‘The aim of this publication is to supply information taken from sources believed to be valid and reliable. This is not an attempt to render any type of professional advice or analysis, nor is it to be treated as such. While much care has been taken to ensure the veracity and currency of the information presented within, neither the publisher nor its authors bear any responsibility for any damage arising from inadvertent omissions, negligence or inaccuracies (typographical or factual) that may have found their way into this book. Copyright © 2009 Trishna Knowledge Systems Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia, Head Office: 7th Floor, Knowledge Boulevard, A-8(A), Sector-62, Noida Registered Office: 14 Local Shopping Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi 110 017, India. This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’ prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and withonta similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (clectronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the publisher of this book. ISBN: 978-81-317-2839-0 First Impression Typeset by Tantla Composition Services Pvt. Ltd, Chandigarh Printed in India at Rahul Print O PackCHAPTER 1 Atomic Structure Dalton's Atomic Theory, Thomson's Atomic Model Rutherford’s Atomic Model Bohr’s Atomic Model CHAPTER 2 Classification of Matter Kinetic MolecularTheory of Matter Classification of Matter on The Basis of Chemical Composition Classification of Elements Mixtures Chromatography CHAPTER 3 Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances Derivation of Formulae of Compounds Atomic Weight or Atomic Mass Molecular Weight Naming of Acids, Bases and Salts Chemical Equation Air and Oxygen “Rtmosphere ‘Components of Air Oxygen Busting of ron Uses of Oxygen 25 26 29 30 34 4 56 BBRRB Copyrighted material| CHAPTERS Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen Water Solution Hydrogen CHAPTER 6 Carbon and its Compounds Carbon Cycle Carbon Allovopy Compounds of Carbon Fite Extinguishers Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen CHAPTER 7 Some Important Elements and their Compounds Nitrogen Phosohorus Sulphur Chiotine Compounds of Nitrogen Phosphorus Hydrogen Sulphide Compounds of Chlorine Hydrogen Chloride Some Industraly Important Compounds Detailed Contents 128 128 131 140 159 159 160 161 169 174 178 192 193 198, 200 206 208 213 28 220 224 226 vSeries Content List Class 8 Class 9 CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 1 Atomic Structure Nature of Matter (CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 2 Classification of Matter Atomic Structure CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER3 Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances CHAPTER 4 Air and Oxygen ‘CHAPTER 5 Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen CHAPTER 6 Carbon and its Compounds CHAPTER 7 Some Important Elements and their Compounds Periodic Table CHAPTER 4 Chemical Bonding CHAPTERS Mole Concept, Stoichiometry and Behaviour of Gases CHAPTER6 Chemical Kinetics and Chemical Equilibrium CHAPTER7 Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen CHAPTERS: Metals and Non-Metals CHAPTERS Organic Chemistryaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Structure of the IIT Foundation Series cg XR The [IT Foundation Series is available in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. Each chapter in the book is divided into three parts, namely, theory, test your concepts and concept application. > Theory: ‘The theory part deals with the various concepts in Physics/Chemistry/Mathematies, which is a part of the syllabus prescribed by major boards for Class X.The concepts are explained in a lucid ‘manner, and diagrams have been provided, wherever necessary, to illustrate these concepts. > Test your Concepts: This exercise is provided at the end of the theory section of each chapter. These exercises are a collection of very short answer,short answer and essay type of descriptive questions. It is intended to provide students with model questions that they may face in the board examination. Students are expected to prepare for these questions before they attempt any examination based on that particular chapter. Towards the end of the book, the students will find key points for selected questions of the exercise, These key points provide students with an idea of the points that should be a part ofan answer for such a question. > Concept Applicatic This is a collection of exercises in three different classes: Class 8, Class 9 and Class 10. Chass 8 consists of basic objective questions. These questions test the basic knowledge of students and enable them to gauge their understanding of concepts when they start solving this exercise. The key for this exercise is provided at the end of the respective chapter. Classes 9 and 10 consist of descriptive questions ofa higher level of difficulty. These questions help students to apply the concepts that they have learnt. Key points for selected questions of these exercises have been provided at the end of each chapter in order to help studeno solve these questions. These books are available for 8th, 9th and 10th classes separately for Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4 Atomic Structure is wh J. J. Thomson and others studied the properties of these cathode rays by conducting the following experimens. Experiment | A small object is placed in between ane the cathode and anode. Metal object object Observation A shadow which is of the same shape as the object is observed on anode he wall opposite to the cathod the wall opposite to the cathode. < Conclusion ie ‘The cathode rays travel in straight High-votage source lines. Figure 1 Experiment Il A light paddle wheel is placed -———-— between cathode and anode Liots Pepe heel Observation ‘The wheel starts rotating. | Cathode Conclusion Cathode rays are made up of La High-voltage source small particles having mass and kinetic energy Figure 1.4 Experiment Ill Cathode rays are passed through an electric field. Path of eathods ~ Faeanc tee Observation ene — Bright spot ‘The rays move on a curved Fluorescent path towards the positive ema) plate of the electric field HY. ‘Schematic diagam meres Conclusion Figure 1.5 The cathode rays are negatively charged particlesaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Atomic Structure Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil a-particles. The foil was surrounded by a spherical screen of zinc sulphide. The &-particles were condensed to a narrow beam by passing them through a pair of positively charged parallel plates. Thin god foi Lead \ Sources of container c-particles Spharical sersen Figure 1.9 Observations (@) Most of the a-particles passed straight through the gold foil without any deflection (ii) A few orparticles were deflected through small angles and a few were deflected through large angles. (iii) Very few (1 in 20,000) o-particles completely rebounded. On the basis of these observations, Rutherford concluded that Thomson's atomic model could not be correct because of the following reasons. 1. Most of the a-particles passed straight through the gold foil. This proves that atoms must have large empty space. v Since very few particles completely rebounded, he concluded that the total positive charge of the atom is concentrated at the centre of the atom. They are not thinly spread in the form of a sphere. The tiny central positively charged core was named as nucleus. 3. The large deflection of the o-particles could take place only because ofthe close encounter of the a-particles with the central positively charged core i.e., the nucleus. Rutherford estimated the diameter of the nucleus to be of the order of 10° cm and that of the atom to be 10° cm. Thus the diameter of the nucleus is about 10° times smaller than the diameter of the atomaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Essay type questions 46, Write down the (a) electronic configuration, (b) number of valence electrons, (c) number of neutrons and (d) nature of the element, for the following. (1) x? 2) ¥™ @) 2” 47. Explain how the results of a-ray scattering experiment led to Rutherford’s model of atom. Give the postulates and drawbacks of Rutherford’s atomic model. 48, State the postulates of Bohr’s theory. 49. Find out the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in K shell, L shell, M shell and N shell by using Bohr-Bury scheme. 50. Give the properties of cathode rays in comparison to the properties of canal rays. enter ictepinarectttsias ar tomentbitt girttasd Raeatnrserecttuetinceeelbeertnneitienmennnitat terete 16aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.36. A dipositive ion has an electronic arrangement 2, 8, 8, Find out the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in that element if its mass number is 40. 37. Atoms of two elements P and Q have 5 electrons in 2nd shell and 3rd shell respectively. ‘What could be the geometrical representations of P and Q? What will the atomic numbers of these elements be? 38. “Anode rays are also produced along with cathode rays in the discharge tube under low pressure”. Justify, 39. Cathode rays are deflected in electric and magnetic fields. But they are made to pass straight in Thomson's experiment. How do you account for this? 40. If the maximum permissible orbits of elements in nature are limited to n = 4, what are the number of possible elements? 41. A metallic element forms an ion with unit charge. The ion has 10 electrons and 12 neutrons, What is the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in its neutral atom? Represent the atom with atomic number and mass number. 42. Nuclear charge of an element B is twice that of A. If A has two completely filled orbits and L shell is its outermost orbit, find out the atomic numbers of A and B. 43. The number of electrons in a dipositive ion of an element X is 18. If the mass number of X is 4 units more than twice the number of electrons of its ion, calculate the number of protons, electron and neutrons in X. 44, Rutherford’s a-tay scattering experiment was conducted in order to test the validity of Thomson's model. What results were expected from this experiment? 48. lf the average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 then find the percentage abundance of the two isotopes of chlorine which have the mass number 35 and 37, Concept Application Level—3 46. Discharge doesn't take place at normal atmospheric pressure inside the cathode ray tube. Justify 47. The ¢/m ratio of cathode rays does not change by changing the gas in cathode ray discharge tube, But the e/m ratio of anode rays changes by changing the gas in the discharge tube. Justify this statement. 48. When the canal ray experiment was conducted by taking helium gas in the discharge tube, e/m value of the particles was found to be less under low voltage and it was found to be more under high voltage. How do you explain this? 49. Different gases can produce different colours in discharge tube. Explain with reason. 50. Anode rays produced by isotopes and isobars possess same charge when taken in different discharge tubes. Which among the two sets of anode rays show different deflections in the presence of electric field? 20aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.37. (i) Number of valence electrons 4 of P and Q and their electronic configuration. Gi) Caleulation of number of electrons in previous shells of P and Q based on the valence shell and the number of electrons in the valence shell 38. (i) Density of gas molecules inside the discharge tube. (ii) The mechanism of production of cathode rays. (ii) The origin of anode rays. 39. (i) Effect of equal strengths of electric field and magnetic field. (ii) The effect of electric and magnetic field on cathode rays. (i) The direction of application of clectric and magnetic fields such that there is no 40. (i) Calculation of the maximum number of electrons in each orbit. fii) The number of elements that depend on electronic configuration, The maximum number of electrons in the valence shell. (iii) 41. (i) Metals form cations. Gi) The number of electrons in neutral atom based on the type of ion metals formed. ‘The atomic number of the metal. The calculation of mass number from atomic number and number of neutrons. Calculation of number of electrons in first 2 shells (i) Calculation of atomic number of A (ii) Calculation of atomic number of B from A 10, 20 Git oo) 2. 0) Number of electrons in corresponding neutral atom. (i) Calculation of mass number. Calculation of number of neutrons ffom mass number and atomic number. 20, 20, 20 Basic concept of atom in Thomson's mode! i) Nature of ©: particles Effect of bombardment of particles with atom (according to Thomson) 45. (i) Ifthe percentage abundance of Cl- 35s x then 2X35*+ 00-1937 100 =355 Gi) 75% of C1-35 and 25% of C137. 46. (i) Number of gaseous molecules present at high pressure (ii) Effect of pressure on velocity of cathode rays Relation between velocity and discharge 47. (i) Nature of cathode and anode rays (i) The composition of anode and cathode rays. (iii) Factors influencing e/m ratio of anode and cathode rays. iv) Change in e/m with gas for cathode and anode rays. 48. (i) The amount of energy required to cause ionisation. (ii) Factors affecting e/m values (ii) Charge on helium gas under low pressure and high pressure. {iv) The effect of charge on e/m. ii) 49. (i) Forces of attraction existing between protons and electrons Gi) Energy required for excitation of electrons. (iii) Relation between energy emitted by atom and colour of discharge ube 50. (i) Characteristics of isotopes and isobar. Gi) Factors affecting e/m of anode rays. (ii) Relation between e/m and deflection. oad nateaaanididiaarateeeraeacsuadettinan tena teaderae etaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.28 Classification of Matter Slow process Fast process Surface phenomenon Bulk phenomenon It occurs at any temperature It occurs at fixed temperature depending on the nature of liquid and extemal pressure, A decrease in the pressure on the surface ofa liquid decreases its boiling point. Solubl. impurities present in a liquid increase the boiling point of the liquid. Condensation ‘The process which involves the change of matter from gas to liquid on cooling is called condensation On cooling, the potential energy of the gas molecules is released in the form of heat energy. Consequently, the intermolecular distance between the gas molecules decreases and the intermolecular force increases. As a result, the molecules become less free to move about. Thus the gas attains the molecular arrangement of a liquid, Since the gases are highly compressible, they can be liquitied by the application of pressure provided the temperature of the yas is equal to or below its critical temperature and this process is called liquifaction. Critical temperature is the temperature above which the liquifiction of the gas is impossible whatever be the pressure applied on it. For every gas, there is a specific critical temperature. The gaseous state of matter below its critical temperature is called vapour. Solidification The process involving the change of matter from liquid to solid on cooling is called solidification or freezing. The temperature at which freezing occurs at normal atmospheric pressure is called freezing point of that liquid. On cooling, the potential energy of the liquid molecules is released in the form of heat energy. Consequently, the intermolecular distance decreases and intermolecular force of attraction increases. The molecules lose their translatory movement, rotatory movement and they only vibrate about their fixed mean position. Thus the molecules of the liquid attain the molecular arrangement of a solid. Sublimation The process by which some solid substances directly change into the vapour state on heating without passing through the intermediate liquid state is called sublimation.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.32 Classification of Matter PERIODIC TABLE w 4 A WA va viavila © 8 [c[nlolr|e E fa{si| ep] s|o ar] a A OnE ‘ls [eel sleela] § metals nor-metals metatloide Figure 23 METALLOIDS Metalloids are elements which show the properties of both metals and non-metals. Example Germanium, arsenic, antimony, selenium and tellurium, Germanium —Itacts as a semiconductor with rise in GeO, is acidic in nature. temperature. Arsenic Metallic grey arsenic is a fair conductor Yellow arsenic forms hydride. (AsH,), a of electricity. weak base. Antimony Grey coloured antimony conducts. Yellow antimony forms stibine (SbH.), a electricity. weak base. Selenium Good conductor of electricity at 475K. It exists in one non-metallic allotropic form. Tellurium Low electrical conductivity Tellurium resembles sulphur in chemical properties. USES OF METALS Iron (Fe) Iron is mainly used in the form of steel, an alloy in which the major components iron. Steel is used for making buckets, drain pipes, chains, ete. as it is extremely tough and it can withstand stress and has high melting pointaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.36 Classification of Matter Composition Fe(83%), C(1%), Cu(15%) and Fe(8496) Min(15%) Fe(79 to 84%) Ni(1%) ca%) W(20 to 15%). C(1%) Properties Resists corrosion Very tough and hard Very-very hard Uses For making utensils and surgical For making safes, armour and For making high speed instruments rock cutter tool. Composition —A1(95%), Cu(4%) A1(95%), Mg(5%) Mn(0-5%), Mg(0-5%) Properties Light weight and as strong as steel Light weight, strong, resistant to corrosion, Uses For making aircraft frames, rockets, For making aeroplane, house appliances, mirrors speed boats, automobiles and scientifc instruments Alloy Monel metal Composition Cu(28%), Ni(67%), Fe6%) Property Resistant to corrosion, malleable and ductile Uses Used for making sinks, doors and window screws Q ae SEPARATION OF MIXTURES In mixtures the individual components retain their original properties. This is exploited to separate the mixture into individual components. Principles involved The difference in one or more of the following physical properties of the constituents is utilised to separate the components of a mixture. (@) Physical State (ii) Density (ii) Melting and boiling points (ix) Solubility (¥) Magnetic properties (vi) Diffusion (vii) Ability wo sublime (viii) Volatilityaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.40 Classification of Matter {B) Dissolution in suitable solvents Principle: When one constituent is soluble in a liquid or reacts chemically with a liquid, it is dissolved in that solvent, from which it can be recovered by chemical reaction. @ Examples N, (insoluble) and CO, (soluble) in KOH. NH, (oluble} and N, (insoluble) in H,O SO, Goluble) and O, (insohuble} in KOH (C) Preferential liquification Principle: Employed induscrially for the separation of a homogencous mixture of two gases, one of which liquifies under high pressure, when they are allowed to expand suddenly. @ Example A mixture of H, and NH,, under very high pressure is allowed to expand suddenly. NH, is liquified and gets separated from H,. {D) Fractional evaporation Principle: This process can be adopted when a mixture of two gases having different boiling points is liquified by allowing it co expand suddenly under extremely high pressure, followed by evaporating the mixture at the respective boiling points of the constituent gases. @ Examples N, and , (N, boils off) V. Separation of liquid-gas mixtures The solution of a gas in a liquid is called a liquid-gas mixture. (A) Separation ofa liquid-gas mixture by heating. Principle: The solubility of a gas in a liquid decreases with the tise in temperature @ Example (i) The liquid-gas mixture (e.g., water-CO,) is filled in a flask and heated gently so that the solution does not boil. (ii) On heating, the solubility of a gas decreases and the dissolved gas is evolved and collected. (B) Separation of liquid-gas mixture by releasing pressure. Principle: The solubility of gas in a liquid can be increased by increasing external pressure and is decreased with the decrease in external pressure.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.27. Aluminium foil can be made from aluminium by using (1) its thermal and electrical conductivity. (2) its malleable property. (2) its sonorous property. (4) All the above 28. Pickles are not stored in stee! or aluminium containers because (2) steel has chromium which is poisonous. Q) alun (3) pickles have acids which can corrode iron and aluminium making pickles poisonous. (4) None of the above nium takes up oxygen from pickles and spoils it, 29, The molecular arrangement of a substance depends upon (1) temperature (2) concentration (2) pressure (4) All of the above 30. Silver, gold and platinum are called noble metals because (1) these are costly (2) these are precious (3) these have very less reactivity (4) All the above Concept Application Level—2 31. The thermal expansion of solids is the least among solids, liquids and gases. Justify. 32. In winter momings, the exhaled air tums foggy. Explain, 33. Explain the method by which CCI, H,O and ethyl alcohol mixture can be separated. 34. Conduction of heat is not possible through gases. Explain using kinetic molecular theory. 35. For a certain purpose, a liquid having a liquid range from ~ 10°C to 110°C is required in large quantities. What is the suitable liquid for the above purpose and how can it be used? 36. Water is sprayed in orange grooves in very cold countries during winter. Give reasons. 37. Explain the effect of temperature on the electrical conductivity of metals. 38. Why do naphthalene and camphor sublime under normal conditions of temperature and pressure? 39. Two ice cubes can be joined by pressing them together and then by releasing pressure. How do you account for this? 40. Copper in copper oxide does not liberate SO, gas while copper in bronze evolves SO, gas with cone. H,SO,. However, for making statues, copper is used in the form of bronze but not metallic copper or copper oxide. Explain why the same copper has such varied properties. 41. Why are ornaments prepared by using an alloy of Ag with Cu and not by pure Ag? 42, Perfect moulds can be made by using wrought iron but not by using molten copper. Give reasons, 43. In spite of supplying heat, the temperature of the melting solid docs not change. Explain with reasons. 44, During the process of soldering, the metal surfices are cleaned using acids. What purpose does this serve and which separation technique is involved in this? 45. Explain the methods by which the constituents in gunpowder can be separated. ) 49aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances 63 /\_\ Derivation of Formulae of Compounds (Be CES Chemical formulae of the compounds are derived by considering the number of charges on \ ions. Certain basic rules ate followed for writing formulae of compounds. {a) The positive radical or cation is written first and then it is followed by the negative radical oF anion. (b) The molecule of any compound being electrically neutral, che total positive charge on the positive radical or cation should be equal to the total negative charge on the negative radical or anion. Examples (@) To form a compound between A* and X- To form a neutral compound with A* and X°, the total number of postive charges should be equal to the total number of negative charges. As the number of charges on A and X are the same, one atom of A combines with one atom of X to form the neutral compound AX. @ Example Na‘, Cr Compound with Na® and Cl, Molecular formula of the compound is NaCl. (ii) To form a compound between A* and X* To make a neutral compound by combining these two, two atoms of A compensate the two negative charges on X. The compound formed is of the kind A,X. @& Example Compound with H* and S*. Molecular formula HS. (ii) To form a compound between A” and X* One atom of A cannot compensate for all the negative charges of X. Two atoms of A have a total of +4 charges while X has only -3. Two atoms of X have a total of 6 charges which are to be compensated by 3 atoms of A. The compound formed is AX, @® Examples AI SO,2—> AL(SO,), Si 02 —+ SiO, Ca? COA CaCO, The above methods for writing formulae of a compound can be simplified with the help of criss-cross method i ———TTIT64 Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances (A CRISS-CROSS METHOD Step I ce The symbol of the cation or positive radical is written on the left side and the symbol of the anion or negative radical on the right side. @ Examples @H Ss (i) CaF Step I The number of charges on the ion or radical is indicated. 1 Examples @H" s? (i) Ca? Step II The value of the charge on the ion or radical is interchanged and shifted to the lower right side of the ion or radical (the values of the charges are criss-crossed). 1@ Examples @H" Ss? —+ HS (i) Cr? FY Car, If the charge on any one ion or radical or both the ions and radicals is 1, then no number is required to be written afer they are interchanged and shifted to the lower right side, © Examples « coor @ K* ch — > Kel >< >< @) NH." cr —> NH no In case the charge on both the ions or radicals is the same, no number is needed to be written. © Examples @ Fe? =O? —> FO @ are N° — > AIN If one of the combining species or both the combining species are polyatomic then the radicals) are written within the parentheses in case the number of radical(s) present in one molecule of the compound is more than 1.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.66 Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances Phosphorous 31 Barium 137 Sulphur 32 Platinum 197 Chlorine 35.5 Mercury 200 Potassium 39 Lead 207 ‘One twelth of the mas ofa '{C atom is called atomic mass unit abbreviated as amu. Hence atomic weights of the elements are expressed in amu. @ Example Atomic weight of oxygen is 16 amu. The relative atomic mass or atomic weight of an element expressed in grams is called gram atomic weight or gram atom. ‘© Example As the atomic weight of oxygen is 16 amu, gram atomic mass of oxygen is 16 gram. Molecular Weight ‘Molecular weight is calculated by adding the atomic weights of all the constituent atoms. & Examples 1, Molecular weight of NaHCO, ‘The atomic weight of Na = 23 amu, H =1amu C =12amu and O = 16 amu Therefore, the molecular weight of NaHCO, = 23 + 1 +12 + (16x 3) = 84 amu 2. Molecular weight of Ca(OH), The atomic weight of Ca = 40 amu O =16amu H =1amu ‘Therefore, molecular weight of Ca(OH), = 40 + (16 x 2) + (1 x2) = 74 amu ‘The molecular weight expressed in grams is called gram molecular weight.Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances 67 '@ Example Q Molecular weights of ©, and H,O are 32 amu and 18 amu respectively. Hence gram molecular weights of O, and H,O are 32 gram and 18 gram respectively. NAMING OF BINARY COMPOUNDS. The compounds that are formed by the combination of two elements are called binary compounds In naming of binary compounds, the electropositive atom (generally metal) is specified first by giving its ordinary English name. The name of the second element which is generally a non-metal is obtained by adding the suffix ‘ide’ to its name. @& Examples MgCl, — Magnesium chloride CaCl, Calcium chloride BaO Barium oxide HS Hydrogen sulphide In case of metals showing variable valency, it is necessary to specify which of the positive ions are present, @ Examples Ferrous oxide or Iron(II)oxide Ferric oxide or Iron(LII)oxide Cuprous chloride or Copper({)chloride Cupric chloride or Copper(lI)chloride For binary covalent compoundk, generally formed by two non-metallic elements, itis required to specify the number of atoms of more electronegative element with the help of a meaningful prefix. One Mono Two Di Three Tri Four Tetra (Continued on the allowing page)68 Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances Five Penta Six Hexa Seven Hepta Eight Octa Nine Nona Ten Deca The less electronegative element is specified firs, followed by more electronegative element. The prefix is generally added to more electronegative element to specify its number of atoms. SO, Sulphur dioxide N,O, —_ Dinitrogen pentoxide SE, Sulphur hexafluoride PCI, _ Phosphorus trichloride co Carbon monoxide Naming of Acids, Bases and Salts 1, Binary acids: Binary acids are named as hydro... @ Examples HCl Hydrochloric acid HBr Hydrobromic acid 2. Oxyacids: Oxyacids are named without mentioning hydrogen. Often an element (non- metal) is able to form more than one oxyacid. In naming such acids, the one with the greater number of oxygen atom is given the suffix ~ic and the one with the lesser number of oxygen atoms is given the suffix -ous. '@& Examples HNO, Nitrous acid HNO, Nitric acid HSO, Sulphuric acid H,SO, — Sulphurous acid ‘When a non-metal forms more than two oxyacids, the prefix hypo- is used for the acids containing lesser number of oxygen than -ous acids and per— is used for acids containing more oxygen atoms than -ic acids.Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances © Examples HCIO ——_Hypochlorous acid Hcio, Chlorous acid HCIO, —Chlorie acid HClO, Perchloric acid 3. Bases: For naming bases, the name of the metal (or positive radical) is specified first and then hydroxide due to the presence of hydroxyl radical. @ Examples KOH Potassium hydroxide Ca(OH), Calcium hydroxide Fe(OH), Iron (Il) hydroxide Fe(OH), Iron (Ill) hydroxide NH,OH — Ammonium hydroxide 4. Salts Salts of binary acids are written with -ide suffix, i.e., the name of the metallic radical (or positive radical) is written first and it is then followed by the name of the negative radical. @ Examples NaCl Sodium chloride KS Potassium sulphide MgBr, Magnesium bromide CaF, Calcium fluoride 2 Salts of oxyacids are derived from their corresponding oxyacids. The salts which come from the oxyacids with ‘ous’ suffix are given the suffix ‘ite’ and those from ‘ic’ suffix are given the suffix ‘ate’, "@ Examples ZnSO, —_ Zinc sulphite FeSO, Iron (1) sulphate NaNO, Sodium nitrite Cu(NO,), Copper (11) nitrate NaOCl Sodium hypochlorite Ca(OC), — Calcium chlorite Kclo, KCIO, —_ Potassium perchlorate Potassium chlorateaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances. 71 (b) By burning carbon. (6) By the reaction of metallic carbonates with acids, ‘When the three samples of CO, produced by the three different methods are analysed, the ratio by weight of carbon and oxygen has been found co be same, i.e, 12: 32 or3 :8. (iii) Law of multiple proportions ‘When two elements combine in different ratios to give more than one type of product, the ratio of the masses of the clement that combines with a fixed weight of the other element always bears a simple integral ratio. @® Example Nitrogen and oxygen combine and form compounds like N.O, NO, NO,, etc. NO: 28 ¢ of nitrogen combines with 16 g of oxygen. Therefore, 14 g of nitrogen combines with 8 g of oxygen. NO: 14 g of nitrogen combines with 16 g of oxygen. NO,: 14 g of nitrogen combines with 32 g of oxygen. If we analyse the ratio of oxygen that is combining with fixed mass of nitrogen in all the three compounds, it bears a simple integral ratio, ie. 1:2: 4. A quantitative relationship exists between the reactants and products in a chemical reaction. If specific amount of reactants are taken, then definite quantity of products are formed. Hence, it is required to balance all the chemical equations with respect to the number of atoms of various elements involved in the equation. BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION A balanced chemical equation is one in which the number of atoms of each clement of the reactants which are there on the left hand side of the reaction is equal to that of atoms of each element of the products present on the right hand side of the reaction, The number of molecules of the reactants and that of the products are written as coefficients. "@ Examples 2NIOH +HSO, ——> NaSO,+2H,0 2KCIO, — > KCI +30, Balancing of a chemical equation (Trial and error method) Initially the number of times (frequency) an clement occurs on both sides of the skeleton equation should be counted. An element with least frequency is balanced first. When two or more elements have the same frequency, the metallic element (if present) is balanced first in preference to the non-metallic element().aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances 73 CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION @ Physical contact Chemical reaction takes place only when the reactants are brought in contact with each other. "© Example CaO + HO —> Ca(OH), Calcium hydroxide is formed only when calcium oxide comes in contact with water Gi) Solution Some chemical reactions take place only when the reactants are taken in the form of solutions. @& Example There is no reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride when they are in solid state. Reaction takes place only when they are dissolved in water. AgNO, + NaCl —> AgCl + NaNO, Heat A large number of chemical reactions take place by the absozption of heat. These are called thermo-chemical reactions. @ Example @) 2KCIO, —44 2KCI+ 30, () Fe+S 44 Fes ‘On simple mixing of iron fillings and sulphur, no reaction takes plaice; they combine and form iron sulphide only on heating. (iv) Light There are certain reactions which take place only in the presence of light. These are called photochemical reactions. @ Example: Photosynthesis 6CO,(g) + 6H,0() HEE, CH,0,19 + 60,19 Photosynthesis does not take place in the absence of light. (v) Electricity Some reactions take place only by the passage of electric current, These are called electro- chemical reactions.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.716 Language of Chemistry and Transformation of Substances © Examples @ Caco, + CaO + CO, (i) 2HgO —*4 2Hg +0, Ifthe decomposition of a substance takes place in the presence of light, itis called photolytic decomposition (photolysis). @ Example 2Hoc! SH, HCI + 0, If the decomposition of the substance takes place by the passage of electricity, it is called electrolytic decomposition (electrolysis). © Example 2NaCl—Ekeetccunent_, 2Na + Cl, Decomposition of the compound into its respective elements is called analysis. I. Displacement reaction In a displacement reaction the more reactive element displaces the less reactive element from its compound. Representation: AB + C——> CB +A XY +Z—>XZ+Y ‘The ability of an element co displace another clement is known by its relative position ia the reactivity series. Metal reactivity series Potasium = K (Most reactive metal) Sodium Na Calcium Ca Magnesium = Mg Aluminium Al Zinc Zn Reactivity decreases tron Fe Nickel Ni Tin Sn Lead Pb Hydrogen H Copper Cu Mercury Hg Silver Ag Gold Au Platinum Pe (Least reactive metal) ‘The more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its compound.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.test your concepts ee _ Very short answer type questions : ; 1. 80 In the table given below some commonly used positive and negative radicals are listed. Use the criss- cross method to obtain the formulae of the compound that is formed using the given radicals, Name the compound thus obtained. SS ee ee 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Nav Nav A? Zn” Cat? Ale K" NH,” Ni? Al? Ag? Ge Litt AS Fe’ KH HY ca HY HY Ge Ki HY HO HY cut HO (Continued on the folowing page)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book..ctions for questions 16 to 30: For each of the questions, four choices have been provided. Select the correct alternative. 16. Which of the following is not a physical change? (1) Dissolution of oxygen in water Q) Dissoluson of earbondioxide in water (3) Dissolution of alcohol in water. (4) Dissolution of salt in water. 17. Which of the following double displacement reactions is correct? (1) AB+ CD —>AC+ BD Q) AB+CD-——+aD+BC (@) AB+CD—+CA+BD (#) AB+ CD —+ AD + CB 18. The formula of the phosphate of an clement R is RPO,, then the formulae of its hydroxide and sulphide respectively are ___ and (2) RCH), and RS, 2) R(OH), and R,S, (3) R(OH), and RS, (4) ROH), and RS, 19. The molecular weight of a compound which contains « total number of five radicals is 160, then itis () cap, Q) Fe,0, @) ALO, (4) Mg.N, 20. Removal of CO, and H,O from atmospheric air by using KOH and anhydrous CaCl, is an example of and changes respectively. (1) chemical, chemical 2) physical, physical $ (3) chemical, physical (4) physical, chemical 21. Which of the following reactions is a synthesis reaction? (1) When steam is passed over red hot coke, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is formed. (2) Sodium reacts with water to form sodium hyéroxide and hydrogen (3) When the milk of lime (calcium hydroxide) is added to hot sodium carbonate solution, sodium hydroxide is obtained and calcium carbonate separates out as mud. (4) Stannic chloride is prepared by passing chlorine into molten tin. 22. Pb (NO,), + Fe, (SO,), —> Fe (NO), + PbSO, Coefficients of lead sulphate and ferric nitrate in the balanced equation of above reaction are 3.4 @ 33 3) 3,2 4) 2,3 23. The names of the salts formed by the reaction of (i) Caand HNO, (i) Ca and H,SO, are (1) @) Calcium nitrate (i) Calcium sulphate (2) @ Calcium nitrite (i) Calcium sulphite (3) @) Calcium nitrate (i) Calcium sulphite (4) (i) Calcium nitrite (fi) Calcium sulphate X 87aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Concept Application Level—1 24. Choice (4) True or false 28. Choice (3) 26. Choice (2) 1. Fabe: are 27. Choice (2) oe 28. Choice (2) a RauS 29. Choice (1) SUAS 30. Choice (2) 6. Fake a 7. Fake Concept Application Level—2,3 ill in the blanks Kerpelts Fillin ti ae 31, 6) Identification of ¥ from the given 8.2.4 data 9. 120g (ii) Identification of X from Y. 10.2,4 (ii) Predicting the valencies of carbon ” d in X and Y. 11.0 and 2 (iv) Reaction between Y and lime 12. ide water, 13. fluorine (®) Composition of the above product. 14. hydrolysis 32. (i) Formula of the binary acid. (i) Valency of X. Match the following (ii). Valency of M in each case. iA EE (iv) Derivation of the formulae of sats 1B eg produced, cid 33. (i) Valency of M. D:h (ii) Identification of the valency of E b ‘metal M. Eri (ii) Derivation of the formula of Gy a chloride, bicarbonate and sulphite H:j from its valency. I e 34. (i) Reactants on left hand side and Juc products on right hand side, Gi) Balancing the equations by keeping Multiple choice questions appropriate coefficients on either 16. Choice (2) side of reaction. 17. Choice 4) Law of definite proportions. Determination of the weight 18: Choice'(4) of nitrogen and oxygen which 19. Choice (2) combine to form nitric oxide. 20. Choice (3) (ii) Calculation of the weight of oxygen from the weight of 24. Choice (4) zs : nitrogen given. 22. Choice (3) fs) S68 23. Choice (3)36. Gi) () @) (wi) 38. i) (i) 3% Gi) (ai) Gy) 40. () @ ii) Negative radical in an oxyacid. Identification of the types of negative radicals formed from sulphar and oxygen. Derivation of the formu of the salt Derivation of the formula of the base formed by the metal Identification of negative radical of the given oxyacid. Identification of salt of an oxyacid fiom the given molecular weight. Calculation of atomic weight of metal and identification of metal. ‘Writing formulae of the divalent metal with corresponding negative radicals, Calculation of molecular weights of the above salts. 58 Calculate valency of M and N (metals) present in the reactants and products, Valencies of M, N in their respective equations Identification of the element with, variable valency. Reactivity series of metals. Reactivity of metals according to metal reactivity series. Reactions taking place. Change in property of the solution due to the reaction. ‘Changes that take place in nitric acid on long standing. Effect of the product on nitric acid solution. Reactivity of HCI towards concentrated H,SO,, P,O, and quick lime. Give the formula of iron (II) oxide, Reaction between Al and iron (III) oxide. Based on the above chemical reaction, predict the type of reaction. Gv) Identification of oxidising and E t reducing agents. 42. (i) Formule of salts based on valency of metal. (i) Derivation of formulae of the compounds based on the valency of the metal. ii) Calculation of its corresponding molecular weight. 43. Significance of coefficient and subscripts associated with the formula. 44, Formula of the white precipitate, 48. (i) General balanced chemical equation for combustion of hydrocarbon. ii) Calculation of the coefficients of carbon dioxide and water using the formula. (iii) Coefficient of _ Amount of CO, produced Molecular weight (iv) Coefficient of Amount of H,O produced Molecular weight (¥) Chemical formula of hydrocarbon from the coefficients of carbon dioxide and water co, H. 46. (i) Oxygen remains in the dissolved state in water. (i) Conversion of oxygen to another allotropic form. (iii) Condition required for the conversion, {iv) Role of that allotropic form in the purification of water. 47. (i) Difference between luminous and non-luminous fame. (ii) Reactions taking place in luminous and non luminous flame. {iti) Conditions required for these reactions. (@) Identification of X from the respective anhydride (ii) Predicting the formule of the bases based on nomenclature 48. eee tanner ttn te mtr pe etre nee PREDaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Air and Oxygen GW. cd INTRODUCTION Nature provides us with all the basic necessities of life like air, water, food, fire, etc. Among all these, air plays the most important role in several processes taking place in nature. Since all processes in nature are associated with air, we cannot imagine life without air. Though it is invisible, the presence of air is felt in every activity in nature. The study of air and its importance dates back to 15th century until when air was considered to be an element. Later, in 1674, Mayoco for the first time predicted the presence of two component in air, namely, the active component and the inactive component. Since then, air is no more considered to be an element. In the later years, Lavoisier also found the ratio of the active and inactive components of air to be | : 4 by volume The laterstudies and experiments have revealed major components to be oxygen andnitrogen, the former being the active component and the latter being the inactive component. Atmosphere ‘The layer of air that surrounds the earth upto an altitude of 300 km is called the atmosphere. Above this altitude, the region is absolutely free of air. This region above the atmosphere is called space. 96Air and Oxygen 97 Layers of atmosphere The atmosphere is divided into four layers based on the variations in temperature and composition of different regions at different altitudes, from the surface of the earth. (i) Troposphere: The layer of atmosphere which is in contact with the earth’s surface is called troposphere. The range of temperature in this layer is close to that of the earth since itis just above the earth’s surface. In this layer, the temperature decreases with increase in altitude upto about 50°C. It lies between 0 km and 10 km above the earth’s surface and contains the maximum percentage of the total mass of the atmosphere. Stratosphere: The layer of atmosphere above the troposphere is called stratosphere. In this layer, temperature range does not alter upto a height of about 25 km. Above this, the temperature gradually decreases upto a range of 0°C to 10°C. It lies between 10 km to 50 km above the surface of the earth. (iii) Mesosphere: The layer succeeding the stratosphere is called mesosphere. In this layer, the range of temperature is lower than chat of the layers below it. It lies between 50 km to 80 km above the surface of the earth, (iv) Thermosphere: This is the topmost layer of atmosphere and it is called so due to the very high temperatures prevailing there. The basic reason for this is that the atmosphere in this layer absorbs the intense solar radiation. ‘The composition of air is not uniform throughout the atmosphere. It varies from one layer to the other layer. Significance of atmosphere The atmosphere plays an important role in all natural phenomena taking place. These are (@) Formation of clouds Occurrence of rain Formation of snow Preventing the harmfal radiations reaching the earth. Formation of winds Since atmosphere is associated with all these natural processes, the study of atmosphere helps in making weather forecasts regarding cyclones, floods and droughts. They further help in taking proper steps to protect the life from these natural disasters. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE The atmosphere in any layer is composed of air, which exerts a downward pressure, and this downward pressure exerted by air due to its weight on the surroundings is called the atmospheric pressure.98 Air and Oxygen Since pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area, it is expressed in Newtons/metre® which is called pascal. Hence, S.1. unit of pressure is pascal or kilopascal. Measurement of atmospheric pressure Since the composition and hence the density of air varies with the altitude, the pressure exerted by air also varies. The atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in the altitude. Itis due to this reason that the atmospheric pressure is measured at sea level where it is maximum. ‘The instrument used to measure the atmospheric pressure is called the barometer. Two types of barometers are in use for this purpose. () Mercury barometer Graduated (ii) Aneroid barometer Mercury <—— glass tube closed at, (i) Mercury barometer one end This is che most common type of barometer used. Principle: Mercury is @ liquid which has high density (13.6 gm/cc). Hence, it can rise as a short column when the pressure exactly balances the atmospheric presstire. Moreover, mercury does not stick to the walls of the glass tbe due to weak adhesive forces between them. Figure 4.1 A mercury barometer CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING A graduated glass tube of about 840 mm length which is closed at one end and open at the other end is taken. This tube is filled completely with mercury and then inverted into a trough full of mercury. Depending on the external pressure, some mercury from glass tube comes out and stands at a certain height. This height is measured. Above this column, there is almost vacuum and itis called Toricellian vacuum. At normal atmospheric pressure at sea level, the height of the mercury column falls to about 760 mm of Hg. Hence this is taken as the standard value of atmospheric pressure. 1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 760 torr = 101.3 kilopascals. ‘The pressure can be calculated by substituting the height of the mercury column in the formula P = hdg; where ‘h’ is the height of the mercury column, ‘d’ is the density of the mercury and ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.100 Air and Oxygen Xp Pp Components of Air (Oxygen and nitrogen are the major components of air. Apart from these owo, some other gases like carbondioxide, water vapour and inert gases are present in the atmosphere. The various components of air including inert gases can be separated by the fractional distillation of liquid air. This is based on the principle that different components of air boil at different temperatures. co, 32°C Xe 108°C Kr 153°C oO, -183°C Ar -186°C_ N, -196°C Ne -246°C He 269°C FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF AIR. Oxygen Respiration, burning of fuels, fermentation, decomposition of organic matter. Nitrogen Growth of plants and animals. Slows down the activity of oxygen in the atmosphere. co, Photosynthesis, greenhouse effect. H,O Moisture for growth of plants and animals. Prevention of excess evaporation from living cells. Helium, ‘Weather balloons, for diluting oxygen carried by scuba divers. Neon Advertisement sign boards, lighting in acrodromes. Argon Electric bulbs. COMPOSITION OF AIR Though the composition of air varies from place to place and time to time, the average composition by weight and by volume are determined.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.102 Air and Oxygen Q I. GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION Heating of oxides: (@) Forms misror like On heating, mercuric and silver oxides decompose to (a) 2HgO—*>2Hg+0, surfice near the cooler (b) 2Ag,0 —> 4Ag + 0, parts of the test tube form their respective metals (b) Silvery white globules and oxygen gas. are formed. Thermal decomposition (a) 2Pb,O, ——> 6PbO+0, (a) Reddish brown residue of heavy oxides: () 2PbO, —> 2Pb0+0, tuming yellow on Heavy metal oxides cooling is called litharge. decompose to give oxygen (b) Chocolate brown PbO, and lower oxides. turns to yellow litharge, Thermal decomposition (a) 2KNO—> 2KNO, + 0, of nitrates: (0) 2NaNO—>2NaNO, + 0, Alkali metal nitrates on heating decompose to give metal nitrites and oxygen II. LABORATORY METHODS OF PREPARATION (i) From hydrogen peroxide Principle Hydrogen peroxide undergoes catalytic decomposition in the presence of manganese dioxide to give water and oxygen at room temperature. 2H,0, “5 2H,0+0, H,0, > Delivery tube Thistle—> funnel ‘Oxygen Gas cylinder Conical flask Mn0, Figure 4. 3 Laboratory preparation of oxygen from HO,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Air and Oxygen 105 Method of collection of oxygen In all the methods, the evolved gas is collected in the same method. A_ glass jar is inverted over the water tank in a trough and oxygen gas is collected in the glass jar by the downward displacement of water. IL. INDUSTRIAL METHODS OF PREPARATION ‘Air and water being the resources in which oxygen is abundantly available, oxygen is prepared ina large scale from these natural resources, (i) Fractional distillation of liquid air ‘The various steps involved are given below: (a) Removal of dust particles: Air should be first free from dust particles. This is done by passing air either through filters or through electric precipitators. (b) Removal of water vapour: The air free of dust particles is passed through conc. H,SO,, or anhydrous calcium chloride. (c) Removal of CO,: The dry air is passed through caustic soda or caustic potash. (d) Liquefaction of air: A high pressure of 100 atm—200 atm range is applied co dry air. Then air is allowed to expand by pumping it through a fine jet. This sudden expansion results in cooling, The same process is repeated a number of times so that the temperature is decreased and air is converted to liquid state. Liquid air is obtained at — 200°C. (e) Fractional distillation of liquid air: Liquid air mainly contains liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of — 95°C and liquid oxygen has a boiling point of - 182.9 °C. These liquids can be separated by fractional distillation. pump purified air Glass silvered from inside Liguia Figure 4.6 Liquefaction of airaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Air and Oxygen 109 (b) Reaction with nitrogen: Nitrogen being chemically less reactive does not react with oxygen under normal conditions. But, when an electric spark is produced in a1 : 1 mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, they react to form nitric oxide. +0. Z_ Electric spark. 2No N, a ee 500° (c) Reaction with carbon: Red hot charcoal when burnt with oxygen produces CO, gas with the evolution of a large amount of heat. C+0,3CO, +Heat Due to the evolution of large amount of heat in this reaction, charcoal, coal, coke, etc. are used as fuels. (d) Reaction with sulphur: Sulphur burns with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide gis. Along with SO, gas, trace amounts of sulphur trioxide are also produced. This mixture of oxides imparts brilliant blue colour to the flame. S$+0,——> SO, 28 + 30, —> 280, (only in traces) () Reaction with phosphorous: Phosphorous, on burning with oxygen produces dense white fumes of phosphorous pentoxide. 4P + 50, —> 2P,0. (iv) Reaction with hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons react with oxygen to form catbondioxide and water. Different hydrocarbons react with oxygen at different temperatures. A large amount of heat is evolved during this reaction. Due to the highly exothermic nature of the reaction, a mixture of hydrocarbons acts as a very good fuel,. e.g., wood, petrol, diesel and LPG. A candle made up of a mixture of lower hydrocarbons also burns in oxygen producing heat and light. C,H, + O, —> xCO, + 1H, + Energy The addition of oxygen to a metal or a non metal is termed as oxidation. Some non metal oxides also undergo oxidation to their higher oxides. As oxygen oxidizes most of the substances, it is a good oxidizing agent.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.112 Air and Oxygen (©) Furniture and fixtures These are coated with a thin layer of plastic. (ii) Galvanization: Iron sheets are dipped in molten zine and passed through heavy rollers. This iron coated with zinc metal is called galvanized iron and the process, as galvanization. e.g. Tin roof, buckets, tubs, iron trunks and suitcases ) Tinning: Forming a layer of tin over the iron surface is called tinning. This process is similar to galvanization e.g., Containers for edible materials like oils, fruit juices, vegetables, meat, etc. (iv) Electroplating: The process of coating the iron metal by another metal by means of electrolysis is called electroplating. The metals used for this purpose are nickel and chromium. Though it is an expensive process, coating is long lasting and effective. e.g., bicycle handles, rims, car bumpers. (v) Alloying: The process of mixing of other metals with iron to make a homogeneous mixture is called alloying. The most commonly used alloy of iron is stainless steel which contains 12% to 20% chromium and 0.07% to 0.1% carbon. By making this stainless steel alloy, iron metal is protected from corrosion. e.g., Surgical instruments, utensils, tools and cutlery. Detection of oxygen (Tests) ‘The following tests can be performed to detect the evolution of oxygen gas. (i) Rekindles a glowing splinter (ii) Neutral to litmus ii) Colourless nitric oxide changes to reddish brown NO, gas. (iv) Tums alkaline Pyrogallol to dark brown. Uses of Oxygen (i) Respiration of living organisms. Gi) Combustion or burning of fue. (iii) Manufacture of H,SO, and HNO, in industry. (iv) Explosive: For blasting big rocks in mines, a mixture of coal, petroleum jelly and liquid oxygen is used in the form of cartridge (v) Metal extraction: Used in blest furnace for the extraction of iron. (vi) Welding: A mixture of oxygen and hydrogen on burning gives oxy-hydrogen flame which is at a temperature of 2800°C. In place of hydrogen, when acetylene is used, it becomes oxy-acetylene flame which gives a still higher temperature of 3300°C. Both are used for welding purposes.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.14 Air and Oxygen CFCs @ Air conditioners (chloro flonro Organic chemicals Depletion of ozone layer. carbons) (ii) Refrigeration systems. (Automobiles (Pb) () Present in petrolas (i) Nervous disorders Metals (ii) Thermal power plants anti-knock. Gi) Problems of digestion, (Pb, Hg) As, Co, Cu) (ii), Chemical reactions. (iii) Cancer. () Automobiles Hydrocarbons Gi) Degradation of organic Exhaust gis (@ Carcinogenic (i) Metal oxides and toxic metals of fly ash cause health protlenss. pee Thermal power ee i) Silica causes bronchitis and y plants. lung cancer, (ii) Contamination of ground water and clogging of drainage. Suspended s (Lung and respiratory Particulate a3 piapsies Exhaust gas disorders Matter(SPM) © e fil) Formation of smog. OQ a HAZARDS OF AIR POLLUTION AND THEIR PREVENTION (i) Acid rain Rain water is actually the purest form of water. However, the presence of pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen and sulphur in the air imparts acidity to the rain water. The sources of these gases are the eruption of volcanoes and the burning of fossil fuels, factory chimneys, etc. These gases dissolve in rain water forming nitric acid and sulphuric acid. SO, + HO—>H,S0, 2NO, + H,O —> HNO, + HNO, Acid rain reduces the fertility of soil and thus damages vegetation. It also pollutes water bodies, thus affecting animal and aquatic life. Acid rain ako results in the corrosion of buildings, statues and archeological monuments. ‘Acid rains are not confined only to industrial aress. The regions free of industrial pollution may also be affected by acid rains due to the movement of the rain clouds from one region to the other region.Air and Oxygen 15 Prevention The casual agents for acid rain being the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are difficult to be controlled. But, avoiding the usage of fossil fue, the use of the non-conventional sources of energy and safe disposal of industrial wastes to some extent can reduce the levels of these pollutants, thus preventing the ill effects of acid rains. (ii) Greenhouse effect and global warming Land and ocean absorb solar energy to warm the earth’s atmosphere. In tum, they release infrared radiation or heat into the atmosphere. The blanket of gases covering the earth’s surface traps this radiation. Thus, the absorption of heat maintains the temperature of the earth's surface which is absolutely essential co support life on earth, This natural process is called greenhouse effect. This natural phenomenon of greenhouse effect is caused mostly by CO, and water vapour in the atmosphere. Hence, these gases are called greenhouse gases. However, increase in the levels of CO, and the presence of some other gases such as CHy, ‘ozone, ete. in the atmosphere result in a gradual rise in the temperature of earth’s surface. This increasing greenhouse effect occurring due to the polluced gases in the atmosphere is called global warming, These gases which cause global warming are called greenhouse gases. Melting of ice caps and glaciers, excessive evaporation of sea and ocean waters, increase in frequency of floods, soil erosion, unseasonal rains, health hazards for human beings and animals as a consequence of increased temperature on the earth are some hammful effees of global Reduction of global warming: Reduction in the use of fossil fuels, controlling deforestation, restricting the use of (CFCs) chloroflourocarbons are some measures to be taken against increasing green house effect. Growing more and more plants is obviously the most essential requirement for conuolling global waning. (iii) Ozone depletion Ozone when present in troposphere causes greenhouse effect and contributes to pollution. But, in stratosphere, ozone has a very useful role to play. It absorbs ultra violet radiations coming from the sun and prevents them, from reaching the earth's atmosphere. Ultra violet radiations are biologically harmful, The ozone layer acts as a screen for these radiations. Some pollutants, such as chlorofluorocarbons are chemically inactive and do not dissolve in rain water. Hence they reach the stratosphere over a period of time. There they react with ozone and cause depletion of ozone in that region. Therefore, it cannot perfectly screen the UN. radiations. Once this radiation reaches the earth's surface it causes many undersiable effects like skin cancer, cataract, damage of plants and crops, et.116 Air and Oxygen Prevention The most effective way of protecting the ozone layer is developing alternatives for chlorofluorocarbons in the refrigerating systems and aerosols. Acid rains, global warming and ozone depletion are the major hazards to environment, In addition to these, the other pollutants like carbon monoxide, fly ash, suspended particulate matter, toxic metals also cause considerable damage to man and environment. Some general methods have to be followed for curbing the air pollution in all respects. Instead of finding out ways and means for the safe disposal of waste products, now focus has been shifted to designing of industrial equipments like scrubbers and precipitators and synthesis of chemicals which are environment friendly. This involves the usage of raw materials, solvents which do not cause release of any harmful products. Researches are going on for the development of alternative chemical reactions which do not give an undesirable product. This is infact a new area of chemistry known as green chemistry which has come to the forefront in the recent years. Arresting the growth of population, judicious use of natural resources, recycling of products such as paper, restricting the usage of plastic bags are some easier control measures which can be of great help in controlling air pollution. Above all, arresting deforestation and increase in greenery in our surroundings can go a long way in curbing the air pollution, Following stringent norms and the maintenance of industrial units and avoiding accidents in industries also can contribute to a large extent for the control of air pollution.ESE VOUT concepts ee Very short answer type questions 4. What is meant by atmospheric pressure? 2. Name the different types of instruments used to measure atmospheric pressure. 3. Give the functions of nitrogen in the atmosphere. 4. S. 1. unit of atmospheric pressure is. 5. What are the products of combustion of carbon compound? 6. Under what conditions, oxygen and hydrogen react with each other? 7. How does oxygen exist in the combined state in nature? 8. What happens when mercuric oxide is subjected to heating? 9. Name the layers of the atmosphere. 10. Give a balanced chemical equation for the combustion of glucose. 11. The minimum temperature at which a substance bums in air is called 12. What is meant by oxy-hydrogen flame? For what purpose is it used? 13. Give the electronic configuration of oxygen. Also mention the period and the group to which the element belongs. 14, What are the uses of neon and argon? 15. A mixture of 95% oxygen and 5% CO, is called 16. What is the layer of atmosphere present just above the earth’s surface? 17. Why is mercury taken in a barometer? 18, What is S.L. unit for atmospheric pressure? Define it. | 19, What are the major components of air? Among these, which is the active component and which is the inactive component? | 20. How is oxygen gas collected? 24. What happens when iron is subjected to strong heating with oxygen? 22. Name the metals which react with oxygen at room temperature. | 23. Coating of tin over iron is called. 24, Why is the atmospheric pressure measured at sea level? 25, Give the composition of nitrogen and oxygen by volume in air. 26. What is the main advantage of the manufacturing of oxygen gas by the electrolysis of water? 27. Among all the layers of atmosphere the layer with the highest temperature is,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Directions for questions 16 to 30: For each of the questions, four choices have been provided. Select the correct alternative. 16, Which among the following processes does not add suspended particulate matter (S.P.M) to air? (1) Usage of air conditioners. @) Burning of fuck. 3) Paper industry. @) Combustion of coal 17. Hydrogen sulphide from air is removed by passing air through (1) caustic potash Q) concentrated HSO, @) anhydrous CaCl, @) filters 18. Which of the following substance is used in refrigerators? (1) Hydrocarbon 2) CEC @) Ozone (4) Metal oxide 19. Which of the following distinguishes respiration from combustion? (1) Requirement of oxygen. ) Exothermic nature of reactions. 3) Energy can be released only in the form — of heat and not light. (A) Can take place at any temperature 20. Global warming is mainly due co (1) teradiation of U.V. rays by CO, and HO. (2) reradiation of LR. rays by CO, and H,O. @) reradiation of LR. rays by O, and N, (4) reradiation of U.V. rays by O, and N,. 24. Which of the following minerals docs not contain oxygen? (1) Silicates (2) Carbonates @) Pyrites (4) None of these 22, X + O,—Y, ¥ + H,O —> Z, Z tums red litmus to blue then X may be (ly Ca @s @c @e 23. Tropospheric atmosphere is turbulent. Which of the following reasons can be atiributed to this? (1) Convectional current of air rises up due to high temperature in lower layers of the earth, Q) Temperature changes result in change in air pressure. @) More effect of centrifugal force is more in this layer. (4) None of these 24. The layer of atmosphere that is just above the earth's surfice is called (1) thermosphere (2) eeoposphere @) stratosphere (4) mesosphere 25. Which of the following pairs of oxides can give out oxygen on heating? (1) MgO, PbO, Q Na,0, 10 @) KO, HgO (4) AgO, Pb,O, 26. Which of the following are used in air conditioning and reffigeration systems? ) co co, @) CFCs #0, 27. Ifa balloon filled with air is sent to moon, what would happen? (1) ‘The balloon expands because the atmospheric pressure of the moon is slightly lower than that of earth. Ke / 120aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.| Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen CHAPTER 5 INTRODUCTION In the entire universe, only planet earth has the unique gift of being endowed with a wide variety of flora and fauna. This existence of life on the earth’s surface can be attributed to various factors among which the abundant availability of water on carth is the most important one. The mast common occurrence of water in liquid state, the easy interconversion of this substance into different physical states and its characteristic as 2 universal solvent and many other special features of this chemical substance make it play the most vital role in the biosphere. Therefore, water, being a crucial compound for man’s survival, has become the most studied chemical substance. Historical aspects ‘Water in liquid form came into existence on the earth about 43 billion years ago. Origin of life in this part of the universe ako dates back to the same time since itis intimately linked with the origin of water. Water was believed to be an element in the ancient age. In 1781, Henry Cavendish was the first scientist to synthesise water from hydrogen and oxygen. This process of synthesis of water from its constituent elements led later scientists to recognize water as a compound. Water Composition A. Lavoisier was the first scientist to experimentally show that water is a compound with hydrogen and oxygen as its constituents. It has been established that one molecule of water contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. 128aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen 134 water to form solutions is responsible for sustenance of life. On the other hand, the same characteristic forms the basic cause for adding pollutants to water. In whichever way it is considered, the ability of water to form solutions influences the survival of man on earth, Solution A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The proportion of the constituents of the solution can be varied within certain limits. The solutions comprising of two components are called binary solutions. ‘That component ofa solution which is in the same physical state (i.e., solid, liquid or gas) as the solution 1s called solvent, the other component is called the solute. If both the components are in the same state, the component which is present in larger proportions is called solvent and the one which is present in minor proportions is called solute. Classification of solutions Depending on the physical states of the solute and the solvent, solutions can be classified into various types. solid Alloys of metals Solid liquid Hydrated crystalline salts as Hydrogen gas adsorbed on platinum or palladium solid Common salt in water Liquid liquid Petrol in kerosene Bs Aerated water or soft drinks Gas gas Air ‘When the solvent isa gas and the solute isa solid or a liquid, the resultant mixture becomes heterogeneous. All other solutions being homogeneous are called true solutions. The other two types of mixtures being heterogeneous are called suspensions, Ex: fog, mist, dust particles in air. The study of solutions is generally confined to the solutions of solid solute in liquid solvent, In most of the cases, water is taken as the solvent since it can dissolve a wide range of chemical compounds. Those solutions in which water is taken as the solvent are called aqueous solutions.132 Water, Solution, Solubility ond Hydrogen Apart fiom water, other liquids can also be taken as solvents. Examples of such solvents are alcohol, petrol, ether, benzene etc. Those solutions in which a liquid other than water is taken as solvent are called non aqueous solutions. Aqueous solutions can be further classified on the basis of relative proportions of a solute in the solution. Dilute solution ‘The solution in which there is a small amount of solute dissolved in a given mass of a solvent is called dilute solution. Concentrated solution The solution containing a relatively large amount of solute dissolved in a given mass of a solvent is called concentrated solution. Solubility ‘The process of dissolving a substance in the given solvent is called dissolution. The amount of solute dissolved in a definite quantity of a solvent depends upon the nature of solute as well as nature of solvent. The maximum amount of a particular solute in grams, which can dissolve in 100 grams of solvent at a given temperature is called solubility. Mass of solute Solubility a x 100 "> Example: Solubility of copper sulphate in water at 20°C is 20.7g and solubility of potassium chloride in water at 20°C is 34g. A given solution may or may not contain the maximum amount of solute in it. The further dissolving capacity of a given solution depends on the amount of solute already present in the solution. On the basis of the capacity of the solution to dissolve certain amount of soluce farther, the solutions are classified into three types. Saturated solution A solution which contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in the solvent at a given temperature is called saturated solution at that particular temperature, This solution can no longer dissolve any more solute under the given conditions.a hates, Sottcion, Sotutitiry and Hydrogen 135 Rate of dissolution of a solid in a liquid Though each solute has a certain fixed value of solubility, the rate at which a solute dissolves ina particular solvent depends on certain factors. {a) Size of the solute particles: The smaller the soluce particles, the faster is che rate of dissolution. This is because division into smaller particles increases the surface area of contact between the solute and solvent particles. Greater area of contact increases the rate of dissolution. (0) Agitation of solution: Agitation or stirring improves the contact between the solute and solvent molecules. Consequently, the rate of dissolution increases. (c) Temperature: Rate of disolution of most of the solids increases with the increase in temperature because the solubility of the solid increases with the increase in temperature. However, in case of some solids the rate of dissolution increases with the increase in temperature upto a certain point and decreases beyond a certain point. %@™ Example: Na,SO, 10H,0 and CaSO, The solubilities of gascs in liquids show a different trend with regard to the effect of temperature In these solutions, the solubility is also influenced by the pressure. Effect of temperature: With the increase in temperature, the solubility of a gas in a particular liquid decreases. Effect of pressure: The effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas in a liquid is given by Henry's law, which states that at constant temperature the increase in pressure on the surface of the liquid increases the solubility of gas in liquid. Q CRYSTALLIZATION ‘When a saturated solid-liquid solution is cooled slowly, solid-solute seitles down with a highly regular arrangement of its constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions). This regular arrangement of component particles in a three-dimensional system is uniform throughout the entire solid. This type of solid is called crystalline solid. The smallest unit of this arrangement of particles which gets repeated throughout the crystalline solid is called unit cell. Unit cell of each substance has a definite geometeic shape. Hence, crystals can be defined as solids in which the constituent atoms, molecules or ions are packed in a regularly ordered and repeating pattem extending in all three spatial dimensions, Crystallization is the process of formation of a crystalline solid from the corresponding solution. Different processes of crystallization @) Slow cooling of a hot saturated solution of a solid solute from a higher temperature to a lower temperature. (i) Evaporation of an unsaturated solution at moderate temperature.136 Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen (ii) Slow cooling of a molten solid. (iv) Sublimation of the solid followed by condensation of the resultant vapours, Types of crystals Each crystal consists of a set of three axes in a particular geometrical arrangement. There are seven unique crystal systems depending on the orientation of the particles along the three axes. Cubic NaCl, CsCl Hexagonal Graphite, ZnO ‘Tetragonal snO,, TiO, Rhombohedral Caco, Hgs Orthorhombic Rhombic sulphur Monoclinic Monoclinic sulphur, PbCro,, Triclinic K, uso, .5H,O Water of crystallization: When a solid gets crystallized from its respective hot concentrated aqueous solution, a cerain fixed number of water molecules also get attached to the solid crystals to form unit cells of the crystals. The fixed number of water molecules which combine with a crystal and are necessary for the maintenance of crystalline properties, but capable of being lost either at normal temperature or ata higher temperature is called water of crystallization. Examples of such solids (salts) are green vitriol (FeSO, 7H,O), blue vitriol (CuSO, washing soda (Na,CO, .10H,O) ete. 0), Hydrated salts and anhydrous salts: The salts which contain water of crystallization are called hydrated salts. When the hydrated salts completely lose their water molecules, itis called anhydrous salt. When a hydrated salt gets dehydrated and forms anhydrous salt, the colour of the salt changes For example CuSO,. 5H,O is blue in colour. It changes to white colour due to the los of water molecules on heating Effforescence and deliquescence: There are some hydrated crystals which lose some of the water of crystallization or all the water of crystallization on exposure to air at normal temperature. This phenomenon is known as efflorescence and the hydrated crystals which lose water molecules are called efflorescent substances After the release of the water molecules, efflorescent substances lose their crystalline property and get transformed into a powdery mass.Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen 137 @& ample: Glauber salt, NaSO,.10H,O Loses all of its water molecules on exposure to air at ordinary temperature Some crystalline silts absorb moisture on exposure to air and ultimately dissolve in it to form an aqueous solution. This phenomenon is called deliquescence and these crystalline salts are called deliquescent substances. These salts may or may not contain water of crystallization Examples of such salts are hydrated magnesium chloride (MgCl,.6H,O), hydrated calcium chloride (CaCl,. 6H,O) ete. Hygroscopic substances and desiccating agents: There are certain substances which absorb moisture from air without changing theie physical state. These substances are called hygroscopic substances. They may exist in solid or liquid state under normal temperature and pressure. Examples of such substances are calcium oxide Golid), concentrated sulphuric acid iquid) exc. After absorbing moisture, solid hygroscopic substances remain as s remain as liquids. and liquid substances Unlike deliquescent substances, these hygroscopic substances retain their physical states Golids or liquid) on the absorption of moisture. Hygroscopic substances which are used to remove water from the surroundings are called desiccating agents, Examples of desiccating agents are calcium oxide and anhydrous calcium chloride, Water has unique physical properties due to which existence of life on the earth is possible. However chemical properties of water also play a vital role in the progress of human civilization. Chemical properties of water (i) Nature: Water, being a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, is considered an oxide of hydrogen. Since it does not respond to litmus test, it is a neutral oxide. Gi) Catalytic property: Water catalyses some chemical reactions. Examples (a) The reaction between perfectly dry hydrogen and chlorine does not take place even in the presence of direct sunlight.138 Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen ‘The reaction is catalysed by a few drops of water. (b) Some other reactions like the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen and the combustion of phosphorous also occur only in the presence of trace amounts of moisture. © © (@) © 2H, + 0, 42H,.0 4P + 0, "9 2P,.0, Action of water on metals Potassiu1 Potassium reacts with cold water. Ie even reacis with moisture (water vapour). 2K + 2H,0 —> 2KOH +H, Sodium: The reaction takes place in cold water. 2Na + 2H,0 —> 2NaOH + H, It even reacts with moisture (water vapour) Calcium: Ca + 2H,0 —> Ca(OH), + H, The reaction takes place in cold water. Magnesium: The reaction takes place with boiling water, but a moderate reaction takes place when burning magnesium reacts with steam, Mg + HO ——>MgO + H, Zine: ‘The reaction takes place when steam is passed over red hot zinc. Zn + H,O ZnO +H, (steam) @) Potassium oats on water in the form of silvery grey globules. (i) Reaction is vigorous and exothermic. (iii) It catches fire and buras with lilac flame. (iv) Effervescence of hydrogen is observed and water becomes alkaline. @) Sodium floats on water in the form of silvery globules. ii) Reaction is less exothermic and vigorous than that with potassium. (iii) Ie catches fire and burns with golden yellow flame. (iv) Effervescence of hydrogen is observed and water becomes alkaline. ) Calcium sinks in water and the water becomes milky and alkaline. (i) Te does not catch fire. (ili) Effervescence of hydrogen is observed. () Ie burns brilliancly with white light. Gi) White ash of MgO is produced. {ili) Liberation of hydrogen takes place. () Yellow coloured ZnO is produced. On cooling, yellow coloured ZnO becomes white in colour. (ii) Liberation of hydrogen takes place, (Continued on the following page)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.142 Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen Collection of gas Hydrogen is collected by the downward displacement of water. Purification of hydrogen gas Since impure zinc is used for hydrogen gas preparation, the hydrogen gas collected is found to contain some impurities such as HS, SO,, PH, AH, and CO,, These impurities are removed in stages. fa) AsH,, PH, Silver nitrate solution ) HS Lead nitrate solution {) CO, SO, NO, Caustic potash (@) HO (Water Vapour) CaCl, or P.O, (drying agent) Figure 5.5 Purification of hydrogen gas Collection of purified hydrogen gas: To obtain pure and dry hydrogen, pure hydrogen gas is collected over mercury. Precautions: 1, Entire apparatus should be kept air-tight. 2. Contact with flame should be avoided. 3. Collection of the gas should be done only after the expulsion of air. 4. The end of the thistle funnel should almost touch the bottom.Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen 143 Though all active metals liberate hydrogen gas, zinc is the preferred metal and the other metals, are not used for this preparation method. Sodium and Potassium Violent reaction with explosion Calcium and Magnesium Expensive metals Aluminimum Formation of protective coating of ALO, renders the metal passive. Iron Reversible reaction. Lead Fornation of insoluble PbCI, of PSO, stops the further reaction. INDUSTRIAL METHODS OF PREPARATION 1. Electrolysis of water Electrolysis of acidulated water liberates oxygen at the cathode and hydrogen at the anode In fact, this method is employed for the preparation of oxygen gas where hydrogen is obtained as a by product. 2H,O —> 2H, +0, Bosch Process Principle: Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Catalytic oxidation of carbon monoxide gives hydrogen gas. Water gas can be prepared by passing steam over red hot coke. cC+HO—>co+H, Stim Water got co+H,+H.0 250, +2H, 450°C — 500°C Process ‘a. Supetheated steam at 170°C when passed through white hot coke or charcoal gives a mixture of CO gas and hydrogen known as water gas, 1b. Water gas obtained is made to pass over Fe,O, or Cr,O, along with superheated steam at 500°C. Carbon monoxide gets oxidized to CO, leaving hydrogen gas. 3. The CO, gasis removed by compressing the gas at 30 atm pressure and passing it through water, Hydrogen being insoluble remains as such. H,O,+CO,,, HCO, 4. The water vapour present in the gas can be removed by cooling the gas to ~ 20°C. 5. The traces of carbon monoxide remaining unoxidised can be removed by passing the gas through ammonical cuprous chloride solution, CuCl + CO + 2H,0O —> CuCl. CO. 2H,O addition compound146 Water, Solution, Solubility and Hydrogen QB 146 USES OF HYDROGEN 1. In the synthesis of industrial chemicals. b. ‘Manufacture of ammonia (Haber’s process) N,+3H,—*2NH, Manufacture of HCI H, +Cl, > 2HC1 Manufacture of methyl alcohol CO+H;+H; —3>CH,OH Manufacture of dalda/vanaspathi and soap by hydrogenation of oils Manufacture of petrol/gasoline from coal Fuel: Many fel gases contain hydrogen at a major constituent. This is because of high heat of combustion of hydrogen. @ Example: Water gas, coal gas, semi-water gas ete. ie e Electrical cells called fixel cells are also designed which use hydroyen gas. Oxy hydrogen blow torch: A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is bunt to give a high temperature of 2800°C. This is used for welding of metals and for melting platinum and quartz. Liquid hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel. Atomic hydrogen torch: When an electric arc is generated in a stream of hydrogen between tungsten electrodes the hydrogen molecules dissociate to give hydrogen atoms by absorbing large amount of energy. The atoms recombine to form hydrogen molecules by evolving the absorbed heat energy. As a result, high temperature is generated. This can be made use of in welding alloys. Metallurgy: Hydrogen is used as a good reducing agent in the extraction of some metals from their oxides. @ Example: Tungsten, molybdenum. WO, + 3H, —> W +3H,Otesa aaeretiieh A] Concept Application Level—1 Directions for questions 1 to 7: State whether the following statements are true or false 1, Aqueous solutions are good conductors in comparison to its corresponding pure solvent 2. Soluble impurities present in water increase the freezing point of water. ¢] 3. Solubility curves can be used for comparing the solubility of different substances at a given temperature. 4. The freezing point of water decreases with a decrease in pressure. 5. The density of water is maximum at 4 K. 6. Blue coloured C 7. Alloys are homogeneous mixtures, Directions for questions 8 to 14: the blanks. 3, can act as a dehumidifying agent. 8. substances when exposed to moisture dissolve in it. 9. Metallic oxides on reaction with water give 10. solution is more concentrated than saturated solution. 11. Due to its high , Water is called as universal solvent. 12. The number of oxygen atoms present in five molecules of ferrosoferric oxide is__. 13. The formula for glauber salt is 14. Salts with water of crystallization are called sales. Directions for question 15: Match the entries given in column A with appropriate ones in column B. 15. A. Alloy a) B. Copper sulphate 4) ©. Washing soda 0 D. Hydrated calcium chloride ( ) E. Calcium oxide 0 F,_ Suspensions 0 Deliquescent Hygroscopic Particles settle down on long standing, Effforescent Solid-solid solution Water of crystallization is 5. 149aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.— 24. When two substances A and B of same mass are heated under similar conditions number of free surfaces have been found to reduce to zero from one. If A maintains constancy in the temperature for a longer time than B during heating, then (1) latent heat of fusion of A is more than that of B. (2) latent heat of vapourisation of A is more than that of B. (3) lacent heat of fusion of B is more chan that of A. (4) latent heat of vzpourisation of B is more than chat of A. 25. The specific heat capacity of water is (1) more than petrol and kerosene (2) less than oil and petrol (3) less than kerosene (4) less than honey and oil 26. In the given graph, identify the substance associated with the highest solubility at 10°C. aa Q) B 3) Cc (4) D x 7 ‘Soubility ° ST ° 10 20 30 0 Figure 5.7 Temperature (in °C) 27. Reaction: Non-meal + H, A A + PbO —> Pb — Non-metal If‘A’ formed in the above reaction has rotten egg smell, identity the non-metal (1) N QP @)s ao 28, Identify the binary solution among the following. (1) Steel (2) Bronze (3) Nichrome (4) Gun metal 29. Hydrogen acts as an oxidizing agent when it (1) reacts with highly electropositive metals. (2) burns in the presence of O, @) forms ammonia when it reacts with nitrogen. ) passes through boiling sulphur and forms H.S gas. 151(x. ‘Tyndal effece cannot be shown by (1) smoke (2) dust particles present in air. @) fog. (4) iron powder in hydrochloric acid. Concept Application Level—2 34, Two containers contain two different liquids A and B. The mass of liquid A is half the mass of liquid B. Both of them are heated to that extent so that the increase in the temperature of the liquids is the same, The heat supplied for this purpose in the case of liquid ‘A’ is double that in the case of liquid “B’. Find out the ratio of the specific heat of liquid A and liquid ‘B’. 32. When sodium or potassium is dropped in water, we can observe a golden yellow or a lilac coloured flame respectively whereas when calcium is dropped, no flame is observed. Why is there a difference in observation in the above two cases? 33. When water, containing equal amounts of CO,, O, NO,, N,O, gases respectively, subjected to heating, which gas is evolved out in maximum percentage? Give reason. 34. Amount of solutes A, B and C in 500 g of water at 30°C, 60°C, 100°C in their saturated solutions are given below. 8 30°C 60°C 100°C A 140g 135g i31g B 160g 175 g 182g © 182g 170g lolg When the hot sicurated solutions of A, B and C are cooled slowly, identify the order in which they exystallize ont of the solution, Give reason in support of your answer. 35. “Steam at 100°C causes more burns when exposed to skin than water at 100°C.” Justify. 36. Rain water and tap water are boiled in metallic containers A and B. The containers are emptied and then rain water samples are subjected to boiling in the same containers. In which case boiling gets delayed? Give reason in support of your answer. 37. Asmall crystal ofsolute is added to unsaturated, saturated and supersaturated solutions, what observations do you find? Justify 38. Why is pure water a bad conductor of clectricity? 39. Why do the solubilities of most of the solids in water increase with an increase in temperature? 40. Explain why CuSO,,5H,O can be dehydrated by reducing the extemal pressure at room temperature. 41. Explain why cobalt chloride acts as a humidity indicator. 42, The boiling point of a solution is more than that of the pure solvent. Justify. 43. With respect to the saturation of a solution, what type of solution is aerated water? Give reasons in support of answer. 44, What are the changes that take place in lead nitrate solution by passing impure hydrogen through it? 45. What makes the use of hydrogen asa fuel difficult? Give reasons in support of your answer. 152aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.key points for selected questions 39. Chemical reactions involved (vii) Latent heat of fasion and 40. (i) Constituents of natural gas evaporation (ii) Principle (viii) Solvent property (iii) Process 48. (i) Graph Gi) Solubility Essay type questions Gi) Temperature 46. (i) Principle (iv) State of solute i) Balanced chemical equations i Bc accaa (ii) Process () Comp (iv) Corresponding equations 49. (i) Method () Nature (i) Chemical equations (i) Freezing point (ii), Observations Gii) Boiling point (iv) Reactivity of reactants (iv) Density (¥) Conductivity 50. (i) Vapour pressure (vi) Specific heat Gi) Changes involved 155aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.160 Carbon and its Compounds Bae ea ‘ |co, in atmosphere | le 1 5 | Y Dissolution ¥ Photosyntne APerpiation| 2 Sea val a — Plants} —>——{animats] | § z Buming YPhotosynihess | 1 Az {Aquatic plans § >= Dead remains 8 mains} 3 Y 3 i & ‘Organic matter Y Decay { Fossilfuels| Figure 6.1 Carbon cycle \ Carbon 2>< | Occurrence J) carbon occurs in both fee state and combined state Free state ‘Carbon exists as the native element in the form of coal in the earth’s crust as the native element. It occurs in a very small amount in its allotropic forms like diamond and graphite. Diamond and graphite are pure forms of carbon, Coal is an impure form of carbon. Another allotropic form of carbon, fallerene, has been discovered by geologists in a crater made by a meteorite in Germany and in ancient rocks in New Zealand. Combined state Carbon exists in the combined state in all the three physical states, namely solid, liquid and gaseous states. (i) Solid state Carbon occurs in the solid state in the form of mineral carbonates like calcium carbonate (CaCO,), magnesite (MgCO)}, calamine (ZnCO,), ete. In plants and animals carbon occurs in the form of fats, proteins, carbohydrates and various other complex chemical compounds.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.164 Carbon and its Compound: Physical properties A pure diamond is a Graphite is a dark grey, Brown or black powder colourless, transparent, crystal. very soft solid with Ic is the hardest among metallic lustre. naturally occuring solids Diamond isa good conductor Itis a good conductor of Ie becomes super conductor when it of heat and a bad conductor heat and electricity. forms compounes with nobel gases. of electricity Ie has a high refiactive index Ie iy opaque. Refiactive index of fullerene is of 25. 22. Itis insoluble in common —_It is insoluble in common Soluble in common solvents such as solvents, solvents. benzene, toluene or chloroform, Diamond is the densest form — Density is 2.25 g/cm’, Density is 1.65 gm/em* of carbon with a density of 3.5 gm/cm’. The melting point of Ithas.a melting point of It undergoes sublimation at about diamond is about 370°C. about 3600°C. 527°C. Presence of impurities impart colour @ diamonds Chemical properties Action with oxygen: Diamond catches. Graphite on heating in the presence of pure oxygen fire at 900°C; when heated in oxygen, catches fire at 700°C and burns brightly forming a fie at 800°C to form CO, mixture of carbon (Carbon dioxide) 3G) +20 yy) = 4 COyg) + 2CO4p) AQ it catches msde and carbon monoxide. Cy#Ouy— B+ e045 Graphite does not bum in air. Reaction with sodium carbonate: On heating diamond very strongly with solid sodium carbonate, sodium oxide and carbon monoxide are formed. On heating the fused miature of sodium carbonate. and graphite, sodium oxide and carbon monoxide gas are formed. Na,COy, #C) 29 Na.Oy, 2C0,,) NeCOnsrt Cy PRED FAROGarbon and its Compounds 165 Uses Diamond () Diamonds are used for making various kinds of jewellery as they sparkle brilliantly. Gi) Diamond is used as an abrasive for cutting glass. (iii) Itis used as a tip of deep boring drills. (iv) It is used for making dies for drawing wires. (v) Itis used in generating laser beams in electronics, (vi) It is used by surgeons to perform delicate operations, Graphite (i) Graphite is used in making leads of pencil. (ii) Ieis used as a dry lubricant, as ordinary lubricating oil gets charred at high temperature. (ii) Ie is used in making refractory crucibles which can withstand very high temperatures. (iv) Graphite is used to make suitable black paint and printer's ink. (&) Graphite fibres can be used to reinforce plastic, as they are strong. (vi) A strong, light weight composite material of graphite and plastic is used to make fishing rods, bicycle frames, spacecraft parts, dish antennae and tennis rackets. (vii) [tis used in nuclear reactors as moderator. Conversion of graphite into diamond Graphite can be transformed into diamond by applying a pressure greater than 1,00,000 times the atmospheric pressure at the sea level and by burning at a temperature of about 3700 °C. These conditions of temperature and pressure help in rearranging the atoms of carbon in graphite into a diamond structure AMORPHOUS ALLOTROPES OF CARBON Charcoal, coke, lamp black and gas carbon are amorphous forms of carbon. In these forms of carbon, the carbon atoms are not arranged in an orderly manner. Recent X-ray study reveals that these allotropic forms are tiny graphite crystals cemented together by impurities. Charcoal Charcoal is one of the manmade amorphous forms of carbon. It is used as a fuel. Depending on the source from which charcoal is obtained, it is of three types. Wood charcoal Laboratory preparation A dey hard glass test tube is ken, and it is filled half with wood shavings, these wood shavings are subjected to heating in the absence of air by using bunsen bumer. Wood shavings get166 Carbon and its Compounds charred, and fumes ate evolved. These flames get condensed in the conical flask placed in cold water and form two separate layers. A matchstick is brought near the jet tube, and the gas coming out of it catches fire. This gas is wood gas, The products of destructive distillation of wood are wood charcoal, wood tar, pyroligneous acid and woodgas. Flame ot uming —f) ‘Wood shaving Fyroligneous acid Figure 6.3 Bone charcoal Bone charcoal is also known as animal charcoal or bone ash or ivory black. Animal bones contain organic matter and calcium phosphate. The crushed fine powder of the animal bones if subjected to destructive distillation produces residue. This residue is called bone charcoal. Sugar charcoal One of the purest forms of amorphous allotropes of carbon is sugar charcoal and itis prepared by destructive distillation of sugar. Sugar crystals lose water and get converted to pure carbon. This pure carbon obsained from sugar is known as sugar charcoal. The chemical reaction of sugar with concentrated sulphuric acid produces sugar charcoal. C,H,,O,, HS 120 + 11,0 Physical properties of charcoal Charcoal is a porous black solid. It has a huge surface area due to its porosity. It has the ability to adsorb specific substances like coloured impurities, poisonous substances, etc.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Carbon and its Compounds — ATA (ii) Thermal decomposition of metal carbonates: All carbonate except those of sodium or pocassium on heating evolve carbon dioxide along with the formation of metal oxide. CaCO, —> Cad + CO, ZnCO,-— ZnO + CO, (ii) Thermal decomposition of bicarbonates: Bicarbonates on strong heating evolve carbon dioxide along with the formation of the corresponding carbonate and water NaHCO, ——> Na,CO, + H,0 + CO, (iv) Action of dilute mineral acids on carbonates and bicarbonates: Dilute HCI or H,SO, when added to the carbonate or bicarbonate salt, neutralisation reaction takes place with the liberation of carbon dioxide gas. Na,CO, + H,SO, —+ Na SO, + CO, + H,0 NaHCO, + HC|—+ NeCl + H,O + CO, Laboratory method of preparation Principle Marble chips contain calcium carbonate which, on the addition of dilute hydrochloric acid, releases CO, gas. . CaCO, + 2HC1—+ CaCl, + H,O + CO, Process Marble chips are ken in a conical flask. A two holed rubber cork is introduced into this. Through one hole, a thistle funnel is inserted and through another hole, a delivery tube is inserted. Dilute hydrochloric acid is added dropwise through the thisle funnel. CO, gas generated during the reaction comes out through the delivery tube. Delivery tube ‘Carbon dioxide hycroctlorie acid Marble chips Figure 6.5aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Carbon and its Compounds — 173 Reaction with metals Reaction with ‘When CO gas is passed over the finely-divided metals like nickel and chromium and iron metal carbonyls are formed. Ni + 4CO —*Ni(CO), Cr+ 6CO —> Cr (CO), Fe + 53CO —> Fe (CO), Reaction with oxygen gives CO, Na, K, Ca combine with CO, to form their respective carbonates along with carbon whereas Mg, Al gives their respective oxides and carbon 4Na + 3CO, —> 2Na,CO, + C 2Mg + CO, —> 2MgO + C No reaction with ©, and Cl, non metals gas and reaction with Cl, gas gives phosgene. 2CO + 0, —> 2€0, co +Cl,—> Cocl, Asreducing CO reduces oxides of less active Oxidizes carbon to carbon monoxide. agent/onidizing metals. CO, + C—+2CO-Q agent Fe,0, + 3CO—> 2Fe + ICO, Biochemical _ Combines with haemoglobin of |__Green plants synthesize carbohydrates process blood to form carboxyhacmoglobin. by the combination of CO, and water This makes CO gas poisonous. in the presence of sunlight. The process is called photosynthesis. 6CO, + 6H,0—>CH,,0, + 60, Action of CO, when it is passed through lime water ‘When limited amount of CO, is passed When an excess amount of CO, is passed through through lime water, it vurns milky due to lime water, i fist turns milky, and then the the formation of insoluble CaCO, milkiness disappears due to the formation of CaOH),,, + CO,, —> CaCO, + soluble Ca( HCO), HO Ca(OH), + CO, — CaCO, + H,0 CaCO, + CO, + HO —> CalHCO,), Uses of carbon monoxide ( Carbon monoxide can be used as a fuel as it produces a large amount of heat on combustion. The fuels like coal gas, water gas and producer gas contain carbon monoxide as an important constituent. Carbon monoxide is used in the extraction of metals like nickel from the mixture of other metals. This is done by passing carbon monoxide through the mixture of other matels. i) (iii) In the manufacture of chemicals, (iv) It behaves as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals. {¥) In the preparation of war gas like phosgene.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONCEPT APPLICATION Concept Application Level—1 Directions for questions 1 to 7: State whether the following statements are true or false. 1. Graphite is used in the manufacture of crucibles 2s it possesses high electrical resistance. 2. Fullerenes is the amorphous allotrope of carbon. 3. Lamp black is used as filler in making rubber tyres. 4. Carbon monoxide is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion. 5.In methane, all the hydrogens can be replaced by chlorine atoms when the reaction takes place in presence of sunlight. 6. Sugar charcoal is a good reducing agent. 7. Foam type extinguisher is used to extinguish any kind of fire Directions for questions 8 to 14: Fill in the blanks. 8.Crystallisation of carbon to form diamonds takes place when metal expands during solidification, 9. Carbon monoxide is slightly than air. 10. The compound of carbon used to soften hard water is 11, acid on reaction with H,SO, gives only carbon monoxide gas 12. Methane is prepared in laboratory by heating anhydrous sodium acetate with 13. Sugar on reaction with gives sugar charcoal. 14. Gas carbon is used as in dey cells Directions for question 15: Match the entries in column A with the appropriate ones in colurnn B. 15. ‘A. — Carbon dioxide () a Glass industry B. Carbon monoxide () b. Abrasive C. Calcium carbide () ce Fire extinguisher D. Silicon carbide () a. Antacid E, Calcium carbonate () e& — Reducing agent F. Sodium carbonate () f Baking powder G.__ Sodium bicarbonate (Og _ Used to make acetylene 183aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.r oA 25. Graphite cannot be used as a lubricant in space because (1) absence of extemal pressure transforms crystalline graphite to amorphous form. @Q) there is no atmosphere in space and hence graphite sublimes in space. @) there is no atmosphere in space and hence there is no adsorbed air and water between, layers of graphite, () None of the above 26. Coke can be used as (1) an oxidizing agent. ahousehold fuel. @) printer ink (4) electrodes 27. Reaction: 2CaO + C —> Ca, +2C0 2CaC, + 2H,O—_ A+B If Ais involved in the neutralisation reaction with acid, then B may be () CH, Q CH, @) Ca(OH), (4) Cal, 28. Carbon occurs as the native element in the earth's crust in the form of. (1) diamond (2) methane @) carbon dioxide (4) gas carbon 29. Why shouldn’t we light a candle in a closed room with people? (1) The CO, formed causes breathlessness, (2) Carbon particles are formed which are dangerous for respiratory tract. Q) Methane gas which is poisonous is formed. (4) Carbon monoxide gas which reduces the ability of blood to carry oxygen is formed 30. Why do black shoe polishes have an oily feel? (1) Shoe polish is a mixture of oil and powdered graphite 2) On exposure to air, these undergo chemical changes and produce oily substances. 3) Vapour of some amount of oil is let over after its preparation. (4) These are formed by disolving charcoal in oil, Concept Application Level—2 31. Why is graphite used as pencil lead? 32. Can molten copper be used in place of molten iron for the manufacture of artificial diamonds? Give reason in support of your answer. 33. Diamond is a good thermal conductor like metals, However it is a poor electrical conductor unlike metals. How do you account for this? 34. Why is activated charcoal widely used in water purifiers? 35. Burning more and more fossil fuels creates an natural water cycle. Give reasons mbalance in the natural carbon cycle as well as in the 36. Carbon monoxide gas can be detected by passing it through a blood sample. Explain. 37. A building constructed from mortar becomes stronger on long standing. Give reason. 38. Why is CNG replacing petrol as an automobile fuel? XN 185aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.key points for selected questions G@ | Very short answer type questions 26. Sicilian 1. By passing KOH or NeOH; electric 27. Greenish yellow, pungent smell, sparingly. precipitators or filters. soluble in water havier than air, vapour density. | 38.5 and atomicity 2. aa ea 28, Mixing up of chlorine gas with slaked lime. 4, Calcium phosphate (Ca,(PO,),) | 5. Mg + Cl, ——> MgCl, | 2. Zine phosphide 29. Due to formation of hydrochloric acid 30. Nitric oxide(NO) 6. Sulphides, sulphates and in organic matter. Short answer type questions 7. Dark brown, amorphous, density is 1.92 gem, 32, i) Composition insoluble in CS,. bad conductor of heat and (i) Property electricity, B.P. 444°C, no sharp M.P. (ii). Mechanism of burning &. Hg + S——> Hgs 33. (i) Existence/position of sulphur 9. Nitrogen fixation (i) Brick kins, sloping hillsides 10. 2P + 3Cl, —> 2PCI, ; 5P + 5Cl,—> (ii) Small spaces ape. 2 (iv) Powdered sulphur (*) Moken sulphur 11, H,O + SO, — HSO, 34. (i) Other names 13. HS + Cl, — > 2HCIT +S (@) Preparation 14. Formation of precipitates. Gi) Colour 15. 3, calcium ammonium nitrate, fertilizer. @ Rope pmnicre , (v) Density 16. 96.5°C (vi) Solubility 17. Manufacture of different glass articles; (vii) Melting point freeblowing, mould blowing. (viii) Conductivity 18. Large scale production, cost, durability. Gx) Boiling point 19. 3Ca(PO,)CaF, 35. (i) Metal sulphides Fe . Gi) Precipitate 20. In the form of minerals, organic matter. Gii) Colour of precipita a1. @ C 36. (i) Bleaching action (i) CC1LNO, (i) Nature (iii) CHCI, (iii) Extraction of metals 22. Oxides, nitrides, carbides and borides, (iv) Industries 37. (i) Formula of turpentine (i) Conditions. (ii) Products formed. 39. (i) The negative and positive ends of soap 25. Nitrolim is mixture of calcium cyanamid and (i) Interaction of polar end of soap with water, graphite. Obtained by the reaction of nitrogen (ii) Decrease in surface tension of water. and calcium carbide. 23. The nutrients which are required in large and small quantities respectively. 24. 4NH, + 30,——> 2N, + 6H,O XX 23940. (i) Solvent (ii) Refrigerant 41. (i) Acidic nature (ii) Reducing nature (ii) Reaction with potassium permanganate (iv) HCl formation 42. (i) Definition of chemical fertilizers {ii) Nitrogenous fertilizers (iii) Phospatatic fertilizers, (v) Potash fertilizers. 43. (i) Reducing agent {ii) Production of nascent hydrogen with water, 44, (i) Definition of plastic. (ii) Thermoplastics. (ii) Thermosets. 45. (i) Raw materials. (ii) Electric furnace set-up. (ii) Reactions involved. Gv) Purification Essay type questions 46. (i) Phosphorous oxides. (ii) Phosphorous acids (iii) Salts of acids. (iv) Metal phosphates, metal phosphate, super phosphates. ) 47. () a) Gi) (iv) @) 48. () Gi) (iil) div) () w) wii) (viii) 0. 0) (i) (i) 50. (i) (ii) Gi) iy) &) ) wil) (wiii) key points for selected questions Dehydrasing agent, pharmaceuticals, petroleum field. Preparation of sulphur dioxide. Vanadium pentoxide. Preparation of sulphur trioxide. Pyro sulphuric acid. ‘Water treatment of pyro sulphuric acid, Perforated steel ‘U" tube. Brine solution. Graphite rod. Cathode, anode. Electrolytic dissociation of NaCl. Liberation of chlorine gas. Liberation of hydrogen gas. Formation of NaOH. Chlorine gas, slaked lime. Chlorinating tower. Counter current mechanism. Mercury, Intermediate electrode. Anode, cathode. Brine solution. Electrolytic dissociation of NaCl. Liberation of chlorine gas. Formation of sodium amalgam. Formation of sodium hydroxide. 240aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chemistry RUM RUC ee cee ee ce oR OM ee LAA UPC E eee ETS cc Mee Om a Seo Cre cle NCR NCTE ea Though aimed primarily at students studying in Classes 8, 9, and 10, the series can also be used by all aspirants for a quick recapitulation of important topics in the core subjects. ty PRO Cur esl NAW Ree cea CUS a Scone eee cua) ce oc elm Lod Qh oa Onc oe Eee (mec Ree ec ener ke = Presents basic concepts clearly and concisely PRO ee eure nmr Cur Rom Relais str Re Ue ROM Ree uM ee] Sen ACCOR E See ae = Provides illustrative examples solved in a logical and step-wise manner Ret ene ener oe ee = Hints and explanations for the exercises provided in the books also highlight the common pee oot enc BPN Mena ute ee et ce nee LONE acetates fore. Con ee ere ee ea Ty pe ane emer ea