience. After this, any books, journals, etc. should be noted that have been recommended, perhaps from a reading list or a bibliography. Then to the list should be added any other books, articles, etc. that are discovered while the recommended books are being found. Now is the time for the books, chapters, articles, etc. to be read, with a purpose, by appropriate questions being asked that are related to the essay topic or title. Clear notes should be written from the reading. In addition, a record of the sources should be kept so that a bibliography or list of references can be compiled at the end of the essay. Any quotations should be accurately acknowledged: author's surname and initials, year of publication, edition, publisher, place of publication, and page numbers of quotations. When the notes have been finished they should be looked through in order for an overview of the subject to be obtained. Then the content of the essay should be decided on and how it is to be organised or planned. The material should be carefully selected: there may be too much and some may not be very relevant to the question. The material, or ideas, should be divided into three main sections for the essay: the introduction, the main body, and the conclusion. An outline of the essay should be written, with use being made of headings or sub-headings, if they are appropriate. ‘The first draft should be written in a suitably formal or academic style. While doing this, the use of colloquialas 0 Unit 2 expressions and personal references should be avoided. When it has been completed, the draft should be read critically, and in particular, the organisation, cohesion, and language should be checked. Several questions should be asked about it, for example: Is it clear? Is it concise? Is it ‘comprehensive? Then the draft should be revised and the final draft written — legibly! It should be remembered that first impressions are important, Finally, the bibliography should be compiled, using the conventional format: the references should be in strict alphabetical order. Then the bibliography should be added to the end of the essay. All the sentences containing advice (‘should’) are listed below. Spaces have been left for the verbs. In each space write the appropriate verb, but write it as a direct instruction (putting the verb in its imperative form) e.g. should be finished-»finish The Stages of Writing an Essay carefully about the topic, subject or question. what is required in the essay. a note of your ideas, perhaps from your knowledge or experience. any books, journals, etc. that have been recommended, perhaps from a reading list or a bibliography. to your list any other books, articles, etc. that you discover while finding the recommended books. the books, chapters, articles, etc. with a purpose, by asking yourself appropriate questions that are related to the essay topic or title. clear notes from your reading. a record of your sources so that you ‘can compile your own bibliography or list of references at the end of your essay. accurately any quotations: author's surname and initials, year of publication, edition, publisher, place of publication, and page numbers of quotations. through your notes when you have finished in order to obtain an overview of the subject. ‘on the content of your essay and how you want to organise it, in other words, plan it. your material carefully: you may have too much and some may not be very relevant t6 the question. your material, or ideas, into three main sections for the essay: the ”Unit 2 8 Summary of the Stages of Writing an Essay 1 Topic — think Reading list ¥ 2 ' y Y 4 ¥ 5 ¥ 6 e ¥ e D ‘The’ with names of countries, rivers and seas 1 The is not used with names of continents (e.g. Europe, not the Europe) though it is used with some other geographical areas (c.g. the Middle East, the Far East). 2 The + Republic of ... (e.g, the Republic of France). 3. The + country names in the plural (e.g. the United States of America, the U.K., the USS.R., the West Indies). 4 Other country names are not used with the (e.g. Denmark). 5 The + names of oceans, seas, rivers (e.g. the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean, the Tigris) but not with names of lakes (e.g. Lake Baikal). 6 The + names of mountain ranges (e.g. the Alps, the Himalayas). Can you think of any more words to add to the above lists? Think particularly of your own country. {Are there any more categories or groups of words that you would find useful? If so, try to make lists similar to the above. 25Units Unit 4 Narrative The introduction to many pieces of sequence or chronological order (ie. academic writing contains some kind of earliest first). Verb forms commonly used historical background or development. are the simple past active (e.g. it This is usually in the form of narrative: an _ organised), simple past passive (e.g. it was account or description of events in the created), and past perfect active (e.g. it past which entails following a time had developed). Stage 1 E.E.C (notes) 1 Read the following carefully. Notice the structure, time sequence, date forms and prepositions, and the verb forms used. ‘The European Economic Community (E.£.C. or Common Market — also called The European Community — E.C.) The beginnings of the E.E.C. beginnings/origins date from May 9th 1950, when date from/go back to Robert Schuman, France’s Foreign Minister, proposed that France and Germany should combine their coal and steel industries under an independent, ‘supranational’ authority. This led _led to the establishment/ to the establishment of the founding/creation/setting European Coal and Steel uplof... ‘Community (E.C.S.C.) in 1952. In. in 1952 addition to France and Germany, Belgium, Italy, Luxemburg and the Netherlands also became members. The E.C.S.C. was a step towards economic integration in Europe and led to the Treaty of led to/ resulted in. Rome which was signed on ‘on March 25th an March 25th 1957. This established _established/created/set up . the E.E.C. with the same six up member states as in the E.C.5.C. In 1973 the U.K., Denmark and in 1973 the Republic of Ireland became 25 members; Greece, Spain and became members/joined Portugal joined in the 1980s. in the 1980s. 2 Now make very brief notes of the most important items of information in the passage. 6Stage 2 U.N. (notes) 1 Read through the passage below, then write an appropriate word in each of the spaces. ‘The United Nations Eh traced back the League of Nations. This ala fan internations| maneseinnantataiiie afiich ESE yg fag SSUES The Treaty of Versailles 1920 with the purpose ________ achieving world peace. Before 1930, the League, from its Geneva headquarters, —— international conferences and did useful humanitarian work. —_______ it failed SEER Goal effectively_________ international aggression i the 1930s, The League formally closed —_______ 1946 and superseded the United Nations. The U.N. was__________on 24th October 1945, when the U.N. Charter___________ ratified the 51 founder member countries. Almost the countries of the are now members: 159 in all. The U.N. was —_______ to maintain international peace, and to encourage international co-operation to ‘overcome economic, social, cultural and humanitarian Ce i organs of the U.N. (e.g. The General Assembly, The Security Council etc.), —_____ of the U.N.’s work is done a its specialised bodies agencies. _____of the best are, perhaps, the FAO, ILO, IMF, WHO, UNESCO and UNICEF. Discuss possible alternative answers. When the text is complete, continue with the following exercise Now make very brief notes of the most important items of information in the passage. Stage 3 Universities (expanded notes) Below is a passage tracing the development of universities. Read it through. When you have finished reading it do exercise 2 which follows the passage. The Development of Universities The word ‘university’ comes from the Latin word ‘universitas’, meaning ‘the whole’. Later, in Latin legal language ‘universitas’ meant ‘a society, guild or corporation’. Thus, in mediaeval academic use the word meant an association of teachers and scholars. The modern definition of a university is ‘an institution that teaches and examines students in many branches of advanced learning, awarding degrees and providing facilities for academic research’ anie 28 ‘The origins of universities can be traced back to the Middle ‘Ages, especially the 12-14th centuries. In the early 12th century, long before universities were organised in the moder sense, students gathered together for higher studies at certain centres of learning. The earliest centres in Europe were at Bologna in Italy, for law, founded in 1088; Salerno in Italy for medicine; and Paris, France, for philosophy and theology, founded in 1150. Other early ones in Europe were at Prague, Czechoslovakia, founded in 1348; Vienna, Austria, founded in 1365; and Heidelberg, Germany, founded in 1386. ‘The first universities in England were established at Oxford in 1185 and at Cambridge in 1209. The first Scottish university ‘was founded at St. Andrews in 1412. By comparison, the oldest universities in the U.S.A. are at Harvard, founded in 1636, and Yale, established in 1701 In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, three more universities were founded in Scotland: at Glasgow in 1415, Aberdeen in 1494, and Edinburgh in 1582. The next English university to be founded was not until the nineteenth century — London, in 1836. This was followed, later in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, by the foundation of several civic universities. These had developed from provincial colleges which were mainly situated in industrial areas. ‘Manchester, for example, received its charter in 1880, and Birmingham in 1900. In addition, the federal University of ‘Wales was established in 1893 comprising three colleges. Several other civic universities were founded in the 1940s and 1950s, such as Nottingham in 1948, Southampton in 1954 land Exeter in 1957. However, it was in the 1960s that the largest single expansion of higher education took place in Britain. This expansion took three basic forms: existing universities were enlarged; new universities were developed from existing colleges; and seven completely new universities were founded. The latest, Kent University, in south-east England, and Warwick, in the Midlands, were both founded in 1965. Like the other new universities, they are situated away from town centres and are surrounded by parkland and green fields. Finance for universities comes from three sources, namely grants from the government (the largest), fees paid by students, and donations from private sources. All the British universities, except one, receive some government funding. The exception is Buckingham, which is Britain’s only independent university, and which received the Royal Charter in 1983, One of the latest university developments was the foundation in 1969 of the Open University. It is a non- residential university which provides part-time degree and other courses. It uses a combination of correspondence courses, television and radio broadcasts, and summer schools ‘organised on a regional basis.oie Below is a summary of the passage in sentences which are given in the wrong order. Put the sentences in the correct order by writing the letters a-j next to numbers 1-10. ‘The quarter of a century from 1940 to 1965 was the period when there was a big increase in the number of universities in Britain. ‘The Open University was founded in 1969. € The oldest American university was founded in the 17th century. One of the original meanings of ‘university’ was an association of teachers and students. ‘There is one private university in Britain: it was established in 1983, After three more Scottish universities were established in the 15th and 16th centuries, the next major developments were not until the foundation of a number of civic universities in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Oxford and Cambridge are the oldest English universities. Government grants are the most important source of university ‘The first Scottish university was established in the early 15th century. ‘There were gatherings of students at centres of learning in Europe between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. Now make brief notes of the information relating to the development of English universities only. Put the heading Universities in England above your notes. Write a brief description in narrative form of the development of universities in your country. It does not matter if you do not know precise dates or details: a rough idea or an approximation will be sufficient. Refer to the Structure and Vocabulary Aid (page 30) If you apply for a job orto study at a university etc, you normally fill in an application form or send a curriculum vitae (cx). This is @ brief account (description) of your background and career. Normally itincludes your full name, date of birth, and then, under the heading of education, a summary of the secondary schools, colleges ‘or universities that you have attended, together with details of examinations passed and certificates andlor degrees awarded. iis Usually followed by an account of your employment or career. The information is normally given in chronological order. Write part of your own cv. Only include information under the heading of education (places of study and awards). Write a letter to a university or a college applying to study there in the next academic year. 29unit Structure and A Commonly used verb tenses, with examples. Vocabulary Aid Past Simple (Passive) Past Simple ( reated itwas established Past Perfect (Active) Iehad developed B Useful verbs/nouns verbs ‘nouns to establish ‘establishment to found foundation C Useful vocabulary for describing post-school education. institutes of polytechnics, higher education INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER AND FURTHER EDUCATION, Scottish centeal adult education further education other specialist tertiary colleges COLLEGES artand design technology ageicultural horticultural 30oie D Useful vocabulary for describing universities. UNIVERSITY GOVERNMENT AND ORGANISATION, ‘Committees and Convocation SulbsComenitecs Departments Schools 7 \ a Centres and Units vacations/holidays ACADEMIC. ‘YEAR Aura Summer! Michaelmas terms Trinity Spring/Lent Hilary professor PritePal dictor dean, roger demorserator lecturer research sssistant supervisor counsellor qutor Chancellor Bursar/Director of finance Vice-Chanesllor Librafian Refistrar grant fee scholarship sponsérship bursary visiting fall-ime part-time’ 31unit 4 first-degree lectures (BA. BSc.) higher degree tutorials ‘TEACHING practicals certificate QUALIFICATIONS }— (M.A., MSc, PhD.) seminars/diseussion Bes diploma Projects experiments case study library viva voce oy interviews laboratory Voralh [ASSESSMENT) ‘questionnaires Soper ae inierview surveys observation dissertation Common Room project Postgraduate Refectory essay report Society Library Students’ Union Health and exam, per societies Welfare awa Paper and clubs sports flats sigs Race ‘aticle hostels dissertation colleges hallsof —bedsiter B&H residence 1. Can you think of any more words to add to the above lists? 2. Take the subject Academic Reading. Make a list of words for it (types of reading) in the same way as the above. 32.Unit 5 Definitions B The previous units were concerned with that it is perfectly clear what we mean, describing things. When we describe We may also need to give examples of things we sometimes need to define them what we define, and to classify. These will as well, especially in academic writing, so _be covered in the following units. Stage 1 1. If we look in a dictionary for the word ‘school” we may find: Simple Definitions school an institution where children are educated ‘More formally in writing we would put: A school is an institution where children are educated. Look at these other examples: ‘A doctor is a person who gives medical treatment to people. Aluminium is a metal which is produced from bauxite. Note: Whois used for persons, whichis used for inanimate objects and animals, whereis used for places. Complete the following sentences in the same way as the examples above. a A college _____ students receive higher or professional education. b Adentist _____treats people’s teeth. € Steel is produced from iron and carbon. (We can also say that steel is an alloy.) 2 Join pairs of sentences by using relative clauses. e.g. Bronze is an alloy. It is produced from copper and tin. Bronze is an alloy which is produced from copper and tin, The sentences in the box overleaf have been mixed up. Join the 8 sentences on the left with the correct ones from the 10 on the right. Use the appropriate relative pronoun. 3ies It produces electricity. He studies the way in which industry and trade produce and use wealth. € He treats the diseases of 2. A microscope is an animals. instrument d Itmakes distant objects appear nearer and larger. € He designs machines, 4A botanist is a person buildings or public works. f It gives information on 5 A square is a geometric subjects in alphabetical figure order. 6 Acucumber is a vegetable & He studies plants. h Ie makes very small near ‘objects appear larger. 8 An encyclopaedia is a book i It is long and round with a dark green skin and light green watery flesh. j_Ithas four equal sides and four right angles. 1 An engineer is a person 3 A generator is a machine 7 An economist is a person 3 So far, in the definitions we have looked at, the language construction has beet Thing to be defined + verb + general class word + ‘wh'-word + particular characteristics. e.g. A botanist is a person who studies plants. ‘Three types of mistakes may occur when a short definition is being written: 1 An example may be given rather than a definition. An example may, of course, follow a definition but it should not take its place. 2 The general class, or the particular characteristics, may be ‘omitted from the definition. It will then be incomplete. 3 The word to be defined, or another form of it, may be used in the definition itself. Clearly, ifthe reader does not already understand the word, he/she will not understand the repeated use of it 1a Study the following definitions. Each one contains one of the mistakes listed above. Analyse the type of mistake (1, 2, 3—listed ‘above) that has been made. Write the number of the type of mistake in the column provided. The first one has been done as an example.nies Type of DEFINITION mistake ‘An ammeter is used to measure electric current. 2 1 | Alecturer is a person who lectures 2 | A dictionary is a book like “Collins Cobuild English Dictionary’. 3 | A degece is given by a university to a student who has passed the appropriate examinations. b Now re-write the definitions above in a more satisfactory way. The first one has been done as an example. ‘An ammeter is an instrument which is used to measure electric current. Stage 2 1. Look at the following definition. Academic Definitions Plastics are compounds made with long chains of carbon atoms. You will notice that the wh-word has been omitted. A definition written in this way uses a reduced relative clause. In full the definition would be: Plastics are compounds which are made with long chains of carbon atoms. Write out the following definitions in full, putting the wh-word in the correct place. 1 Plastics are substances moulded into shape when they are heated. 2. A mineral is a structurally homogeneous solid of definite chemical composition formed by the inorganic processes of nature, ‘Write out the following definitions omitting the wh-word so that a reduced relative clause is used. 3 Rayons are man-made fibres which are produced from wood. 4A fossil is an inorganic trace which is buried by natural processes and subsequently permanently preserved. 2a. Often subjects, particularly academic subjects, omit the wh-word in the following way: Criminology is the study of crime (or illegal acts) Psychiatry is the study and treatment of mental iliness. Politics is the science of government. Botany is the science of the structure of plants. \ puastics \\ 35nes 36 Write out definitions of the subjects given below. Use the notes given next to each subject; write in the same style as above. 1. Demography—study—population growth and its structure. 2 Zoology—science—structure, forms and distribution of animals. 3 Biology—science—physical life of animals and plants. b_ Academic subjects may be more cautiously defined, thus: Geography may be defined as the science of the earth's surface. Linguistics may be defined as the science of language. Write out definitions of the following subjects in the same way as above. 1 Sociology—science—nature and growth of society and social behaviour. 2 Theology—study—religious beliefs and theories. 3. Astronomy—science—sun, moon, stars and planets. © Write a definition of your subject in a similar way to the above. Stage 3 Extended Definitions It's possible for academic subjects to be defined more specifically. Normally, this can only be done if more information is given. 1. Look at the following example (branch has the meaning of division) Psychology may be defined as the branch of biological science which studies the phenomena of conscious life and behaviour. Write out def above. ions of the following subjects in the same way as 1 Criminal psychology—psychology—investigates the psychology of crime and the criminal. 2. Chemistry—science—deals with the composition and behaviour of substances. 3 Social economies—economics—is concerned with the measurement, causes and consequences of social problems. 2a A definition may be extended in order to be more precise and/or to give more information about the subject. Look carefully at the following examples. Sociology may be defined as the branch of science which studies the development and principles of social ‘organisation. It is concerned with group behaviour as. distinct from the behaviour of individuals in the group. Econometrics may be defined as the branch of economics which applies mathematical and statistical techniques to economic problems. /t is concerned with testing the validity of economic theories and providing the means of making quantitative predictions. b_ Now write a definition of your subject in a similar way to the above.nits 3. Use your dictionary to check definitions. Sometimes itis useful to compare definitions and explanations in two or three dictionaries: ‘they are not always exactly the same, and they often give different examples. Check the definitions of the following: polytechnic (compared with university’) standard of living household durable goods consumer perishables These words appear in Unit 11, stage 3 (page 70) Structure and Vocabulary Aid A Frequently used verb tenses for definitions: Present Simple (Active and Passive) B Relative clauses are often used to qualify or give extra information, C Useful verbs: is concerned with deals with relates 10 involves 37Unit Unit 6 Exemplification The last unit was concerned with Geography may be defined as the science of the definitions. It is often useful in definitions earth's surface. It is concerned with a number of to give examples: this action is known as features, particularly physical, climate and produc exemplification (or exemplifying). E.g. (= this is an abbreviation meaning for ea (Here particularly has the meaning ‘more than some others’.) Linguistics may be defined as the science of language, for example, its structure, sound systems, acquisition, __Exemplification is commonly used throughout academic writing. There are different ways of exemplifying, eg. Geology may be defined as the science of the earth’s history as shown by its crust, rocks, etc. | Stage 1 Words 1. Read the following carefully. What is Language? A language is a signalling system which operates with symbolic vocal sounds, and which is used by a group of people for the purposes of communication. Let us look at this definition in more detail because it is, language, more than anything else, that distinguishes man from the rest of the animal world. Other animals, it is true, communicate with one another by means of cries: for example, many birds utter warning calls at the approach of danger; apes utter different cries, such as expressions of anger, fear and pleasure. But these various means of communication differ in important ways from human language. For instance, animals’ cries are not articulate. This means, basically, that they lack structure. They lack, for example, the kind of structure given by the contrast between vowels and consonants. They also lack the kind of structure that enables us to divide a human utterance into words. We can change an utterance by replacing one word in it by another: a good illustration of this is a soldier who can say, e.g., ‘tanks approaching from the north’, or he can change ‘one word and say ‘aircraft approaching from the north’ or “tanks approaching from the west’; but a bird has a single alarm cry, which means ‘danger!” This is why the number of signals that an animal can make is very limited: the great tit is a case in point; it has about seMake twenty different calls, whereas in human language the number of possible utterances is infinite. It also explains why animal cries are very general in meaning. Read the passage again and draw a [Box] around all the words which have the same meaning as the word example. Notice how they are used and the punctuation that is used with them. Now draw a line under all the examples. e.g. For example many birds utter warning calls at the approach ‘of danger. The following sentences are based upon the information contained in the passage above. Complete the sentences making use of each of the following words (use each only once). illustration for example a case in point an example for instance such as 1 At the approach of danger many birds utter warning calls: this is _____of animals communicating with cach other. 2 Cries, ________ those of anger, fear and pleasure, are uttered by apes. 3 There are important differences between human language and animal communication: —________, animals’ ties are not articulate. 4 Animals’ cries lack, ________, the kind of structure that enables us to divide a human utterance into words. 5 A good —____of changing an utterance by substituting one word for another is a soldier who can say “tanks approaching from the north’ or ‘tanks approaching from the west’. 6 The number of signals that an animal can make is very limited: the great tit is Stage 2 Sentences Look at the following: Language Families agen eeaecs aaeesinasean anneal Portuguese Spanish Italian French Romanian etc. 1 There are a number of languages which are descended from Latin: for example, Portuguese and Italian. ‘This can be expressed another way: 2 There are a number of languages, such as Portuguese and Italian, which are descended from Latin. 39Unit 6 a Write two sentences about the following information: one sentence as in 1 above, and then another sentence as in 2. Latin —— Romansch Provencal Catalan Sardinian ete 1b Now write two sentences about the following, one as in 1 and another as in 2 above. Sanskrit Bengali Hindi Singalese etc. 2. Read the following carefully, especially the parts in italic. There are now over two thousand different languages in the world; an examination of them shows that many of them belong to a group of related languages, and some of these groups are very large, constituting what we can call language families. An example of such a family is the Semitic group of languages. Examples of members of the family are Arabic and Hebrew. Now write out the last two sentences substituting the following (not all the examples need to be listed): a Germanic—e.g. English, German, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian. b Sino-Tibetan—e.g. Thai, Burmese, Chinese, Tibetan. Stage 3 Paragraphs 1. Here are some notes on writing systems. Read them carefully. Writing Systems Writing = method of human intercommunication by means of conventional visible marks. 3 main writing systems: 1 word-syllabic (one sign = one word) e.g. Chinese 2 syllabic (one sign = one syllable) e.g. Amharic, Japanese 3 alphabetic (one sign = one sound) e.g. Greek, Latin, Arabic. Now write a paragraph on ‘writing systems’ based on the information in the notes. Do not use notes in your writing, only complete sentences. Begin the paragraph with a definition of writing. Then continue with a description of the writing systems, beginning the sentence ‘There are . ..’. Remember to use sequence markers (connectives); practise using different expressions for e.g. 2. Write a definition of your own subject of study or research. Describe part of it together with examples.vies Structure and Vocabulary Aid A Alternatives to the word examples are: cases, instances B Other commonly used verb forms and methods of expression are: shown exemplified) | by illustrated shows x ) | exemplifies) | this ilusteates the following examples, the following are examples of X: and b ‘and b are examples of X writers such \, such writers ) | Dickens and Hardy aUnit 7 Unit 7 Classification When we divide something into groups, made according to a criterion or several classes, categories, etc. we are classifying criteria (standards or principles on which those items. The classification is normally _ judgements are based). Stage 1 Criteria 1 Read the following carefully. . : State Schools In England and Wales The vast majority of children in Britain (87%) attend state (local authority) schools which provide compulsory education from the age of 5 to 16 years. These schools can be classified according to the age range of the pupils and the type of education provided. Basically, there are two types of school: primary and secondary, although in some areas there are also middle schools. Primary schools cater for children aged 5-11, and secondary schools for ages 11-16 (and in some areas up to 18 years). Primary schools can be sub-divided into infant schools (for ages 5-7) and junior schools (for ages 7-11). Secondary schools are normally of one type for all abil viz. comprehensive schools. More than 90% of children in state schools attend this kind of school. In some areas middle schools exist as an extra level after primary school for children aged 8 or 9 to 12 or 13. Pupils then transfer to senior comprehensive schools. In a small number of areas, pupils may be grouped according to their ability and selected by ‘means of an examination at the age of 11. In these areas, grammar schools cater for those with academic ability and secondary modern schools for those with less academic ability. ‘When pupils reach the age of 16 there may be three choices ‘open to them. Firstly, they may leave school. Secondly they may stay on at school for two more years if it has a Sixth Form. Thirdly, they may transfer to a Sixth Form College or a Tertiary College. ies, Now complete the following sentences which are based upon the text above. Schools _____ the pupils’ ages and the type of education. There are school: primary and secondary. Primary schools into infant and junior schools. Secondary school pupils their ability. The criterion for classifying secondary schools is whether or not lscee ss aEUnit 7 2. Below there are seven sentences, labelled a-g, which summarise the information in the passage. The sentences are in the wrong order. Put them in the correct order by writing the appropriate letter next to the numbers 1-7. Most children go to comprehensive schools. ‘There may be three types of school: primary, middle and secondary. © Atthe age of sixteen, pupils may stay on at school, or leave and 0 to a college, or leave school altogether. 4 Exceptionally, children may take a selection exam at 11 years and {0 to either a grammar or a secondary modern school. © Most children go to state schools. If children attend middle schools, they go on to senior comprehensive schools afterwards. 8 Primary schools comprise both infant and junior schools. 3a Look at Diagram 1. It shows a diagrammatic classification of state schools in England and Wales. if necessary read the text again and then complete Diagram 1, writing on the lines provided. Diagram I: State Schools England and Wales (5-7 years) primary junior (__) (8/9-12/13 years) eee b_ Without looking at the text again, write a brief description of the information contained in Diagram 1. Begin your description: There are two types of school: primary and secondary. Primary schools can be sub-divided, according to age, into... xercise, or the following ones, turn tothe Stn Vocabulary Aidat the end of thisunit (page 46), 4 Try to draw a classification diagram of the education system in your country. When you have completed it, write a brief description of it. 43| Stage 2 Classifying 1 Read the following carefully. The Classification of Birds Birds are instantly recognisable creatures. Perhaps it is their ability to fly that causes this. Some people might consider that their shape was the most distinguishing feature. Everyone, however, agrees upon the characteristics that a bird possesses: two wings, feathers, two legs, a toothless bill or beak, warm blood, and it lays eggs. The modern system of classifying birds is like a pyramid, with the base formed by 8514 different species. A convenient definition of species is: an interbreeding group of birds which do not normally mate with other such groups. The next division above the species is the genus, a group of species showing strong similarities. The scientific name of a bird gives the genus first, then the species. Thus, the scientific (Latin) name of the golden eagle is ‘Aquila chrysaétos’ (eagle, golden). When there are strong points of similarity between one genus and another, these related genera are grouped together and are said to belong to the same family. The names of the 215 families of birds always end in ‘idae’. The golden eagle, for instance, is one of the ‘Falconidae’ (falcon family) Families with broadly similar characteristics are grouped together into 27 orders, whose names end in ‘formes’. The golden eagle falls into the order of ‘Falconiformes’ (falcon-like birds). The largest order is ‘Passeriformes’ or perching birds. This contains 63 families, and more species than all the rest put together. The feet are designed so that they can grip a perch, with three toes in front and one behind. In addition, all are known as song-birds. Two large families within this, order are sparrows, with 155 species, and crows, with 100 species. Finally, all of the orders make up the class ‘Aves’ (birds) This system of classification has enabled scientists to differentiate 8514 species of birds. Placing a bird in the right family depends upon a number of features. Among them are external characteristics, such as the shape of the beak and feet, and the colour pattern of the feathers. However, at the level of order, the next higher category, distinctions are based on such features as the structure of the skull, the arrangement of the muscles in the legs, and the condition of the young at the time of hatching. a4a unit 7 Look at Diagram 2 (The Classification of Birds). If necessary, read the text again and then complete the table. Parts of it have been filled in already to help you. Note that the centre column should contain, ‘examples relating to the bird ‘golden eagle" (in English). Diagram 2: The Classification of Birds Classification Example of Number of divisions or classification the divisions categories of Golden Eagle for each division ‘ORDER FALCON-LIKE, GOLDENEAGLE | 8514 From the information in the text: give a definition of a bird. give a definition of a species. give two criteria that are used Passeriformes. give two examples of famili Passeriformes. list some of the general characteristics of families of birds, and then of ordersof birds. assigning birds to the order of of birds from the order of ‘Write a brief general description of the classification of birds: base your description upon the information contained in Diagram 2. Write in a similar way to the following classification of vegetables. There are six main groups of vegetables, for example, legumes. Each group may be divided into members, such as beans, and each member may be sub-divided into types: Scarlet Runners are an example. Finally, each type may be further subdivided into a number of varieties, e.g. Prizewinner. Stage 3 Diagrams Look carefully at Diagram 3on page 46. Itisatree diagram Classification of drinks. ‘What are the three criteria that are used in the classification? ‘Write a description of the classification of drinks based upon the information in Diagram 3. Begin your description: Drinks may be classified into two main groups: . 45Diagram 3: A Classification of Drinks DRINKS. ZEN rk DS, aN a ae Seda. Ce normal 2 Now draw a diagram for the subject, or part of it, that you are studying. Write a brief description of the classification diagram, ‘making sure that itis clear what the criteria are. Ifa classification diagram is not appropriate for your subject, perhaps an organisational diagram (showing hierarchy etc.) would be possible. Structure and Vocabulary Aid A cxitesion/crit basis/bases features characteristics to 0 two, ete. categories sub-category classify sub-classify several classes sub-class categorise sub-categorise a number of groups sub-group ‘group sub-group various types sub-order divide imo sub-divide the following kinds sub-division arrange (in) ‘main sons put into general species fall into broad breeds place in orders orders distinguish (between) divisions differentiate (between/from) familiesconsists of | according to) | whether or not... there is X... X | comprises... ae whether there is X oF not according to. X'may be classified) | on the bass o depending (upon ... ‘The classification is based (uplon . Note the possible sequence: may be divided... “may be sub-divided “may be further sub-divided . B Vocabulary: 1. State: non-fee-paying Schools in England and wales secondary modern pupils: ages kindergarten’! pupils: ages 4/511 grammar L-16 or 18, Fa hoo! nursery school schogl ‘or class aie a co-educational sed no selection. ‘single sex ay Gan wal th iia he shool na ut Fam middle school — — — — —p-comprehensive school oe ‘ i PA {ages 8-9 to 12-13) plus 6th form) ‘coveducational a 6th Form College/Fertiary College English scipnce mathematics LEAS (maintained by local education authorities) religious ‘education county schools voluntary schools NATIONAL seopzanhy ‘CURRICULUM streaming, . "governing bodies foundation establhed by — “opted-out” | religious technology Si) Pre snomtnn visto cl sted LEA appoints covopted members ae jeden focign electes Parents ¥ representatives bee ‘8 eae (hers) language a7unit? General Certificate General Certificate ‘of Secondary Education of Education: Advanced GCSE! Level (G.CE: A level) EXAMINATIONS (secondary schoo!) Centficate of Pre Vocational Education Advanved Supplementary (cPve) Levels (AS.) kindergarten! ursery school 2. Independent: private: fee-paying pupils ages 11/12/13 18/19 Common Entrance Examination | day schoo! ‘public boarding school pupils: ages 7-11/12/13 schools 1 Are there any other words that you would find it useful to add to ‘the above lists? 2 Make a similar list for the school system in your country.Unit 8 Comparison and Contrast In most academic subjects, and in life generally, we often need to compare and contrast things. Similarities and differences are often noted when classifying (see the comparison and contrast is frequently needed when studying tables and other statistical information. The language previous unit). The language of forms used in this unit are to be found in Appendix 7: Comparisons (page 116). Stage 1 Comparison Look at Tables 1 and 2 Table 1: The Longest Rivers in the World 1 The Nile (Afica)—4,160 miles (6,695 kilometres) 2 The Amazon (South America} 4,080 miles (6,570 kilometres) 3 The Misissippi-Missour (North America)—3,740 mils (6,020 tilometres) 4 The Yangtse (Asia: China)—3,430 mils (5,520 kilometres) Table 2: Temperatures and Rainfall in Beijing, China Mont ee Temperatwe(G) | 47-15. 50 137 199 US 260 247 198 125 36 all (em) (re Op te sy ee ye Oe te Tote: op the ley satelite) totam: the Amazon atl ew) the first month is January (), the lasts December (0). the temperatureismeasuredin Centigrade, and isan average € therainfallis measuredin centimetres, andisalsoan average. Now complete the following sentences. If necessary, look at Appendix 7: Comparisons. Put one or more words in each space. Table 1 1 The Nile is the Mississippi-Missouri, 2. The Amazon is long —__ the Nile. 3 The Nile is river in the world. the Amazon river in China. 4 The Mississippi-Missourr i 5 The Yangtse is Table 2 6 In Beijing, January is a December. month 7 July isa Jun 8 There is in March. month rain in May 499 July has the —____rain; in other words, July is cena 10 August is warm July. 11 December and January are _____ months. 12 The rainfall in February is in March. 14 The rainfall in November is ____in May. 15 July is the —____ month, and also — ‘month. 2. Look at Table 3. ‘Table 3: The Highest Mountains in the World 1 Everest (Nepal/Tibet)—29,028 feet (8,848 metres) 2 K2 (KashmirSinkiang)—28,250 feet (8,611 metres) 3 Kangchenjunga (NepalSikkim)—28,168 feet (8,586 metres) 4 Makalu (Nepal/Tibet)—27,805 fet (8,475 metres) 5 Dhaulagici (Nepal) 26,810 feet (8,172 metres) Note: ‘Allthe mountains above are in the Himalayas Now write at least three sentences comparing the mountains. 3. Turn back to Unit 2 Stage 2 (page 15). Look at the information in the table about Manchester University students. Write several sentences comparing the information: e.g. More students write essays than any other type of writing. Stage 2 1. Read the following carefully. Extended Comparison Several years ago, some research was conducted at Manchester University into the amount of time that overseas postgraduate students spent listening to spoken English and speaking English. Sixty students co-operated by completing questionnaires, It was found that an average of 22% hours per week were spent listening to English and only 6% hours speaking English to English people. An analysis of the time spent listening to English showed that lectures accounted for 5 hours and seminars 2 hours. An estimated 2% hours were spent in serious discussion while 2 hours were devoted to everyday small-talk, Watching television accounted for 5% hours and listening to the radio 41 hours. Going to the cinema or theatre only accounted for an average of ¥4 hour per week. 50units ‘The following sentences are based upon the information contained in the text above. Complete the sentences by choosing from the list of words and phrases below: use each word once only. Make sure that you keep the same meaning in the sentences as in the text. Choose from these words: biggest; as much . . . as; more than (twice); least; most; not so many . .. a8} a8 many... as; the same... as; greater... than, The students spent considerably sl time listening to English“ __ speaking it. A________ amount of time was spent in lectures, Nearly________ hours were spent listening to the radio watching television. The 4 popular way of listening to English was by watching TV. 2s" ___ number of hours was spent in everyday small-talk =~" ___in taking part in seminars. ‘The popular way of listening to English was by going to the cinema. hours were spent in serious discussion — in watching television. Nearly ____ time was spent in watching television in speaking English. sat time was spent in serious discussion in everyday small-talk. ‘The surprise in the survey was the small number of hours spent speaking English to English people. You have just received a letter from a friend, or acquaintance, asking for some information about English dictionaries and asking you to recommend a suitable one to help hinvher learn English. Look at Table 4: English Dictionaries, then on the basis of that information write a letter recommending one of the dictionaries. Give reasons for your choice. Look at the Structure and Vocabulary ‘Aid at the end of this unit (page 54) and at the Notes in the Key if you need some help with the letter. 51nits sre;pouoiut ost paoueape 5697 meee 1a § sven uD S17 x pT 4 6861) 25nd ans aed EiStage 3 Look carefully at the information below. Similarities and Differences Table 5: Nordic Countries (1988) information country | DENMARK FINLAND NORWAY SWEDEN Population 5,116,273 4,926,200 4,200,000 8,400,000 Area: square kilometres 43,092 337,032 323,878 450,000 Density: per sq. km. 118.7 146 13.0 187 ‘Temperature (Centigrade) summer: average 16.6°C 1 rc winter: average -04C “9c —#C Forest area 10% 65% 18% Agricultural area 70% 17% 3% 10% Constitution constitutional republic constitutional | constitutional ‘monarchy monarchy ‘monarchy Religion Christianity Cheistianity: | Christianity Christianity: Lutheran Lutheran Lutheran Lutheran Language Danish Finnish Norwegian Swedish (minority: Swedish) Similarities: there are a number of language constructions that express similarity apart from those listed in Appendix: 7: Comparisons (section 2), on page 117. a Look at the following examples based on the table above. Both Denmark and Norway have a constitutional monarchy. 2 Denmark and Norway are similar (or: alike) in that they both have a constitutional monarchy. 3 Sweden is similar to Norway in that it has a small agricultural 4 Sweden is similar to Norway in its constitution. 5 Denmark and Sweden both have the same kind of constitution. 6 Denmark, like Finland, has a population of about 5 million. Still more sentences may be composed by using the connectives listed in Appendix 8: Connectives (section 1a: Addition page 118), eg, Finland is very cold in winter; so, t00, is Norway. b Now write one sentence similar to each of the previous six types, basing your information on Table 5. Differences: see Appendix 7: Comparisons (section 2) and Appendix 8: Connectives (section iz Contrast; section jz Concession page 121). a Look at the following examples based on Table 5. 1 Norway and Sweden are dissimilar in that Norway has a much smaller population than Sweden. 5354 2 Denmark is different from (or: unlike) Finland in that it has a constitutional monarchy (... . whereas Finland is a republic). 3 With regard to population, Sweden is bigger than Norway. 4 Denmark has a constitutional monarchy, whereas (or: while) Finland is a republic. 5. Whereas Finland is a republic, Norway has a constitutional monarchy. 6 Denmark has the smallest land area; however, it has the largest percentage agricultural area. 7 Although Denmark has the smallest land area, it has the largest percentage agricultural area. 8 (On the one hand,) Denmark has the smallest land area; on the other hand, it has the largest percentage agricultural area, 9 The main difference | One of the differences between Finland and Sweden is that Finland is a republic, whereas Sweden has a constitutional monarchy. b_ Now write one sentence similar to each of the above nine types, basing your information on Table 5. 3 Turn to Unit 3, Stage 2 (page 22). Look at the table of information about Iceland beneath the map. Write a paragraph to compare and contrast Iceland with Denmark in terms of area, population, density and agricultural area. 4 Compare and contrast your country with one of the Nordic countries in Table 5. itis not necessary to refer to all the items. If you do not know some of the details for your country, give a rough estimation; but try to find out by looking in appropriate reference books. If necessary, look at the Structure and Vocabulary Aid in this unit, below and in Unit 3 (page 23) to help you. Structure and Vocabulary Aid (sis) ‘A Qualification of Comparison. considerably great deal (very) much (quite) alot rather somewhat alittle slighely scarcely hardly only just smaller bigeer cheaperexactly precisely just virtwally practically more ot less almost neatly approximately about the same as X isnot exactly entirely quite the same as. totally ‘completely centively auite different from Y big expensive \\ | a5. dear X is not quite also Xand Y are different dissimilar inevery way, respect tonally completely entirely quite different. B_ Cardinal numbers. When writing figures involving thousands, a space is used to separate the thousands if there are 5 or more digits eg. 10000 100000 1000000 bur 1000 ‘Alternatively a comma may be used to separate the thousands e& 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 [A point is used in writing deci tal fractions: e.g, 1293.75 C Ordinal numbers are often written in abbreviated form: Ist ~ first 2nd — second 3rd — third 44th — fourth Sth = fifth ‘th’ i used afterall numbers except those ending in 1, 2, oF 3. 55nia 56 Unit 9 Cause and Effect In academic writing, events or actions are frequently linked with their cause and effect. Look at the following diagram which summarises this relationship. in time > forward i back in time evan forward in time or sequence situation] Or seauence cause action effect reason ‘dea consequence purpose roblem| Test ® solution Now look at these examples of the cause and effect relationship. connective Heat | causes iron to expand. Prices rose. ] Asaresult fewer goods were sold, ‘Any marks ‘on the Teaves are probably due to the same virus. The cause ] is in a box; the effect is underlined, There are a large number of ways to express the relationship shown in the diagram above. You will need to look at Appendix 8: Connectives (section e: Result, page 120) and especially the Structure and Vocabulary Aid at the end of this unit (page 60). Stage 1 Connectives and Markers Look carefully at the Structure and Vocabulary Aid at the end of this unit (page 60), then do the following exercises. 1. The parts of the sentences below have been mixed up. Join the 6 parts on the left with the correct parts from the 9 on the right. 1 There is acid in that bottle: therefore . ..d 2 The effect of the fluctuation in temperature. 3 Bad labour relations caused . 4 The accident occurred because of -%. 5 He passed his examination because 6 Delayed treatment often results in . a the road was icy. b he was unsuccessful. ¢ prolonged illness it must be handled very carefully. careful storage. the icy road conditions. the strike. he worked hard. was to kill the laboratory specimens. zeneo © The strike was.) Unit 9 Making use of the information in the correct answers from the previous exercise complete the following sentences. Inside the box write the appropriate connective or verb marker (see the Structure and Vocabulary Aid). The first one has been done as an example. . ley road conditions the accident he worked hard _+ Prolonged illness is often EO d_ The laboratory specimens were killed FE € That bottle must be handled very carefully eer Stage 2 1. Read the following carefully. Identifying Relationships Climate For the last hundred years the climate has been growing much warmer. This has had a number of different effects. Since the beginning of the 20th Century, glaciers have been melting very rapidly. For example, the Muir Glacier in Alaska has retreated 2 miles in 10 years. Secondly, rising temperatures have been causing the snowline to retreat on mountains all over the world. In Peru, for example, it has risen as much as 2700 feet in 60 years. ‘Asa result of this, vegetation has also been changing. In Canada, the agricultural cropline has shifted 50 to 100 miles northward. In the same way cool-climate trees like birches and spruce have been dying over large areas of Eastern Canada. In Sweden the treeline has moved up the mountains by as much as 65 feet since 1930. The distribution of wildlife has also been affected, many European animals moving northwards into Scandinavia. Since 1918, 25 new species of birds have been seen in Greenland, and in the United States birds have moved their nests to the north Finally, the sea has been rising at a rapidly increasing rate, largely due, as was mentioned above, to the melting of glaciers. In the last 18 years it has risen by about 6 inches, which is about four times the average rate of rise over the last 9000 years: Now look at the following cause and effect table. From the text above copy into the table where necessary the causes and effects mentioned; also write in the central column, the appropriate connective or marker of the cause/effect relationship. Where an. example (¢.g,) is asked for, only write the first one if more than one is given in the text. The first section has been done as an example. 57unit 9 Table 1: Climate Cause Connective or Marker Effect The climate has been | (different) effects 1 glaciers have been rowing much warmer melting very rapidly, e.g the Muir Glacier in Alaska has retreated 2 miles in 10 years ee eg ew ee 2. Look at Table 2 carefully. Then do the exercise which follows. Table 2: Accidents in a large British city (1987) number of | percentage rise (+/fall (-) Main accident causes seckdens compared 1987, with 1986 Drivers tuening right Ape without duc care oe 2| Pedestrians crossing 7 roads carelessly at is 3 | Drivers failing o give eee a signal a ee 4 | Drivers losing control oe of vehicles aH a 5 | Drivers improperly ee overtaking other vehicles | 173 a 6 [Drivers misiudging distances] 96 -20% Complete the following description of the information above. In the spaces write a suitable cause-effect connective. Firstly, turning right without due care (1) 593 accidents in 1987. Secondly, (2) pedestrians crossed roads carelessly, 402 accidents occurred. Next, although there was a 3% decrease in drivers failing to give a signal, nevertheless there were still 231 accidents (3) 58Unit this. In 1987, 40% more drivers than in 1986 lost control of vehicles. (4) __"__ there were 312 accidents. In fifth place came drivers improperly overtaking other vehicles: these (5) 173 accidents. Finally, there was a 20% fall in drivers misjudging distances; however, they were still the (6)_____ 96 accidents. 3. Now write a description of Table 3 in a similar way to the previous exercise. Practise using different connectives but take care to use ‘the correct construction. Table 3: Accidents ina large British city (1989) number of | percentage rise (+ fall (~) accidents compared Main accident causes 1989 with 1988 1 | Drivers travelling oo close to other vehicles 347 + 7% 2| Drivers driving under the influence of alcohol 304 3 | Drivers reversing negligently 169 - 8 4 | Pedestrians crossing roads in dangerous places 13 5% S| Drivers eravelling t00 aquickly in bad weather conditions 190 +12% Stage 3 1 Look at the diagram below relating to poverty Constructing Paragraphs POVERTY (the state of being very poor) SOME CAUSES SOME EFFECTS low wages Inadequate, insufficient unemployment orno~ death of the wage-earner accommodation large families food illness clothing old age heating aleohol ‘opportunites ambling amenities lack of education possessions or government policies comforts inflation natural disasters (drought, famine, flood, earthquake) 59Now write one or two paragraphs describing some of the causes and effects of poverty in Britain or another industrialised country that you know of. In your description include a definition of, poverty. relationship between cause and effecte.g. unemployment —> ‘ery little money few opportunities or amenities» alcohol 2. Describe poverty in your country—its main causes and effects. (Who are the poor? Where do they live? Why are they poor? What is the effect on them?) 3 Briefly describe the cause-effect relationship of part of your own specialist subject or of some aspect of studies which you are familiar with Structure and Vocabulary Aid Look carefully at the connectives or markers of cause-effect relationships shown below. Notice particularly how they are used in a sentence construction. ‘ f e) | cause of higher prices was an increase in demand. The) | reason for cae B a igher prices. tne | eee of an increase in demand is On.) | consequence result to | raise ae CAUSE EFFECT o Therefore, So, result, Asa 2 {sonseyoence, Accordingly, “The demand has increased. (;) Consequentiy, ie prices are high Because of this, Thus, Hence, For this reason, *Now,Because As Since "Now (that) the demand has increased, | the prices are higher. ("includes in its meaning a present time eleme! nt) results in ‘An increase in demand often) | feade to producey higher prices. caused by. Higher prices are (often) due to because of an inerease in demand. because of asa result of ‘on account of ‘owing to through The prices are higher because there is an inerease in demand. ‘because the demand has increased, When | there is an increase in demand, it then) prices rise. nits 6Unit 10 62 Unit 10 Generalisation, Qualification and Certainty In some academic writing it will be necessary simply to give and describe factual information (similar to that in Units 2 and 3). Often, however, it is necessary to make general comments or to _any claims that we make. Such ‘cautiou generalise about the information. The opinion or interpreting the information: this will be examined in more detail in the next unit. Additionally, in academic writing, we often need to be careful about language is looked at in Stage 2. For ‘generalisations can be made more precise _exercises throughout this unit it will be by qual ing them. When we make a necessary to refer to the Structure and qualification we may be giving our own Vocabulary Aid (page 66). | Stage 1 Generalisation a. Read the following paragraph. Its a straightforward description of factual information. A Survey of Unemployment A recent survey of people out of work analysed the type of worker who is unemployed. Out of the one million registered as unemployed, one in five were women. 60% of men who were unemployed were to be found in services and engineering. There was a1 in 8 chance of being unemployed in the construction industry. 1 in 20 were unemployed in industries such as metal goods and textiles. Now compare it with the following paragraph. Notice the figures have been changed to generalisations. Underline the changes. A Survey of Unemployment ‘A recent survey of people out of work analysed the type of worker who is unemployed. Out of all those registered as unemployed a minority were women. The majority of men who were unemployed were to be found in services and engineering. The chance of being unemployed was also possible in the construction industry. There was a little unemployment in industries such as metal goods and textiles. Now read the following paragraphs. A number of generalisations have been made which involve qualifying statements. If somebody was unemployed from engineering, mining or chemicals, he could usually find another job. However, an unemployed person from agriculture or construction seldom found a job again. Job chances were generally much better for manual workers than for office workers. Most of the unemployed had been without jobs for more than two months. A number had been unemployed for more than a year. Undoubtedly the longer a person is out of work,‘Unit 10 the more likely itis that he will not find another job. In addition, job prospects are definitely worse for older workers. With the help ofthe Structure and Vocabulary Aid (page 66), identify the qualifications of quantity, frequency and probability in the three paragraphs above, and write them in the table below. The first ones have been done as examples Quantity Frequency Probability all ‘usually possible (students) % Stage 2 Qualification Note: 55% 25% often sm rely om never always 1. Look at the following information which relates to a British university. It shows some of the forms that overseas students completed during their first few weeks in Britain last year. % = percentage of students who completed that form) % Form 100 | University Registration 95. | University Library Membership Application 80 | National Health Service Registeation 56 | International Student Identity Card Application 35 | Accommodation Office Application 3 Magazine Subscription filledin ‘Altogether 16 different formsw Write a paragraph describing the information in the table above. Use quantity qualifications instead of percentage figures. Begin “Last year all overseas students completed University Registration forms..." Making use of the information in the table make generalised predictive statements about students coming to the university next year and form-filling. Make use of probability expressions in order to do this, as in the example: Iti certain that (all) students will need to complete a University Registration form. Recently science students were asked if they had difficulty in obtaining their course books from libraries. The diagram indicates their responses. Changing the percentage figures to quantity qualifications describe the information, e.g, A few students were never able to obtain their course books from libraries. 63nit 10 64 Stage 3 Certainty 2 20 ‘A feature of written academic English is the need to be careful or cautious. Thus, unless there is evidence which indicates 100% certainty, statements or conclusions are normally qualified in some way to make them less definite (therefore words like all, always, never are usually avoided). The purpose is to be accurate and not to make false claims, or claims that may be challenged by others. In other words, allowance should be made for other possible points of view. There are two basic ways of doing this: a) through words from the lists in the Scale of Qualification (page 66), especially the Probability list and sometimes the Frequency list; and b) through Impersonal verb phrases that do not declare the writer’s own attitude (see Structure and Vocabulary Aid, page 67). In the sentences below there are a number of examples of cautious language. Underline the appropriate words. If necessary refer to the Structure and Vocabulary Aid (page 67). Adjusting to higher education Other new students may refer to feelings of bewilderment because of the differences in size between school and a large university or polytechnic. . . . The sheer variety of possible activities can be confusing, . . . Students who have chosen to cater for themselves may, at first, have difficulty in finding time for shopping and housekeeping. . . . To these domestic problems may be added financial difficulties when grants fail to arrive, often in the case of foreign students who have no family at hand to assist them. Discussion with students in various university departments suggests that some are not so fortunate. . . . Failure to specify and to communicate aims and objectives may also have long- term consequences. . . . Initially practice can be offered reading, taking notes from lectures or books and, perhaps, in writing brief reports or paragraphs. . . . Skill in skimming articles to select important or relevant points, and use of the index to look up a topic in a number of books, may also need practice. Science students, in particular, tend to grow accustomed to careful, sequential reading through a text and may need reminding that there are other ways of reading and using books. . . . Students’ skills in writing often differ widely on entry. Problems most frequently arise with those who seem hardly literate initially. The problems of adjusting to life at university, polytechnic or college of higher education can be more acute for mature students, but it does not follow that this will necessarily be the case. . . . Nonetheless, speaking in broad terms itis possible to discern some similarities within groups of mature students that suggest implications for teaching and learning in higher education. It appears, for example, from various studies that there are three main reasons why adults take up full-time study: (1) to make a change in their career; (2) to obtain a job qualification—for such reasons as job promotion; @) to seek personal and intellectual development. The difficulties facing adult learners can, for convenience,T note Unit 10 be categorised into three kinds—social, psychological and physiological. . . . But for others such problems do not seem to arise. (estate from Teaching and Leaning Higher Education by Ruth Bard ad Jas Saat Look carefully at the information in the table below. It lists the language difficulties of overseas students studying in Britain. It ‘compares their problems on arrival with their problems six months later. English language problems of overseas students in Britain ee Language problems Students: percentage con arrival | 6 months later ‘understanding spoken English 28 speaking 92% writing 32 reading 2 the percentage figures indicate the percentage of students having that particular language problem. the percentage figures total more than 100% because some students listed more than one problem. Now read the paragraph below which comments on some of the information. On arrival in Britain the biggest language problem for overseas students is understanding spoken English. It would seem that the main reasons for this are difficulties in understanding local accents and the speed of speaking of British people. Six months later the problem has declined into third place. It is generally agreed that the main reasons for this are Try to complete this sentence adding some possible reasons. ‘Write three more paragraphs to describe the remainder of the information. Make use of the Impersonal verb phrases in the Structure and Vocabulary Aid (page 67) to indicate that cautious conclusions are being reached. Some possible reasons to account for the difficulties (not the improvements) are listed below. No doubt you can add others! Difficulties: local accent, speed of speaking, lack of fluency, limited vocabulary, lack of practice, poor teaching, lack of opportunity, poor pronunciation, slow reading speed, literal translation, poor grammar. 65Unit 10 Structure and A Scale of Qualification Vocabulary Aid oar PROBABILITY ‘guide QUANTITY, FREQUENCY Adverbs/adjectives. Verbs: allieveryleach always certainly) will wont definitely) ive ‘majority (of) undoubeedly rmasthave to ‘manylimuch clearly should 2 Tor (of) usually) presumably would enough normally) probably/probable | ought to senerally) Hkely some fn the whole 2 number (of) regularly) several often ene may frequently) possbly/possible sight 4 minority (of) sometimes ea can 2 fewa litle ‘occasional(ly) maybe could fewlitle rarely) uncertain seldom unlikely hardly ever will scarcely ever are 0% no/none/not any never could zi If you are uncertain if a word is quantity or frequency you can normally check by seeing if it can be used to answer the following question: Quantity: How many? How much? Frequency: How often? Some of the probability qualifications can be further qualified, tis quite Eres that : 66‘Sometimes generalisations may be introduced or qualified in the following way: the (vast) majority Ee 2 (large) number In ‘most cases afew (++ other “quantity” words) Impersonal verb phrases often associated with conclusions: Teappearstolthar le would appear tolthat Iescems tithat Te would seem to/that Ietends to be adverbs Iis apparently Ieis seemingly ‘There isa tendency tolfor leis said that ‘Some of the evidence shows that Some writers say chat Ithas been suggested that leis generally agreed that Itis widely accepted thar these indicate Itis now generally recognised that | stronger evidence Inis (very) doubtful if —indicates strong negative evidence ‘Other qualifications to statements may be made by the use of verti clauses e.g, if and wnless clauses (conditions) and although and while ) | cays 3 Partial disagreement: but however, ... ‘on the other hand, 4 Emphatic agreement: X is certainly correct when he) | 5895 a completely agree with X. writes ) | at-- 5. Cautious agreement: when he says that X may be correct y in saying that 6 Disagreement: I disagree with X when he says that...) C One way of giving emphasis to what is written is by using a grammatical construction sometimes known as “negative inversion’. Some of the introductory words are listed below. If they are used, the word order after the introductory words should be inverted as in the example: Rarely had such a noise been heard. On no account Never Seldom Hardly... when Neither Not only... . but also. Few Under no cigcumstances Little ”nie 3 Unit 13. Drawing Conclusions Drawing a conclusion often involves ‘non-sequitur’.) Avoid doing this! In this making a summary of the main points unit we practise making concluding already made. In addition, one’s own remarks. opinion or viewpoint may be added, if itis Before writing any of the exercises look appropriate. A mistake that is sometimes _at the Structure and Vocabulary Aid at the made is to add a conclusion that does not _end of this unit (page 81). Look also at the follow logically from what has been Notes on the Exercises (page 140) for written before. (This is sometimes called a comments on some of the exercises. Stage 1 1. Turn to Unit 11, Stage 2: Marriages in England and Wales. Concluding Remarks 2a 78 After commenting on the graph or predicting the number of probable marriages in the future, we might conclude: “The trend suggests that people are getting less religious (or, more secular), or that marriage is seen more as a social contract and less as a religious ceremony. It may be concluded that although fewer people now get married in a church, there was a reversal of the trend in the 1980s, It is not clear how far that trend. will continue.” Read the following carefully. Health It is generally accepted that a dietary intake of about 2500 calories a day is a basic requirement for proper health, of which a particularly important element is the protein content. Therefore, it can be assumed that if the protein intake in the diet falls below a certain level, it will lead to malnutrition and disease. The average adult’s body contains about 10.9 kg (24 Ib) of protein; only 2.2 kg (5 Ib) can be lost without death occurring. ‘An adult needs to replace about 40 grams (1 07) of protein a day. In developed countries nearly everyone gets about twice as much protein as he really needs, often from eating such food as milk, cheese, eggs, fish and meat, all of which are high in protein content. in developing countries, on the other hand, many vegetables that are eaten contain little protein. Some, however, are rich in protein: for example, soya beans.Table 1: Daily calorie and protein consumption Country Daily calorie intake Daily total protein Per capita intake per capita (grams) USA 3200 95.6 UK 3150 875 Mexico 2550 65.7 Japan 2460 787 Nigeria 2180 593 India 1810 45.4 Source: FAO "The Stat of Food and Agriculture’ b_ Now complete the following It can be concluded from the text and Table 1 that people in the ULSIAS have saiaisnsaisinn ann eaeuin a aeRO MEAS, _—____ on the other hand, those in India Stage 2 1 Look carefully at the information contained in the tables below. Concluding from Tables Table 2: Infant mortality rate per 1000 births Japan 6 Jordan 54 Finland 6 Saudi Arabia 66 UK. 10 Indonesia 84 US.A. 1 India 10s USSR 25 Nepal Bs Venezuela 26-——Nigeria 14s Mexico 53 Source: UN Demographic Year Book, 1986 Table 3: Medical facilities Country Population per Population per hospital bed physician Finland S 3807 USSR 80 267 Japan 84 7s UK. 127 ™ USA. 171 549 Venezuela 317 888 India 634 2,545 Saudi Arabia 645 2,606 Jordan a7 1175 Mexico, 863 2,136 Nigeria 1.251 9,591 Indonesia 1,787 11,740 Nepal 5271 28,767 Source: UN Statistical Your Rook, 1984 79Table 4: Life expectancy at 5 years Country fe Tapan a 70 6 USA 7 4 UK o a Finland 65 7 Venezuela 6s 7 Mexico 2 66 USSR 60 7 India 38 co Nepal ss s4 Nigeria 47 50. Source: UN Demographic Year Hook, 1986 From the information contained in Table 1 together with the information contained in Tables 2, 3 and 4, are there any conclusions that you can draw about Japan and Nepal, or any other ‘two countries that you wish to compare? With the information that you have from the four tables, are there any general conclusions that you can reach regarding diet, health or life expectancy? Study the following table, which gives information about children killed in road accidents in Britain during May, June and July in one recent year. Table $: Road accidents in Britain When/Where Age Age Age Age Age | TOTAL | accidents occurred 24 57 san [et leis } i | Going to schoo! 2 2 8 2 1 25 Going home from school 2 7 10 3 2 4 | Playing in the street 8 81 28 5 2 214 | Cycling in the street 1 10 2s 8 1 45 Shopping for their parents 5 32 2 2 1 2 TOTAL 108 152 8 20 7 370 Analyse the information in the table above. Comment on the significant items and discuss them. What conclusions can you draw?nit 13 Structure and A’ Summarisi Concluding, Vocabulary Aid ee ‘together, .-. Tosumupy... nally.» T\ fase aN | eeerlly \'| arpued NY [per \ widely held Sa believed B Therefore, . concluded ‘Thus, it bon be deduced that. . On this basis, may woos Given this, © Table 1 Concluded table ean shown From figures & may be ‘estimated ee the) | data calculated coms infereed information Inconcusion, \, [we eanmay say \\ [ 4, Finally, itcanmay be said Note: ‘See also examples of ‘cautious language used in Unit 10 (Structure and Vocabulary Aid, page 6).€.9, tewould { 20m, fat 81nit 4 82 Unit 14 Reports: Studies and Research Students sometimes need to write reports _they are making. Practice is given below in on their studies or research, often for their preparing short, straightforward reports sponsors who need to know what progress Stage 1 1. Read the following report. Notice, in particular, the verb forms that Reports on Studies are used. The report was written in December, at the end of the first term A report on my studies this term | am studying for the Diploma in Economic Development in the Department of Economics. It is a one-year course which consists of lectures, seminars, the writing of essays, and an examination at the end. | started the course at the beginning of October this year; it will finish in June next year. So far, | have enjoyed the course. However, | have had two kinds of difficulties: one is following some of the lecturers— they speak quickly and not very clearly; the other difficulty is caused by the use of mathematics in economics. | have difficulty in understanding and using some of the equations. This term | have finished two essays: they were quite long, and required a lot of reading in the library. Although | found it rather difficult to write the essays, | learned a lot, and received good marks for them. Next term I shall have to write another two essays. 2. Now read through the following report. It is similar to the one you have just read, but some changes have been made. Complete the report by writing one or two words in each space. A report on my studies tam (1) for an M.A. in (2) eat in the Department of (3) —___ itis a one-year course which (4) of lectures, seminars, essays, an examination, and a (5) satay 1) —__the course at the (7) of October last year; the examination will be in June this year, and the dissertation must be (8) ——______ in September this year. Generally, I have enjoyed the course and I feel that 1 (9) a lot, especially from the reading that 1 Ci) a Rr PAE (71) AR Thad some difficulties in (12) __some of the (13) ______: they spoke quickly and not (14) a clearly. The main difficulty that | have this term is (15) _______ my essays on time. There is soUnit 1a (16) ________ reading to do for them and | still read «7 am not looking (18) ______ to the examination as I have difficulty in writing quickly and (19) —__ ——all the necessary facts. (20) 1 do not. mind doing this dissertation (21) t have already (22) __a subject that interests me. Stage 2 Reports on Research Read through the following report, then complete it by writing one word in each space. Report on my research | arrived at the university (1) ______ the beginning of October last year to (2) __ my studies. fam 3)____for a Master's degree in Economics—M.A. (Econ.)—by research. It will take me (4) ‘one and two years to complete. ‘At the beginning of last term I discussed my research with my (5) ____, Dr. M. Jones, in the Department of Economics. He (6) ____'me to draw up a research outline in the area | had (7) _________ for my research—A case study in foreign aid to developing countries’. After further (8) _______with Dr. Jones my outline was approved and accepted by the Faculty of Economics. My next (9) __was to begin reading, appropriate books, journals and reports (10) ——____ the background section of the research ‘A Study of the Literature’. My supervisor's (11) ______was to keep a set of index cards and write the details of each (12) read on a card. Thus | have started making a (13)________ which will be very useful for future reference. It will also (14) __me alot of time when I need to provide one at the (15) —_____ of my thesis, This term | have (16) ___________reading and have also made a draft of the first section of the (17) : summarising views on foreign aid to developing countries. | have also started to read (18) on the country I have chosen for my case study—Utopia. | have (19) _____ that many of the World Bank and UN publications are (20) ______to my research. am quite pleased with the (21) __1 have made so far, although the reading is taking me longer than | 22) My supervisor asked me to present a paper on my research findings up to the present, to a small (23) _______ of research students in economics. He was (24) with the paper and said that it was a good seminar as it had (25) _______a number of questions and a lot of discussion. 83nit 14 2 Now write a report on your own studies or research. Refer to the Structure and Vocabulary Aid (page 86) for help in the structure of ‘the report, and verb tenses that you may need to use. Stage 3 1. Look at the following structure of a research report. The structure Report Structures of a dissertation or thesis would be very similar. Basic framework for a research report 1 The title A 2 Acknowledgements Proline 3 List of contents 4 List of figures/tables 5 The abstract Introduction iti Hi clommsmertot gel problem 7 Review of the literature ‘ 8 Design of the investigation ae body, 9) Measurement techniques used 10 Results 11 Discussion and conclusion Conclusion {43 summary of conclusions 13 Bibliography ae oe No “There may be slightvariations tothe above. For example, The abstract’ may be separate and appear atthe very beginning of ‘the Report. nits place there may be asection entitled ‘Outline of the research’. § may be called Methods and procedures’. 11 may ndude Recommendationsand suggestions for further 2. The fourteen sections of the research report framework are listed again below. Beneath them are explanations of the fourteen sections, lettered a to n — listed in the wrong order. Read the explanations carefully and try to decide which explanation is appropriate for each section. Write the letters a to n next to the numbered sections. Basic framework for a research report 1 Thetitle 2 Acknowledgements 3 List of contents 4 List of figures/tables 5 The abstract 6 Statement of the problem 7 Review of the literature 8 Design of the investigation 9 Measurement techniques usednit 14 10 Results 11 Discussion and conclusion 12. Summary of conclusions 1B Bibliography 14 Appendices the presentation in a logical order of information and data upon which a decision can be made to accept or reject the hypotheses. compilation of important data and explanatory and illustrative material, placed outside the main body of the text. the sections, in sequence, included in the report. a survey of selective, relevant and appropriate reading, both of primary and secondary source materials. Evidence of original and critical thought applied to books and journals. the presentation of principles, relationships, correlations and generalisations shown by the results. The interpretation of the results and their relationship to the research problem and hypotheses. The making of deductions and inferences, and the implications for the research. The making of recommendations. an accurate listing in strict alphabetical order of all the sources cited in the text. an extremely concise summary of the contents of the report, including the conclusions. It provides an overview of the whole report for the reader. thanking colleagues, supervisors, sponsors, etc. for their assistance, detailed descriptions and discussion of testing devices used. Presentation of data supporting validity and reliability. A discussion of the analysis to be applied to the results to test the hypotheses. ‘a concise account of the main findings, and the inferences drawn from them. a statement and discussion of the hypotheses, and the theoretical structure in which they will be tested and examined, together with the methods used. the sequence of charts or diagrams that appear in the text. the fewest words possible that adequately describe the paper. a brief discussion of the nature of the research and the reasons for undertaking it. A clear declaration of proposals and hypotheses. 8sUnit 14 Structure and Report on my studies/research this term. Vocabulary Aid 1 Organise the report so that it isin three paragraphs. 2 introduction: outline of studies; the beginning b development: description/explanation; now € conclusion: difficulties or success; the future 2. Choose carefully the verb tenses that you will use. Some commonly used verb tenses in reports are: resent continuous (e.g, | am studying) resent perfect (e.g. [have experimented) past simple (eg, Istarted) 3. Below are examples of sentences with alternatives that may be useful for your report. A Introduction X (subject) ‘onan MEA, Course 4 the University of Y. Ham studying a8 Y University focatn) MS, Jinx | fete Deparment of Z 2 Lamattending some) | Secures ‘i relating to industrial archaeology. which are related to, u | archaeology. 3 oer in economic welfare. ee ee aa into the problems of industri carrying out : subject asa) ee is), | sividedinte | pars. ivestigation i (month). inthe fist week of | Ozober course \ | arthe beginning of 7 | this tem. Usarted my studies this year. esearch ‘on Ist October jn October ei next September. te; hainconinn) [asst | the summer of 199, - a10 n R 1s B Development Since (ast) October have worked Thave been working, [on some of the problems) | which are ‘concerned with associated with related to shows My research so far) | proves suggests Thave been helped by my) [HE | MtsDesPro x Conclusion drat written Sei? [sare Cf dissertation. Thave ) |e ethed ---ofimy.) | diss the outline ’ Now than When I shall Next tem Tosa with | yas hing theoretical specs fail mechanics) | now Lam ding some practi exerinens weirs) [pombe om Theaimofmy ) | statis | iso research, show the role of x in y. ‘suggest ways in which x might be done. conse made), | ome only ie Ihave progres (80 fa). not made) | Th oy imeresting \ | part of my work ft) has been The eof my rescanch oft) that evidence exits to show ‘Unit 14 87Unit 15 Unit 15 Surveys and Questionnaires Students in humanities and social sciences _part of the surveys and the results may be at times need to undertake surveys as part incorporated in a report. of their studies. Questionnaires may be a Stage 1 Surveys 1 Read the report below of the survey into the reading habits of students. Notice the verb tenses that are used. Survey of Academic and General Reading in English On 8th February 1989, a survey was conducted among 16 overseas postgraduates at the University of Chester. The purpose of the survey was to discover the reading habits in English of the students. The survey was conducted by means of a questionnaire given to the students to complete. The first part of the questionnaire dealt with the type of reading and its frequency. The second section was concerned with newspapers: the type of items read and those that were read first. From the table of data, the most significant items are as follows. In the first section 81% of the students regularly read academic books, while 44% regularly read academic journals. Nothing else is read regularly or often by 40% or more of the students. The following comments can be made about the reading of newspapers, magazines and fiction. 75% sometimes read regional or local newspapers, 6% sometimes read books of fiction, 62% sometimes read general magazines, and 56% sometimes read national daily 20 newspapers. On the other hand, 37% never read Sunday newspapers and 31% never read fiction In the second section, not surprisingly, 100% read news about their own country in newspapers and 56% read this first. 94% read international news, 25% read this first. 81% 25 read about Britain and look at radio and T.V. information. The only other item that is usually read by more than 50% of the students is current affairs (read by 56%). If any conclusions may be drawn from the data, they are, perhaps, as follows. Overseas students presumably have little % time for general reading: most of their reading time is spent (on books and journals on their own subject. Outside their studies, apart from reading news about their own country, international news, and news about Britain, they probably spend most time watching T.V. and listening to the radio. 2 If possible, in your class or group, complete the following Survey of Personal Views (it may be necessary to photocopy this page so that 88ove you or your tutor may collect it for purposes of analysis). When the ‘questionnaire has been completed and analysed, write a report of, ‘the main findings. You can use the account of the example survey that follows, as a model. A Survey of Personal Views (On 15th February 1989, an instant survey was carried out among 18 overseas postgraduate students; 11 students were male and 7 were female. The purpose of the survey was to discover the views of the students on a number of matters of personal concern. The survey was conducted by means of a questionnaire given to the students to complete. There were five questions (with one exception each involved ticking items on a given list). The first question concerned favourite colour, and the second, favourite number. The next three questions were all concerned with aspects of marriage: number three looked at the ideal age to get married, number four examined the qualities looked for in a partner, and number five asked about the ideal number of children. The main findings were as follows. Blue was the most popular colour, chosen by 28%; this was followed by green and purple, each selected by 22% and red with 11%. No-one chose brown, orange or black. There was no real significance in the choice of a lucky number (numbers 3, 6, and 13 each chosen by 11%); 33% of the students said that they had none. 61% of the students selected the age group 26-30 years as ideal for marriage, followed by 21-25 years, chosen by 33%. Only one person did not believe in marriage. In looking at the most important qualities in an ideal partner, 56% wanted the person to be intelligent, 39% chose natural, 33% selected loving, while 28% indicated attractive and honest. No-one chose homely, passionate, generous or serious. The ideal number of children was 2, chosen by 56% followed by 3, selected by 17%, and 1 chosen by 11%. 4 and more than 5 children were each selected by 1 student, while no-one indicated no children. Itis not easy to reach any definite conclusions based upon such a small sample of students from such widely differing backgrounds. However, it is clear that a majority favour 26-30 as the ideal age to get married with an intelligent partner, and producing 2 children. 89nit 15 A Survey of Personal Views 1. Tick the colour you like best from those listed below. red) geen bluel cena brown eee ry ae orange sami green eesti yellow asia parple as ehibe a aunt laches 2. Which is your lucky or favourite number? —__ {if you do not have one, write ‘none',) 3. What do you consider to be the ideal age to get married? Tick one of the age groups below. 16-20 years. 31-35 years. Ifnone of these, state 21-25, 36-40 , —— what you think here. a a jm Note: you donot believein marriage tick her 4 Tick below the 3 most important qualities you would look for in your ideal partner. lively thrifty — kind — generous cheerful homely — passionate — humorous — attractive — hard-working — loving serious. intelligent ambitious. romantic __ reliable honest. natural — confident faithful = 5 What do you consider to be the ideal number of children in a marriage? Tick one of the following. Ol eessesaiirs eae ea EE ore chan 5 seen 2 eae Stage 2 Questionnaires 1 complete the following questionnaire as part ofa survey of the number of hours you and other students in your clas or group spend in studying. When the questionnaire has been completed, analyse the results and write an account of the main findings as follows. Paragraph 1: Introduction Paragraph 2: Breakdown into sex, age, disciplines Paragraph 3: Analysis of the total Paragraph 4: Main differences between disciplines Paragraph 5: Aspects that you found unusual, unexpected, oF © Collins ELT, 1990 interesting? How you compared with the average? (this page may be photocopied for class use) Paragraph 6: Main conclusions 90Survey of Students’ Use of Time Table 1 Studying: subject, level, ype (vck one box in each group) a artshumanities — E)_—— socialsciences. = science, technology, CT) interdisiplinary medicine H b undergraduate = postgraduate a other a © course research a other a Table 2 Sex and age circle appropriately: male/female b tick appropriate age band: 152207) 3135 0) 212350 36-40 ww0O 44 O Table 3 Hours spent in studying Number of hours per day TOTAL {average or typical) per day timetabled informal ‘work seady= Monday ‘Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday TOTAL ‘GRAND TOTAL per weck per week *" eg lectures, seminars, tutorials, supervisions laboratory lasses ** eg library use, private study, research © Collins ELT, 1990 (this page may be photocopied for class use) nies onunit 15 92 © Collins ELT, 1990 Optional questionn: ‘You and your tutor might like to undertake a questionnaire to provide feedback on this writing course for your tutor's use. Answer the following questions after thinking carefully about your ability at academic writing. Do you think your writing in English has improved at all during this course? YES/NO. If the answer is YES, briefly describe what improvements you think you have made. If the answer is NO, what do you think are the reasons? Briefly describe any difficulties that you think you still have with academic writing. How relevant and useful, in helping you to improve your writing, have you found this book? (please tick one) very] reasonably [] only just} not very] not at all What kind of writing practice do you think would be most useful for you now? Have you any final comments to make? (this page may be photocopied for class use)‘App. Appendices Appendix 1 Accuracy: Awareness and Correction The purpose of this Appendix is to recognise or identify it; the third step is to examine some of the common types of correct it. Of course, itis far better not to error that are often made by students make the error in the first place! If you when writing formal or academic English. look carefully at what follows it should The first step is to be aware that an error _help you not to make some of the mistakes has been made; the second step is to in your writing. 1 Some common causes of error a Probably the biggest cause of error is literal translation from your ‘own language into English. If you try to translate word for word you will make mistakes. For example: in Nepali, the sentence ‘John said nothing’ would be rendered as (translated) ‘John nothing spoke’. It is easy to see that when translating into English the word order and the sentence structure could cause difficulties, and also the vocabulary. ADVICE: Try to remember English sentence patterns when you read them and try to use them in your writing, b Ifyou write in long complex sentences itis easier to make mistakes: the sentence becomes complicated and the subject and verb tenses may become confused. ADVICE: Try to write in fairly short sentences (perhaps at most about three lines) until you are confident that there are no mistakes. If you try to write English in the same way as you speak it, you will probably write in the wrong style. Spoken language is often informal. Academic writing is normally rather formal (see pages 101-102). ADVICE: Try to recognise a formal style of writing and use it. Do not mix it with an informal style. 93App. 94 Some common types of error Subject and verb agreement (i.e. concord); particularly singular and plural subject with the correct verb form. E.g. they were (not “they was’) (see Appendix 6 page 114), ‘The use of s at the end of the third person singular, present simple tense (ie, stem + s). E.g. the writer says (not ‘the writer say’). 1 This + singular noun, these + plural noun; 2 Other and another differences. (See Grammar exercises on page 98 and explanation.) Uncountable nouns are often wrongly used (as if they were countable nouns). E.g, This information is useful (not “These informations are useful’). When the impersonal It or There subject should be used, itis often wrongly omitted. E.g. It seems that we should . .. (not ‘Seems that were) Verb tense use confused, particularly the present continuous (used too frequently) and present simple. E.g. I work in the library every day (not “Lam working in...” ‘The formation of some verb tenses is not known, particularly the present passive, The formation of the past tenses of irregular verbs also causes difficulty. (See Appendix 4, page 110). ‘No and not differences in using the negatives. (See Grammar exercises on page 98 and explanation), TThe formation and use of some of the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs. (See Unit 8, page 49 and Appendix 7, page 116). The correct use of: 1 some prepositions: (e.g. it, om, at, for) 2 the articles: alanithe 3 relative pronouns: who, which 4 possessive adjectives: his, her, ther. Confusion over the choice of vocabulary, e.g. make and do. The choice of synonyms will often depend on usage (or context) as much as on meaning. (See Vocabulary on page 99). Spelling mistakes. (See the next section, Spelling, page 95). Practice in areas of language difficulty The following sections will give you practice in some of the areas of language that commonly cause difficulty; these were noted above. The main areas are: Spelling and Punctuation Grammar and Vocabulary Style and Appropriateness The practice given here can only be brief. If you find that you still make a number of errors or have difficulty after completing the exercises, look at the references given in the Guide to Using the Book (page 7). The books referred to there give more practice in areas of difficulty Each time you do an exercise and practise the language you should be as accurate as possible: copy carefully. If you make a mistake, learn from it. Try not to repeat an error. Do not forget the seemingly simple or obvious elements in writing, e.g, write as legibly or clearly as possible, Remember, if someone cannot read your writing it does not matter how accurate itCheck your punctuation: if you have used a full-stop /./ it indicates the end of a sentence and immediately after it the next sentence will begin with a capital letter. Do not mix capital letters and small letters within a word: it gives the impression that you are uneducated! Remember to divide your writing into paragraphs: it makes it ‘easier to read and creates a better impression, Spelling 1 ACCOMMODATION 2. ACHIEVE 3. APPLICABLE 4 BEGINNING 5 CHOICE, 6 CRITICISM 7 DEVELOPMENT 8 DISAPPEARED 9 DIVIDED 10 EMPHASIS 11 EXPERIMENTAL, 12 FOREIGNER 13 FREQUENTLY 14 GOVERNMENT 15 HEIGHT 16 HYPOTHESIS 17 INCREASINGLY 18 INSUFFICIENT 19 INTERESTING 20 INTERVIEWED 21 KNOWLEDGE 22 LABOURERS 23 MAINTAINING 24 MEDICINE, Exercise 1 Recognition Each word in CAPITAL LETTERS to the left of the line is spelled correctly. The same word is repeated correctly once in small letters in the list of four words to the right of the line. Draw a circle around each word to the right of the line that is the same as the word to the left: e.g. 5 BELIEVE beleive belief beleve or write the correct letter next to each number: e.g. C5. I you have difficulty with English spelling or writing, do the exercise by looking carefully at the word in capital letters and try to match it with one of the words in small letters. Ifyou think you do not have much difficulty with English spelling or writing, look first at the word in capital letters and then cover it up before you look at the words in small letters. A B ic D acommodation accomodation accommodation _acomodation acheve achieve acheive achive applicible aplicable applicable applicabel biginning beginning begining beggining choise chose choose choice criticicm criticism critisism critism developement velopment _development_—_divelopement disapeared dissapeared dissapeared disappeared diveded divedid devided divided emphasis emphases emphasise emphisis expiremental _experemental_ experimental —_expirimental foreigner foriegner forienger foreinger friquently frequantly frecuently frequently goverment government governement _goverement heige height heigth hieght hypophysis hypotheses hypothesis hypophesis increasingly incresingly increaseingly _increasingely insufficent insuficient insufficient insuffecient intresting intiresting interisting interesting interviwed interwiewed —_interveiwed interviewed knowlege knowledge knoledge nowledge labours laborers labourers laboures ‘maintaning mantaining maintianing ‘maintaining, medisine ‘medecine medesine medicine 9525 26 27 28 29 30 31 32. 33 34 35. 36 37 38 39 40 96. NECESSARY OCCUPATION OCCURRED PREDOMINANTLY RAISED REFERRING RESEARCH RESOURCES. SCHOOLS: STUDYING SUCCESSFUL TECHNIQUES THOROUGH WHETHER WHICH WRITING A B c D necessary necesary neccesary neccessary occupation _ occupation. ocupation ‘ocuppation occured ocurred ocured occurred predominantly predominately predominatly _predominently riased rised raised araised referring refering reffering refereeing, reserch research reaserch risearch resourses, resources risources resorses, shools scools school schools stuyding studing studying istudying succesful successful sucessful successfull techniques technics technicues teckniques thorought thorough through trough wether weather wheather whether whitch wich witch which writeing writting writing wraiting Now check your answvers with those given on page 142. Exercise 2. Correction The following 10 words are all spelled wrongly. You have already seen them spelled correctly in Exercise 1. Without looking back at Exercise 1 write out the 10 words correctly. 1 acheve 6 maintaning 2 freqantly 7 medecine 3 incresingely 8 reaserch 4 insufficent 9 reffering. 5 interveiwed 10 sucessfull Now check your answers on page 142. Exercise 3. Correction The following 10 words are all spelled wrongly. Many of the mistakes are similar to the mistakes shown in Exercise 1. Try to write the words correctly. If you have great difficulty use a dictionary, but only after you have attempted the correction by yourself. 1 seperatly 6 conscioseness 2 prefered 7 embarassed 3 recieve 8 preceed 4 recomendasion 9 discucion 5 enviroment 10 caracteristics Now check your answers on page 142. Not For extra information on sounds and spelling see Appendix2: ‘Sounds and Spelling (page 104).Punctuation ‘The most commonly used punctuation marks and their names are as follows: comma /,/ full-stop /./ colon /:/ semi-colon /;/ hyphen apostrophe (Johns) question mark /2/ dash |—/ quotation marks (or inverted commas) /* "/ of /"*/ exclamation mark /1/ brackets (or parentheses) () Not See Appendix 3(¢age 107) for quidance on the use of punctuation marksand capital letters. Exercise 1 In the following passage put the correct punctuation marks in the ‘spaces underlined. Also add capital letters where necessary. the first of the great civic universities established in england — manchester is today the largest unitary university in the united kingdom and an internationally famous centre of learning and research - it is well _ endowed with resources and facilities — the university library — for instance _ is one of the four big academic libraries in the country — and the university has its own modern theatre _ television studios art gallery _ museum - shopping centre and — of course — extensive sports facilities — Now turn to page 142 and check your answers Exercise 2 Now copy out the passage below putting in the correct punctuation marks. Remember to use capital letters where appropriate. mr brown had been teaching english abroad for a number of years he had forgotten how cold it could be in england in the winter it was often dull and grey in november but it could be really cold in december january and february even in the spring it could snow mr brown looked out of the window as the train crossed the river avon he remembered the weather forecast that he had heard on the bbc at 9 oclock that tuesday ‘morning it had said that it would be wet and windy in the north west manchester where he was now travelling to was unfortunately in the north west Now turn to page 143 for the answers. 97pp. Grammar Turn to page 143 for the answers and for an explanation of the errors. Turn to page 143 for the answers and for an explanation of the errors. Some areas of language consistently cause difficulty. Some of the ‘main ones have been selected below for practice. In the sentences below there are a number of errors: they have been underlined. On the lines beneath each sentence write the whole sentence correctly. The first one is started for you. Table 3 is showing that most of this accidents occurs to young, children, Table 3 shows Unat most of these accidents Each worker pay a small money which is taken from their salary Specialist doctors in hospitals can divide into surgeons which ‘operate the body and another specialists which act as consultants. ‘The number of schools growed gradually till 1965 and then number rised suddenly. When a country apply for foreign aids, is because it has no enough resources of its own. In the sentences below there are a number of errors: many of them are similar to the errors made in Section 1. First underline the error and then write the whole sentence correctly on the lines provided. If somebody become ill, then can go to local doctor. To my opinion, there is many parent which did not take care their children. In the other hand, if we look the table of accidents, we will see this facts. In my country we have other kind of systems it is bigger and more better. The problem was solve by the introduction of machineries,Vocabulary Vocabulary is a very large subject. It really requires a book to itself; in other words a dictionary. In fact, a good mono-lingual English dictionary is the best book that you, as a student of English, can buy. Recommended ones, especially compiled for the student of English are: Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary—Collins Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English—Longman. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary—O.U.P. Often a wrong word is used because a wrong choice has been made between similar words or synonyms. The choice of synonyms will often depend on usage, or context, as much as on meaning. A good English dictionary will give examples of usage or context that will help you to choose the correct word. Some attention is given below to a few words that frequently cause difficulty to students. Read the information and examples carefully. 1 Verbs a Make and Do ‘The basic meanings are: make: construct, produce, form, shape, create. do: perform, carry out, act. However, there are large lists of idiomatic expressions containing these two verbs; they can be found in the dictionaries referred to above. Look at these examples. Considerable progress has been made with the experiment. He found that he could not do the research. He made a number of attempts to finish the work. She had some difficulty in doing her homework. ‘Many discoveries have been made this century. b_ Rise, Arise, Raise, Increase rise: raise: (intransitive, ie. without a direct object) go up, get up, go higher. €.g, Prices continue to rise. The cost of living index rose by 10% last year. ‘The sun usually rises at $ a.m. in the summer. 9: ‘eg. There wasa rise in prices caused by arisein wages. (intransitive) come into existence, appear. eg. Anew problem has arisen in the college. ‘An unexpected difficulty arose when he was analysing the results. (transitive, ie. takes a direct object) lift up, make higher, cause to rise e.g. Bus fares were raised three times last year. The landlord said he is going to raise the rent. Also: 1 to bring up for discussion or attention, eg. He raised a new point in the seminar. 99Ap.t 100 g Tutors often gi 2 to manage to get; obtain. 4g. He raised a loan. He tried to raise money for a new project. increase: (transitive and intransitive) make or become greater in size, number, degree, ete. eg. The Chancellor of the Exchequer increased the tax on petrol in his last Budget. The population has increased by 200000 to a total of 50 million, Not increase can sometimes be used instead of raise or rise. ‘eg. inthe above two sentences raised could be used in the firstand hasrisenin the second, bb increaseisalso anoun, meaning rise. ‘eg. Therewas steady increasein population, Pairs of words often confused NOUN VERB NOUN ADJECTIVE practice practise _politics political advice advise mathematics mathematical effect affect, statisties statistical choice choose logic logical ADJECTIVE loose | the adjective economicalrelates to saving money, not tothe ‘economy. bb twoadjectives are often confused, partly because of spelling mistakes: later late, later, latest) and latter (the second of ‘two thingsalready mentioned; contrasted with former, meaning the frst of two), «¢ two.adverbs are often confused: very(togive emphasis, ¢9, very good) and to0 (excessively, e.g, to0 expensive). 3. Exercise In the spaces in the following sentences write the correct form of the appropriate word in brackets. a He __________a big effort to finish in time. (do/make) b The painting was _______by a famous artis. (do/make) ¢ His supervisor ___him to prepare a talk. (tell/say) d_ Itis possible to ________ four books at a time from the library. (lend/borrow) The oil crisis _______ the price of petrol. (rise/arise/raise) Last year the price of food ___by 15%. (rise/arise/raise) (advice/advise) but —— [choice/choose) not to students someti follow it. h Of ______(mathematies/mathematical) and ___— ipolitics/political), the former is, perhaps,more (ogiclogical) than the (later/atter)Now check your answers with those given on pages 144. If you have made any mistakes look again carefully at sections 1 and 2 above; if necessary, look at Irregular Verbs (Appendix 5), page 112, Style and Appropriateness 2a Written English, in the same way as spoken English, may be formal or informal. The style of writing that we are concerned with in this book is formal and mainly academic (other formal styles are official and business). The differences between spoken and written English can best be seen from a number of examples. In general, informal spoken English contains a number of colloquialisms (conversational expressions) that are inappropriate for formal written English, tis important not to mix styles. Written academic English will not normally contain the following: Contractions (icc. “it did not’ would be used instead of it didn’t; “they have’ would be used and not they've.) Hesitation Filles (ie. er, 10m, well, you know . .. which might be common in the spoken language are omitted.) Familiar Language that would not be appropriate in the academic context. For example: 1 A number of phrasal or prepositional verbs are more suitable or appropriate in an informal style, ie. FORMAL INFORMAL conduct carry out discover find out investigate look into Personal pronouns 1, you, we tend not to be used in more formal writing (except in letters etc.). Instead the style may be more impersonal. An introductory it or there may begin sentences oF ceven the impersonal pronoun one; passive tenses may also be used. Compare the following examples of letters: the first very informal, ‘the second formal. Both are replies to invitations. Clearly, the relationship between the writer of a letter and the recipient will determine the style. Informal Dear Fred, Thanks a lot for the invitation. I’m afraid Sue is ill so we won't be able to come. See you soon. All the best, Tom 101Asp. 102 Formal Dear Professor Smith, ‘Thank you very much for the kind invitation to dinner. I regret that my wife is ill so that it will not be possible for us to come. I do hope, however, that I shall have an opportunity of seeing you again in the near future. Yours sincerely, Tom Jackson b Compare the following explanations or definitions of economics: the first informal and spoken, the second formal and written (from an economics textbook). Informal/Spoken Economics? . .. Yes, well, um . .. economics is, I suppose, about people trying to. .. let me see . .. match things that are scarce— you know—with things that they want, ... oh yes, and how these efforts have an effect on each other. .. through exchange, I suppose. Formal/Written Economics is the social science that studies how people attempt 10 accommodate scarcity to their wants and how these attempts interact through exchange. 3. Exercise The following sentences are mixed formal and informal. Write F (formal) or | (informal) in the brackets after each sentence. ‘The project will be completed next year. ( I showed that his arguments did not hold water. ( I wonder why he put up with those terrible conditions for so long. ( 4. Five more tests will be necessary before the experiment ‘can be concluded. ( € It's possible to consider the results from a different viewpoint. ( fIthas been proved that the arguments so far are without foundation. ( 8. He'll have to do another five tests before he can stop the experiment. ( h_Itis not clear why such terrible conditions were tolerated for so long. ( i There are a number of reasons why the questionnaire should be revised. ( j Well finish the job next year. ( Now turn to page 144 and check your answers. 4 A feature of written academic English is the need to be careful (ic. to indicate “less than one hundred per cent certainty’). The purpose of such writing is to show that one is generalising or desires to be cautious, or even that one might possibly be wrong (though it is not likely!) Note: ‘The three preceding words in itaics are examples of such language in use. )oe | ‘The most usual ways of expressing caution or lack of certainty are by means of verbs (e.g. appears to/seems to/tends to/may/might) and adverbs (c.g. pethaps/possibly/probably/apparently). For an explanation of this see Unit 10 (page 62). The following sentence is a definite statement: Industrialisation is viewed as a superior way of life. ‘To make it more tentative or cautious we can change or add some words: Industrialisation tends to be viewed as a superior way of life Exercise Now look at the following sentences taken from an economics book: It i also likely to appear in the development of institutions . ‘The ideal of economic development tends to be associated with different policy goals . Perhaps greater clarity can be brought to the meaning of economic development . .. How would the above three sentences be written if we wanted to make them definite and not tentative? When you have written the three sentences, turn to page 144 and check your answers. 103App.2 104 Appendix 2 Sounds and Spelling Below the sounds of English (represented by phonetic symbols) are shown together with different ways of spelling those sounds. [ 1 Consonants This list may help to find a word in the dictionary that you have heard but not seen. SPELLING ip, shape, wrapping mob, rubbing, robe Note: the letter’ is silent: ‘a when final after the sound! asin: amb, limb, climb, bomb, comb, tomb, womb, crumb, dumb, ‘numb, plumber), succumb, thumbs bb before the sound it/as in: debt, doubt, subtle teach, written, write, fright, passed Note: parted = /pa:td/ did, ladder, rode, stayed Note: added = /eid! come, king, back, tak ache, biscuit, tobacco trekking, character, conquer, Note: a before letters ‘ey,’ the letter ‘cis pronounced /s! b the letters ‘qu’ are usually pronounced /kw/as in: ‘queen, quick, etc. (but note: queue’? «the etter ‘kis silent in the initial combination ‘kn’ eg. knee, knife, knit, knock, knot, know, Knuckle go, egg, guard Note: @ the letter gis lent, usually n the combination ‘gn in intial or final position e.g. gnash, gnat, ‘gnaw: campaign, reign, sign b the letter ‘gis silent in the combination ‘ough’ The letters ‘ough’ are pronounced differently in ‘each of the following words: although, bough, cough, enough, thorough, thought, through may, lame, thumb, swimming, column now, line, beginning, knight, gnome sing, tongue, handkerchief, sink, anger Note: before the sounds 'k/ and /q/the letter ‘ni pronounced /p/ live, fell, mile Note: the letter issilent in a number of words; some of the commonest are: calf, half, halves, chalk, stalk, talk, walk, folk, yolk, palm, psalm, could, should,SOUND. a s ds SPELLING fine, off, safe, philosophy, laugh; there are a number of other words ending in ‘gh’ e.g. cough, enough, rough, tough yore, save, of thin this, breathe ts, writes, house, his 1g, cellar, civil, evele, scene, fasten, psychology (the letter ‘p’ is silent) Note: the letter ‘c is only pronounced 's/before letters, ‘ely, 200, fizzy, laze, deserve, praise, scissors Note: Mrs. = Jmisiz/ , houses have shoe, sugar, issue, mansion, mission, nation, suspicion, ocean, consci schedule (also pronounced /skedu:l), moustache leisure, confusion, seizure, usual red, berry, shyme, wrist nas, machine, fuchsia, Note: the letter '' is only pronounced /r/when the sound following it isa vowel sound hat, who Note: the leter his silent 2 before a strongly stressed vowel, asin: hour, heir, honour, honest b inthe combinations ‘kh’ and ‘rh and ‘gh eg Khaki rhyme, ahost «¢ insome other words eg. shepherd church, matches, nature, question jump, gender, age, bridge, judgment, soldier, procedure, adjust well, quick, one, once, cho! Note: a the letter ‘wi silent in the group ‘we’ asin: write, wreck, wring, wrist, wrong b the letter ‘wis also silent in words such as: two, answer, sword, and in: who, whom, whose, whole when the letter 'w' occurs in the final position itis. not pronounced but forms part of the final vowel ‘or diphthong sound e.g. low, cow ‘yes, opinion, hideous Note: when the letters‘ ore” occur before the sound /a/ then the sound jis used, asin the words: opinion, hideous 105pp.2 106 2 Vowels green, these, mean, field, receive, police, key, quay, people es, busy, become, women, private, England, build, carriage, valley, coffee or medial € send, head, friend, said, says, any, bury, leisure ® back (plait) a: far, half, example, are, aunt, heart, clerk > hot, want, because, cough, knowledge a saw, sauce, nor, more, board, four, tall, war, walk, door, broad, ought o push, book, could, woman rule, blue, feud, new, fruit, food, group, two, 100, lose, beauty, shoe, through ’ nut, son, touch, does, blood 3 her, fir fur, fern, earth, work, journey, were 2 ain weakly stressed syllables in an position: about, breakfast, particularly, pavement, modern, horrible, method, effort, cupboard, column, famous b in weakly stressed syllables in the final position before a pause: china, collar, letter, doctor, colour, borough, nature, centre 3 Diphthongs a game, rain, day, they, vein, great, eight, gaol, gauge, straight ov £0, toe, loaf, grow, shoulder, oh, brooch, mauve, a bite, sight, try, ti, height, ether, buy, eye, aisle, dye, guide aw found, brown, plough a voice, boy » deer, dear, here, pier, idea, weird © fair, wear, care, where, ther, scarce, heir, aeroplane, prayer vw tour, cure, doer, during, newer, crue!App.3 Appendix 3 Punctuation and Capital Letters [4 main uses of punctuation marks ‘The following passage shows the main punctuation marks in use. question mark inverted commasiquotation marks —} semi-colon —————--t capital letters ¥, |-»"Why study English?” is the title of a book apostrophe is also a question. ¢ | fal stop Xn English%speaking pupil, ora bedded student, might answer “Because oe Ive got to!”"“especially if a ¥ brackets they are at schoo! (where it is part of the syllabus:¢ ——— colon compulsory until the age of sixteen). a comma /,/ ‘Together with the full-stop the comma is the most commonly used punctuation mark. Basically it separates parts of the sentence. It is used: 1 to separate a non-defining relative clause from the rest of the sentence. eg, It is years since I read Anna Karenina, which is my favourite novel. 2 when a subordinate clause comes before the principal clause. e.g. If you do not understand, please tell me. 3 to separate phrases in apposition from the rest of the sentence, eg. Mr Gorbachev, the President, said . 4 to separate some non-defining adjectival phrases from the rest of the sentence. e.g. The speaker, getting to his feet, began to... 5 in many kinds of lists. e.g, I shall need a book, some paper, a pencil, and a ruler. 6 to separate a number of connectives from the rest of the sentence: too, however, nevertheless, though, of course, then, etc e.g. You can, however, do it if you wish. 7 when some adverbs or adverbial expressions are placed within a sentence (instead of at the beginning or end of the sentence). eg. They tried, in spite of my advice, to climb the mountai b full-stop /./ A full stop is used to end a sentence. The next sentence begins with a capital letter. 107108 © colon /:/ A colon is a rather infrequent punctuation mark. It indicates a fairly close interdependence between the units that it separates. 1 Basically, it indicates that what follows itis an explanation or amplification of what precedes it. ‘eg. [have some news for you: John’s father has arrived. 2 It can be used to introduce a list of items, often preceded by namely, such as, as follows, ete e.g, Please send the items indicated below, namely: (i) passport (ii) visa application (iii) correct fee. d_ semi-colon /;/ 1A semi-colon coordinates or joins two independent but related clauses or sentences. e.g. The lecture was badly delivered; it went on far too long as, well. 2 It is used in lists to show sub-groupings. e.g. The chief commodities are: butter, cheese, milk, eggs; lamb, beef, veal, pork; oats, barley, rye and wheat. Note: ‘Normally afull-stop can be used instead of asemi-colon. hyphen /-/ 1 A hyphen separates, in some cases, the prefix from the second part of the word. €.g. co-opt 2 Itjoins some compound words e.g, self-control, twenty-one Note: ‘Youshould always check in adictionary toseeif a hyphenis needed, {apostrophe /?/ An apostrophe is most frequently used to indicate genitive (possessive) singular and plural. eg, the students, the students? 8 question mark /2/ A question mark is used after a direct question. e.g. What time is it? It is not used after an indirect question. e.g. Please tell me what time itis. hh dash /—/ A dash is used to indicate a break, often informall e.g. He received a prize — and a certificate as well. Note: itis better to avoid using adash i quotation marks (quotes) or inverted commas: they may be single Pl or double /*”/ ‘They enclose the actual words of direct speech. e.g. He said, “Why did you do that?”po. exclamation mark /1/ An exclamation mark is not often used. It is usually only used after real exclamations and sometimes after short commands e.g, Oh dear! Get out! brackets (parentheses): ( )/ 1 Brackets are used to clarify, or to avoid confusion. e.g. He (Mr Brown) told him (Mr Jones) that he (Mr Green) had been accepted for the job. 2 They are also used for cross-references and some periods of time, in more formal writing. ‘eg, William Smith (1910-1969) lived first in Manchester (see p. 70) and then 2 Capital Letters These are used: ‘At the beginning of a sentence. For names of people, places, rivers, etc. e.g. John, Vienna, the Rhine. For titles of people and names of things and places when referring to particular examples. e.g. a city, but the City of Manchester Mr Jones Miss Smith Mrs Brown Ms White Dr Green. Professor Williams For nations and adjectives of nationality. e.g. the Netherlands, a Dutchman, Dutch For names of days, months, festivals, and historical eras. e.g. Monday, January, Christmas, Ramadan, the Middle Ages For titles of books, plays, works of art, etc. e.g. Animal Farm, Hamlet, the Mona Lisa For many abbreviations. eg. RS.V.P., Ph.D. 109110 Appendix 4 The Tenses Of A Regular Verb: ‘To Help’ | Active Voice Infinitive: help Past Tense: helping Past Participle: helped Present Participl Imperative: help relped Note: Only persons, he, they are given; you, weare the same as they, she, itarethesameas he 1 Presents Simple help he helps they help 2 Past: Simple helped he helped they helped 3 Futures Simple I shall help he will help they will help Continuous ary helping he is helping they are helping. Continuous was helping he was helping they were heli Continuous I shall be helping he will be helping they will be helping 4 Conditional (Future inthe Past): Simple I would help he would help they would help Continuous would be helping he would be helping they would be helping. Perfect have helped he has helped they have helped Perfect Thad helped he had helped they had helped Perfect I shall have helped hhe will have helped they will have helped Perfect | would have helped he would have helped they would have helped Passive Voice Infinitive: be helped Present Participle: Past Participle: having been helped 1 Present: Simple Tam helped he is helped they are helped 2 Past: Simple was helped he was helped they were helped Continuous Tam being helped he is being helped they are being helped Continuous was being helped hhe was being helped they were being helped being helped Perfect Ihave been helped he has been helped they have been helped Perfect Thad been helped hie had been helped they had been helped3 Future: Simple Perfect [shall be helped I shall have been helped he will be helped he will have been helped. they will be helped they will have been helped 4 Conditional (Future inthe Past) Simple Perfect [would be helped I would have been helped he would be helped hhe would have been helped they would be helped they would have been helped Note: ‘The Passive 3 Future: Continuous eg. shall be being helped) and 4 Conditional: Continuous (e.g. should be beinghelped), are notoften used. The Subjunctive tenses: Past Simple (f| ‘were helped) and Perfect (if had been helped) are used less frequently than the tenses listed above. mt12 Appendix 5 Irregular Verbs Infinitive awake be bear beat become begin behold bend bet bid bind bie bleed blow break breed forbid forecast foresee forget forgive freeze et Past Tense awoke bore beat became began bocheld bent bet, betted bade, bid bound bit bled blew broke bred brought bouile burnt, burned burst bought caught chose crept dale dug dived did drew dreamed, dreamt drank drove fell fed felt fought found fled flung flew forbade, forbad forecast, forecasted foresaw forgot forgave froze gor ast Partciple awaked, awoken been borne beaten become begun beheld bent bet, betted bidden, bid bound bitten bled blown broken bred brought bile burnt, burned burst bought caught chosen crept dale dug dived done drawn dreamed, dreamt drunk driven eaten fallen fed felt fought found Aled fang flown forbidden forecast, forecasted foreseen forgotten forgiven frozen got Infinitive sive 0 grind grow hang hang have hear hide hit hold hare keep kneel know lay lead lean leap learn leave lend let lie light lose make mistake pay pat read ride ring say seek sell send shake shine shoot show shut sing sleep Past Tense gave ground grew hung hanged had heard hid hit held daure kept Kenelt knew haid led Jeant, leaned leapt, leaped Teaent, learned left Tent let hay lit, lighted lost made mistook paid put read rode rang sawed said sought sold shook shone shot showed shut sang sank slept Past Partciple siven ‘gone ground grown hung hanged had hheatd hidden, hid bit held boure kept knelt known laid led leant, leaned leapt, leaped leat, learned lett lent let lain lit, lighted lose made mistaken paid put read ridden rung said sought sold shaken shone shot shown, showed shut sung sunk sleptInfinitive slide sling smell speak speed spell spend. spill spin spit split spoil spread spring stand steal stick sting stride strike sweep swell swing take teach tell think thrive throw thrust tread understand undertake undo upset wake wed weep wind withdraw withhold Past Tense slid slung smelt, smelled sowed spoke sped, speeded spelt, spelled spent spilt, spilled spun, span spat split spoilt, spoiled spread sprang, stood stole stuck stung strode struck swept swelled swung took taught told thought throve, thrived threw thrust trod. understood undertook undid upset woke, waked wedded, wed wept wound withdrew withheld ast Partciple slid slung. smelt, smelled sown, sowed spoken sped, speeded spel, spelled spent spilt, spilled spun spat split spoil spread sprung stood stolen stuck stung stridden, strid struck (stricken) swept swollen, swelled swung taken taught told thought thriven, thrived thrown spoiled theust trodden, trod lerstood undertaken undone upset woken, waked wedded, wed wept wound withdrawn withheld Apps 113114 6 Subject-Verb Concord Note: icates that the sentenceis incorrect. The -s is often wrongly forgotten in the 3rd person singular of the present tense, ie. the stem + s. E.g. *The student attend the language course and he study hard. tt should be attends and studies. Frequently has and have are used wrongly, e.g. "The course have taught me a lot. Here it should be has. Mistakes are also made with is and are, and was and were, e.g, * Jose and Eduardo is from Mexico; *Some students was late this ‘morning. It should be are and were. Another common mistake is with do and does, especially in negative sentences, e.g. *He don't study Chemistry, he study Physics. It should be doesn’t (or does not) study and studies. You must be careful to look at the subject of the verb, decide if it is singular or plural and then choose the appropriate verb form Stem + s, has, is, was or does, if singular (all end in -s. stem, have, are, were or do, if plural Other points to note Look at this sentence: The mumber of students on the course is less than last year. Here the subject is the number of students on the course but the main word is number. Therefore the verb must be singular is. Often a mistake is made by putting a plural verb (are in this case) because of the influence of a plural noun students. Some nouns which are grammatically singular may be followed by a plural verb form. These are often called collective nouns. E.g. The government have taken an important decision. The England football team were beaten by Italy. The class have a test on Friday. With collective nouns in their singular form itis usually possible to use either a singular verb or a plural verb. Therefore, The government has taken . .. ; The England football team was beaten... ; The class has a test .. . are equally correct. Learn by heart these examples: Almost always singular (ice. verb in singular form): news, information, music, ‘mathematics, phonetics, the United States, advice, evidence, accommodation, equipment. e.g. The news was very good. Usually singular aid, research, e.g. His research is progressing very well.© Always plural (i.e. verb in plural form): people, police, cattle. eg. The police are doing their best to control the traffic. 4 Singular and plural (ice. these words do not change; but the verb may be singular or plural according to the meaning): means, series, species, sheep, aircraft. e.g. The series of experiments that he conducted was very successful. Several species of butterfly are in danger of dying out. 115Appendix 7 Comparisons | 1 Formation a The regular comparative and superlative of adjectives and adverbs is formed as follows: 1 by adding the endings -er and -est to words with one syllable. 2 by placing the words more and most in front of words with three or more syllables. word length | adjectiveor | comparative | superlative adverb one syllable | new newer newest three syllables | easily more easily most easily or more convenient more convenient | most convenient 3 words with t1vo syllables may be like 1 or 2 above: a Generally they will add the ending -er and -est if they end in: -y or -y eg, funny (funnier, funniest); friendly (friendlier, friendliest) But Note: adverbs ending in ly take more and most. 8, quickly (more quickly, most quickly) -ow eg, narrow (narrower, narrowest) -le eg. able (abler, ablest) -er e.g, clever (cleverer, cleverest) 'b Most of the remaining words take more and most e.g, careful (more careful, most careful) ¢ Some common two-syllable adjectives can have either type of comparison: common, handsome, polite, quict. eg. polite” politer politest more polite most polite b_ Irregular comparison is made by: 1a small group of very frequent adjectives: eg. bad worse worst far furtherifarther _furthest/farthest good better best many more most 2 a small group of adverbs: eg. badly worse worst far further/farther _furthest/farthest little less least ‘much more most well better best 116op? 2 Use in sentence constructions ‘There are a number of constructions using comparisons. Some of the commonest ones are shown below in sentences: Showing equivalence (ie. the same) 1 Annis as clever as Tom. 2 This book is the same price as that one. 3 There are as many students in this room as in the other one. 4. There is as much liquid in the first test-tube as in the second. Showing non-equivalence (i.e. not the same) 1 The medical library is not as so 2 John’s essay was longer than Peter's. 3 However, Peter's essay was more carefully written than John’s and contained fewer mistakes (than John’s) 4 There were not as many students in the seminar as at the lecture. 5 The student did not do as much homework as his teacher had hoped. 6 This problem is less difficult than the previous one. Showing one item compared with a number (i.e. the superlative) 1 He scored the highest marks in the annual examination. 2 The most convenient time for him to see his tutor was in the carly afternoon. 3 Some economists find that the least interesting part of their subject is statistics. Showing parallel increase (i.e. two comparatives) ‘The bigger the problem (was), the more interesting he found it. } big as the science library. ‘Acommon mistake isto confus ixsome of the ‘constructions, producing, for example, the wrong construction ‘more....aswhich shouldbe more... than. 7App. 8 Appendix 8 Connectives ‘The main connectives are grouped below _antd, or, but. For information about their according to the similarity of their use in sentences, you should look in a meaning with the three basic connectives. good dictionary. 1 and a listing ' reinforcement 1 enumeration | equation 2 addition Land transition apposition, inference reform lation replacement 3 but = | | i concession a Listing: 1 Enumeration indicates a cataloguing of what is being said. ‘Most enumerations belong to clearly defined sets: frst, furthermore, fatty...) = =<" firstly)... [ secondty), [sind ) sora Ther but not least } ™#K the end of an ascending order first and foremost first and most important(ly) mark the beginning of a descending order to beginistart with, inthe second place,...) | moreover, and to conclude, .. next, then, . afterward, lastlyifnaly, 1182 Addition to what has been previously indicated. a Reinforcement (includes confirmation): ako again furthermore further what is more then inaddition besides above all as well (as) b Equation (similarity with what has preceded) ‘equally likewise similarly correspondingly otonly. . (out) aso neither. -nor From the point of view of meaning these areoften the negative equivalents of and. Netterleavestheseriesopen for further additions, where ‘asnorconcludes bb The truth of aprevious assertion may be confirmed or contradicted by indeed ‘actual in (actual fact really inreality b Transition can lead to a new stage in the sequence of thought: with reference/respectregard to regarding let us (now) turn t0 a8 for \, ten used when discusting something briely incidewaly a pee byiheway |) adnate os cae 8 | Tratkingspeaking of... (informal) \ 4 introduce apropos (formal) a digression that reminds me .. dig 9€ Summation indicates a generalisation or summing-up of what has preceded: in conclusion to conclude to sum up briefly inbrief altogether overall then therefore thus 4d. Apposition used to refer back to previous sentences or to parallel or related references: ite that is, that’s to say vies namely in other words or, o rather, or better and 2s follows «8, for example, for instance sy, such as, including, ineluded, especially, particularly, in particular, notably, chiefly, mainly, mostly (of) Note: 1 ‘sation tionships between sentences that areincluded are lation see below), exemplification and partcul ¢. Result expresses the consequence or result of what was said before: therefore asa resul/consequence the result/consequence is/was accordingly ‘consequently then because of thisthat thus hence for thisthat reason £ Inference indicates a deduction from what is implicit in the preceding sentence(s): then in other words in that case ‘my conclusion is 1202 or g Reformulation to express in another way: beter rather in other words in that case 10 putt (more) simply h Replacement to express an alternative to what has preceded: again alternatively rather better/worse (still). fon the other hand the alternative is another possibility would be 3 but i. Contrast with what has preceded: instead conversely then fon the contrary by (way off contrast in comparison (on the one hand) ... on the other hand . j Concession indicates the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before: besides yet (or) else inany case however atany rate nevertheless forall that nonetheless inspite offdespite that notwithstanding, afer all only atthe same time sell fon the other hand while all the same (aljthough even ifthough Based pon Chapter 10 “Sentence Conmection’ in Grammar of Conepoary English by Git Erol, Lech ond Serko) 121122 Appendix 9 Referencing 1 Footnotes A footnote isa note at the bottom (or foot) of a page in a book or journal: itis used to explain a word or other item, or to add some special information or a reference. Sometimes footnotes appear at the end of the essay or article, or even at the back of a book. A small number is written above the word or item in the text. ‘The explanation of the item is then given the same number. If there are two or more footnotes then they are numbered in sequence 1, 2, 3, etc. If they appear at the foot of each page, the numbering starts anew on each page. If they appear at the end of an essay, the numbering is continuous throughout the essay. There are several systems of giving footnotes but this is the simplest: has given rise to a school of thought called neo'-Marxism Tyeo—a new or modern form or development of 2 Quotations ‘When referring to a book or article in an essay, the normal procedure is to give the author’s surname, the year of publication in brackets, and the page numbers if possible. The full reference is then given at the end of the essay There are three basic ways of using quotations in an essay: quotation marks around the author’s words which are then incorporated in the text: this is often used for short quotations: (Seers, 1979, pp. 27-28), a further dimension is added— “development now implies, inter alia, reducing cultural dependence on one or more of the great powers”. Self reliance thus becomes . . the quotation is indented (ic. it starts further from the margin than the other lines—and it may be in a different type size or sty the quotation marks are usually omitted): For Seers, ‘Development’ is inevitably a normative concept, almost a synonym for improvement. To pretend otherwise is ust hide one’s value judgements (Seers, 1972, p. 22) Posing the question© a paraphrase (i.e. rewriting the author’s words): Hicks and Streeten (1979, p. 568) identify and review four different approaches to the problem of measurement, namely: 3 References and References, at the end of an essay for example, are arranged in Bibliographies alphabetical order (a~z) of the author’s surname or the name of the organisation. If more than one reference is given by the same author, then the earlier dated reference will appear first. If two or ‘more references by the same author appear in the same year, they will be labelled in sequence with letters (a, b,c, etc.) after the year. References to one author are normally listed before those of joint authorship of the same author. E.g. BIBLIOGRAPHY Booth D. (1975) ‘Andre Gunder Frank: an introduction and appreciation’ in Oxaal |., Barnett T. and Booth D. (eds), Beyond the Sociology of Development, Routledge and Kegan Paul. Cairncross A. and Puri M. (eds.) (1976), Employment, Income Distribution and Development Strategy, Macmillan. Foxley A. (1976a), ‘Redistribution of consumption: effects on production and employment’ in Foxley (ed.) (19766), Foxley A. (ed.) (1976b), Income Distribution in Latin ‘America, C.U.P. Jolly R. (1976), ‘Redistribution with growth’ in Cairncross and Puri (eds.) (1976) Murray T. (1973a), ‘How helpful is the generalised system of preferences to developing countries?’, Economic Journal, Vol. 83, No. 330 Murray T. (1973b), ‘EEC enlargement and preferences for the developing countries’, Economic journal, Vol. 83, No. 331 Differences between references to books and journals Note the following sequence of information commonly used in references to books: Author's surname, initials, (date—in brackets), title (underlined or in italics), place of publication, publisher. E.g. Frank, A. C. (1967), Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America, New York, Monthly Review Press. In references to articles in journals there are some differences in the information given: Author's surname, initials, (date—in brackets), title of article, name of journal (underlined or in italics), volume number, issue 123124 number, sometimes season or month, sometimes page numbers. Eg. Murray, R. Daniel and Smith, €. ©. (1983). The role of dominance and intrafamilial bonding in the avoidance of close inbreeding. Journal of Human Evolution, 12, 5, 481~ 486. Alphabetical order Ie is important that references are arranged in strict alphabetical order. Itis usually necessary to include the first names or initials of authors in addition to their surnames. Surnames beginning with Mac and Mc are placed together as Mac. E.g. McKenzie will come before Madison. Test Yourself ‘The following 10 surnames (and initials) are those of authors of books. Arrange them correctly in strict alphabetical order from 1 to 10 in the spaces provided. Dawson, E. Davidson, D. Davey, A. C. Davies, C. T. Day, D. A. Davey, A. M. Davis, A. Davidson, G. D. Davies, C. W. Davy, A. 10 Now check your answers (page 144). wean eeneAppendix 10 Examination and Essay Questions: Glossary question word account for give an account of analyse calculate characterise classify comment on. compare consider contrast criticise deduce define demonstrate describe determine differentiate between discuss Research has shown that, in general, there tend to be four main tasks that are required of students when they write essays in examinations. These are to show familiarity with: 1 acconcept 2. the relations between/among concepts 3 a process 4 argumentation ‘There is considerable variation in the question types that are used. Remember that the question words may be qualified by words that follow, and thus the emphasis may be changed in the question. Also bear in mind that question words may have different meanings depending on the discipline in which they are used. Below are the most frequently used question types together with their possible meanings. It is possible to cross-reference some of the words for additional explanations e.g. enumerate has the meaning ‘name and list’; list is then explained as ‘put in sequences, catalogue; mention.” ‘meaning give reasons for; explain describe divide, describe, discuss, examine, explain decide the importance and give reasons estimate; determine; weigh reasons carefully describe arrange into groups explain the importance of describe similarities think about carefully describe differences discuss and point out faults conclude; infer state precisely the meaning of; explain shew clearly by giving proof or evidence say what something is like find out something; calculate show how something is different consider something from different points of view, and then give your own opinion question word distinguish between elaborate elucidate ‘enumerate estimate evaluate examine explain express identify indicate infer illustrate justify lise mention name prove ‘meaning describe the difference between discuss in detail, with reasons and examples explain and make clear name and list, and explain calculate; judge; predict assess and explain look at carefully; consider make clear; give reasons for show, describe point out and describe show, explain conclude something from facts or reasoning give examples that support your answer sive good reasons for; explain satisfactorily, put in sequence; catalogue; mention describe briefly identity give a short description of the main points show that something is true or certain; provide strong evidence (and examples) for 125126 question word quantify relate show. speculate suggest meaning ‘express or measure the amount ‘or quantity of give an account of indicate; give evidence of; make clear; demonstrate, illustrate form an opinion without having complete knowledge; suggest mention as a possibility; state as an idea for consideration; propose question word state summarise trace verify meaning express carefully, fully and clearly give the main points of outline and describe make sure that something is, accurate or true; check In addition, there are four other question words that are commonly used in conjunction with other words. These are: how, what, which, why. e.g. 1 How far—to what extent 2 What are the implications of—the suggested or long-term results of What is the significance of—the meaning and importance of What are the procedures—the method and order of doing something; the set of actions necessary 3. Which factors—what are the circumstances or conditions that bring about a result 4 Why—for what reason; with what purpose Look at some past examination papers for your subject. Draw up a list of the question types, noting in particular the ones that appear frequently. Using that as a basis, compile a glossary for your own subject area,Key to Exercises and Notes Answers are given where the choice is restricted, Where the exercise is ‘open’ (several answers are possible), teachers should check the answers carefully Unit1 Key Answers to the Exercises Stage 2 (page 10) Connectives| Exercise 1a AA choice of connectives from the list is possible, though ence is less frequently used. HT Rraheae iE DISS Exercise tb Many answers are possible, Suggested answers: 4 not many students were able to take notes. 5 ittook him a long time to finish reading the English textbook, Exercise 2a ‘A choice of connectives from the list is possible, though In other words is the most frequently used. be 2d 3a Unit2 Key Exercise 2b Many answers are possible. Suggested answers are: 4 she speaks English and French equally well. 5 if you have a sensitive ‘ear’ (or are sensitive to sound changes) you will learn languages easily. Exercise 3a AA choice of connectives from the list is possible, though Honweveris the most frequently used, eae Caer) Exercise 3b, Many answers are possible. Suggested answers are: 4 to everyone's surprise, he passed it easily. 5 he insisted on continuing (with) it and completing it | Notes on the Exercises Stage 1 (page 13) and 3 ‘to’ can have the meaning of in order to" eg... to whiten it to flaten it “to soften it Stage 2 (page 15) 1 The plural of thesis is theses The University of X, ot: X University either: of an average frequency of X per term fr: om average X per term 127128 In 1 the percentages total more than 100% because some students did more than one type of writing. Phrases such as: “the majority, just over half50%, about "Note: The description inthis exercise fan alternative to using the table For practice in using tables and language that comments on saifcant items within the tables, se Unit 11: Interpretation of slicierpliedpetimany ipod iad Sracapeon See Answers to the Exercises see page) soe ga Pe Eng rte sould be ener Gel eee poe eee are ed chad hed e a Think j, Look raat cleaned is... bleached is passed through are b Understand k Decide ss Revise produced is removed are pressed, dried . . . refined © Make 1 Select «Write allie a Nee epee once on owe See ee ee rere aay ee ne peice taawanse os oh ee Som Seer pac scence eae mE ah x Es etm than ad dd Heder refined .. is produced, 3. The wheat is harvested from the field. ‘The wheat grain is transported to the silos. Itis stored in the silos. ‘The grain is cooked to soften it. Wis cut into thin strips. ‘These are woven into biscuits. ach biscuit is baked unti itis brown, Itis packed ready to be eaten, 4. Glass is made from sand, limestone, and soda ash First, these three materials are mixed together in the right proportions. Then, sometimes broken glass is added. Next, this mixture is heated strongly in a furnace. Then glass is produced. After this, itis shaped into bottles in the mould. Next, the bottles are reheated and cooled to Strengthen the glass. Finally, they are ready to be used. Note: a choice of sequence markers is possible: see Appendix 8 Connectives, Section 1a (age 118). ‘and Zlimestone 3soda ash broken glass Safurnace 6 the mould Seage 2 (page 18) ‘Asurvey was conducted among, 50 overseas postgraduate students at Manchester University (or: at the University of Manchester). The purpose of the survey was to discover the type, frequency and Tength of academic writing that was expected of the students by their supervisors or tutors. 3% of the students wrote reports, of an average frequency of 2 per term, of an average length of 4000 words. 2a was carried out were collected 'b were distributed fe were analysed were requested £ were published 3 Summary of the Stages of Writing an Essay suggested answer (others may be possible) 1 Topic ~ think Reading list, Read = purpose Make notes Note sources ¥ 3 [Dexide content 3 sections Write outline Write is draft academic syle v Read critically Revise draft ¥ Write inal draft ~ legible Compile bibliography ‘Add at endUnit 3 Key Answers to the Exercises Stage 1 (page 20) 11 The Atlantic Ocean 2 Scotland _3 Northem Ireland 4 The Irish Republic (or: The Republic of Ireland) 5 The North Sea 6 Wales 7 England 8 London 9'The English Channel 10 France 2 Alternatives are given in brackets: (1)is surrounded by (2) comprises (consists of; is composed of) G3) lies off (4) consists of (is composed of; comprises) _ (5) is composed of (consists of; Comprises) (6) is situated in (is located in) (7) was (8) was (is) (9) were (are) (10) is, spoken (11) was spoken by (12) spoke Unit4 Key Stage 2 (page 22) 1 Suggested answer (alternatives are possible) Iceland is an island that lies close to the Arctic Circle. The nearest country is Greenland which is 180 miles away and from which Iceland is separated by the Denmark Strait ‘The island is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south, and the Norwegian Sea, ro the east. The capital city is Reykjavik which i situated in south-west Iceland. Iceland has a total area of 103,000 square kms. About 1% of the land area is cultivated (or: is devoted to cultivation), about 25% is devoted to grassland and. vegetation, and 74% is glaciers, lava and wasteland. The centre of leland (or: Inland Iceland) consists of mountains and plateaus. Iceland has a (generally) cool temperate and oceanic climate. It has an annual rainfall of 80.5 em, In 1987 the (estimated) population of Iceland was 247,024. The density of population was approximately) 25 people per square kilometre. In Iceland Icelandic isthe language which is spoken. | Answers to the Excercises Stage 1 (page 26) 2 Suggested notes: Bac. E.C origins —» May 9,195 0 eos 1952 Trealy of Rome (march 25, 1957) Y : o (Gmembers: 56,8, 1,4,) v 1973 UK. D, Rep of Z- FI9SLS = Gr, S, &P. Stage 2 (page 27) 1 The United Nations ‘The origins of the U.N. can be traced back fo the League of Nations. This was an international organisation which was created by the Treaty of Versailles in 1920 with, the purpose of achieving world peace. Before 1930, the League, from its Geneva headquarters, organised international conferences and did useful humanitarian work. However, i failed to deal effectively with international aggression during the 1930s. The League was formally closed in 1946 and was superseded by the United Nations. ‘The U.N was founded on 24th October, 1945, when. the U.N. Charter was ratified by the 51 founder member countries. Almost all the countries of the world are now members: 159 in al. The U.N. was established to maintain international peace, and to encourage international co-operation to ‘overcome economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems. Apart from the principal organs of the U.N. (e.g. The General Assembly, The Security Council etc.) ‘most of the U.N.'s work is done through its specialised bodies and agencies. Some of the best known are,” perhaps, the FAO, ILO, IMF, WHO, UNESCO and. UNICEF, 129Sea 3 (gage 29) of 1d 7a 2 i Sh 3g de ad 0b Se Oldest: 3 Suggested notes: Oxford. 85 = Cambridge 1209 London 1836 C.19th/20th —avic univs — industrial. avea (e9 Manchester 1880, Birmingham 10) v 19405/1950s — other civic univs 1960s 1969 Unit5 Key | Notes on the Exercises 1 When giving an extended definition of a subject it may be necessary to comment on some of the methods, processes, techniques, stages steps, etc. involved, e ‘Moulding is one of the methods of shaping plastics. Polymerisation is the process of turning chemicals Into plastics. (€9 Nottingham: 1948 ) largest eee, of uns — pace green Side ¢9 Kent, warnic k 19¢5-—Iatest) open UWversity Notice that the form of +verb-+ing is used here instead of the 1wb-word, ‘The biggest dificulty in writing a definition is to have a clear idea of the concept to be defined. This involves careful organisation of the necessary information, Fi the language used to express the concept must be correctly ly, selected. 3 In definitions it is often useful to give examples. This is the subject of Unit 6. Answers to the Exercises Stage 1 (page 33) 3a id 4a isan institution where » isa person who i a metal which « | sending separately about X. sending under separate cover ‘some information | and toa friend it might end: Hook forward) |oo peat Looking forward) [PS ee ee Thope to hear Stage 3 (page 53) Generally this tage provides some practice in using. ‘connectives, especially when contrasting items. Its important that unrelated items should not be contrasted, ¢. g. do not compare temperature and religion 135Key 136 Answers to the Exercises Stage 1 (page 49) 11 Longer than 2 not sovnearly as... as 3 the longest 4 shorter thannot so long as 5 the longest 6 colder... than 7 warmer/horcer/wetter... than 8 than) 9 the wettest 10 not solnearly as... as 1 the driestithe coldest 12 the same as/as low as BB as...as 14 Tess than 1S howtestwettest... the wettestithe hottest Unit9 Key [ Notes on the Exercises leis not possible here to practise all the combinations of ‘connectives and constructions: there are a large number for all the cause-ffect relationships. However, the Structure and Vocabulary Aid (page 60) illustrates some of the main constructions. I may be useful to remember thatthe following questions relate to cause-effect relations: Stage 2 (page 50) Note: Other answers would be possible for some ofthese sentences if the instruction had nota ‘use each word only once a more... than F least greater... than g Norso many... as © asmany ...as fh asmuch .. as d most i More... than ¢ Thesame...as i diggest Various replies are possible but they will probably include reference to: moreifewer items, bigger/smaller, higher lower price, more expensive (dearer), cheaper, more economical, better value. What caused X? What was the effect of X? Why did X happen? In Stage 2, 2 and 3 notice the difference in use between e.g, crossing and crossed, | Answers to the Exercises Stage 1 (page 56) iid 4f Diesen 3g be 2. A varity of connectives are possible, Check carefully with the Structure and Vocabulary Aid (page 60) to see if particular connectives et. fit into the particular patterns a [Becausd)he worked hard he passed his examination. by Prolonged illness is often Guna By delayed treatment. The strike was faused By}had labour relations 4 The laboratory specimens were killed as a result ofthe fluctuation in temperature. ac «That bore must be handled very carfally itr i satinf Stage 2 (page 58) 1 Table 1: Climate Cause Connective Effect for Marker rising have been 2 the snowline to retreat on moun- temperacures | causing tains all over the world. cg. In Peru it has risen as much 8 2,700 feet in 60 yeas. a ‘Asa result 3 vegetation has also of this been changing, ‘eg, In Canada, the agricultural cropline has shifted 50 to 100 miles northward. — has also been | 4 The distribution of wildlife affected eg, many European animals moving northwards into Seandinavia, the melting of | (largely) due '5 The sea has been rising ata slaciers © ‘rapidly increasing rate, eg. inthe last 18 years it has risen by about 6 inches. 2 A variety of answers are possible. The most likely ones are listed below. (1) caused/resulted ined to (2) because/as/since (3) because offasa result offdue tolon account offowing toithrough (4) ‘consequently Therefore/As a resuluBecause of thisleteJ (5) ‘caused/resulted infled to (6) cause offreason for Unit 10 Key | Notes on the Exercises 1 The different columns in the Seale of Qualification in the Sinucture and Vocabulary Aid (page 66) need to be looked at and carefully compared, It would be useful to look again atthe Structure and Vocabndary Aid to Unit 8, (Qualification of Comparison, page 54) 2 Reference is made in Stage 2 to predictive statements or predictions. Such generalised comments are based upon ppast experience and information. You can see, therelore, that there may be a close link between the past and the future (this will be important for verb tenses). 137Answers to the Exercises Stage 1 (page 63) 2 Some variation is possible with the quantity b ‘qualifications but the answers should be similar to these: A minority of students were rarely able to obtain theit ‘Quantity Frequency Probability ‘course books from libraries ‘The majority of... sometimes . all wsually possible Amonber of... often... minority seldom undoubredly Afew.. always. majority senerally likely alle will not Stage 3 (page 64) ‘most definitely 1 The following words should be underlined. They are anumber given here in the order in which they appear in the Stage 2 (page 63) may canbe seem 4a Some flexibility is possible with the answers but there possible perhaps ean be should be a range of quantity qualifications used, e., fan be may necessarily most, the majority of, many, (a) few. may tend t0 possible b A range of probability qualifications will need to be used, may be may suggest «probable, likely, possible, unlikely. Each one may be Gften oe Keappeers further qualified if necessary by adding ‘very"in front of may most frequently can be it do not seem to Unit 11 Key ‘Notes on the Exercises This unit is useful for practising different expressions Note: In 1886 only 79 of secondary school age pupils went to associated with visual information, viz histogram, chart, independentprvateee paying schools graph, table. Stage 1 (page 68) 1 The plural of axis is axes 2 leis wrong to write ‘from the Chart 1 it should be ether: “from Chart I" or ‘from the chart. 3. The organisation of information is important. Normally there is a progression from big to small (or vice-versa}, or a biglsmall contrast. Sequencing markers or connectives may be used (ie. first, next, then, followed by, finally). 4 In Chart 1 the approximate percentages are: Pupils in state secondary schools in England and Wales (%) yer pe of schoo 966 Yas Yass [isan | 1906 Technical and ther 0 7 2 1 = Gemma x 2» eae 3 Node Fs 3 jo [3 4 Compecasive 0 BR le | 138Stage 2 (page 69) Ja Useful introductory phrases: During the period 1874-1987, From 1874 to 1987... Since 1874 For over a hundred years, from 1874 to 1987. ‘Note: to solemie’ = to perform a religious ceremony b Approximate calculations: Church of England/Wales 1874 = 750 ) a fall of 405 1987 = 345 } (per 1,000) civil ceremonies 100 | am increase of 378 478} (per 1,000) 2a In this exercise verbs will either be inthe future tense or will involve a qualification of probability. eis, perhaps, necessary to comment that we ass thatthe trends shown inthe graph will continue ina similar way. There i, however, a complication. The ‘general trend is for weddings by civil ceremony to increase and for Church of England/Wales marriages to decline. Nevertheless, during the 1980s, there has been a slight reversal ofthis tend, bb On the basis of the figures calculated in 1 above we can say that for civil ceremonies there is an increase of 33, every 10 years, and for Church of England/Wales marriages there isa decline of 36 every 10 years. Iris just ‘over 30 years from 1987 to 2020 so we could calculate the trend according to these figures. But — these figures are based on an analysis ofthe 1vhole period (from 1874 to 1987). It might be more realistic ro base the future trend on data from the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. The basis of any calculations used in predicting a trend should be indicated inthe answer. Stage 3 (page 70) Different visual information is provided in order to give further practice. Only the most sigufcanvnteresting tems should be commented on. For an additional exercise in trends, the Stage 1 char of pupils in secondary schools could be described, showing the trends of the different types of school over the 20-year period. Answers to the Exercises Stage 1 (page 69) 3 As can be seen from the char, a larger percentage of secondaty school pupils were at secondary moder schools than at any other kind of school in 1966. In fact, secondary modem schools accounted for as much as 55% of the pupils. On the other hand, technical (and other) schools accounted for only 10%. Comprehensive schools, also, accounted for only 10%. 4 There are various ways in which this may be answered Mention should be made of the reversal in positions of ‘comprehensive schools in 1986 compared with grammar schools, compared with both their positions in 1966. ‘Tworand-a-half times as many pupils went to grammar schools in 1966 as went to comprehensive schools. By 1986 more than thirty times as many went to ‘comprehensive schools as went to grammar schools. Stage 2 (page 70) 2 A number of answers are possible. The suggestion below is for guidance. As can be seen from the graph, during the period 1874-1987, there was a marked decline in the proportion of marriages which were solemnised (or ‘conducted) by the Church of England/Wales. They fell from 750 per 1,000 marriages in 1874 to 345 in 1987. ‘Thus, there was a fall of 405 during the period. ‘On the other hand, there was a gradual increase in the proportion of marriages which were solemnised by a civil ‘ceremony. These marriages accounted for only 100 per 1,000 in 1874 but rose to 478 in 1987. Thus, there was an increase of 378 during the period. ‘Note: Comment can ao be made on the differences inthe slopes ofthe ‘wo ves over aifferent periods inthe 113 years, particulary uring the 19805. 139140 Unit 12 Key Notes on the Exercises Stage 1 (page 73) All four paragraphs are posible introductions. Personal preference wil play some part in the choice. The frst paragraph is very short and, perhaps, does not tell us much. [eis not good style to put ‘of course’ inthe first sentence. bb The second paragraph certainly lists the problems. Ie is interesting wo read but for academic writing, perhaps, a litle too dramatic ~ almost lke journalese. Some would say that is too repetitive ~ tree instances of i faces problems’ though others would say thsi deliberate and ud emphasis to the point. Unit 13 Key The third paragraph gives more information but, for an introduction, perhaps, includes too much background on historical information before saying what the essay will include, 4d The fourth paragraph will be considered by some to be the best as it sets out precisely, and in sequence, what the «essay will include (with linking words — ‘starting with then... after this. finally...) Notes on the Exercises ‘The exercises in this unit can be used for revising some of the language functions practised in earlier units, eg. definitions (what is infant mortality?) exemplification, comparison and Seog 1 (page 78) 1 In order to be able to draw realistic conclusions, we normally need to have information about causes, reasons, etc. For example, Chart I: Unit 11 Stage 1, Pupils in state secondary schools in England and Wales (page 68) we cannot, just from the chart, draw any conclusion about the large expansion in the number of pupils in ‘comprehensive schools. We would need to know that it was British government educational policy atthe time to promote the growth of comprehensive schools 2 Irmay be of interest to see how the writer concluded the passage Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecturing ‘Method in Unit 12 Stage 1 (page 75). The survey was concluded thus: ‘An aspect of lecturing rarely, if ever, mentioned by its critics is its efficiency. With the aid of microphones and closed-circuit television itis possible to reach large audiences within one building; and, as we know from national television, lectures of great interest, employing ‘expensive visual aids and a high standard of preparation, ‘can be made available to millions. Moreover, video-tapes ‘may enable other audiences to see and discuss the same programmes subsequently at times convenient in their ‘own courses. Had there been litle else to say in their favour, these advantages of economy and availability ‘would certainly ensure their continuation, but even without the aid of television, lecturing is stil an economical method. Notice the use of inversion atthe beginning of the final sentence (Had...) in order to achieve greater emphasis. "Note: calorie = a measure wed when stating the amount of heat or energy that fod wil produce protein = a substance that helps to build upthe body and keep it healthy fg. = kilogram 1b = pound (weight) ox = ounces.Stage 2 (page 79) 1 infant mortality rate = deaths of infants under one year old are expressed as a proportion (per thousand) ofall ive births in given year. (Note the spelling of mortality: do not confuse it with ‘morality. population per hospital bed = the number of people in a ‘country for every hospital bed, ie. a ratio. physician = doctorisurgeon "The concept of a correlation can be utilised here. A correlation isa shared relationship or causal connection, between items, e.g, There is a high correlation between ‘unemployment and crime. 2 The cause ofthe accidents is not given. Answers to the Exercises Stage 1 (page 79) 2b There i some flexibility in the answers. However, they should be similar tothe following, people in the US.A. have a (more than) sufficient daily intake of calories and protein. those in India have a (barely) sufficient daily intake Of procein but an insufficient (or inadequate) daily intake of calories, Unit 14 Key Stage 2 (page 80) 1b Some possible conclusions, oF types of conclusion, are as follows: Ie can be concluded thar there is a high correlation between protein intake and life expectancy. It can be concluded that there is a close link between low intake of calories and protein and life expectancy; also, between poor medical facilites and infant mortality and life expectancy. It can also be concluded that there seems to be a high correlation between medical facilities on the one hand, and infant mortality and life expectancy on the other. Answers to the Exercises Stage 1 (page 82) 2 Several alternatives are possible, The main ones are given below. (1) studying, (12) following/understanding (2) (any subject) (13) lecturers (3) (any department) (14) very (4) consists (13) to finish finishing (5) disseration (16) much (6) started (17) slowly (7) beginning (18) forward (8) submitted (19) learning/emembering (9) have leamed (20) However (10) had 21) astbecause (1D) first (22) thought offdecided onichosen Stage 2 (page 83) 1A number of alternatives are possible. (at (2) startbegin/pursue/continue 3) studying/preparing (4) between (5) supervisortutor/professor (6) advised/askedrecommendediwanted (old) (7) chosenislected (8) discussion(s)/meetngs/consutation (9) steptaskiaim (10) for (11) advice’suggestion/tecommendation (12) itervtopiitext/publication reference (13) bibliographyfifcollection (14) save (15) end (16) continuedispentibeen (17) researchthesis (18) specifically fiterature/farther (19) foundidiscoverediealised (20) relevanveelated helpful (21) progress (22) anticipatediexpected/predictediplanned/assumed (23) groupimecting/numbertearm (24) satisied/pleased happyrimpressed (25) provokeditimulatedaised/encouraged Stage 3 (page 84) 2im 2h 3e 41 Wa We 12) BF Sg 6n 7d 8k 91 14 1a142 Appendix 1 Key |” spetting Key (page 95) 1C 6B NC BC 2B WB 3B 3A 2B 7C BA 17A 2C 27D 32B 378 3C 8D BD BC BD WA 3D 3D 4B 9D 4B 9D 24D 29C 3c 39D 5D 0A ISB 2D 2A WA 35B 40C If you get more than 3 answers wrong in Exercise 1, do the following exercise Exercise 1a. Do this additional spelling exercise in the same way as Exercise 1. B 1. AGENCIES 2 ARGUES 3 BOUGHT bought 4 DIFFICULTIES: | difficultes difculties difficulties diffeculties 5 FRIENDS. | freinds frends friens friends 6 HUNDRED | hunderd hundred handred hrundered 7 IMPORTANCE | importence importants importance importanse 8 QUESTIONNAIRE — | questionnaire questionnare—_questionair gestionnaire 9 RECIPIENT | recipent recepient recipeint recipient 10. USEFULNESS | usefulnes usefulness usefulness usfuliness Now check your answers carefully below. Then continue with Exercise 2 Exercise fa eC ag rave ais) aie Vis lr ait D4 Exercise 2 Exercise 3 T achieve 4 insufficient 7 medicine 1 separately 4 recommendation 7 embarrassed 2 frequently interviewed 8 research 2 preferred § environment —_8 precede (or: proceed) 3 increasingly 6 maintaining 9 referring 3 receive 6 consciousness 9 diseussion 10 successful 10 characteristics Punctuation Key (page 97) Exercise 1 The first of the great civic universities established in museum, shopping centre and, of course, extensive England, Manchester, is today the largest unitary sports facilities. tuniversity in the United Kingdom and an internationally Note; Do nat look atthe following unt you have completed Exercise 2. famous centre of learning and research. It is well- ‘endowed with resources and facilites. (or): The University Library, for instance, is one of the four big, academic libraries in the country, and the University has its own modern theatre, television studios, art gallery,Exercise 2 Alternative punctuation is given in brackets. ‘Mr(.) Brown had been teaching English abroad for a umber of years. He had forgotten how cold it could be in England in the winter.(:) It was often dull and grey in November(.) but it could be really cold in December, January(,) and February.;) Even in the spring it could snow.) Mr.) Brown looked out of the window.) as the train crossed the River Avon.(,) He remembered the ‘weather forecast that he had heard on the B(.)B()C(.) at 9 o'clock that Tuesday morning: it had said that it would bbe wet and windy in the north-west. Manchester, where hhe was now travelling to, was, unfortunately, in the north-west) For guidance on punctuation and the use of capital leters tum to Appendix 3: Punctuation and Capital Leters (page 107). Grammar Key (page 98) Ja Table 3 shows that most of these accidents occur to young children. Note: 1 The present continuous tense (showing) i often wrongly sed forthe present simple tense (shows) 2 This singular and should only be used with singular nouns. Theses the plural form and shouldbe used with nouns in the plural form, 3 The subject ofthe verbs most... accidents tis plural and therefore needs the third person plural form of the present simple tense (acu »b Each worker pays a small amount of money which is taken from his salary. Note: 1 The final’ is very often forgotten inthe third person singular of the present simple terse 2 Money san uncountable noun (the indefinite article a cannot be sed alone with i) We can ether write a small amount of money. (or some money (or alitle money) 2 Sola relate to worker which singular; therefore, the possesive adjective must be used inthe singular (i © Specialist doctors in hospitals can be divided into surgeons who operate on the body and (other) specialists who act as consultants, Note: 1 The intransitive ver shuld be used in a pasve tense hee: notice the ending with -e 2 Surgeons and spect are people, therefore the relative Pronoun who must be wed (which used for inarimate objects and animals, not people 23 The vet operates fllowed by the preposition on when it has the meaning of ‘perform a surgical operation’ on somebody) 4 Another ssinglar and normaly has the meaning of ‘one othe’ eannot be used immediately net to a plural noun. Other may ‘be used before singular an plural countable nours and before ‘uncountable nouns. 4 The number of schools grew gradually ull 1965 and then the number rose suddenly. Note: 1 The verb to grow has itvegular past tense and past particle forms: grew, grown. 2 The definite aril the must be inserted refers back to schools atthe beginning of the sentence. 3. The verb toi’ has regular past terse and past participle forme os, ren © When a country applies for foreign aid, its because it hhas not enough Fesourees ofits own, Note: 1 The finals needed for this the person singular, present simple terse, When the verb ends inthe eter and the letter Immediately in front of iis a consonant letter, they changed 10°F and eis then added 2 Aid meaning "hel an uncountable noun and must therefore ‘be uid in the singular form (even though # may have a plural meaning) Some other similar uncountable nouns are: information, advice, research, evidence. 2 Asubject pronoun is needed: ti sometimes caled impersonal Similarly the impersonal there soften wrongly omit. 4 The usual negative form with the verb not No can often be sed ifthe negative idea is orl linked with a noun, Here is linked with enough. (thas no resource ofits own would be posible. In thisentence nohas the meaning of not ay) 2a Ifsomebody becomes ill, then he can go to althe local doctor. Note: 1 The final needed for third parson singular, present simple 2 A subject pronoun is needed. 3 An arte i needed: the used it one particular lca doctor is thought ofa i only one exit. b In ny opinion, there are many parents whe didnot tke Gare oftheir ld ot: +The repotion in mut be wed in th st phrae, 2 These arr cd dey pr 3 the wa) shoul a be prt ned 978 4 The veane ponaun who seeded pope 5 Theve tote ar of meoning Yo be pole fr 143

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