Fuselage Design

ITA 2009 Version 10 - Prof. Bento S. de Mattos

Functions of Fuselage

Functions of Fuselage
Functions of fuselage:
provision of volume for
payload (passengers & cargo).
provide overall structural
integrity.
possible mounting of landing
gear, powerplant and antennas.

Primary Considerations

Primary Considerations

Primary considerations when designing the airplane's fuselage are as follows:

Low aerodynamic drag
Minimum aerodynamic instability
Comfort and attractiveness in terms of seat design, placement, and storage space
Safety during emergencies such as fires, cabin depressurization, ditching, and proper placement of
emergency exits, oxygen systems, etc.
Ease of cargo handling in loading and unloading, safe and robust cargo hatches and doors
Structural support for wing and tail forces acting in flight, as well as for landing and ground operation forces
Structural optimization to save weight while incorporating protection against corrosion and fatigue
Flight deck optimization to reduce pilot workload and protect against crew fatigue and intrusion by
passengers
Convenience, size, and placement of galleys, lavatories, and coat racks
Minimization of noise and control of all sounds so as to provide a comfortable, secure environment
Climate control within the fuselage including air conditioning, heating, and ventilation
Provision for housing a number of different sub-systems required by the aircraft, including auxiliary power
units, hydraulic system, air conditioning system, etc.

Layout Procedure

Primary Decisions
Pressurization requirements or not?
Affects fuselage section
Powerplant system internally mounted or not?
If yes then dominant effect
Does payload occupy most of the fuselage volume?
If yes then use payload as starting point for fuselage layout.
Are there any special considerations?
twin boom, flying boat, V/STOL, etc.
10

Layout Procedure

Local Layout Decisions

Vertical location of wing
Low, mid or high?
Horizontal tail surface location
Fuselage or fin?
Landing gear mounting/stowage required on fuselage?
Fuel tanks in fuselage?

Avionics location?
APU accommodation?
11

Layout Procedure
Layout Modules

Follow on from primary & local layout decisions.

May be considered separately & then matched together

to form unified fuselage layout.

Aim of integration is to derive fuselage configuration

which makes most use of total internal volume with
appropriate aerodynamic form & minimum of structural
difficulties.
12

Layout Procedure
Layout Modules (Cont.)
Modules include:

payload
powerplant installation
crew compartment
wing carry-through box structure
avionics volume, APU & air conditioning equipment

landing gear stowage & mounting

tail section

13

Primary Considerations
Common practice is to modularize layout:
crew compartment, powerplant system, payload
configuration, fuel volume, landing gear stowage,
wing carry-through structure, empennage, etc.
or simply into front, center and rear fuselage section
designs.

14

Primary Considerations
E-170 Fuselage Sections

15

Primary Considerations

Most of the fuselage volume is occupied

by the payload, except for:

Single & two-seat light a/c.

Trainer & light strike a/c.
Combat a/c with weapons carried on
outer fuselage & wing.
High performance combat a/c.

16

Primary Considerations
Payload includes:
Passengers & associated baggage.
Freight.
Internal weapons (guns, free-fall bombs, bayhoused guided weapons.
Crew (significant for anti-sub and earlywarning a/c).
Avionics equipment.
Flight test instrumentation (experimental a/c).
Fuel (often interchangeable with other payload
items on a mass basis).

17

Primary Considerations
Access Panels

18

Primary Considerations
Pressurization
If required, has a major impact upon overall shape.
Overall effect depends on level of pressurization required.
Low Differential Pressurization

Defined as no greater than 0.27 bar (4 psi).

Mainly applicable to fighters where crew are also equipped with
pressure suits.
Cockpit pressurization primarily provides survivable environment
in case of suit failure at high altitude.
Also used on some general aviation a/c to improve passenger
comfort at moderate altitude.
Pressure compartment has to avoid use of flat surfaces.

19

Primary Considerations
Normal (High) Differential Pressurization
Usual requirement is for effective altitude to be no more
than 2.44 km (8000 ft) ISA for passenger transports.
Implied pressure differentials are:
0.37 bar (5.5 psi) for a/c at 7.6 km (25,000 ft).
0.58 bar (8.5 psi) for a/c at 13.1 km (43,000 ft).
0.65 bar (9.4 psi) for a/c at 19.8 km (65,000 ft).
High pressure differential required across most of
fuselage for passenger transports so often over-riding
fuselage structural design requirement.
20

Primary Considerations
Normal (High) Differential Pressurization (Cont.)

Particular need to base outer shell cross-section on circular arcs to

avoid significant mass penalties.
Pure circular sections best structurally but double-bubbles
sometimes give best compromise with internal layout.

Circular
section
examples

21

Fuselage Layout
Considerations - Transports
Double--Bubble Fuselage XDouble
X-Section Examples

22

Cross Section

ERJ 145

CRJ 200

ATR 42 / 72

Saab 340 / 2000

DHC 8

Dornier 328

EMBRAER 170/190
23

Cabin Width & CrossCross-Section

Double--Deck Airbus A380
Double

24

Powerplant Location

25

Powerplant Location

If powerplant is located within fuselage, this is a

primary consideration for fuselage layout.
Three main powerplant arrangements affecting
fuselage layout.
Nose-mounted.
Central or central/rear location.
Rear fuselage location.
26

Powerplant Location

Nose--Mounted Engine
Nose

Either piston or turbine-driven propeller.

Significantly influences geometry and cross-section of

front fuselage.

27

Powerplant Location

Rear Fuselage Location

Common for supersonic combat aircraft

with low aspect ratio wings.
Major advantage is reduced length of
exhaust tail pipe.

Wing carry-through structure passes ahead

of powerplant, easing access and removal.
Complicates design of empennage
attachment structure, though OK if a
canard configuration.
28

Powerplant Location

Wing--Mounted or FuselageWing
Fuselage-Mounted Engines?

29

Wing--Mounted or FuselageWing
Fuselage-Mounted Engines?
Rear Mounted

May suffer from boundary layer ingestion

Bleed air supply more complicated
Difficult to inspect by the crew and maintenance team
Thrust line above the cg
Critical for stretched versions
Larger tailplane
Lower cabin noise level
Rear mounted engines often require soft (rubber/fluid) engine mounts to absorb vibration and
blade off loads. For wing mounted engines the flexible wings act as effective dampers thus allowing
engines to use cheaper hard mount arrangements
Heavier aft fuselage structure
Ice shed from the wing and aircraft nose can be ingested by the engine
There is the possibility of high drag from the convergent/divergent channel formed between the
nacelle and the fuselage wall on rear mounted engine installations
Aft fuselage mounted engines reduce the rolling moment of inertia. This can be a disadvantage if
there is significant rolling moment created by asymmetric stalling. The result can be an excessive
roll rate at the stall
30

Powerplant Location

Recontouring of the aft fuselage to

improve propeller efficiency

31

Powerplant Location

Three--engine Arrangements
Three
A center engine is always a
difficult problem. Early DC-10
studies examined 2 engines on
one wing and one on the other,
and 2 engines on one side of
the aft fuselage and one on the
other, in an effort to avoid a
center engine. Neither of these
proved desirable. The center
engine possibilities are shown
at left.

32

Powerplant Location

Three--engine Arrangements
Three
Solutions to the DC-10 tail engine maintenance
problems include built-in work platforms and
provisions for a bootstrap winch system utilizing
beams that are attached to fittings built into the
pylon structure. Although currently companies are
developing virtual reality systems to evaluate
accessibility and maintenance approaches,
designers considered these issues before the
advent of VRML. The figure at left is an artist's
concept of a DC-10 engine replacement from a
1969 paper entitled "Douglas Design for
Powerplant Reliability and Maintainability".

33

Powerplant Location

Central or Central/Rear Location

Advantageous layout for jet-powered

military strike/trainer a/c of moderate
aspect ratio wings.
Associated side or ventral intakes may also pass through wing center
structure.
Major consideration is engine removal usually downwards via
access panels/doors.

Exhaust gases ejected via rear of fuselage to alleviate acoustic fatigue

problems.
34

General Configuration

35

Typical Aircraft Fuselage Dimensions

Narrow Body Jet Transports
Aircraft

A319
A320-200
B737-200
B737-400
B757-200
MD-81
MD-83

Overall Length
(m)

33.84
37.57
30.53
36.11
47.32
39.75
45.0

Fuselage Width
(m)

3.95
3.95
3.76
3.76
3.76
3.4
3.4

Length / Width

8.57
9.51
8.12
9.60
12.59
11.69
13.24
36

Typical Aircraft Fuselage Dimensions

Wide Body Jet Transports
Aircraft

Overall Length
(m)

Fuselage Width
(m)

Length / Width

A310-200

45.13

5.64

8.00

A300-600

53.3

5.64

9.45

A330-600

63.65

5.64

11.29

A340-200

59.4

5.64

10.53

B747-400

68.63

6.6

10.40

B767-200

48.51

5.03

9.64

B777-200

62.78

6.2

10.13

L1011-250

54.17

5.97

9.07

DC10-30

51.97

6.02

8.63

MD-11

58.65

6.02

9.74

37

Typical Aircraft
Fuselage Dimensions
Regional Turboprops
Aircraft

Overall Length
(m)

Fuselage
Width (m)

Length / Width

An-32

23.8

2.9

8.21

BAe Jetstream 41
Embraer EMB 120
SAAB 340B
Shorts 330-200

18.25
18.73
19.73
17.69

1.98
2.28
2.31
2.24

9.22
8.21
8.54
7.89
38

Local Layout Aspects

Wing - Vertical Location
Compromise between aerodynamic, structural &

operational considerations also covered in

Configuration presentation.
Can occasionally be an over-riding configurational
issue, particularly regarding:
propeller ground clearance.
powerplant removal on V/STOL a/c.
39

Local Layout Aspects

Wing Vertical Location Aerodynamics Considerations

Mid-wing position gives lowest interference drag, especially good for

supersonic a/c.

Top-mounted wing minimises trailing vortex drag, especially good for low-

speed a/c.

Low wing gives improved landing gear stowage & more usable flap area.

40

Local Layout Aspects

Wing Vertical Location Structural Considerations

Primary wing structure should be continuous across fuselage
rules out use of mid-wing position when requirement
for single payload volume to occupy most of fuselage.
41

Local Layout Aspects

Wing - Vertical Location Operational Issues
Clearance & ground access

high wing best if using wing-mounted props.

also improved loading/unloading for freight a/c.
stores handling difficult if lower surface > 1.5 m above
ground.
Crashworthiness

low wing best for water evacuation.

high wing best for wheels-up landing.

42

Local Layout Aspects

Wing - Vertical Location Operational Issues (Cont.)

Landing gear
high wing gives long/heavy landing gear or fuselage
mount & retract into fairings.
Internal Cabin Layout
High wing gives headroom problems.

Low wing provides better freight capacity.

43

Local Layout Aspects

Wing - Vertical Location Summary of Applications

High wing
Freight a/c, small prop-powered transport a/c, most single

engine light a/c, some combat a/c (especially if V/STOL),

unmanned a/c, flying boats, tilt wing/rotor a/c.

44

Local Layout Aspects

Wing - Vertical Location Summary of Applications (Cont.)

Mid wing
High performance combat a/c, multi-deck large transport a/c, weapons
systems dedicated a/c with long internal bay.

Low wing
Most passenger transport a/c, some light single/twin engine trainers,
canard configured combat a/c.

45

Fuselage Local Layout Aspects

Empennage Layout Vertical Surface(s)

Single, central fin most common arrangement, positioned as far aft as

possible.

Sometimes ahead of horizontal tail on fighters & trainers to improve spin

recovery.

Twin fin arrangements used for:

twin boom fuselage layout a/c;

a/c with high stealth requirement;
freight a/c with large rear ramp loading door.
46

Local Layout Aspects

Empennage Layout Horizontal Surface

Efficiency affected by wing downwash, thus vertical location

relative to wing important.

Usually mounted higher than wing except on high wing design

or with small moment arm low tail can give ground clearance
problems.
47

Local Layout Aspects

Canard Layout

Canard should be located higher than wing spacing is

critical design feature.

Sometimes just behind

cockpit, high on fuselage.

Or often in front though it

then obstructs pilots view.
48

Local Layout Aspects

Avionics & APU
Including navigation, comms. & flight control/management
equipment.
Provision necessary for adequate volume in correct location
with ease of access.
Location of radar, aerials, etc also important
sensors often have to face forward/down in a/c nose.
long range search & early warning scanners sometimes
located on fuselage.
Auxiliary power unit (APU) commonly located at extreme
rear of fuselage on transport a/c.

49

Local Layout Aspects

E2 Hawkeye

E3 Sentry

50

Local Layout Aspects

Fuel
Not normally located within fuselage of passenger
transport a/c
exceptions are freight bay extended range tanks and
CG balancing tanks.
Many other a/c classes store fuel in fuselage.

Results in awkward-shaped tanks on high-performance

combat a/c.

51

Local Layout Aspects

Weapons Bay(s)

Disposable load should be

carried so that overall CG is
close to that of a/c as a whole.

Greater layout flexibility conferred if more than one

bay used:

may facilitate landing gear stowage;

reduced structural cut-out problems.

52

Local Layout Aspects

Gun Installation

Common on combat a/c.

Mounted in forward region of

a/c, adjacent to crew
compartment.

Major factor in nose layout,

especially when allowing for

ammunition stowage & spent

cartridge collection.

53

A350XWB Nose Layout

The cockpit fuselage section will be
constructed from aluminum lithium, with
Airbus deciding against adopting a onepiece carbonfibre structure that it had
been evaluating previously.
A350 XWB chief engineer Gordon
McConnell said that the nose redesign
was
made
partly
for
improved
aerodynamics and also to enable the
overhead crew rest to be installed further
forward and eliminate any encroachment
in the passenger cabin. He adds that
strength requirements for birdstrike
protection were partly behind the
decision to adopt a metallic nose
structure. "If we went for a composite
structure we'd have to reinforce the area
above the cockpit with titanium which is
expensive," he says.

54

A350XWB Nose Further Redesign

Emirates has become the first A350
customer to release images of the XWB
with the revamped nose and cockpit
window arrangement adopted by Airbus as
it refines the aircraft's design from the
original 2006 concept. The revised nose,
which dispenses with the dramatic fourwindow panel layout illustrated on all
artists' impressions released of the A350 in
May 2008, was adopted last year when
Airbus decided to incorporate the A380's
nose structural design.

55

A350XWB All Out of Direction

In June 2008 Airbus released computer-aided design model images of the

A350 that showed its latest thinking on the fuselage and nose shape. The
four windows panels are back in business. At this point and according to
Airbus the XWB's wing design was also further refined, among other
changes also incorporating a streamwise flap motion design to reduce drag
and seven-spoiler configuration instead of the six previously planned.
56

Typical Nose Layouts

Single Seat Combat A/C
Fairchild Republic A-10A Warthog

57

Typical Nose Layouts

Single Seat Combat A/C
McDonnell Douglas F-15A/C Eagle

58

Nose Layout
Crew Accommodation
Twin--Seat Combat & Trainer A/C
Twin
Tandem or side-by-side twin seating
arrangements possible:
Side-by-side has:
simpler layout, eased communications, wide fuselage,
increased drag, complicated ejection.

Tandem seating arrangement generally preferred.

59

Typical Nose Layouts

Twin--Seater Combat A/C
Twin

Panavia Tornado

60

Typical Nose Layouts

Twin--Seater Combat A/C
Twin
Blackburn Buccaneer

61

Typical Nose Layouts Military Transport A/C

Lockheed C-130 Hercules

62

Design constraints

Nose landing-gear
housing

Room for flight

controls

63

Landing
gear
compartment
shall
accommodate both E-170 and E-190 wheel
and associate systems.
64

65

Radome

66

Crew Accommodation

Civilian Passenger Transport A/C

Typical flight deck layout

67

Typical Nose Layout: Boeing 747

68

CD

Mach number
69

Passengers & Baggage

General Comments

Primary consideration regarding fuselage layout for civil

airliners.
Adequate provision required for passengers, baggage &
freight according to specification.
Cabin length & width mainly determined by passenger
& associated services.

Cross-section depth also influenced by accommodation

of standard containers.
70

Passengers & Baggage

General Comments (Cont.)

For typical subsonic single-deck airliner, passenger cabin

approximately 70% of total length.
Larger nose and tail length on supersonic airliner usable
cabin length approximately 55% of total.
Multi-deck arrangements (e.g. Boeing 747, Airbus A380)
introduce flexibility.
Once cross-section is fixed, different passenger
requirements met by stretching or shortening the fuselage.
71

Passengers Preferences

Main concerns are comfort & safety.

Emotional aspects
As expected?
Aesthetically pleasing?
Feels friendly & safe?

Entertainment & boredom avoidance

In-seat entertainment.
Comfortable conversation possible.
Undisturbed reading, working, etc.
Eating & drinking.
Sleep & relaxation.
72

Passengers Preferences (Cont.)

Physical aspects

Tidy?

Efficient air-conditioning?

Odour-free?

Quiet & vibration-free?

Non-smoking?

Cramped space?

Disturbance of & by others.

Carry-on baggage facility convenience.

Proper lighting
73

Cabin Length

Determined by combination of:

Seat pitch, typically:
charter, 0.7 to 0.775 m
economy, 0.775 to 0.85 m
business, 0.9 to 0.95 m

first, 0.95 to 1.5 m

Galley floor area, typically 1 to 2 m by 0.7 m

Toilet floor area, typically 1 m by 1 m

Number of cross aisles

Number of passengers and distribution across cabin.
74

Passengers & Baggage

Seating & passenger layout considerations:

Minimise passenger fore & aft movements to reduce

CG variations during flight.
Dispose passengers, baggage & freight equally
about nominal CG position.
Avoid seating in line with plane of propellers
(noise, psychology).
More space required for seats facing bulkheads.
75

Passengers & Baggage (Cont.)

Forward facing seats generally best.
Large number of small windows gives versatile viewing arrangement.

Doors required for passengers, galley access, toilet services, freight/baggage

stowage, emergency exits.
Overhead lockers for passengers light baggage.

Headroom minimum 1.8 m, 2.0 m in aisles.

Typical economy class requirements:
1 toilet per 40 to 50 pax.

1 galley per 60 to 120 pax.

76

Cabin Width & CrossCross-Section

Shape mainly dictated by structural requirements for pressurisation.
circular best structurally but may give too much unusable
space above & below cabin.
problem overcome by using several inter-connecting circular
sections (mass penalty).

77

Cabin Width & CrossCross-Section

Commuter Airplanes Cabins

78

Cabin Width &

Cross--Section (Cont.)
Cross

Size should be small enough to reduce mass &

drag but big enough to provide passenger
comfort.
Main decision is choice of number of seats
across a/c and consequential aisle arrangement.
Need to provide headroom for passengers next
to wall sometimes constrains shape & moves
seat position inwards from edge of floor.
79

Cabin Width &

Cross--Section (Cont.)
Cross
Seat arrangements
Seat widths (typically):
charter, 0.4 to 0.42 m
economy, 0.475 to 0.525 m

business, 0.575 to 0.625 m

first, 0.625 to 0.7 m

Many seating possibilities but passenger should

be no more than 2 seats away from aisle.
80

Cabin Width & CrossCross-Section (Cont.)

Seating arrangements (cont.)

Aisle width typically:
economy, 0.4 to 0.5 m
first, > 0.6 m

Possibilities include:
2/2, 3/3, 2/3/2, 2/4/2,

Boeing 777 possibilities

2/5/2, 3/4/3, 3/5/3

81

Cabin Length (Cont.)

Typical split of classes:
8% first, 13% business, 79% economy

Extra flip-up seats also required for cabin attendants

in vicinity of emergency doors/exits, typically;
economy, 1 per 30 to 40 pax
business, 1 per 20 to 25 pax

first, 1 per 10 to 15 pax.

82

Cabin Width Estimation

Internal width for economy seating approximately:

[0.5 p + 0.55 a] m,

where:

p = number of seats across cabin

a = number of aisles

External cross-section estimation

Maximum external width includes allowance for trim &
structure, typically 0.2 to 0.3 m added to cabin width.

83

Cabin Length Estimation

Total length in any given unit of accommodation for single

deck layout approximately
[(P/p +g) s + t + 0.8 w] m, where:
P = total number of passengers in unit
p = number of seats across cabin width
g = number of galleys across length
s = seat pitch (m)
t = number of toilets across length
w = number of cross aisles
84

Fuselage Fineness Ratio

Depends on choice of seating layout, i.e. number

of seats across width and number of rows.
Should typically aim for a subsonic fineness ratio
of about 9 (see above):

lower values give drag penalty

higher values give dynamic instability and
reduces future stretch potnential.
85

Fuselage Fineness Ratio (Cont.)

Effect of cabin layout

86

Fuselage Mass Estimation

Transport Aircraft
(weight provided in lb)

where
S f gs

2
D f L f 1
f

2/3

1 1
2
f

(ft2)

and

Lf

wf

wf = fuselage width (ft)

hf = fuselage height (ft)
ln = tail arm of the horizontal tail (ft)
VD = dive speed (knots)

87

Fuselage Mass Estimation

Fighter Plane

(weight provided in lb)

where

lf = fuselage length (ft)

hf = fuselage height (ft)

(ft2)

WTO = takeoff weight (lb)

88

Innovative Cabin Layout

Patented Diagonal Seating

89

Innovative Cabin Layout

The Sky is the Limit for Fantasy

90

Baggage & Freight

Typical baggage provision is 16~20 kg per

passenger (density approximately 160 kg/m3).
This is in addition to personal items placed in
overhead (or sometimes side) lockers.
91

Baggage & Freight (Cont.)

Usual arrangement is to carry passengers baggage
plus freight, loaded in standard LD containers
and located in under-floor freight holds.

92

Baggage & Freight (Cont.)

Hold usually split into separate fore and aft areas,

divided by wing carry-through structure.
Boeing 767

93

Baggage & Freight (Cont.)

Sometimes freight & passengers accommodated in

main cabin in separate sections (combi)
needs large freight access door.
94

Employ ERJ 145 fuselage sections

1995

Same
ERJ 145
front
fuselage

95

EMBRAER 170
A ) DERIVAO DO ERJ 145, ALARGANDO-SE AS PARTES CILNDRICAS DA FUSELAGEM :

EMBRAER 170
B ) FUSELAGEM 4-ABREAST CIRCULAR, MOTORES NA FUSELAGEM, ASA DERIVADA DO ERJ 145 :

Two A-300 fuselage sections joined by plain segments

Airbus concept for the A380 Airliner (year 2000)

No wingtips

Drawback: any
door in this
region is costly
to manufacture

Same front fuselage from older versions (reduce costs)

98

Dornier 228

Dornier 328Jet

99

Fuselage Aerodynamics

100

Fuselage Aerodynamics

Typical Flow Pattern

Upwash caused by the wing

Here is not a good location for probes

101

Fuselage Aerodynamics

Goals

Aim is to achieve reasonably streamlined form together with

minimum surface area to meet required internal volume.

Both drag and mass heavily influenced by surface area.

Require absence of steps and minimum number of

excrescences.

Fundamental differences between subsonic and supersonic

applications.

Concerned with: cross-section shape, nose shape & length,

tail shape/length, overall length.

102

Fuselage Aerodynamics

Shape of the Nose

Should not be unduly bluff.

Local changes in cross-section needed

to accommodate windscreen panels.

Windscreen angle involves compromise

between aerodynamics, bird-strike,

reflection and visibility requirements.

Windscreen panel sizes should be less

than 0.5 m2 each.
103

Fuselage Aerodynamics

Shape of the Nose (Cont.)

Starting point for front fuselage

layout is often satisfactory position

for pilots eye.
Reasonable nose length is about:
1.1 to 2.0 x fuselage diameter
(subsonic).
4 x fuselage diameter
(supersonic).
104

Fuselage Aerodynamics

Subsonic

105

Example of Fuselage Design

Vortex Generators to reattach the flow

Armstrong Whitworth 650 Argosy

106

The aircraft
flies in the
transonic
regime

107

Shock wave causes flow separation in

this region. Vortex generators fix
problem. However, shock wave
remains causing drag and
considerable.

Experiment

Transonic

108

Mach number contours

M = 0.85

Navier-Stokes Simulation
109

Shock causes flow

separation

110

CBA--123
CBA

Flow
separation

111

112

Euler Calculations

Mach = 0.80
No flow stagnation at the
windshield-nose junction
113

Mach = 0.85

Weak shock wave with no flow separation

114

115

Fuselage Aerodynamics

Center Fuselage & Overall Length

Subsonic Aircraft
Theoretically minimum drag for streamlined body with fineness
ratio (length/diameter) of 3.
In reality, typical value is around 10, due to:
need to utilise internal volume efficiently.
requirement for sufficiently large moment arm for

stability/control purposes.
suitable placement of overall CG.
116

Fuselage Aerodynamics
Cross section Shape for Subsonic A/C
Not too critical
aerodynamically, but should:
avoid sharp corners;
provide fairings for
protuberances

Constant cross-section
preferable for optimized
volume utilization and ease of
manufacture.
117

Fuselage Aerodynamics
Supersonic Aircraft

Overall length/diameter ratio very important because

of wave drag problems typically around 20.

118

Fuselage Aerodynamics
Cross section Shape for Supersonic A/C
Area-ruling needed to:
reduce wave drag;

increase critical Mach number (Mcrit)

Combined wing/fuselage section area should vary smoothly

along length.

119

Fuselage Aerodynamics
Tail Shape
Tail Shape
Smooth change in section required, from maximum
section area to ideally zero.
Minimisation of base area especially important for

transonic/supersonic a/c.
Typical tail section lengths are:
2.5 to 3.0 x diameter (subsonic)
6 to 7 x diameter (supersonic)

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Fuselage Aerodynamics

Tail Shape

Important parameter for determining tail

upsweep angle is ground clearance required for
take-off and landing rotation.

Typically 12o to 15o.

121

+ Fluent
Wind Tunnel

Pylon

Engine Pylon
Axed Configuration
For the ERJ-145 Airliner

Fuselage Aerodynamics

Tail Shape
Upsweep angle can be a particular design problem for

transport a/c with large rear ramp loading doors (up to 25o).

123

Fuselage Aerodynamics

Avoid flow separation and improve rudder effectiveness

Mutual interference

124

Fuselage Aerodynamics

Fuselage Local Layout Aspects

EMB--145SA
EMB

Strakes

Stablets

Solving Poor DutchDutch-Roll Behavior Caused by Antenna Instalation

125