| : : | Seventh Edition Growing Up Gefted Developing the Potential of Children. at Home and at School Barbara Clark Professor Emeritus California State University, Los Angeles aS Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio2 The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development What was the historical development of the | * How does the brain function to develop concept of intelligence? intelligence and giftedness? * What is the interaction of nature and © What are appropriate definitions of the nurture in the development of terms inielligence, giftedness, gifted intelligence? individual, talent, and talent development? In this chapter, the reader will find answers to these questions and a declaration of the educational rights of the gifted child,dust 2 days ago Sally had been given a pre- sent by her grandmother: a bag of brightly cok ored letters thal had something on the back the house. She was already getting very good at spelling all kinds of words. Mother said that hot many 3-year-olds could spéll so many “unusual” words. It was great fun to have ‘everyone guess what she had spelled. This. morning she. was putting her words. on. the: side of the refrigerator because her daddy could see them as he ate breakfast. She was sure he would play the word game because ho had to be there anyway. What Sally didn't know was that as he ate her dad would be dis- tracted by mentally planning for a major pre- ‘sentation he was making at work that day. ‘As hor daddy sat down, Sally was feady. She took several letters from the bag and "placed them on the side of the refrigerator. "What does that spell, Daddy?” THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE that made them stick to ‘ots of things around ° Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development Now that we have begua to appreciate the plasticity of our cerebrad cortex, the veat of the intellectual functioning that distinguishes us aa human beings we must learn to use this Knowledge, It must stimulate and guide our efforts to work toward enriching heredity through enriching the environment... for everyone... at any age. 29 Marian CLEEVES DIAMOND Intelligence is not just a matter of acting or bebaving intelligently. Behavior is a manifestation of intelligence, but not the central characteristic or primary definition of being intelligent. .. . Ignoring what goes on ir your bead and focusing instead on bebavior bas been a large impediment to understanding inte Jerr Hawxins Her father looked up and said, “Honey, that doesn't spoll anything. It isn't a word” Sally, put the letters back in the bag and carefully selected another handful. “What does that spell?" she asked eagérly. Looking up impatiently her father again disclaimed, “I told you, that doesn’t spell anything.” S Sally was disappointed but determined as she replaced the offending letters and took two handfuls out, placing them carefully in ‘sequence. "Now what word is that?” Clearly annoyed, Sally’s fattier restated, this time rather loudly, "Sally, it doesn't spell anything. That is not a word!" Sally looked at the letters’ so elegantly ‘placed across ‘the refrigerator, thought a’ minute, and said with worider, “Isnt that amaz- ‘Ing! | can spell all tise wortis that you'don't even know” ~ Children do not understand their intellectual limits in the same way adults do. But with investigations into how our brains work, how we learn, and how we develop intelligence, we are finding that we may not have the limits we thought we did. In fact, our belief sys- tems may be the most limiting part of developing intelligence, giftedness, and talent. From the beginning of the concern for understanding and measuring intelligence, controversy has existed regarding its origins and development, Is it determined by30 Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development heredity, or does the environment make a difference? Is intelligence fixed at birth, or could it change over time, depending on environmental experiences? Is it best under- stood and defined as a set of behaviors, or do its origins and development require understanding of the brain itself? We must look back to the late 1800s and the begin- rings of the development of the concept of intelligence to understand the progress that has been made, We will see how old concepts of intelligence continue to affect the beliefs we hold regarding giftedness and the education of gifted learners. Current dis- coveries bring new dimensions and understanding to our view of intelligence. Although the concept of intelligence as an interaction between genetics and the environment has gained wide acceptance, many still are either unaware of the data or convinced of another view. Let us look back at how the concept of intelligence has developed over the past century (Figure 2:1). Figure 2.1. A Timeline of the Development of the Concept of Intelligence as It Affects Giftedness and Talent Development 1859 Charles Darwin (UK) began his investigation of the origin of the species. 1869 Franeis Galton (UK) investigated the heritability of human intelligence and individual differences; developed the concept of fixed intelligence and the first intelligence test. 1905 Alfred Binet (France) developed intelligence scales, the concept of mental age, and intelligence quotient (1Q) to separate slow learners in schools for a special curriculum. 1921 Lewis Terman revised the Binet Intelligence Scale to establish the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. 19803-19408 Intelligence testing became very popular, used especially by the U.S. Army, vocational counselors, and schools, 1980-1950 Concept of predeterminism (maturation feads learning) established by G Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell. 19908-1970 Development of concepts of educabilty of inteligence, inconstaney of 10, and interactive intelligence by Montessori, Wellman, Skeels and Dye, Dennis, and Hunt. 1952 Jean Piaget described the growth and development of intelligence; drew attention to intellectual development during early childhood; evolved principles of active participation in learning and stages of development; contributed to the interactive view of intelligence. 1956 J.P. Guilford’s presidential speech at the American Psychological Association introduced the Structure of Intellect Model that expanded the concept of intelligence to 120 factors, including a strong focus on oreativity, seen as divergent thinking. 1960s ‘Work done by Vygotsky in Russia in the 1920s was finally made available in the United States and challenged ideas of fixed intelligence; indicated that learning leads and directs maturation; stressed the importance of early stimulation. Many researchers, including Bruner, Hunt, Kagan, Rosensweig, and Krech, established a database for interactive intelligence.Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development 1964 Bloom contributéd to an increased awareness of the preschool years as ‘essential to learning, the interactive intelligence theory, and the understanding of the learning process. Highlights of this work were the establishment of a database for the Headstart Program and the Publication of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, used as a guide in many gifted and talented programs. 1983 Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences, that Includes linguistic, musical, logical-mathomatical, spatial, bodily- kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences. 1984 Robert Sternberg theorized a triarchic concept of intelligence that includes meta-processes, performance processes, and knowledge- acquisition processes. 1995 ‘The accumulation of evidence indicated that intelligence is ‘multidimensional and is affected by an interaction between that which is inherited and the environment in which one lives. 2000 Diamond, Kandel, LeDoux, Siegel, and other neuroscientists extend the concept of intelligence beyond the behavioral aspects of the past theories to an understanding of intelligence as it operates and develops within the brain. 2004 Hawkins suggests and explores a new framework of intelligence based on knowledge of brain function. The Behavioral Concept of Intelligence Fixed Intelligence Nearly 150 years ago, Charles Darwin (1859) began his investigation of the origin of the species. His cousin, Francis Galton (1869), had great interest in the hereditary fac~ tors that Darwin was investigating and began asking important questions regarding the heritability of human intelligence. The importance of his investigation into intellectual differences must not be minimized because, prior to Galton, no one had investigated the individual differences of human beings. The very success of this investigation, how- ever, locked us into a limited concept of intellectual development for over a century. Because Galton, influenced by Darwin, admired and pursued the heritability issue to the exclusion of environmental effects, he established a pattern that remains a part of the inquiry into intelligence to this day. This view resulted in the theory of fixed intelli- gence. People believed that the amount of intelligence possessed at birth would remain intact until the day the person died. It was thought that nothing could add to, subtract from, or in any way change this amount. Galton was the first to attempt an intelligence test based on scientific data. His test assumed a relationship between sensory acuity and general intelligence. Although this later proved to be an inadequate base for such testing, his efforts nevertheless initi- ated the search for functional intelligence testing, As testing for intelligence became popular, the belief prevailed that if we could find a test powerful enough, we could pre- dict from infancy exactly what the individual would become. The seeming unreliability32 Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development of infant testing was thought to be a problem of the testing procedure, not of any change in actual intelligence, Although with current information it is clear that intelli- gence grows or diminishes over time depending on the environment, especially in the early years, many still hold to the belief that intelligence is unchangeable. During this period of belief in fixed intelligence, many significant events occurred. In 1905, the French government asked Alfred Binet to develop a way to separate a group of slow learners from other schoolchildren in order to create a special curriculum and methodology that would aid in their learning, Unlike those who later utilized his intelli- gence scales and concept of mental age, Binet did not agree with the theory of fixed intelli- gence or with a-unitary “g factor” of intelligence. He believed intelligence to be educable, a Delief not again heard until the 1960s. Binet’ articles and speeches would be considered {quite radical even today, Many of the educational problems he spoke out against during his day still need change (Binet, 1969). Today, in the United States, Binet is best known through a revision of his intelligence scale, originally devised by Lewis Terman of Stanford University in 1921. This test, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, originated when no one questioned the validity of fixed intelligence. It is important to note that later revisions of the test are still based! on these assumptions. The Intelligence Quotient (1Q) was developed in 1912 by Wilhelm Stern to indi- cate the score on an intelligence test. In the development of intelligence tests, variations in test performance caused by age differences were taken into account. This adjustment led to the idea of the 1Q, which is computed by dividing the mental age by the chrono- logical age and multiplying by 100, The average 1Q for the general population at any age was set at 100. The 1Q of the middle 50% of the population falls between 90 and 10. The 1Q was used by Terman as the indicator of the score on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. An IQ of 132 reflects the beginning of the upper 2% and is often used as an indicator of giftedness, Using his revision of Binet’ intelligence scale, Terman began the most extensive lon- gitudinal study of the characteristics and behaviors of gifted individuals. In 1921, working in California from Stanford University under a grant from the Commonwealth Fund of New York City, he chose more than 1,500 students with an average age of 1] years and an IQ exceeding 140 (in fact, the mean was 150). He collected extensive personal and educa- tional data on each student. The stereotype of a gifted person at that time was a bespecta- cled, frail youngster who was socially Mat ease, lost in a world of books and lofty thoughts, and usually isolated in some comer tenuously holding onto sanity. “Early ripe, early rot” was the motto of the day used to describe the gifted person. No clear-thinking parent would ever desire to have such a child. Any attempt to encourage this type of development ‘was wothinkable, ‘Terman’ data went far to dispel these myths. Although his sample was limited culturally, socioeconomically, and racially, his findings were significant in influencing those who held extreme ideas about gifted individuals. His data allowed a more realistic opinion and a more accepting view of the gifted learner. Although conceived and mostly conducted during a period of belief in fixed intelligence, Terman’s longitudinal work (lasting 30 years during his life and later updated by some of his colleagues) added to the data disputing fixed intelligence as a viable concept (Terman, 1925). ‘Testing achieved great popularity during the 1930s and 1940s. For a time in America, everyone was tested for everything. There were tests for career placement, for various kinds of aptitude, for scholastic ability, for personality factors, and even for| Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftediness, Talent, and Talent Development 33 predicting success with a furure marriage partner. Armies of men and thousands of schoolchildren were tested. During this period, the test became the ultimate authority Intelligence testing was valued to such an extreme that a test score placed on a school cumulative record could be used for educational decision making without the availabil- ity of the protocol,the answer sheet, or even the name of the test. Parents were not per- mitted to know the 1Qs of their children because the prevailing belief was that this number gave evidence of capacity for mental development and such a powerful piece of information could not be trusted to the lay public. Some school districts and classrooms still are reluctant to share this information. Tn the first half of the 20th century, a student of Galton, G. Stanley Hall, introduced another idea about human development that was a logical outgrowth of the concept of fixed intelligence. Hall believed development was predetermined, a view that was made popular largely by the work of Amold Gesell (Gesell et al., 1940), a disciple of Hall. Again, as with Galton, a man who made many valuable contributions to our understand- ing of children became instrumental in solidifying misconceptions about how children grow and develop, Predeterminism assumes that the human organism is programmed in a sequentially timne-controlled way and that, regardless of events or environments, the pro- gram will prevail. Maturation and learning were seen as distinct and, to some extent, separate processes, with maturation controlled by heredity and learning controlled by environmental conditions, Maturation was thought to lead necessarily to learning. This Jdea was carried to such an extreme that avant-garde schools viewed any attempt to guide the growth of youngsters asa grievous fault. The educational abuses that followed—most notably, lack of stimulation—inevitably limited the growth and development of the human beings involved. Parents were advised to allow each child to “flower” unre- strained, Permissive patterns of child rearing and education were extolled. However, some dissonant information began to appear in this climate of noninter= vention and nonstimulation, At first, people disputed, rationalized away, or simply ignored any ideas that varied from the accepted view. The slow acceptance of the work of Maria Montessori exemplifies the reception offered educational methodology based on ‘opposing ideas (Standing, 1966). Although Montessori’ work was highly successful edu- cationally, it assumed the edhucability of intelligence and, therefore, the inconstancy of the 1Q, ideas that were not yet accepted. Not until decades later could the techniques and ideas of Montessori be incorporated into our educational practices. Such ideas were lost until years of evidence began to accumulate. Determined and courageous researchers and practitioners in education and psychology risked their professional reputations to share findings that were in direct conflict with the concept of intelligence as “fixed.” Even today some still consider this area of inquiry controversial. Beth Wellman and her colleagues at lowa University were among the first to ques- tion the premise of fixed intelligence. In 1938, this group began an experiment that later caused them to become part of a professional controversy (Skeels, Updegralf, Wellman, & Williams, 1938; Skodak & Skells, 1949; Wellman, 1940), The group estab. lished a model nursery school on the grounds of an orphanage. The operation of the orphanage had been efficient in that the basic needs of the children were provided fot; but little time was spent in stimulation or educational activities, The model nurs- ety school provided the needed stimulation and was highly successful. In fact, it seemed to change the intellectual behavior exhibited by the children in attendance After measuring the children’ progress on achievement and intelligence tests, Wellman34 Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development reported her findings to the academic community in what must have been a mood of optimistic enthusiasm, Ata time when information such as changes in intelligence scores and environmental intervention was received with suspicion and when women professors were themselves not taken seriously, it is small wonder that the storm of protest that followed became a humiliating experience for Wellman. Not until years later did another team, some of whom had worked on the original project, conduct a similar study after carefully redesigning their approach to meet the criticisms of improper sampling procedures, lack of a control group, and improper research design that were aimed at the Wellman data, This study and subsequent follow- up studies finally made an impact on the academic community, The findings were intriguing, Children removed from the orphanage to a more stimulating environment (an institution for retarded girls, where they received much attention, stimulation, and affection) gained more than 20 1Q points when retested, while the control group remain- ‘ng at the orphanage lost between 13 and 45 1Q points (Skeels & Dye, 1959). A follow- up study (Skeels, 1966) further dramatized the findings by reporting that those in the experimental group had become productive, functioning adults, while those in the con- trol group, for the most part, had been institutionalized as mentally retarded; few of the latter group became productive adults. Whatever one might think of the research design or sampling methods used, the results were, at the very least, provocative. In 1960, another event occurred that again raised questions that the prevailing the- ory of intelligence could not answer. While observing deprived conditions in orphanages in Teheran, Iran, Dennis (1960) found 12-month-old babies who could not sit by them- selves, even though maturational theories assured this behavior by 8 months of age at the latest. Some 4-year-olds could not yet walk alone, although development scales showed 1 year of age to be the appropriate time schedule, How could the maturational developinent of these children be so far off the norm? Do environments affect matura- tion after all? To answer these questions, Dennis conducted a series of experiments, The resulting data showed the concept of fixed intelligence and its natural extension, prede- terminism, to be untenable (Dennis & Dennis, 1955; Dennis & Najarian, 1957) Interactive Intelligence Data such as those produced by researchers Wellman, Skodak, Skeels, Dye, and Dennis made it necessary to formulate a new theory for looking at intelligence. An important new model, “The Structure of the Intellect Model, now appeared that was the result of the factor-analytic work of Guilford (1956). Guilford felt that psychology had overly restricted its view of human intelligence. His model expanded the factors seen as part of human intel- ligence and showed their interrelatedness. Guilford, too, discussed intelligence as educable. He drew attention to creativity as an important function of the human mental process. Tt was, however, well into the 1960s when the challenge against fixed intelligence reached significant proportions. 4 veritable cadre of intelligent men and women now faced the issue. Armed with data resulting from their work, they proceeded from an examination of the dissonance between accumulating information and the old theoretic framework, through the postulation of a new theory of intelligence, to the collection of evidence to support the new hypothesis. From this point on, intelligence woutd be seen as educable, changeable, and dependent on the interaction between the genetic inheritance and the experiences provided by the environment. A wealth of studies followed that supported theChapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development 35 new concept, Recorded here are only a few of the milestone events because the sheer quuan- lity of activity makes the delineation of a chronology of importance inapossible. From France, in varying quality of translation, came the work of Jean Piaget (1952), who influenced educational theory and practice to an unprecedented degree. He began his inquiry in a most unscientific manner, one that no scientist would consider sound as a research design. Without objectivity, he selected only three subjects to observe and no control group. The subjects were his own children, However, he described so clearly and in such detail what he observed that his evidence enabled him to evolve principles of growth and development. Later examination of data froma multitude of studies including respectable numbers of children verified many of his principles as viable and useful Piaget was among the first to ask about intellectual development during the first few years of human life. Drawn from his background in marine biology, his work emphasized the principles of assimilation and accommodative interaction. He believed that intellectual growth resulted from the learner's active participation in the learning process, invariably sequenced into stages. Although he set no strict time lines on the stages of development, he considered the order unalterable, with mastery of the lower stages preceding learning in the higher stages of cognition. Piaget stated that the age at which a child passes from one stage to another depends on both the genetic endowment and the quality of the environ- ment, He espoused one of the first interactive theories of intelligence. In the 1960s, work done in the 1920s in Russia by researcher Lev Vygotsky had just begun to reach the American academic community. Suppressed during his lifetime because it contradicted the beliefs and actions of the totalitarian government, his work finally became known and discussed. Contrary to the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky’ research sup- ported the idea that learning led and directed the quality and speed of maturation. ‘Wygotsky’s contributions provided data for the areas of language development, educational remediation, early stimulation, and remediation of physical disability (Vygotsky, 1962) The work of Benjamin Bloom (1964) made another important contribution to educational practice, particularly with regard to an area of growing concer, the years of early intellectual development. A reexamination of previously published data allowed Bloom to suggest a startling hypothesis. It had long been assumed (and intelligence test- ing norms complied with the assumption) that humans learn in a regularly ascending line between birth and 18 years of age, after which they level off to a plateau until around 45, the age when a gradual decline to senility begins. Bloom used the reassessed data to show a very different pattern. Although he looked at many human characteristics, just the findings from the area of intelligence receive comment here. Between birth and 4 years of age, children accomplish 50% of the deviation in IQ that they will acquire by 18 years of age. By 6 years of age, another 30% will have been added. With the data showing 80% of the deviation in adult 1Q actualized by age 6, educators developed a new awareness of the preschool years as an essential time for learning. As society’ concern for compensatory education also gained a following, many programs were then estab- lished to take advantage of the important early years. ‘The educational community began to focus on the early years of development as educators became aware of the limitations and deceptions caused by the theories of fixed intelligence and predeterminism. Retiance on these older concepts had left us with a near void in understanding how infants and young children develop intellectu- ally. Bloom made an important contribution to classroom organization for learning with the publication of his Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain36 Part i: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development (Bloom, 1956) and his work with Krathwohl and Masia (196+) in Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Affective Domain. For readers nearing or past the magic age of 45, let me hasten to add that subsequent stadies done by the Fels Foundation (Kagan & Moss, 1962), the Berkeley Growth Studies (Bayley, 1968; Bayley & Schaefer, 1964) and the Terman data themselves (Terman & Oden, 1947) give us a very different view of the “off to senility” phenomenon. Those studies indicate that we do not plateau intellectually at 18 years of age; rather, we continue 10 move either upward or gradually downward, depending on the environment with which we interact, the intellectual challenges in which we engage, and on our personality charac- teristics. Aggressive, inquiring, active, independent, sensitive people who seek new ideas and adapt comfortably to change tend to continue upward; passive, docile, dependent peo- ple who follow set patterns and seek security and repetition gradually lose intellectual facility, Data collected from the Terman studies show that growth patterns continue as peo- ple reach their 60s and 70s, Data on aging further support these possibilities. The constancy of the 1Q received a final blow from the work of Sontag, Baker, and Nelson (1958) and Kagan and Moss (1962). Longitudinal studies followed 300 children from prenatal development through adulthood, with data collected at regular intervals, The results showed consistent change in IQ scores, especially at the extreme ends, with more variation evident for boys than for girls Bruner, Hunt, and many others began the task of establishing and supporting a new theory of intelligence. Bruner (1968) hypothesized that the young process information in three ways: through action, imagery, and symbols. He believed that the preschool experi- ence should work toward translating one into the other. Bruner stated, “The significance about the growth of the mind in the child is to what degree it depends not upon capacity but upon the unlocking of capacity” (p. 14). He saw that the process of translating or unlocking depends on interaction with the environment of the culture. He attempted to give usa method of implementation as he set forth his new theories on instruction. Hunt (1961) brought out the problem of the match, that is, finding the most stim- ulating circumstances for children at each point in their development. To him, the major challenge of our time was to discover 2 way to govern the encounters children have with their environment, especially during the early years of their development, With such a match of ability and experience, children could be expected to achieve a substantially higher level of intellectual capacity as adults. High levels of intelligence, whether expressed in cognitive abilities (such as the capacity to generalize, to conceptualize, or to reason abstractly), specific academic ability, Jeadership, or creative behavior expressed through visual and performing arts, result from. the interaction between inherited potentialities and experiences acquired from the envi- ronment. This interaction encompasses all of the physical, mental, and emotional charac- teristics of the person and alll of the people, events, and objects entering the person's awareness. Just as no two people have identical physical, mental, and emotional proper- ties, neither do they have the same environment. Reality is unique to each of us. Even so simple a perception as color differs vastly among individuals. We view color differently not only because we have biological differences, but also because our own emotional pat- terns cause us to develop a personal meaning for each color that might change or be rein- forced as our experiences with objects of each color give us additional information. Because the newer data from many sources now make the fixed view of intelli- gence untenable, the interactive theory of intelligence best describes the data available.‘Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development 37 From this interactive point of view, we could not say which is more important: the inherited abilities or the environmental opportunities to develop them. A restriction on either would inhibit high levels of actualized intellectual ability, High levels of intellec- tual development do not occur without a high level of interaction between the inherited abilities and appropriately enriching experiences. Further support for this interaction theory of intelligence must be noted in the renorming of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale in the 1970s. An analysis of the stan- @ardization results showed a dramatic rise in the 1Q level, especially among the preschool population. We might assume that the higher levels of education among parents and a richer earlier envitonment—television, higher mobility, wider use of educational toys and books, better nutrition—have helped foster this change, Later studies indicated that the observed change is a genuine phenomenon and nota research exror (Thorndike, 1975). This information is even more impelling as evidence when one considers that the new standardization population purposefully included minority and broader socioeconomic representation, which had been omitted from the previous samplings. Expanded Views of Intelligence Based on Behavior During the 1980s, expanding the concept of intelligence, first suggested by Guilford, was the concern of a number of researchers and scholars. Each has added a dimension to consider in our understanding of intelligence. In 1983, Howard Gardner, a Harvard University psychologist, proposed a theory of, multiple intelligences, originally including seven of what he purported to be relatively independent intelligences—linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily- kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal, He believes that “only if we expand and reformulate our view of what counts as human intellect will we be able to devise more appropriate ways of assessing it and more eflective ways of educating it” (p. 4). He later developed an eighth intelligence, naturalistic, that tries to capture the more unique aspects of each individual, In the process of formulating his original theory, Gardner drew from a wide range of studies on subjects including prodigies, gifted individuals, brain-damaged patients, normal children and adults, and individuals of diverse cultures. Gardner’s theory addresses many areas that have not previously been seen as a part of intelligence, and he brings additional clarity to the critical importance of the interaction of both genetics and environment in its development. Throughout the discussion of the eight intelligences, Gardner discusses the power of using one of the intelligences that is well developed as an alternative learning mode for others not as developed. This use of the multiple intelligences to support one another and thereby create powerful learning comes very close to the view of integra- tive education developed in this text, although the area of intuitive fiction is not yet included in Gardner's model. Gardner shows a deep concern for optimal learning in his theoretic framework. In 1985, a psychologist from Yale University, Robert Sternberg, theorized a tri- archic concept of intelligence. To understand intelligence, he believes that we must view its development from three aspects: the internal world of the individual, exemplified by analytical thinking; the extemal world of the individual, environmental awareness; and38 Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development the interaction between these two worlds that synthesizes disparate experiences in insightful ways, According to the twiarchic theory, three kinds of mental processes operate: (1) meta-processes, used to plan, monitor, and evaluate one’s problem solving; (2) performance processes, used to carry out the instructions of the meta-processes; and (3) knowledge-acquisition processes, used to figure out how to solve problems. These processes result in three types of giftedness: Analytic giftedness—the academic type of reasoning measured by intelligence tesis; Synthetic giftedness—creative, intuitive, imagi- native, insightful thinking; and Practical giftedness—the ability to apply analytic and synthetic abilities to everyday issues and problems successfully. Sternberg includes wisdom, defined as concern for the needs and welfare of others, in the area of practical intelligence to modify the concept to favor positive expressions. He believes that the experiential expression of synthetic giftedness most impacts the world and that augmenting our understanding of this area will permit us to develop a more complete theory of intelligence and provide a base for a more useful assessment. It is in the area of experience that Sternberg feels we fail the individual most notably, both in the develop- ment of his or her intelligence and in its identification. This concept is important to note in light of more recent developments in understanding intelligence that suggest the critical nature of the environment. ‘The fields of psychology and education continue to define intelligence most often by behaviors and to measure it through tests of knowledge and skills. Such tests seem to >e valid for ranking individuals and are highly predictive of performance on tasks of a similar nature, such as those related to school activities, Current theories of intelligence in these fields value the ease and speed with which individuals acquire new knowledge and skills, The Concept of Intelligence as a Process Within the Brain Researchers in the neurosciences are currently investigating the actual process of devel- oping intelligence. The focus for the understanding and definition of intelligence is now shifting from the observation of intelligent behaviors to the neural processes that underlie and create these behaviors. What we have been calling theories or definitions of intelligence can now be seen as the behavioral outcomes of being intelligent, A complete theory of intelligence must now include the processes within the brain. Understanding these processes will allow educators to affect the quality and quantity of intelligent behavior and lead to knowledge of how to design the most effective educational strate- gies to nurture higher levels of intelligence, Tn 1993, Wittrock suggested that educators not ask what the brain has to do with learning; rather, they should ask (1) How can we understand the operations of the brain so that we can create more powerful lessons? and (2) How can education use the processes of the brain more effectively? ‘A number of researchers from the neurosciences have been defining and devel- oping an understanding of intelligence from within the brain (e.g., Diamond, 1988; Diamond, 1998; Edelman, 2004; Hawkins, 2004; Kandel, 2006; LeDoux, 2003, Restak, 2003; Siegel, 1999). Others from psychology and the cognitive sciences con- tinue to explore the concept of intelligence by studying intelligent behavior (e.g., Gardner, 1999; Greenspan, 1997; Sternberg, et al., 2000). Both groups have producedChapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Gifiedness, Talent, and Talent Development 39 useful insights that can inform classroom practice. The advantage of the focus from neuroscience is that we are able not only to improve some of the outcomes of teach- ing, but also to actually understand what is needed in the environment and in the teaching interactions with children to optimize the learning outcomes. In fact, by defining intelligence as brain function, we can move to the level of creating condi- tions for the development of higher levels of intelligence. From this point of view, nearly all children at the beginning of their lives can be seen as possessing the equip- ment necessary to develop increasingly complex intellectual abilities. As we continue to learn more about the brain, educators at. home and at school will be able to provide the essential opportunities that can establish the neural patterns that will result in increasingly higher intellectual behavior. It is important that we make better use of the information we now have to allow our children to develop the unique abilities embedded in their genetic patterns. To understand how some individuals become gifted and others do not, we need to become familiar with the basic structure and function of the human brain, As we seek to nurture giftedness, such knowledge will prove invaluable. ‘The Organization of the Brain ‘The human brain can be organized into four major functional areas (Pigures 2.2 and 2.3), each with different structures and chemistry. “The idea that diflerent regions of the brain are specialized for different purposes is central to modern brain science” (Kandel, 2006, Figure 2.2 Areas of Function - Cognitive Sensory Physical motional {iinparon dcop nau Win and tnd a Hpposereus ors he Amys) ‘Source: Based on a drawing by Allyson Balay.Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development Figure 2.3 The Universe of Intelligence Based on Areas of Brain Function \ Intuitive \ / Predictive Rational Transformational Emotional Sensing | Movement 4 Physical p. 123). Use of these general areas will allow us to overview major brain functions and their approximate locations and make our discussion manageable. In reality, information is processed from a vast number of brain areas, through myriad neural pathways and link- ages, to be analyzed and integrated in cellular structures at higher and higher levels, resulting in retention and storage of unbelievable amounts of data, all contributing to our uniqueness of self and our worldview. While we do not need to comprehend the complexity of this total system in order to understand some basic brain structures and fimctions, itis well to keep it in mind. What we already understand about brain function has changed our beliefs and procedures for optimizing learning and teaching, As more information regarding the functioning of the brain becomes available, educators can expect amazing benefits, enriching and enhancing our ability to teach and to create more effective learning opportunit ‘Asan aid to understanding the organization and structure of the brain, we will bor- row from Paul MacLean (1978) and extend an analogy he used that has helped me in my thinking and teaching. Make a fist with each of your hands so that you can see the fingernails, and then place your hands together with the fingernails touching, As you look down at your hands, they now form a very respectable model of the brain (Figures 2.4 and 2.5). Wiggle your litle fingers and you have identified the occipital lobe, the area through which vision enters the brain. Move your middle finger and you have located the motor area in the parietal lobe. The language area is just below the middle knuckle on the right hand eft hemisphere), Please note that the left hemisphere is connected to the right‘Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development 41 Figare 2.4 A Hand Model of the Human Brain. hemisphere (left hand) by way of the touching fingernails, which now represent the corpus callosum. This connector between the right and left hemispheres of the brain has within it more neural connections than there are in any other part of the body. Although Sperry (1973) discovered that the functions of each of the two hemispheres are different the lefta Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development hemisphere is most responsible for linear, rational functions and the right hemisphere is most responsible for spatial, gestalt functions. Clearly the interconnection or integration of the right and left hemisphere specializations is biologically intended. Genetics and gender will influence the nature of these lateral connections as well Separate your hands, maintaining the closed fist, and we can explore the inside of our brain model. Begin with the arm-wrist area; this represents the brain stem, in which ‘we find the seat of autonomic (ie., automatic) function, Here is the primitive brain, the system that relieves us of consciously processing each breath and each beat of our heart. However, those working in the area of biofeedback have shown us that, while most autonomic functions remain just that, we can, if we choose, bring the awareness of these functions to consciousness, allowing us to monitor or change the process if it has become destructive or inefficient. For example, people with high blood pressure can use biofeedback techniques to monitor and change an inappropriate distribution rate of blood, consciously helping the body to better regulate this usually automatic function (Taylor, Tom, & Ayers, 1981). In the brain stem, we find the neural pathways for many higher brain centers. Here, (00, are cells concerned with motor control and the com- munication link between the rest of the brain and the cerebellum, located at the very base of the brain. The reticular formation is located in this area. It is, in essence, the physical basis for consciousness and plays a major role in keeping us awake and alert, The Physical Function (Sensing and Movement). The first area of function that we will discuss includes movement and the entire sensorium: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. The access to our world is primarily through movement and physical sensing, Our level of intellectual ability, even our view of reality, will depend on how our brain organizes and processes this information, We know that gifted learners have a heightened ability to bring in information from their envionment and process it in ‘ways that expand their view of reality. They do, however, often define themselves by their cognitive ability and may recognize their value through that ability alone. ‘Therefore, gifted students may focus more and more energy toward the pursuit of cognitive excellence and may ignore their physical growth and development. Although many gifted children develop above-average physical skills, they often value physical pursuits far less than cognitive endeavors, denying the need for integration. It is common for gifted learners to develop a Cartesian split (Le., a mental separation between mind and body) that if unrecognized and allowed to intensify, can limit the cognitive growth they so value, Integration of the body and the mind becomes an essential part of a program for optimizing learning (see Chapter 3). The Affective Function (Emotional and Social). This second function is expressed in emotions and interactions; while affecting and affected by every part of the brain/mind system, it is primarily regulated by biochemical mechanisms housed in the limbic area, This second area of the brain, the limbic area, including the hippocampus and the amygdala (Figure 2.5) or the emotional mind, is wrapped around the top of the brain stem. Tt is located at midbrain and contributes significantly to the learning process. You ‘can symbolically view the limbic area by partially unclenching your fist and looking at the palm of the hand. One can see the ventricles of the brain as well as the mounds and depressions of the limbic area itself. Here are the biochemical systems that are activated by the emotions of the learner. Here, too, are processes that enhance or inhibit memory.; : : | ) | Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development B This area affects such diverse functions as anxiety, rage, sentimentality, and attention span. In addition, our feelings of personal identity and uniqueness depend on this area of the brain to combine internal and external experience, It is in this area that affective feelings provide the connecting bridge between our inner and outer worlds and add significantly to our construct of reality and our model of a possible world. By the release of biochemicals {rom the limbic area, the cells of the cortex are either facilitated or inhibited in their functioning. One activator for growth of function in this area is novelty (Kandel, 2006; Restak, 1979). The affective fanction does more than support cognitive processes; in fact, it pro- vides the gateway to enhance or limit higher cognition. To allow optimal learning, fami- lies must include in the environment and teachers must integrate into their presentations activities that promote emotional growth, The Cognitive Function (Linear and Spatial). This third system of the brain is located in the convoluted mass known as the neocortex or cerebrum, represented by the exposed surface of the fingers and thumbs of both hands held together. Itis the largest brain system, comprising five-sixths of the total brain mass, and envelops the two systems previously mentioned, the brain stem and the limbic area. It is here that data are processed, decisions made, action initiated, and memory stored, The neocortex is necessaty for language and speech. ts most overriding functions involve the reception, processing, storage, and retrieval of information, Hawkins (2004) acknowledges the neocortex as the seat of intelligence. “Almost everything we think of as intelligence—perception, language, imagination, mathematics, art, music, and planning—occurs here” (p. 40) Even though it has a great number of abilities and powerful flexibility, the neocortex is sur- prisingly regular in its stmctural details. The different parts of the neocortex, whether they are responsible for vision, hearing, touch, or Language, all work on the same principles, The ‘key to understanding the neocortex is understanding these common principles, and in pat- ticular, its hierarchical structure . its structure captures the structure of the world. (p. 6) Hawkins considers the primary function of the neocortex to be prediction, a function he believes to be the foundation of intelligence. To better understand the structure of this ‘most important area of the brain, let us borrow from Hawkins his analogy for the struc- ture of the neocortex. By stacking six business cards or playing cards, you have a sense of the six levels of layering that are involved and how thin this important covering is. ‘The cognitive function includes the linear analytic, problem-solving, sequential, evaluative specialization of the left cortical hemisphere of the brain (in the hand model, your right hand), as well as the more spatially oriented gestalt specialization of the right cortical hemisphere (your left hand in the model). Higher intelligence requires accelerated synaptic activity and an increased density of the dendrites, which allows the establishment of complex networks of thought. Stimulating environments promote the growth and branching of dendrites, resulting in an advanced capacity to generalize, conceptualize, and reason abstractly. The Intuitive Function. This function may be organized in the most recently evolved section of the neocortex, the prefrontal cortex, In our hand analogy, itis represented by your thumbs. This area of the brain focuses on behaviors associated with planning, organizing, and creating insight, empathy, and introspection. LeDoux (2003) and LuriaPart I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development (cited in Wittrock, 1980) considered the prefrontal cortex the basis of intuitive thought. It is engaged in firming up intention, deciding on action, and regulating our most complex behaviors (Resta, 1979). It seems to be the area that energizes and regulates other parts of the brain, As early as the late 70s Goodman placed the following functions in the area of the prefrontal cortex, which is believed to develop most fully between 12 and 16 years of age: ‘+ Foresight: Ability to see patterns of change, to extrapolate from present trends to future ‘possibilities; this process uses imagination, prediction, and behavioral planning. + Self-regulation; Regulation of bodily processes through insight, internal commands, and generation of visual images; this process is the basis for meditation and biofeed- back strategies. + Analytic systems thinking: High form of creativity, complex analysis of input requis ing formal logic and metaphor. © Holos: Social sense, rational and emotional; the foundation of altruism. Intuition is defined and viewed by different researchers and writers in different ways, Webster’ (1996) defines intuition as the direct perception of truth or fact inde- pendent of any reasoning process; immediate apprehension; a keen and quick insight; pure, untaught, noninferential knowledge. Jung (1933) referred to intuition as one of the four basic human functions. He stated, “Intuition does not denote something con- trary to teason, but something outside the province of reason” (p. 454). He considered intuition vital to understanding, Bruner (1960) discussed intuition as an important part of the education process and encouraged its training. The physicist Capra (1975) tells us that rational knowing is useless if not accompanied and enhanced by intuitive mowing. ‘The development and implementation of strategies for integrating intuition into the classroom can be facilitated by the work of Loye (1983). He has organized intuition in at least three levels; rational, predictive, and transformational, + Rational intuition is intuitive behavior that realigns known information in such a ‘way that new insights emerge. + Predictive intuition enlarges on the processes of the rational level by including new information within existing patterns or sequences and then synthesizing unknown or only suspected information. An unconscious impression or information from a seemingly unknown source becomes an important part of the new patterns formed, the insights, or the profound conclusions. This type of intuitive process is responsi ble for many breakthrough discoveries, the forecasting of trends, and the intuitive leap so valued in business, diplomacy, science, economics, and decision making in ‘one’s personal life + Transformational intuition seems to use a different kind of sensing that “picks up information through a means that has defied scientific understanding” (p. 52). Ideas come suddenly, unbidden, or in a dream, and what is written comes through as if from an outside source. This level of intuition can be experienced as transcendence and can be observed within the brain as a change in the rate of coherence of brain ‘waves from separate regions of the brain.Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Gifteciness, Talent, and Tatent Development 45 The function of intuition, which we all have, but use in varying degrees, represents a different way of knowing. Activating intuition gives a person a sense of completeness, ot wholeness. This powerful tool leads to the understanding of concepts and people and to an expansion of the reach of the mind, These insights tend to come suddenly and, characteristically, not when sitting at a desk working out equations, but when relaxing (e.g., in the bath, during a walk in the ‘woods, on the beach). “During these periods of relaxation after concentrated intellectual activity, the intuitive mind seems to take over and can produce the sudden clarifying, insights which give so much joy and delight to scientific research” (Capra, 1975, p. 31) Many of those working to include the development of intuition in the educational setting believe that the ability to concentrate and to work at complex tasks with ‘unusual clarity results from the intuitive function. Identified now as a part of the func- tion of the prefrontal cortex, intuition becomes a part of the planning, future thinking, and insight so necessary to the intelligent person. From these perspectives, we end up with four somewhat different brains in one: (2) the brain stem—the smallest and oldest part of the brain; (2) the structures of the limbic area; (3) the neocortex or cerebium—the six-layered, largest part of the brain; and (4) the prefrontal cortex—the newest, most sophisticated section, Under stress, the neocortex begins shutting down, turning over more and more functions to the lower, limbic area of the brain. While rote learning can be continued, higher and more com: plex learning is inhibited (Hart, 1981). Creating opportunities for the effective opera- tion of this total brain is our responsibility as parents and educators. Research data from the neurosciences suggest that a high level of intelligence is the result of advanced, highly integrated, and accelerated processing within the brain. The con- cept of intelligence—and, therefore, “giftedness” as a label for high development of intelfigence—can no longer be confined to cognitive function; it clearly must include all brain functions and their efficient and integrated use, Using this information, we find that those who are more intelligent tend to have more integrated, effective use of these functions of the brain, ‘The Neuron, the Basic Unit of the Brain In the 1970s, it was established that at birth the human brain contains some 100 billion to 200 billion brain cells or neurons. Each neural cell is ready to be developed and used for actualizing the highest levels of human potential. With a relatively small number of exceptions, all human infants come equipped with this marvelous, powerful heritage, made increasingly complex by unique genetic patterns. Such a strticture allows us to process trillions of bits of information in our lifetime. However, itis estimated that we actually use less than 5% of our capability to connect neural structures, How we use this complex systema becomes critical to our development of intelligence and personal. ity and to our very quality of life (Diamond, 1998; Hawkins, 2004; Kandel, 2006; LeDoux, 2003; Siegel, 1999; Teyler, 1977). The billions of neurons within the brain are so small that 100,000 of them can fit into a space the size of a pinhead, A neuron is composed of the cell body, the dendrites, and a branching axon (Figure 2.6). If you open your hand to the fullest extent possible, you will have a good model of the nerve cell (Figure 2.7). The palm of the hand is the46 Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development. Figure 2.6 Thtee Interconnected Neurons Figure 2.7 The Human Hand as Representing a Nerve CellChapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development ~ cell body, with the indentation at the center representing the nucleus of the cell, Inside the cell body are the biochemical processes that maintain the life of the cell, The extended fingers are located in the appropriate place for the dendrites and would more closely resemble dendrites if branches grew from each finger. The arm extending from the hand makes a good model of the axon that, in fact, extends from the cell body in much the same way. It is possible to use both hands as models of neurons to show the exchange of information as it occurs in the learning process. The neuron is a tiny information-processing system that receives and sends thou- sands of signals. No two cells are exactly alike, and no two brains are exactly alike. We are as different from one another as snowélakes, although overall we function with the same processes. The pathways for receiving information from nearby nerve cells ate-the dendrites, short fibers that branch out from the cell body. The axon, a long nerve fiber that extends from the cell body and often branches at the end, serves as a transmitter, sending signals that are picked up by the branches of the neighboring dendrites. The activity between neuzons consists of the axon of one cell contacting the dendrite of another. The end of the axon does not actually touch the dendrite of the other cell, but transmits the information chemically across a region where the cells are particularly close. This junction, across which impulses travel from one nerve cell to another, is called the synapse. The transmission of a nerve impulse is an electrical-biochemical- electrical process. At the synapse, the electrical impulses that travel through the cell are converted into biochemical signals and then back to electrical impulses by the receiving cell. It is this synaptic activity that is thought to be the site for the neural mechanisms of learning and memory. Here is the seat of intelligence (Hawkins, 2004; Kandel, 2006: LeDoux, 2003; Siegel, 1999) Surrounding the neurons are special cells known as glia. These cells outnumber the neural cells 10 to 1 and can be increased by stimulation from the environment (Diamond, 1988; Hawkins, 2004; LeDoux, 2003; Rosenzweig, 1966). The glial cells provide the brain with nourishment, consume waste products, and serve as packing ‘material that glues (ie., from glial or glue) the brain together. They also insulate the nerve cell, creating a myelin sheath around the axon (Figure 2.6), a special coating around the axon that protects it and amplifies the signal leaving the cell. Myelin has an important function: It allows the myelin-coated axon to conduct information away from the neuron at a much faster rate than would be possible for axons with less of the ‘myelin coating. It is like the difference in electrical conduction through insulated and noninsulated wiring: The speed and power of the charge are increased by the presence of insulation. As the glial cells in the brain increase and provide more myelination, the speed of learning accelerates. ‘The rate of glial cell production is influenced by the richness of the experiences provided in the environment (Diamond, 1988; Hawkins, 2004; LeDoux, 2003; Rosenzweig, 1966; Siegel, 1999). The more glia there are, the more accelerated will be the synaptic activity, and the more powerful will be the impulse exchange from one cell to the next. This allows for faster and more complex patterns of thinking, two charac- teristics we find in gifted children, The speed of thought is amazing, Ifa nerve pathway is used often, the threshold of the synapse falls, so that the pathway operates even more readily. A wave front is started that may sweep over at least 100,000 neurons a second (Brierley, 1976)48 Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development ‘Another way to increase synaptic activity, thereby increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of the brain system, is to strengthen the neuron’s cell body. Although the quantity of neural cells may not be readily increased, the quality of the cells can be (Diamond, 1988; Kandel, 2006; Krech, 1969; LeDoux, 2003; Rosenzweig, 1966). This quality enhancement allows for information to be processed more quicldy and for more power to be conducted, resulting in the availability of more complex neural networks. ‘An individual’ interaction in an enriched environment changes the chemical structure of the nerve cell, thereby strengthening the cell body. The result is more rapid, more complex thought processing. Integration, constant feedback, and vast experience in a rich environment are the keys to powerful learning and memory. Nobel-winning neutoscientist Gerald Edelman (2004) supports the importance of a variety of experiences and the essential nature of feedback to high levels of brain function. By providing quantity and quality of experiences, we build memory, a basic component of the process of intelligence. With broadened mem- ory comes accuracy of prediction, the basis of intelligence (Hawkins, 2004). This is an important reminder for the classroom. THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTELLIGENCE The terms intelligence and intellectual ability express many different ideas, In our dis- cussion, we have acknowledged intelligence as the result of the development, interrela- tionship, and integration of all functions of the human brain. We have shown that the development of intelligence can be enhanced or inhibited by the interaction between the genetic pattern and the experiences provided by the environment. To communicate the dynamic nature of this development, Cross (Cited in Diamond, 1998) observes that “an animal is only as smart as it needs to be,” (p. 29)and Diamond supports this state- ment by adding, “Nature programs parts of the brain to sharpen up when—and only when—experience demands it” (Diamond, 1998, p. 29) Nature Plus Nurture What we believe about how people become intelligent will influence the way we plan for their educational development. If we believe that individuals are born gifted, we will probably feel that we can do little to influence their development. We may believe that enrichment will be sufficient to allow people with this ability to “get by on their own.” If, however, we consider giftedness a dynamic process in which a person’ innate ability is in constant and continuous interaction with the environment, and if we believe that the strength of that interaction will determine just how much ability this person will be able to develop, then we will become highly sensitive to the level of needs he or she expresses, Our awareness will allow us to support and challenge this developing intel- lect. Without such efforts, intellectual abilities will be wasted, and untold potential will never be realized. A discussion of how intelligence develops is far more than an academic pursuit. For our children, it is a matter of who they are and who they may become.Chapter 2: The Concepts of tntelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development 49 Children are not born gifted, but they are born with a unique and nearly unlimited potential. Clearly, there is an early and continuous need for talent development, As early as the 1970s, Cattell spoke of the human’s “capacity to acquire new capacity” (1971, p. 8), alluding to the marvelous ability human beings have to actually change their own capacity. We can become more than we were at birth—not more in the sense of exceeding the limits of our inborn characteristics of physical structure, but most certainly more in our ability to use those characteristics and that structure, In some cases, we may modify the total to hecome more efficient and more powerful than these limits seemingly dictated. We have not properly appreciated the ability of our organism to expand or decrease as it interacts with the environment, As Diamond (1998) states, “The brain, with its complex architecture and limitless potential, is a highly plastic, constantly changing entity that is powerfully shaped by our experiences in childhood and throughout life. . . . Our collective actions, sensations, and memories are «a powerful shaper of both function and anatomy” (pp. 2-3) [Emphasis that of the author], Neurobiologist Teyler explained in 1977: ‘The fabric of the brain is set down as a result of the interaction of genetic blueptinis and ‘environmental influences. While the basic features of brain organization are present at birth (cell division is essentially complete), the brain experiences tremendous growth in neural processes, synapse formation, and myelin sheath formation, declining around puberty. ‘These processes can be profoundly altered by the organism's enviroument, Furthermore, it ‘has been shown that brain processes present at birth will degenerate if the environmental stimu- lation necessary to activate them is withheld. It appears that the genetic contribution provides a Sramework which, §f not used, will disappear, but which is capable of further development given the optimal environmental stimulation. (pp. 31-32) [Emphasis that of the author] Genes cannot be thought of as causing particular attributes; rather, they have a wide range of effects in different environments. Genes do not make specific bits and pieces of a body; they code for a range of forms under an array of environmental condi- tions, Moreover, even when a trait has been built and set, environmental intervention may still modify what has been inherited. Even our beliefs about the absolute stability of genes must be reexamined, Genes provide us with a structure or pattern, but are dependent on the environment for the particular characteristics that they will express. While genes provide us with our own unique menu, the environment makes the actual selection within that range of choice. Itis misleading to think of either genes or the environment as being more impor- tant Genes can express themselves only in an environment, and an environment has no effect except by evoking genotypes already present. Restak (2003) concludes that no matter how powerful the genetic inheritance, the environment must be conducive to the development of a particular talent for it to develop to high levels. Any reference to high-1Q genes must be seen as a misnomer. It would be equally incorrect to regard genetic endowment as “setting the limits.” Siegel (1999), Medical Director of the Infant and Preschool Service and Associate Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at the University of California, Los Angeles, School of Medicine concludes: An infant is born with a genetically programmed excess in neurons, and both genes and experience determine the postnatal establishment of synaptic connections. Genes contain the information for the general organization of the brain’ structure, but experience determines which genes become expressed, how, and when. (p. 14) (Emphasis that of the author]50 Patt J: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development ‘A wide range of studies over several decades has now supported the fact that development is a product of the effect of experience on the unfolding of genetic potential (Diamond, 1988; Edelman, 2004; Hawkins, 2004; Kandel, 2006; LeDoux, 2003; Rosenzweig, 1966; Siegel, 1999). ‘The interaction between genetic and environmental contributions is complex and interdependent. Throughout this text, our exploration of this interaction focuses on the environment. This one-sided focus reflects our ability as educators to influence growth and development only from the environmental realm, We provide environments to deliver learning experiences, so we must be aware that decisions about those environ- ments do, in fact, change the neurological and biological structure of our students. Environmental interaction with the genetic program of the individual occurs whether it is planned or left to occur by chance. We already know enough about sup- portive environments to ensure that most of our children attain a level of functioning that would actualize far higher levels of intellectual ability. Yet, because of society's pri- orities, social dilemmas, and lack of parental training, we do not use what we know. High Levels of Intellectual Development: Giftedness High levels of intelligence or giftedness is the result of a dynamic, stimulating, interac- tive process that leads to quantitative and qualitative differences in performance. How giftedness is expressed depends both on the genetic patterns of the individual and on the experiences provided by that individual's environment. The opportunities to develop their genetic programs provided in the environment allow some individuals to enhance theit abilities to the point of giftedness, whereas the lack of such opportunities inhibits others in their development, some even to the level of retardation. Children are not born gifted, but they are born with a unique and nearly unlimited potential. Clearly, there is an early and continuous need for talent development. The Gifted Brain ‘There are conditions needed to build the strong, integrated, flexible, complex brain we will call gifted, Among them are the following: + The provision of a variety of quality experiences from our early beginnings as the neural patterns and sequences ate being formed. + The development of the concepts of integration, choice, patterns, and sequences, starting with a child’ early experiences «The provision of feedback throughout the acquisition of knowledge and skills. + The enrichment of the environment and the experiences that the environment pro- vides so that the growth of intelligence is facilitated and expanded rather than lim- ited and inhibited Creating these conditions will zesult will in a brain that is more effective and effi- cient at processing information, not because the gifted brain has more cells, but becauseChapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giltedness, Talent, and Talent Development 51 _ Figure 2.8 Dilferences in the Neural Cells Nongitted ‘Source: Based on a drawing by Alyson Balay, the neural connections have become more integrated, more quickly made, and far more complex. There are more dendrites to create more pathways and more richness within the cell itself (Figure 2.8). The glial cells have increased, and greater myelina- tion of the axons enhances speed and power in the transmission of information from one cell to another, allowing speed of thought and adding power to the retention of ideas and memory to the neural data banks. We are now working with a gifted brain (Figure 2.9). In an interesting longitudinal study, Gottfried and Gottlried (1996) docu- mented that heightened cognitive stimulation is a widespread finding among gifted children. They received more stimulation from their environment from the first year of life. As a result, they showed differences in the rate of development and in the level of performance as they grew. Frequently, early development of expressive language was observed, From these data, Morelock (1996) concluded, “Consequently, it fol- lows that there are important differences in information processing characteristics of the young gifted brain” (p. 9). In this way, gifted children become biologically different from average learners, not at birth, but as a result of using and developing the wondrous, complex structure with which they were born. At birth, nearly everyone is programmed to be phenomenal,52 Part I; Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development Figure 2.9 The Gifted Brain lie SS | content if “aHé cell body = student's 2” depth and novelty More glial cell production results in more ‘myelination of the axon sheath and faster synaptic exchanges = student's need for acceleration INTELLIGENCE, GIFTEDNESS, GIFTED INDIVIDUALS, TALENT, AND TALENT DEVELOPMENT: DEFINITIONS The field of gifted education does not have a single, unified definition of intelligence, giftedness, gifted individuals, talent, or talent development. Therefore, it is necessary to briefly review the various definitions, so that the reader will be able to distinguish the ‘meaning each author and researcher may have in mind when making use of these terms. After this brief review, each term will be defined as it will be used in this text. ‘Although there are no common definitions within the educational community for the above terms, current research provides a common basis for agreement about these concepts. 1. All individuals inherit a genotype or genetic makeup that is unique to them and, with the exception of those with brain damage, includes a brain that has vast poten- tial for the development of intelligence,Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development 53 2. The concept of intelligence is known to be dynamic. The opportunities provided by the environment have been found to enhance or inhibit the development of the brain's structure and function. This allows parents and educators to provide for the realization of human potential. 3. Individuals are quite different from each other and in their abilities, including the expressions of intelligence of which they are capable. 4. The concept of intelligence has expanded to include cognitive, affective, intuitivey creative, and physical motor/sensory expressions. High levels of intelligence may be identified in any of these areas, 5. Owing to its dynamic nature and the importance of both genetic inheritance and. environmental opportunity, intelligence can no longer be thought to be wholly in place at birth, innate and permanent. Experience in the process of individual devel- ‘opment is critical to development. 6. It must be acknowledged that there are individuals who, through the interaction between their genetic endowment and environmental stimulation, have enhanced the development of their intelligence more than have others, and this enhancement : has resulted in accelerated and advanced brain function. These are the individuals who are labeled “gifted.” 7. The importance of the dynamic nature of human development suggests that, if gifted individuals are 10 continue their intellectual development, they must be engaged in learning opportunities that challenge them and enhance their talents at their level of development or they will regress in whatever abilities and talents are not supported. Therefore, gifted individuals must have appropriate educational experience at the level of their ability and talent to be able to grow. | Intelligence ‘The definitions of intelligence often focus on behayior or performance as the defining feature. Although observable behavior is necessary for the identification of levels of intelligence, whether assessed by a test, @ performance of skill, anecdotal reports, or other measures, such a basis for understanding intelligence is unnecessarily limited, E Intelligence is defined in Webster’ (1996) as “the capacity for learning, reasoning, understanding and similar forms of mental activity; aptitude in grasping truths, rela- tionships, facts, meanings.” If intelligence is used to connote only that which is measured by intelligence tests, then those who score in the upper 2% on such a test could be spoken of as highly : intelligent or gifted, as Terman suggested in 1925. Gardner (1983) defines intelligence as a predisposition in multiple areas to carry out certain specific operations whose nature can be inferred from careful observation, It should be noted that, although he broadens the view of intelligence by suggesting a construct of eight separate intelligences, Gardner misrepresents the strongly unified : and integrated nature of the brain process. Sternberg (1985) sees intelligence as a triarchy consisting of meta-processes, per- formances processes, and knowledge-acquisition processes,54 Part |: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development Brain researchers view high levels of intelligence as the result of a dynamic, stim- ulating, interactive process that leads to quantitative and qualitative differences in structures and performance, How intelligence is expressed depends both on the genetic ‘patterns of the individual and on the experiences provided by that individual's environ- ment. The quality and quantity of opportunities provided in the environment allow ‘some individuals to enhance their intellectual abilities to the point of giftedness, ‘whereas the lack of such opportunities inbibits others in their development, some even to the level of retardation, Such research indicates that the brain operates with special- ‘zed areas of function always in association and interaction, as was noted as early as the 1970s (Diamond, 1988; MacLean, 1978; Pribram, 1977; Restak, 1979). Itis the integra- tive and associative nature of the brain that is its most noteworthy aspect. Therefore, the definitions of intelligence and giftedness used in this text include all areas of brain function and their expressions as interactive (referring to the constant interaction between heredity and environmental opportunities) and integrative (referring to the relationship among all areas of brain function as interrelated and interdependent). Gifted, Giftedness, and Gifted Students You will find a wide range of definitions of gifted in the literature that rely on the behav- ior or level of performance of the student. Witty (1940) believed that giftedness needs no referent to intelligence and can be described as possessed by those “whose performance is consistently remarkable in any potentially valuable area” (p. 516). The point of view suggested by Renzulli since 1978 indicates that there is only gifted behavior, not an intrinsic quality called giftedness. In this conceptualization, gift- edness derives and can be identified from a cluster of observable behavioral traits, such as above-average ability, creativity, and task commitment rather than from a high level of intelligence, and gified programs are needed only when students are engaged in cre- ative production, A definition of giftedness was proposed in 1991 by a group of educators known as the Columbus Group (cited in Silverman, 1993), who extended the view of intelligence to include its emotional aspects. Giftedness is asynchronous development in which advanced cognitive abilities and hetght- ‘ened intensity combine to create inner experiences and awareness that are qualitatively dif- ferent from the norm. [Asynchrony refers to the uneven rates of cognitive, emotional, and physical development found in gifted children, Their vulnerability results from the tension sucha lack of synchrony creates. This asynchrony increases with higher intellectual capac- ity. The uniqueness of the gifted renders them particularly vulnerable and requizes modifi- cations in parenting, teaching, and counseling in order for them to develop optimally. (p. 3) A definition for gifted and talented children was developed in 1972 by U.S. Commissioner of Education Sidney Marland for a report, Education of the Gifted, to Congress on the status of the education of gifted and talented children. It is the defini- tion used in most state legislation today. Gifted and talented children are those identified by professionally qualified persons who by virtue of outstanding abilities axe eapable of high performance. These are children who require differentiated educational programs and services beyond those normally provided: Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Gifteciness, Talent, and Talent Development 55 The most current federal definition of gifted and talented individuals was a part of the 2002 reauthorization of the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act (PL, 100-297). The term “gifted and talented" when used in respect to students, children or youth, means students, children, ot youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, ar leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities. (Tite IX, Part A, Section 9101(22)) Morelock (1996) observed: ‘The research suggests that gifted children ate special needs children because they Iearn dif- ferently, function differently neuropsychologically and require a different level and type of cognitive stimulation. They are also potentially socially/emotionally at risk. The develop- mental differences increase as the level of asynchrony increases. ¢p. 10) Talent and Talent Development Talent is a term that has been used at different times in quite disparate ways. When it was first added to the terminology in gifted education, as in “gifted and talented students,” it was often used as a term that allowed an extension of expressions of giftedness beyond those of an academic nature. The educational community spoke of the talented artist, musician, leader, or gymnast and sought identification procedures for these students that ‘were far different from those used for academically able students, Some chose to use the term and separate procedures as a way to identify more students from the low socioeco- nomic and minority communities for gifted and talented programs. The implication was that these students could not meet the testing criteria then in place—generally a single test of intelligence represented by an 1Q score—and could be identified better using tests of creativity, leadership, or nonacademic/so-called nonverbal performance. Because gifted programs often remained highly academic in content, the identification of low- socioeconomic-status and minority students using special criteria became a problem. Not only was the assumption that none of these students could test well academically false, but also the premise that students identified for creativity or other expressions of gifted ness would be well served by narrowly defined academic gifted programs proved to be clearly in error. Such identification and placement practices placed low-socioeconomic- status and minority students at risk. Some psychologists and educators use talent as a term to designate individuals who are not intellectually accomplished to the level of giftedness, but who show evi- dence of better-than-average intellectual potential. Confusion as to whether reference is being made to the quality of the performance or the type of performance still plagues the use of the term talent in education today. More recently, the term has been extended to include the mission of talent devel- ‘opment and represents a philosophical commitment of those engaged in the education by the regular school program in order to realize their contributions to self and society. Children capable of high performance include those with demonstrated achievement andor potential ability in any of the following areas: 1) General intellectual aptitude, 2) specific academic aptitude, 3) creative or productive thinking, 4) leadership ability, 5) visual and performing arts. {p. 2)56 Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development of gifted and talented individuals. Talent development indicates a belief in the need to nurture the highest capabilities within individuals who show potential for the develop- ment of giftedness, but who need additional support to achieve that potential, This is a welcome clarification of the double mission of the field of gifted and talented educa- tion, and by adding this focus to the actualization of the highest abilities in promising individuals, the development of more giftedness can be ensured in our society. Many of those who are most involved in the development of talent suggest that it should become primary concern of general education, with identification and muvcur- ing of talent potential a central goal for all children (Morelock, 1996). Others remain committed primarily to the education of the large underserved population of gifted, highly gifted, and profoundly gifted individuals and welcome the efforts of those who would expand this population through search for and support of talented individuals In this text, we will use definitions that are supported by the findings of neuro- science and that allow us to understand how intelligence, giftedness, and talent are developed and function, The following definitions of intelligence, giftedness, gifted indi- viduals, talent, and talent development encompass current knowledge and provide a syn- thesis of earlier definitions: + Intelligence is the result of a dynamic, within-the-brain process, largely at the synaptic level, wherein the cells communicate, integrate, and associate information drawn from adit areas of the brain. The result of this process is shown in the ability to. generate predictions, intentions, and ideas; put them into a logical or analytical framework; and express them symbolically. A high level of intelligence is advanced, accelerated, and highly integrated processing within the brain that is effective and efficient. The development of intelligence is enhanced or inhibited by the interaction between the genetic pattern of an individual and the opportunities provided by the environment throughout the individual's life span. + Giftedness is a biologically rooted concept that is the result of a high level of integration and acceleration among the neural cells within the brain. The level of intelligence and the structure and process of thinking and learning change, becoming more complex, accelerated, and in-depth, Giltedness may be developed and expressed to a moder- ate, high, or profound level + The term gifted serves as a label for a high level of intelligence and indicates an advanced, highly integrated, and accelerated development of functions within the brain, Such development may be expressed in high levels of abilities such as academic aptitude, insight and innovation, creative behavior, leadership, personal and inter- personal skill, visual and performing arts, or other generative areas. + Gifted individuals are those who have developed high levels of intelligence and, there- {fore, operate or perform, or show promise of operating or performing, at high levels in tiny of the aveas of human ability. In schools, these abilities are usually identified in general intellectual aptitude, specific academic aptitude, creative or productive thinking, leadership ability, and/or ability in the visual and performing arts. Because of such advanced and accelerated development, and its dynamic nature, gifted indi- viduals require services not ordinarily provided by the schools so that these individ- xuals and society as a whole can ensure continuing development and benefit from their growth rather than suffering the loss of such abilities,Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development 37 + Talent is an aptitude for a specific area or areas of ability, academic or artistic, that, if given appropriate opportunities for development, may realize their giftedness, + Talent development is a process that involves the deliberate and planned effort r0 provide promising children with an enriched and responsive learning environment, both at home and at school, so that all of their budding talents and abilities will have the opportunity to develop to maximum levels. Such appropriate stimulation will allow high levels of intel- ligence to develop in a vatiety of forms and expressions and will result in incteased numbers of individuals operating or performing at the level we have labeled “gifted.” ‘The incidence of students with giftedness varies from 2% to 5%, depending on the definition used, In talent development programs and in the Schoolwide Enrichment Program (Renzulli & Reis, 1985), 10% to 25% of students might be included in these populations In this chapter, we have begun the exploration of gifted and talented individuals by establishing a common understanding of the terms and concepts that will be used throughout our discussion. We have reviewed the historical development of the con- cept of intelligence and found that the interactive concept of intelligence is critical to understanding the development of giftedness, An overview of the evolution of this con- cept was presented to aid in this understanding, Brain research, as it relates to optimal development, allows parents and educators to more effectively create stimulating inter- actions that may lead to high levels of intelligence. This information about how leatt- | ing occurs, what stimulates and what inhibits learning, and in what ways enriched environments change the neural structure is essential to nurturing intelligence, gifted- ness, and the continuous development of talent, | A DECLARATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS OF THE GIFTED CHILD By Barbara Clark Ina democracy equal opportunity cannot, must not, mean the same opportunity. Every child is | ‘unique; all children have a tight to develop their own potential. Alll children must include | gifted children, Itis the right of a gifted child to engage in appropriate educational experiences even when other children of that grade level or age are unable to profit from the experience. Itis the right ofa gifted child to be grouped and to interact with other gifted children for some part of the learning experience so that the child may be understood, engaged, and challenged. Itis the right of a gifted child to be taught rather than to be used as a tutor of teaching assistant for a significant part of the school day. Itis the right ofa gifted child to be presented with new, advanced, and challenging ideas and con- cepts, regardless of the materials and resources that have been designated for the age group or grade level in which the child was placed. Wis the right of a gifted child to be taught concepts that the child does not yet know instead of elearning old concepts that the child has already shown evidence of mastering. ._ This the right of a gifted child to learn faster than age peers and to have that pace of learning respected and provided for. ‘tis the right of a gifted child to think in alternative ways, produce diverse products, and bring intutition and innovation to the learning experience.Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development It is the right of a gifted child to be idealistic and sensitive to fairness, justice, accuracy, and the global problems facing humankind and to have a forum for expressing these concerns. cis the tight of a gifted child to question generalizations, offer alternative solutions, and value complex and profound levels of thought, Itis the right ofa gifted child to he intense, persistent, and goal-directed in the pursuit of knowledge. Ieis the right ofa gifted child to express a sense of humor that is unusual, playful, and often complex. Its the right of a gifted child to hold high expectations for self and others and to be sensitive to inconsistency between ideals and behavior, with the need to have help in seeing the value in human differences. It is the right of a gifted child to be a high achiever in some areas of the curriculum and not in others, making thoughtful, knowledgeable academic placement a necessity. Tis the right of gifted child to have a low tolerance for the lag between vision and actualization, between personal standards and developed skill, and between physical maturity and ath- letie ability, Itis the right of a gifted child to pursue interests that are beyond the ability of age-peers, are out- side the grade-level curriculum, or involve areas as yet unexplored or unknown, ‘These are some of the rights of gifted children that deserve advocacy. If we could only be sure that the educational experiences of all gifted children honored these 15 rights, ‘we would have the assurance that society would be blessed with a continuous supply of gifted adults, for we would have nurtured our gifted children by providing opportunities for excellence and developed the talent within all children by providing educational equity. REVIEW OF IMPORTANT IDEAS ‘The Concept of Intelligence + Although the concept of intelligence as ant interaction between genetics and the environment hhas gained wide acceptance, many still are either ‘unaware of the data or convinced of another view. 4+ The Stanford-Binet intelligence Scale, originated ‘when no one questioned the validity of fixed intelligence. 1's important to note that later revisions of the test are still based on these assumptions, + Studies indicate that we continue to grow in intelligence or show a loss of intelligence as we develop depending on the environment with which we interact, the intellectual challenges in which we engage, and on our personality characteristics. +The focus for the understanding and definition of intelligence is now shifting from the observation of intelligent behaviors (o the neural processes that underlie and create these behaviors. The Development of Intelligence + Integration, constant feedback, and vast experience in a rich environment are the keys to powerful learning and memory. What we believe abont how people become intelligent will influence the way we plan for their educational development. Therefore, those who work with gifted and talented children ‘must acquire an understanding of the brain and the power of the interaction between the organism and the environment, By the environment we provide, we do nat just. change the behavior of the children; we change them at the cellular level. Growth of intelligence depends on the interaction between our biological inheritance and our environmental opportunities (o use that inheritance. High levels of intelligence or giftedness are the resuit of a dynamic, stimulating, interactive process that leads to quantitative and qualitative. differences in brain function, How giftedness is expressed depends both on the genetic pattems of the individual and on the experiences provided by that individuals environment. Gifted learners are biologically different, not at Dirth, but as the result of genetic patterns and cavironmental opportunities interacting to produce actual cellular changes in the brain© Talent Development + Talent development does not identify persons; it indicates a belief in the need to nurture the highest capabilities within all individuals Intelligence, Giftedness, Gifted Individuals, Talent, and Talent Development: Definitions + Although there is no single definition of either intelligence ot giftedness in use, research provides a conimion basis for agreement that is important + As human beings develop higher levels of functioning, many unique patterns and traits emerge. The more gifted a person becomes, the more unique that person may appear, + Intelligence isthe result of a dynamic, within-the- brain process, largely at the synaptic level, wherein the cells communicate, integrate, and associate information drawn from all areas of the brain. + The result of this process is shown in the ability (o generate predictions, intentions, and ideas: put them into @ logical or analytical framewor and express them symbolically. ‘+ Ahigh level of intelligence is advanced, accelerated, and highly integrated processing within the brain that is effective and efficient, + The development of intelligence is enhanced or inhibited by the interaction between the genetic | pattern of an individual and the opportunities | __ provided by the environment throughout the individual’ life span, + Gifiedness is a biologically rooted concept that is the result of «high level of integration and acceleration | among the neural cells within the brain + The level of intelligence and the structure and process of thinking and learning change, becoming more complex, accelerated, and in-depth, | + Giftedness may be developed and expressed to a ‘moderate, high, or profound level CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING Chapter 2: The Concepts of Intelligence, Giftedness, Talent, and Talent Development 59 ‘The term gifted serves as a label for a high level of intelligence and indicates an advanced, highly integrated, and accelerated development of functions within the brain, Such development may be expressed in high levels of abilities such as academic aptitude, insight and innovation, creative behavior, leadership, personal and interpersonal skill, visual and performing arts, or other generative areas. Gifted individuals are those who have developed high levels of intelligence and, therefore, operate or perform, or show promise of operating or performing, at high levels in any of the areas of human ability In schools, these abilities are usually identified in general intellectual aptinde, specific academic aptitude, creative or productive thinking, leadership ability, and/or ability in the visual and performing atts. Because of such advanced and accelerated development, and its dynamic nature, gifted individuals require services not ordinarily provided by the schools so that these individuals and society as a whole can ensure continuing development and henefit from their growth tather than suffering the loss of such abilities. ‘Talent is an aptitude for a specific area or areas of ability that, if given appropriate opportunities for development, may show giftedness Talent development is a process that involves the deliberate and planned effort to provide promising children with an enriched and responsive learning environment, both at home and at school, so that all of their budding talents and abilities will have the opportunity to develop to maximum levels. Such appropriate stimulation will allow high levels of intelligence to develop in a variety of forms and expressions and will result in increased numbers of individuals operating or performing at the level we have labeled “gifted.” Make a presentation ‘Using the information on the brain shared in this chapter as your basis, outline a presentation that you would make to students in your classroom, parents of gifted learners at a parent meeting, ot other teachers in your school or district if you ‘were given an hour of their time. Your goal will be to have your chosen audience understand the following: ‘The meaning of intelligence, giftedness, and talent development; ‘The role of nature and nurture in the development of intelligence and giftedness; ‘Why the concept of interactive intelligence has replaced the idea that children are born gifted; and. The importance of brain fanction in understanding the nature and nurture of giftedness.60 Part I: Understanding Gifted Education and Talent Development ‘To aid in their understanding, you may wish to use * Slides or overheads of the brai + The hand models explaining the brain and the + An opportunity for the participants to share what neuron; they know about the brain; and + Other hands-on activities (e.g., you could use a +A question-and-answer session to share and. 2122! by 2 172" piece of paper to show the clarify their understanding of your goals. surface of the brain when itis not enfolded);